Lecture 3

Bone Mechanics and Remodelling

Course Web http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/people/academic/qingli/MECH4961.htm

Objectives

Bone microstructures Bone constitutive models Bone remodelling

Imaging of Bone Structure

DEXA Dual energy X-ray Provide mineral content or density

absorptiometry

It is popular in examination of osteoporotic change but insensitive to structural changes. It is a means of measuring bone mineral density (BMD). Two X-ray beams with differing energy levels are aimed at the patient's bones. When soft tissue absorption is subtracted out, the BMD can be determined from the absorption of each beam by bone..

MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging Soft tissues (bone marrow, fat, muscle) - give clear pictures of soft tissue
structures near and around bones, it is usually the best choice for examination of the body's major joints, the spine for disk disease and soft tissues of the extremities. MRI is widely used to diagnose sports-related injuries, as well as work-related disorders caused by repeated strain, vibration or forceful impact.

CT X-ray Computed Tomography - Nobel Prize device (1979).

A medical imaging method employs tomography where digital geometry processing is used to generate a 3D image of the internals of an object from a large series of 2D Xray images taken around a single axis of rotation.

Hard tissues and real 3D architecture on bone in a nondestructive way

Typical Nominal Resolutions

Device Medical CT 3D-pQCT Micro-CT 3D-Micro-CT Synchroton-CT MRI Mirco-MRI
(The data are keeping updating)

Resolution (In-vivo) 200200200m 165165165 m 141414 m 282828 m 222 m 150150150 m 404040 m

DEXA Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry

GE Lunar DEXA

Medical MRI

MRI resolution <150m)

MRI image of knee joint

Sample image: MR of the knee - side (lateral) view, showing distal or lowest part of femur, the patella (knee cap) and proximal (upper) tibia. The lateral meniscus is seen as a dark bow-tie like structure. The patellar tendon is also clearly seen at the front of the knee connecting the patella with the tibia.

Medical-CT Scanning

Medical CT Scanner (resolution <200m)

Micro-CT Scanner

MicroCT Scanner (SkyScan 1172, resolution <5m)

Reconstruction: CT Scanning sectional Image Segmentation 3D image (STL)

CT Reconstruction of Bone Microstructures

32 years old man

59 years old man

89 years old man

37-year old man without bone disorder (lelf) and 73-year old osteoporotic woman (right)

Density and E-Modulus of Cancellous Bone

The best-established relationship is that between cancellous bone Youngs modulus and its structural apparent density (i.e. the weight per unit volume of a material including voids inherent ), as follows.

E = a
References Carter and Hayes (1977) J Bone Joint Surg, 59 :954 Rice et al (1988), J Biomech 21:155. Hodgskinson and Currey (1992), J mater Sci Mater Med 3:377 Kabel et al (1999), Bone 24:115

p
Power p=3.00 p=2.00 p=1.96 p=1.93 Variance 74% 78% 94% 94%

Density Elastic Constant Models Contd

Hodgskinson-Currey model (1992) Kabel model (1999) - isotropic

E mean = 0.003715 1.96

1.93

E = Etissue 813

1.93

= Etissue 813 1800

= Etissue 0.000424 1.93

Yang (1999) orthotropic cancellous model

E11 = Etissue 1240 1.8 , E 22 = Etissue 885 1.89 , E33 = Etissue 529 1.92

(
(

)
)
)

G23 = Etissue 533.3 2.04 , G13 = Etissue 633.3 1.97 , G12 = Etissue 972.6 1.98

23 = Etissue 0.256 0.086 , 13 = Etissue 0.316 0.191 , 12 = Etissue 0.176 0.248

volume fraction and =1800, =kg/m3 Etissue isotropic tissue Youngs modulus (GPa)

Orthotropic Constitutive Model of Bone

9 independent components to elasticity matrix (along 3 directions) 3 Young' s Moduli : E1 , E2 , E3 ,
E1 (radial) E3(Axial) E2(circumferential)

