Infant and Child Development

Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) Published online 18 March 2013 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/icd.1794

An Exploration of Parenting Behaviours and Attitudes During Early Infancy: Association with Maternal and Infant Characteristics
B. Arnotta, and A. Brownb,*
a b

Durham University, Durham, UK Swansea University, Swansea, UK

The importance of warm and democratic parenting styles for optimal social, emotional and cognitive outcomes in children over the age of ve is well established. However, there is a dearth of literature exploring variations in parenting styles during infancy, despite many popular parenting books aimed at this period. The primary aim of this study was to explore parenting styles in infancy and their association with infant and maternal characteristics. Five hundred and eight mothers of infants under 12 months of age completed a 36-item questionnaire examining cognitive and behavioural aspects of early parenting (Infancy Parenting Styles Questionnaire). Items for the questionnaire were generated from popular culture early parenting books, and those raised in discussion with mothers. The underlying factor structure of the Infancy Parenting Styles Questionnaire revealed ve independent factors: discipline, routine, anxiety, nurturance and involvement, which mapped onto existing concepts of warmth/nurturance and control for parenting older children, with additional constructs pertaining to the challenge of caring for young infants. Early parenting style was associated with maternal age and education, and infant birth weight, gender and age. The ndings are discussed in relation to the parenting styles literature for older children and the attachment literature. Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Key words: parenting styles; infancy; infant development; maternal control; attachment

*Correspondence to: Dr Amy Brown, College of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK SA2 8PP. E-mail: a.e.brown@swansea.ac.uk Present address: Now at Newcastle University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK
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BACKGROUND
Since the seminal work of Ainsworth and colleagues (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978) and the identication of individual differences in parenting behaviours and associated infant development of Bowlby (1969), there has been an increasing interest in diversity in early parenting and subsequent child outcomes. Sensitive and responsive care giving is seen as essential to later positive emotional, social and cognitive outcomes for the infant (Biringen & Easterbrooks, 2008; Evans & Porter, 2009; Haley & Stansbury, 2003). Indeed, the importance of responsive parenting is acknowledged by the National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services (DoH, 2004), which states that appropriate parenting styles are fundamental to caring for children. As part of this, working with parents to optimise sensitive and responsive parenting approaches is an essential part of health and social care practice. Understanding both how and why parents come to parent their children in the way they do is critical to the best child outcomes (Belsky, 1984). The parenting style theoretical literature for older children traditionally conceptualizes parenting behaviours as individual differences along two dimensions: warmth/nurturance and control. Combinations of these elements categorize parenting style typologies (Baumrind, 1978). Authoritative parents are not only characterized by warmth and responsiveness to child signals but also by a degree of respectful control appropriate to the developmental level of the child. Authoritarian parents exhibit high levels of control in conjunction with low levels of nurturance. Finally, permissive parents combine low levels of control with high warmth (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Authoritative parenting styles are typically associated with more positive outcomes compared with either authoritarian or permissive style (Baumrind, 1991) across age ranges from preschool (Blissett & Haycraft, 2008) to adolescence (Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000). This is true for a wide range of outcomes including behavioural problems (Hart, Newell, & Olsen, 2003), cognitive development (Aunola et al., 2000) and weight (Hughes, Power, Orlet Fisher, Mueller, & Nicklas, 2005). Inventories such as the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ; Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart, 2001) are used to categorize individuals into these typologies but are typically used with parents of children over the age of 5 years. Although the importance of positive and balanced parenting styles for older children is well established, there has been little examination of parenting styles and their outcomes during infancy. Despite this dearth of empirical evidence, Western popular culture is awash with literature aimed at new parents scribed by self-entitled experts (Acocella, 2003). Following on from Dr Benjamin Spocks Commonsense Book of Baby and Child Care in 1946, many different books suggesting radically different approaches to parenting emerged (Hardyment, 2007). These publications prophesize that parents should interact with their infant in specic ways, particularly in relation to routine, interaction and attachment behaviours (e.g. Ford, 2006; Hogg & Blau, 2001; Liedloff, 2004; Sears & Sears, 2001). Books advocating a more parent-led style may suggest strict sleep and feeding routines, and putting the infant down regularly. Conversely, baby-led manuals may suggest following infant sleep and feeding cues, and responding to the infants needs immediately (Hardyment, 2007). Popular belief amongst proponents of such literature is that early parentinfant interactions will improve both infant development and parental experience in the short and long term, although criticisms have also been made of both parent and infant-led approaches (Warner, 2006). Faced with a range of contradictory
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) DOI: 10.1002/icd

