Heat

Introduction

heat transfer is the science in predicting
 the rate of heat flows through substances
under different external conditions

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 Introduction (2)

the laws of heat transfer govern
the rate at which thermal energy must be
supplied to or removed from a building to
maintain the thermal comfort requirements
in buildings

Introduction (3)

three basic modes of heat transfer
 conduction

 convection and

 (thermal) radiation

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 Conduction Heat Transfer

a result of molecular-level kinetic energy
transfers in
 solids, liquids, and gases

a strong correlation between
 thermal conduction and electrical conduction in
solids

occur in the direction of decreasing
temperature

Convection Heat Transfer

a result of larger-scale motions of a fluid
 either liquid or gas

the higher the velocity of fluid flow, the
higher the rate of convection

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Radiation Heat Transfer

the transport of energy by
electromagnetic waves

the sole requirement for radiation heat
transfer to occur
 the presence of two surfaces at different
temperatures

Conduction
Conduction heat transfer is calculated
using Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
Fourier equation expresses steady-state
conduction in one dimension
dt
Q = −kA t1 Heat
dx Flow
t2
t1 > t2
dt = t2 - t1
dx
Figure 1 8

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 Fourier Equation

q = heat transfer rate, W or J/s

k = thermal conductivity, W/mK

A = area normal to heat flow, m2

dt/dx = temperature gradient, K/m

Fourier Equation (2)

the equation incorporates a negative sign
 because q flows in the positive direction

of x when dt/dx is negative

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 Thermal conductivity k

Thermal conductivity, k, is an intrinsic
property of a homogeneous material which
describes the material’s ability to conduct
heat. This property is independent of
material size, shape or orientation. For non-
homogeneous materials, those having glass
mesh or polymer film reinforcement, the
term “relative thermal conductivity” is
appropriate because the thermal conductivity
of these materials depends on the relative
thickness of the layers and their orientation
with respect to heat flow.

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One Dimensional Plane Walls

The Fourier equation may be integrated
to give the heat transfer rate:
kA(t1 − t 2 )
Q=
x
 heat transfer rate (Q) in W or Watt

 thermal conductivity (k) in W/m·K,

 area (A) in m
2

 x = (x - x ), thickness of material in
2 1
which conduction occurs in m
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One Dimensional Plane Walls (2)

to simplify the equation, a very useful

form is t1 − t 2
Q=
R'

where R' is the thermal resistance
defined by:
x 2 − x1 x K
R' = =  W 
kA kA
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One Dimensional Plane Walls (4)

For plane wall, the thermal resistance may be

expressed as x 2 − x1 x  m2 ⋅ K 
R= =  
k k  W 

Then the heat transfer rate is calculated by
the equation A ( t1 − t 2 )
Q=
R

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One Dimensional Plane Walls (5)

the thermal resistance for a material

can be found in
 handbooks and HVAC literatures

another name of this thermal
resistance is the “R-factor”.

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Electrical Analog

thermal resistance R' or R is analogous to

electrical resistance

Q and (t2 - t1) are analogous to current
and potential difference in Ohm's law

this analogy provides a very convenient
method for a wall or slab
 made up of two or more layers of

dissimilar material.

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 Electrical Analog (2)
Heat Flow
A B C R'A
t1 R'B R'C

t1 t2 t3
t4
t2 Electrical Analogy
t3
R ' = R ' A + R ' B + R 'C
t4 xA x x
= + B + C
k A A k BA k C A
xA xB xC
t1 − t 4
Q=
Figure 2 R' 17

Electrical Analog (3)

The heat transferred by conduction of

Figure 2 is given by equation (3), where
the thermal resistance R and the heat
transfer rate Q are given by
x A x B xC
R = R A + R B + RC = + +
k A k B kC
A(t1 − t 4 )
Q=
R
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 One Dimensional
Cylindrical Walls

Fourier’s law can be applied to
geometries other than plane walls

one particular interest in building
services is the cylindrical geometry

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One Dimensional
Cylindrical Walls (2)
The heat transfer rate
through the cylinder wall

