Longitudinal Standing Waves

Two longitudinal waves of same frequency and amplitude traveling in opposite direction interfere to produce
a standing wave. If the two interfering waves are given by

1 0
p p sin( t kx) = e and
2 0
p p sin( t kx ) = e + + |
then the equation of the resultant standing wave would be given by

1 2 0
p p p 2p cos(kx )sin( t )
2 2
| |
= + = + e +

0
p p sin( t )
2
|
' = e + .(1)
This is eqn of SHM in which the amplitude
0
p ' depends on position as

0 0
p = 2p cos(kx )
2
|
' +
Points where pressure remains permanently at its average value; i.e., pressure amplitude is zero is called a
pressure node, and the condition for a pressure node would be given by

0
p = 0 '
i.e. cos(kx ) 0
2
|
+ =
i.e. kx 2n
2 2
| t
+ = t , n 0,1,2,....... =
Similarly points where pressure amplitude is maximum is called a pressure antinode and condition for
pressure antinode would be given by

0 0
p = 2p '
i.e. cos(kx ) 1
2
|
+ =
or (kx ) n
2
|
+ = t , n 0,1,2,......... =
- Note that a pressure node in a standing wave would correspond to a displacement antinode; and a
pressure anti-node would correspond to a displacement node.
- When we label equation (1) as SHM, what we mean is that excess pressure at any point varies simple
harmonically. If the sound waves were represented in terms of displacement waves, then the equation
of standing wave corresponding to (1) would be
|
.
|

\
| |
+ e =
2
t cos s s
'
0
where |
.
|

\
| |
+ =
2
kx sin s 2 s
0
'
0

This can be easily observed to be an equation of SHM. It represents the medium particles moving simple
harmonically about their mean position at x)


Example - 28
A certain organ pipe resonates in its fundamental mode at a frequency of 1kHz. What will be the
fundamental frequency if the air is replaced by hydrogen at the same temperature? (Take molar
mass of air = 29g)
Solution
Suppose the speed of sound in hydrogen is vh and that in air is va. The fundamental frequency of an organ pipe
is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas contained in it. If the fundamental frequency with hydrogen in
the tube is v, we have
2
h Air
a H
v M v
1000Hz v M
= = (Since both air and H2 are diatomic, is same for both)

2
29
kHz 1
v
= = 3.8 v 3.8kHz. =
Example-29
A tube open at only one end is cut into two tubes of non equal lengths. The piece open at both ends
has of fundamental frequency of 450 Hz and the other piece of tube has fundamental frequency of
675 Hz. What is the 1
st
overtone frequency of the original tube.
Solution
1
v
450
2
=
2
v
675
4
=
Length of original tube =
1 2
( ) +
its first overtone frequency
4
4 675
v
2 450
v
v 3
) ( 4
v 3
2 1
1
|
.
|

\
|

=
+
= v

=
4 ] 900 2700 [
900 2700 3
+

= 506.25 Hz
Example 30
The range of audible frequency for humans is 20Hz to 20, 000 Hz. If speed of sound in air is 336
m/s. What can be the maximum and minimum length of a musical instrument, based on organ pipe.
Solution
For an open pipe,
v
f n
2
=

v
.n
2f
=
Similarly for a closed pipe,
( )
v
2n 1
4f
= +
min min
max
v 336
(2n 1) 4.2mm
4f 4 20000
= + = =

max max max max
min
v v
n n 8.4(m) n
2f 2 20
= = =

clearly there is no upper limit on the length of such a musical instrument.
Vibration of Air Columns
Standing waves can be set up in air columns trapped inside cylindrical tubes if frequency of the tuning fork
sounding the air column matches one of the natural frequency of air columns. In such a case the sound of the
tuning fork becomes markedly louder, and we say there is resonance between the tuning fork and air-column.
To determine the natural frequency of the air-column, notice that there is a displacement node (pressure
antinode) at each closed end of the tube as air molecules are not free to move, and a displacement antinode (
pressure node) at each open end of the air-column.
In reality antinodes do not occurs exactly at the open end but a little distance outside. However if
diameter of tube is small compared to its length, this end correction can be neglected. Otherwise end
correction e = 0.6 r where r = radius of pipe.
Closed Organ Pipe
First three normal modes, out of infinite for closed organ pipe are as shown in diagram below:

Fundametal Mode
In the diagram
Ap = Pressure antinode
As = displacement antinode
Np = pressure node
Ns = displacement node.