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approaches, new parents can feel confused and unsure of which method to follow, or conversely, strongly advocate one approach despite a lack of empirical support for the method. Early approaches to parenting are therefore a popular yet under researched area of infant development, which need further exploration. The overall aim of the current study was to understand what approaches parents use to care for their young infant with the aim of conducting further longerterm research to examine the potential impact of these initial approaches upon longer-term child development. This paper presents the rst stage of an ongoing longitudinal study exploring occurrence and variation of parenting styles during early infancy and their longer association with child development. It details for the rst time the exploration of what issues and approaches are important to new parents in caring for their infant during the rst year (e.g. use of routines and anxiety about development) and describes the development of a questionnaire to measure these different attitudes and behaviours. This paper reports the ndings of this questionnaire and examines the links between these behaviours and maternal and infant characteristics (e.g. maternal age and infant weight).

METHOD
Participants All aspects of this study have been performed in accordance with the ethical standards set out in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. Ethics approval was granted by a Department of Psychology Research Ethics Committee. All participants gave informed consent prior to inclusion in the study. Participants were recruited from local mother and baby groups in Swansea and Durham and through online parenting forums and other internet forums based in the UK. Exclusion criteria included multiple birth, low birth weight (<2500 g) or premature birth (<37 weeks) (World Health Organisation, 2002). Five hundred and eight mothers with an infant aged between 0 and 12 months (mean age 27.47 weeks (SD: 15.02) completed the questionnaire. Participants provided details regarding occupation, which were coded according to the National Statistics Socio-Economic Classication self-coded method (2005). Details of current infant age in weeks, infant gender and infant weight at birth were also provided. Information regarding maternal parity was collected. Infancy Parenting Styles Questionnaire Participants responded to 36 statements examining their approach to parenting their infant (Table 1). Responses were collected via a 5-point Likert scale (Strongly agree to Strongly disagree). Where the mother was multiparous, responses were given in relation to the youngest child aged 012 months. Items were selected through three methods: a literature search of previous work examining parenting styles, an exploration of themes in popular parenting books (Ford, 2006; Hogg & Blau, 2001; Liedloff, 2004; Sears & Sears, 2001) and through discussions with mothers with an infant in the target age range regarding key issues they felt arose in early parenting. In terms of current literature, no instrument was found examining early parenting styles. However, concepts relevant to the parenting styles literature for older children (e.g. Baumrind, 1978; Maccoby & Martin, 1983) were examined, and themes were taken from the PSDQ aimed at parents with a child aged approximately 510 years old (Robinson et al., 2001). The PSDQ examines
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) DOI: 10.1002/icd

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Table 1. Infancy parenting styles questionnaire

1. You can spoil a baby 2. My baby needs to learn the difference between what is right and wrong 3. I compare my baby to other babies the same age* 4. You can never give a baby too many cuddles* 5. Babies should be encouraged to entertain themselves 6. It is very important that my baby meets their developmental milestones on time 7. I have a strict day to day routine for my baby 8. I do lots of organized activities with my baby 9. It is never too young to start disciplining a child 10. Sometimes my baby cries to try and manipulate me 11. I am happy to follow my babys guide to what he/she wants* 12. I think I am fairly laid back about my baby* 13. Babies need a routine 14. I regularly ask other people advice about my babys behaviour 15. I make sure I play, read or sing with my baby very regularly 16. I make sure I put my baby down regularly 17. Milestones are just a guide* 18. My baby sometimes does things that are naughty 19. I think people not using a routine are making a rod for their own back 20. I worry a lot about my baby 21. Cuddling babies makes them too dependent 22. Sometimes babies should be left to cry* 23. My baby sets their own routine 24. Young babies dont need organized activities* 25. I encourage my baby to develop their skills such as walking or talking 26. My babys needs come rst* 27. I often check baby books to see if my baby is on target 28. A baby should learn to t in with the family routine* 29. I am happy to comfort my baby whenever they cry* 30. I generally like to keep my baby as close as possible to me 31. Everyone is happiest when the baby is in a routine 32. I regularly seek advice from my health visitor or GP about my baby 33. Babies under 1 year do not need discipline 34. I worry that my baby is not as advanced as other babies* 35. A routine makes a baby calm and secure 36. Babies need lots of parental input such as play, reading and activities
*Items did not load onto nal questionnaire.