3 Shear Moduli :
1 E 1 12 11 E2 22 13 33 E3 = 23 0 13 12 0 0

G12 , G23 , G31

31 32
E2 1 E3 0 0 0 E1 0 0 11 22 0 33 23 0 13 0 12 1 G12

3 Poisson' s Ratios : 12 = 21 , 23 = 32 , 13 = 31 ,

21
E1 1 E2

0 0 0 1 G23 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 G31 0

23
E3 0 0 0

Orthotropic Constitutive Model of Bone Contd

Tibia Youngs modulus e1 (radial) e3(Axial) e2(circumferential) E1=6.9GPa E2=8.5GPa E3=18.4GPa Femur Youngs modulus E1=12.0GPa E2=13.4GPa E3=22.0GPa Poissons ratio 12=0.376, 21=0.422 13=0.222, 31=0.371 23=0.235, 32=0.350 Shear modulus G12=4.53GPa G13=5.61GPa G23=6.23GPa Poissons ratio 12=0.49, 21=0.62 13=0.12, 31=0.32 23=0.14, 32=0.31 Shear modulus G12=2.41GPa G13=3.56GPa G23=4.91GPa

(Humpherey and Delange, An introduction to Biomechanics, 2004)

CT-Based FE Modelling of Microstructures

Voxel-based FE model (element size: 25m )

Directly transfer pixel/voxel image to elements Large number of elements Stress concentration

Solid-based FE model (element size: 150m )

Segmentation Creation of a series of curves Creation of Surface/solid FEM discretisation

Remodeling
Remodeling involves changes in biological
material properties. These changes, which often are adaptive, may be brought about by alterations in modulus, internal structure, strength, or density. For example, bones, and heart muscle may change their internal structures through reorientation of trabeculae and muscle fibers, respectively.

Cancellous

Cortical

Wolffs Law
1892 Julius Wolff stated every change in the function of bone is followed by certain definite changes in internal architecture and external conformation in accordance with mathematic laws.

Remodelling Biomechanical Causes

Biological remodeling due to changes in Stress/strain Strain energy density Loading frequency Micro-cracks Temperature, environment
Remodeling (growth) of trees (Mattheck 1998)

Remodelling Biomechanical Causes

Bone remodeling in mice (Burr et al 2002)

Remodelling Micro-cracks
Remodeling mechanism due to microcracks

Step 1: stresses/strains cause a little crack, Step 2: cells turn into osteoclasts and dissolve (resorb) bone, Step 3: cells from the marrow space turn into osteoblasts and build new bone.

Remodelling Mechanism

Mechanical Stimuli -
Strain energy density
=U =
1 { }T { } = 1 [ 11 11 + 22 22 + 33 33 + 12 12 + 13 13 + 23 23 ] 2 2

Energy stress linearise the quadratic nature of U

= energy = 2 E avg U

Mechanical intensity scalar (volumetric shrinking/swelling)

= = sign( 11 + 22 + 33 ) U

von Mises stress (1, 2, 3 principal stresses)

= vm =
1 ( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 2

Daily stress (ni = number of cycles of load case i, N=number of

different load cases, m=exponent weighting impact of load cycles)

=d =

1m N m n i =1 i i

Mechanisms - Transduction of Mechanical Signals bone tissue transduces the mechanical strain to adaptive response
Piezoelectric properties of collagen Change in solubility of hydrozyapatite Fatigue microfracture damage-repair Hydrostatic presure of extracellular fluid influences on bone cell Hydrostatic pressure influences on solubility of mineral and collagenous component Creation of steaming potential Direct response of cells to mechanical loading Mechanism

Mechanical Stimuli - Contd

Site dependency
Different bones provide different mechanical functions (e.g. skull and femur) Different sites have different biological environment (e.g. cell and nutrients) Different remodelling equilibrium Frost (Anat Rec, 1990) suggested: 4 bone envelops trabecular, periosteal, endocortical and osteonal

Time dependency
High frequency (25Hz) vs low frequency Large load + low frequency (e.g. 4 cycle per day) can prevent mass loss, and 36 cycles can generate substantial bone growth Fading memory more recent loading is more important (cells may gradually become accommodated to a old changed mechanical environment)