This smallest frequency (largest wavelength) that satisfies the boundary condition for resonance (i.e. displacement
node at left end and antinode at right end is
0
4 = , where L = length of closed pipe. the corresponding frequency is
given by

L 4
v v
0
0
=

= v (is called the fundamental frequency)

First Overtone: Here there is one node and one antinode apart from the nodes and antinodes at the ends.

and corresponding frequency,

0
1
1
3
v
v =

= v
p
AP NP AP NP
S
NS AS NS AS
p
AP
NP
s
NS AS
L
1
st
harmonic
or fundamental
3
rd
harmonic
or 1
st
overtone
Displacement wave
L
5
th
harmonic
or 2
nd
overtone
Pressure wave
This frequency is 3 times the fundamental frequency and hence is called the 3
rd
harmonic.
nth overtone: In general, the nth overtone will have n nodes and n antinodes between the two nodes. The
corresponding wavelength is

0
n
4
2n 1 2n 1

= =
+ +

and vn = (2n + 1)v0
This corresponding frequency is
th
(2n 1) + harmonic. Clearly only odd harmonics are allowed in a closed pipe.
Open Organ Pipe
As pipe is open from both the ends so antinodes are
formed at both the ends and at least one node is
formed between two antinodes.

Fundamental Mode
The smallest frequency (largest wave length) that satisfied
the boundary condition for resonance (i.e. displacement
antinodes at both ends) is.
0
2 =

corresponding frequency, is called the fundamental
frequency
2
v
0
= v
1
st
Overtone : Here there is one displacement antinode between the two antinodes at the ends. And, corresponding
frequency

1 0
1
v
v 2v = =

This frequency is 2 times the fundamental frequency and is called the 2
nd
harmonic.
nth overtone: The nth overtone has n displacement antinodes between the two antinode at the ends.

0
n
2
n 1 n 1

= =
+ +
and vn = (n + 1)v0
This correspond to
th
(n 1) + harmonic: clearly both even and odd harmonics are allowed in an open pipe. Hence
s
AS NS AS NS AS
NP AP NP AP NP
p
S
AS NS NP
P
NP AP NP
A
N
A
A A A A
N
N
N
A A A
N N
sound of open organ pipe is richer than that of closed organ pipe.
End Correction
As mentioned earlier the displacement antinodes at an open end of an organ pipe lies slightly outside the
open end. The distance of the antinodes from the open end is called end correction and its value is given by
e = 0.6r
where r = radius of the organ pipe.
with end correction, the fundamental frequency of a closed pipe (fc)
fc =
) r 6 . 0 ( 4
v
+

and an open organ pipe (f0) will be given by
f0 =
) r 2 . 1 ( 4
v
+

Example- 31
A tuning fork is vibrating at frequency 100 Hz. When another tuning fork is sounded
simultaneously and four beats per second are heard. When some wax is added to the tuning fork of
100 Hz, beat frequency decreases. Find the frequency of the other tuning fork.
Solution
f 100 4 =
f 95 or 105 =
When 1
st
tuning fork is loaded with wax its frequency decreases and so does beat frequency hence
100 > f f = 95 Hz.