parenting behaviours such as reasoning, warmth, democracy, hostility, coercion and indulgence, classifying parents into authoritarian, authoritative and permissive styles. The majority of items were not suitable in their direct form for use with infants because of developmental ability reasons, for example, allows child to give input into family rules or uses threats as punishment with little or no justication. However, underlying themes of warmth and discipline were used including adaption of some items such as Responsive to childs feelings or needs. The literature exploring maternal responsive and sensitive behaviours and pertaining to infant attachment was also used, and discussions with mothers gave rise to concepts such as routine for the infant, keeping the infant close, responding immediately to the infant needs, and perceptions of ability to spoil the infant. Together, this gave key themes such as involvement, responsiveness, sensitivity, and discipline, which are similar to those found in literature relating to parenting older children.
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) DOI: 10.1002/icd

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In addition to this, two further themes were considered important: maternal anxiety and concern for her infant and maternal involvement in infant development. Maternal anxiety was based around concerns that the infant was developing appropriately and needing frequent support and advice from others. The rst-year postpartum is considered unique in its challenges for parents, especially for those adapting for the rst time and in the intensity of infant needs (Fagot, 1974). This transition and emphasis on the importance of early infancy for later development may raise maternal parenting anxiety and concern (Evans & Porter, 2009). This was evident in discussion with mothers and was therefore included in the inventory. Secondly, the theme of maternal involvement with infant development was raised. This constituted maternal desire to be involved with and promote her infants development, encourage them to surpass milestones and provide them with activities with the aim of increasing their development. Again, this concept arose in discussion with mothers and was evident in popular parenting literature (Ford, 2006; Hogg & Blau, 2001). Once constructed, the initial questionnaire was piloted both online and locally on small groups of mothers (N = 30 overall) with feedback incorporated into the nal distributed version of the questionnaire.

RESULTS
The questionnaire was returned by 602 respondents. Responses were discarded for mothers who did not complete all items or who completed the questionnaire for an infant outside of the age range leaving N = 508 (13 discarded for mothers outside of the infant age range, 9 for low birth weight infants, 5 for mothers of twins and 67 for failure to complete all questionnaire items). Respondents varied widely in terms of their socio-economic status (Table 2). The mean age of the respondents was 30.72 years (SD: 5.12; range from 17 to 44), and the mean number of years in
Table 2. Sample distribution by demographic factors
Indicator Age (years) Group 19 2024 2529 3034 35 No formal School College Higher Married Cohabiting Single Widowed Professional & managerial Skilled Unskilled Unemployed Stay at home parent N 15 55 137 179 119 29 113 115 251 279 209 18 2 112 194 78 21 103 % 3.0 10.5 27.0 35.6 23.4 5.7 22.2 22.3 49.8 54.9 41.2 3.6 0.2 22.0 38.4 15.4 4.1 20.3

Education

Marital Status

Maternal occupation

Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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education was 14.61 (SD: 2.53; range from 12 to 20 years). The majority of mothers were primiparous (54.1%); a further 29.4% of mothers were multiparas with two children. No signicant difference was seen in demographic between mothers who participated online or through the different groups. Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics for each questionnaire item. Questionnaire items were to be discarded if 90% or more of mothers gave the same response; however, this did not occur for any item.

Factor Analysis Principal components analysis using varimax rotation was performed on all items examining parenting styles (Table 3). Factors with eigenvalues over 1 were retained. A loading factor of .5 was used (Tabachnik & Fidell, 2006). Of the 36 items, 25 loaded onto ve factors. No items loaded highly onto more than one factor. The remaining 11 items did not load highly enough onto any factor and are indicated in Table 1. Conrmatory analyses were performed for split samples on the basis of maternal parity (primiparous versus multiparous), infant gender and infant age (06 months vs 712 months old). Cronbachs alpha was computed for each factor to examine internal consistency of the factors produced. Mean unit weights were then calculated for each factor to use for the analysis. The ve factors explained 54.92% of the variance (Table 3). The number of items loading, percentage of variance explained and cronbachs alpha for these items can also be found in Table 3. The factors were labelled discipline (belief an infant can be naughty and need to control the infants behaviour), routine (encouraging a strict sleep and feeding routine for the infant), anxiety (anxiety concerning the infants health or development), nurturance (responding promptly and sensitively to the infant) and involvement (actively promoting the infants development). Cronbachs alpha ranged from .653 to .884 for the factors. Conrmatory factor analyses conducted on split subsets of the data as described previously resulted in similar factor structures. Factors were not signicantly correlated with each other suggesting separate variants of parenting behaviour. These ve factors were then examined in relation to both infant and maternal characteristics to explore associations with maternal early parenting style.