= 2πkL ( t1 − t 2 )
Q
r  ro
ri
ln  o  t2 t1
 ri  L
t1 > t2
Figure 3
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 One Dimensional
Cylindrical Walls (3)

the concept of resistance enables us to
calculate the heat flow through layered,
cylindrical walls

for example
 layer A - pipe carrying a fluid
 layer B - an insulation layer
 layer C - a protective jacket over the insulation

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One Dimensional
Cylindrical Walls (4)

r ln( r4
ln( r2 ) ln( 3 ) )
r1 r2 r3
t1
t2 2 πk A L 2 π k B L 2 πk C L
r1
r2
A t1 t2 t3 t4
r3 t3
B
C r2 r r
r4 ln( ) ln( 3 ) ln( 4 )
r1 r2 r3
R ' = R 'A + R 'B + R 'C = + +
t4 2πk A L 2πk B L 2πk C L
( t1 − t 4 )
and Q=
Figure 4 R'
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 Convection

Two kinds of convection

 natural (or free) and forced

Free convection
 density differences in the fluid caused by
contact with the surface
 buoyancy is the motive force in free
convection
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Convection (2)

Forced convection
 a bulk of fluid is moving relative to the
heat transfer surface
 fluid velocities in forced convection are
considerably higher than in free
convection

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 Convection (3)

detailed analysis of convection is

very complicated

Newton's law of cooling is a
simplified approx... useful for both
 forced and free convection calculations

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Convection (4)

Newton's law of cooling
Q = hA(Tw − Tf ) = hA∆T
• h = convection coefficient, W/m2K
• A = surface area through which convection
occurs, m2
• Tw = surface temperature or wall temperature
• Tf = fluid temperature away from wall
• ∆T = Tw - Tf = temperature difference
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 Overall Heat Transfer
Coefficient

The equation to express U value is:
1
U=
R' A
 U = U value, W/m2·K
 R' = thermal resistance, W/K
 A = area of the material, m2

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Overall Heat Transfer

Coefficient (2)

Example
Consider a simple plane wall exposed
to a hot summer day
to Q
1 x 1
t1 h1A kA h2A
t2 to t1 t2 ti

ti
28
Figure 6

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Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
(3)

the heat transfer equation:
kA
Q = h 1A ( t o − t 1 ) = ( t1 − t 2 ) = h 2 A ( t 2 − t i )
∆x

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Overall Heat Transfer

Coefficient (4)

the heat transfer process may be
represented by the resistance
network

the Q is calculated as the ratio of the
∆t to the ΣR

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Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
(5)
A ( t o − ti ) A ( to − ti )
Q= =
1 + ∆x + 1 ∑R
h1 k h2

1/h1·A is the convection resistance

h1 and h2 are the convection heat transfer
coefficient of the inside and outside surfaces
∑ R is the total thermal resistance in m 2 ⋅ K / W
= 1 + ∆x + 1
h1 k h2
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Critical Thickness of Lagging

a layer of insulation
around a circular pipe
 inner temperature of

the insulation is at ti ri
to ro
 outer surface is ti
exposed to a L
convection
environment at to Figure 3

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Critical Thickness of Lagging (2)

from the thermal network the heat
transfer is:
2πL( t i − t o )
Q=
ln o 
r
 ri  + 1
k ro h

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Critical Thickness of Lagging (3)

We want to find the outer radius of
insulation ro which will
 maximise the heat transfer
dQ
=0
dro

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Critical Thickness of Lagging (4)

which gives the result

k
rc =
h

this expresses the critical thickness

of lagging (insulation) concept
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Critical Thickness of Lagging (5)

if the outer radius r is less than the

critical value given by this equation,
i.e. r < rc

then the heat transfer will be
increased by adding more
insulation

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Critical Thickness of Lagging (6)

for the outer radii greater than the

critical value, i.e. r > rc

an increase in insulation thickness
will cause a decrease in heat
transfer

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Critical Thickness of Lagging (7)

the important concept is that

 for sufficiently small values of h
 the convection heat loss may actually
increase with the addition of insulation
 because of increased surface area.

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