Model Classification
Optimisation model bone is optimised for minimum mass, maximum strength, minimum the notch stress (but no adaptation for physiological process) Phenomenological model seek to describe the stimulus and the response quantitatively particularly useful in developing simulations and predictions of bone adaptation (no interplay of genetics, hormones, drug therapy) Mechanistic model

Model cause-and-effect-based phenomenological

Remodelling
Micro- or Tissue view of point considers that cell responsible for bone
resorption and deposition are always on various surfaces. Thus net remodelling can be described as a free-boundary problem

Continuum view of point considers functional adaptation as a coupled

free-boundary-vale problem a time dependent description for Changes in bone materials properties Internal Remodelling Material property [C] will be a function of time:

[C ] = [C (t )]

Change in external geometry of cortical surface Surface Remodelling Surface (control point) will be a function of time:

[S ] = [S (t )]

Surface Remodelling Rule

Stimulus

error: e = (t ) * (t )

(t ) = mechanical stimulus

Surface

Remodelling rate is proportional to stimulus error: (cs = constant)

& = cs [ s (t ) * (t )]
Surface

Remodelling Rule

(t ) * (t ) ws ] for (t ) * (t ) > ws cs [ & = 0 s for ws < (t ) * (t ) < ws c [ for (t ) * (t ) < ws s (t ) * (t ) + ws ]

ws = half-width of dead zone (lazy zone)

Surface Remodelling Rule

& s
0

& = cs [ s (t ) * (t )]

(t ) * (t ) ws ] cs [ &= 0 s c [ s (t ) * (t ) + ws ]

*
* ws * + ws

Dead zone Lazy zone

Alternative Remodel Rule

(t ) * (t ) & s = cs ( ) * t

Internal Remodelling Rule

c (t ) * (t ) w & = 0 c (t ) * (t ) + w

& = c [ (t ) * (t )]

] ]

*
0

* w * + w

Dead zone Lazy zone

Alternative Remodel Rule

(t ) * (t ) & = c ( ) * t

Computational Remodelling

Update FEA Model

Update Geometry or Material Property Modify surface or Bone density Apply remodeling rule

FEA To compute stress/strain tensor No

e = (t ) * (t ) > 2w

Equilibrium

Yes

Example 1 Bone Loss in Space

Human spaceflight to mars could become a reality within the next 25 years, but not until some physiological problems are resolved, including an alarming loss of bone mass, fitness and muscle strength. Gravity at Mars' surface is about 38% of that on the earth. With lower gravitational forces, bones decrease in mass and density. The rate at which we lose bone in space is 10-15 times greater than that of a postmenopausal woman and there is no evidence that bone loss ever slows in space. NASA has collected data that humans in space lose bone mass at a rate of c =1.5%/month so far. Further, it is not clear that space travelers will regain that bone on returning to gravity. During a trip to mars, lasting between 13 and 30 months, unchecked bone loss could make an astronaut's skeleton the equivalent of a 100-year-old person.

Example Bone Loss in Space Contd

Remodelling rule

(t ) * (t ) d n +1 n & = = c = ( ) dt t t * t

n +1

(t ) * (t ) = + c t * (t )
n

* = Stress level on the earth = Stress level on the Mars = 0.38 *

Thus:

c = 1 .5 % n

n+1 = n 0.62 1.5% n t = n (1 0.0093t )

Mechanics of Introductory Example Contd

How long could an astronaut survive in a zero-gravity environment if we assume the critical bone density to be crit=1.0g/cm3. You may assume that an initial density on the earth is 0=1.79g/cm3 (due to ground preparation)

Assignment Part I
y S F x l Strain energy density S l F z r Cortical Section S-S y R x Cancellous

=U =

1 { }T { } = 1 xx xx + yy yy + zz zz + xy xy + yz yz + zx zx 2 2

Surface remodeling rate equation

(t ) * (t ) ws ] for (t ) * (t ) > ws cs [ & = 0 s for ws < (t ) * (t ) < ws c [ for (t ) * (t ) < ws s (t ) * (t ) + ws ]

Example 2 Femur Growth (Internal Remodelling)

Download the Matlab remodelling program from http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/people/academic/qingli/MECH4961.htm

This is Part II of Assignment #3 Change different load cases, cycles etc to observe the different bone formation