Associations Between Maternal Demographic Background and Infancy Parenting Styles Signicant positive correlations were found between maternal age and anxiety (Pearsons r = .089, p = .021) and use of routine (Pearsons r = .126, p = .002), whereas a signicant negative correlation was seen between age and nurturance (Pearsons r = .130, p = .002). Similarly, mothers with a higher level of education were signicantly more likely to report higher anxiety (Pearsons r = .094, p = .018) and greater use of routine (Pearsons r = .223, p = .000). Higher levels of education were also signicantly inversely associated with nurturance (Pearsons r = .355, p = .000). No differences in early parenting style were found on the basis of maternal parity, occupation or marital status. Maternal age and education were therefore controlled for throughout further analyses.
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) DOI: 10.1002/icd

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Table 3. Factor structure of nal questionnaire

Mean Discipline Routine Anxiety Nurturance Involvement score (S.D You can spoil a baby My baby needs to learn the difference between right and wrong It is never too young to start disciplining a child Sometimes my baby cries to try and manipulate me My baby sometimes does things that are naughty Babies under 1 year do not need discipline I have a strict day to day routine for my baby Babies need a routine People who dont use a routine make a rod for their own back Everyone is happiest when the baby is in a routine My baby sets their own routine A routine makes a baby calm and secure I regularly ask other people advice about my babys behaviour I worry a lot about my baby I regularly seek advice from my health visitor/GP about my baby I often check baby books to see if my baby is on target Babies should be encouraged to entertain themselves I make sure I put my baby down regularly Cuddling babies all the time makes them too dependent I generally like to keep my baby as close as possible to me I encourage my baby to develop skills such as walking or talking .716 .710 3.62 (1.25) 2.92 (1.25)

.735 .691 .734 .660 .707 .817 .765

4.04 (.89) 4.02 (1.13) 3.95 (1.12) 2.54 (1.10) 3.72 (1.00) 2.41 (.94) 3.61 (1.05)

.851 .555 .806 .717

2.86 (.98) 2.33 (.94) 2.54 (.89) 3.40 (1.09)

.657 .657

2.90 (1.10) 3.65 (1.13)

.615 781 .636 .511 .658

2.82 (1.34) 2.48 (.90)

2.49 (1.10) 3.98 (.70)

2.37 (.95)

.788

1.93 (.79)

.853

3.17 (1.20)

(Continues)
Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) DOI: 10.1002/icd

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Table 3. (Continued)
Mean Discipline Routine Anxiety Nurturance Involvement score (S.D I do lots of organized activities with my baby I make sure I play, read or sing with my baby very regularly Babies need lots of parental input such as reading and activities It is very important my baby meets developmental milestones % of variance explained Cronbachs Alpha

.521

1.85 (1.10)

.731

1.92 (.90)

.840

3.63 (.91)

25.47 .816

9.32 .884

8.45 .715

7.04 .653

4.62 .724

Associations Between Infant Characteristics and Infancy Parenting Styles Age of infant signicantly correlated with desire for a routine (Pearsons r = .113, p = .006) and beliefs about nurturance (Pearsons r = .097, p = .015). Mothers of older infants were signicantly more likely to feel the need for a routine and less likely to adopt a nurturing approach to the infant. Differences in early parenting style also emerged dependent on the gender of the infant. A multivariate analysis of covariance showed that mothers of a female infant reported signicantly higher beliefs with regard to the need for discipline (F [5, 435] = 6.575, p = .011) (mean [SD] male infant 3.34 [.64], female infant 3.60 [.60]). Similarly, mothers of a female infant were signicantly more involved in infant development (F [5, 435] = 10.635, p = .000) than those of a male infant (mean [SD] male infant 2.21 [.36], female infant 2.54 [.33]). Finally, birth weight was associated with early parenting style. Mothers of an infant who was heavier at birth were signicantly more likely to report a desire for routine (Pearsons r = .113, p = .006), discipline (Pearsons r = .096, p = .018) and held lower levels of anxiety for their infants development (Pearsons r = .095, p = .018).

DISCUSSION
The primary aim of this paper was to explore variations in infant parenting style during the rst-year postpartum and to begin to explore their relationship with infant and maternal characteristics. To undertake this, a questionnaire was designed, on the basis of current parenting styles literature and discussion with new mothers to identify different approaches to parenting in infancy. The questionnaire examined parents attitudes to and specic behaviours with their infant, to capture both cognitive and behavioural aspects of early parenting. Five independent factors emerged: discipline, routine, anxiety, nurturance and involvement. These factors accounted for 54.92% of the variance and had Cronbachs alphas between .653 and .884. The sample size, clear factor structure and good internal reliability of the items suggest that the inventory developed is a good indicator of different variants of early parenting style within the UK today.
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) DOI: 10.1002/icd

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Strong comparisons can be made between the ve identied factors and dimensions of established parenting styles questionnaires for parents with older children (Baumrind, 1978). Factors relating to both warmth (Nurturance) and control (Routine) emerged from the factor analysis. Mothers high in nurturance were happy to cuddle and hold their infants frequently, rather than believing that the infant should self settle and mothers high in routine followed strict routines for their baby in terms of sleep, feeding and day to day activities. The discipline factor, whereby mothers believed that their baby was capable of controlling or naughty behaviour, mapped onto both warmth and control dimensions. Mothers high on this factor believed that they needed to modify and shape their infants behaviour and also that they should not be too emotionally swayed by their infant, for example believing that their infant cried to manipulate them. Considering Baumrinds concepts of the interaction between parental use of warmth/nurturance and control in categorising parenting typologies (Baumrind, 1978), mothers of young infants could potentially be classied in this way. Mothers high in routine, discipline and low in nurturance could be considered authoritarian, whereas mothers high in nurturance with intermediate levels of routine and discipline may be viewed as authoritative. Alongside these behaviours, two further concepts of anxiety with regard to infant development and maternal involvement were identied. Mothers high in anxiety regularly sought opinions and guidance from others and were concerned for their infant, whereas mothers heavily involved in their infants development were keen to progress their child and compare them favourably to others with the same age. These behaviours do not map onto traditional parenting style dimensions of warmth and control but were identied as relevant for this age range through themes in current parenting literature and discussions with parents. It could be that these behaviours are unique to early parenting. The rst-year postpartum is a unique challenge of parenting with the infant heavily reliant on the parent (Emmanuel, Creedy, St John, Gamble, & Brown, 2008) and much emphasis placed on the importance of parental involvement during the early years (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). The emotions that arise as a consequence may heighten awareness of parenting choices and how this may impact upon the childs development, which may fade with time and experience. Conversely, perhaps these early behaviours merge into established dimensions of parenting as time progresses. For example, maternal involvement regarding infant development might translate into a later authoritarian parenting style where control is high in relation to the childs choices academically and socially. Variations were seen in early parenting behaviours and cognitions for different maternal and infant characteristics, which raises awareness of the potential impact of these elements for those working with new mothers. Older, more educated mothers were more anxious with stronger beliefs that the infant must be independent. Although older mothers are often rated as more competent (Gottesman, 1992), a later start to motherhood can be associated with difculty adapting to the change in lifestyle (Hewlett, 2002). Older mothers are more likely to view their infants as difcult (Ventura & Stevenson, 1986), nding less gratication in their maternal role (Mercer, 2004). This may decrease desire for a nurturing style with their infant. Moreover, older mothers are more likely to view their pregnancies as something to plan and prepare for seeking out in depth information, perceiving caring for their baby as an important task to do properly (Carolan, 2005). Potentially, this increases maternal anxiety over parenting their infant in the right way. Parenting style was also related to infant characteristics. Mothers with an infant who was heavier at birth were more likely to report a parenting style high in routine, discipline and low in anxiety. Infants who are perceived to be gaining weight
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quickly are often viewed positively, with less anxiety, and as parenting successes (Sachs, Dykes, & Carter, 2006) and are more likely to be placed in a feeding routine (Brown, Raynor, & Lee, 2011). A higher birth weight infant may ignite greater condence to impose a routine on the infant or to allow them to cry compared with a smaller infant. Gender and age differences were also found. Mothers of female infants reported greater concern with the need to discipline, and also, more involvement in infant development compared with mothers of male infants, reecting literature showing that parents, have higher expectations of disciplined behaviour in girls (Fagot, 1974) and are more likely to be critical with girls than boys (Smith et al., 2007). Overall, awareness of these characteristics upon maternal early parenting style enables mothers at risk of increased anxiety or concerns for their infant to be considered. The outcome of these early variations in parenting style is worth considering. Authoritative parenting styles have been shown to have the best outcomes for child social, emotional and educational development for older children (Aunola et al., 2000; Baumrind, 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). However, although research has explored the importance of secure attachment during infancy upon later child outcomes (Biringen & Easterbrooks, 2008; Evans & Porter, 2009; Hay et al., 2001), there has been little empirical consideration of more specic parenting behaviours such as use of routine or discipline. It is known that allowing an infant to cry for long periods may negatively affect infant cortisol response (Engert et al., 2010) and brain development (Schore, 2001), and attempting to breastfeed to a structured routine is associated with a shorter breastfeeding duration (Brown et al., 2011). However, research has also suggested that infants who do not have long periods of regular nighttime sleep by 6 months of age are at risk of longerterm sleeping problems (Touchette et al., 2005). Maternal outcomes must also be considered. Likelihood of postnatal depression, which impacts upon mother infant attachment (Brockington et al., 2001) and infant development (Beck, 1999), increases with maternal sleep deprivation (Cheng & Li, 2008) and infant crying (Kurth et al., 2010). Potentially controlling parenting behaviours may reduce risk of postnatal depression. How this balances with infant needs warrants further investigation. This paper presents an initial exploration of parenting styles in infancy. Clearly, further research is needed to explore the short-term and long-term outcomes for infants on the basis of early maternal parenting style. If early parenting style is seen to affect child development, there is opportunity to develop early interventions to target specic parenting behaviours, potentially during pregnancy. Greater awareness may also arise for the impact of different parenting styles for maternal outcomes, which would be a useful tool for those supporting new mothers, especially with regard to postnatal depression and maternal well-being. Indeed, a clearer overall evidence base for interactions and behaviours during this period would also enable practitioners to discuss different approaches with new parents, enabling informed discussions and decisions to take place. Future research should investigate precursors, correlates and outcomes of maternal parenting styles in infancy. Considering limitations of the study, although a wide variety of respondents did take part in terms of socio-demographic background, the sample would benet from a population-based approach. In particular, 92% of the sample was of White British origin. Exploring cultural differences in parenting style, particularly in relation to degree of acculturation within UK samples, would be of interest. The sample was also weighted towards mothers who were older with a higher level of education, which may have affected the types of behaviours or attitudes that arose. Future research should, however, target population-based samples.
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) DOI: 10.1002/icd

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Recruitment for the questionnaire relied heavily on use of internet samples with 72% of responses completing the survey using the online link. Although criticisms have been made of internet recruitment as targeting a limited sample (Azar, 2000), internet use is now widespread and especially popular amongst pregnant and new mothers (Russell, 2006). The method is increasing in popularity in health research and has been used to successfully recruit a wide demographic sample (Arden, 2009; Brown & Lee, 2011b). However, no signicant differences were found in demographic background or responses between participants completing online or via paper methods sourced from local groups. Finally, many of the correlation sizes are relatively small, for example, the association between maternal education and anxiety. Further work should explore the robustness of these correlations in population-based samples. Limitations aside, the questionnaire identied for the rst time a number of different parenting behaviours and beliefs associated with caring for an infant under the age of 12 months. Themes were similar to those found in research examining approaches to parenting older children, focussing on two dimensions of maternal warmth/nurturance and control, but also highlighted unique behaviours and attitudes specic to this early period. Links with maternal and infant characteristics were also identied highlighting the potential for certain maternalinfant dyads at being more likely to adopt certain approaches. Further research now needs to explore the potential outcome of these behaviours for both infant development and maternal well-being.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors received no nancial support for the research and/or authorship of this article. The authors declare no conicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

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Inf. Child Dev. 22: 349361 (2013) DOI: 10.1002/icd