Interference In Time (Beats)
When two sound waves of same amplitude and slightly different frequency travelling in
same direction superimpose, then intensity at any point in space varies periodically with
time. This effect is called beats. If the equation of the two interfering sound waves
emitted by



s1 and s2 at point O are,

1 0 1 1 1
p p sin(2 f t kx ) = t + u

2 0 2 2 2
p p sin(2 f t kx ) = t + u
By principle of superposition
1 2
p p p = + assume x1 = 0 and x2 = 0
)
`

u + u
+
+
t
)
`

u u
+

t =
2
t
2
) f f (
2 sin
2
t
2
) f f (
2 cos p 2 p
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
0




Time
Time
Time
Faint Faint
Loud Loud
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
S1
S2
x1
x2
O
i.e. the resultant sound at point O has frequency
1 2
f f
2
+ | |
|
\ .
with pressure amplitude
0
p' (t) varying with time as
)
`

u u
+

t =
2
t
2
) f f (
2 cos p 2 ) t ( p
2 1 2 1
0
'
0

Hence pressure amplitude at point O varies with time with a frequency of
1 2
f f
2
| |
|
\ .

Hence sound intensity will vary with a frequency
1 2
f f
Important Points
(i) The frequency
1 2
f f should be less than 16 Hz,
for it to be audible.
(ii) Beat phenomenon can be used for determining
an unknown frequency by sounding it together
with a source of known frequency.
(iii) If the arm of tuning fork is waxed or loaded,
then its frequency decreases.
(iv) If arm of tuning fork is filed, then its frequency
increases.
(v) If fb > 16 Hz, beats will be produced by instruments
can not heard as persistence of human ear is about
. s
16
1
If beat frequency comes out to be fractional,
dont round it off.


Vibration of a String
(a) Fixed at both ends: Suppose a string of length L is kept fixed at the ends x = 0 and x = L. In such a
system suppose we send a continuous sinusoidal wave of a certain frequency, say, towards the right. When
the wave reaches the right end, it gets reflected and begins to travel back. The left-going wave then overlaps
the wave, which is still traveling to the right. When the left-going wave reaches the left end, it gets reflected
again and the newly reflected wave begins to travel to the right, overlapping the left-going wave. This process
will continue and, therefore very soon, we have many overlapping waves, which interfere with one another.
In such a system, at any point x and at any time t, there are always two waves, one moving to the left and
another to the right . We, therefore have

1 m
y (x,t) y sin(kx t) = e (wave traveling in the positive direction of x-axis)
And
2 m
y (x,t) y sin(kx t) = + e (wave traveling in the negative direction of x-axis)
The principle of superposition gives, for the combined wave
y(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2 (x,t)
y
m m
y sin(kx wt) y sin(kx t) = + + e
y
m
(2y sinkx)cos t = e
It is seen that the points of maximum or minimum amplitude stay at one position.
Nodes:The particle of medium whose amplitude is zero. i.e sin kx = 0
i.e. kx n , = t where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
Substituting k 2 / = t in this equation, we get
x n
2

= , for n = 0, 1,2, 3,
The positions of zero amplitude are called the nodes. Note that a distance of
2

or half wavelength separates

two consecutive nodes.
Antinodes: These are particle of medium whose amplitude has a maximum value of
m
2y
i.e sinkx =1.
t |
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
n kx for n 0,1,2,3....... =
Substituting k = 2y/ in this equation, we get ; x (n 1/ 2)
2

= + for n 0,1,2,3,........ =
The positions of maximum amplitude. These are called the antinodes. The antinodes are separated by /2 and
are located half way between pairs of nodes. For a stretched string of length L, fixed at both ends, one end is
chosen at position x = 0, then the other end is at x = L. In order that this end is node; the length L must satisfy
the condition
L n ,
2

= for n = 1, 2, 3,
This condition shows that standing waves on a string of length L have restricted wavelength given by

2L
n
= for n = 1, 2, 3,
The frequencies corresponding to these wavelengths are ;
v
n ,
2L
v = for n 1,2,3,.......... =
where v is the speed of traveling waves on the string. The set of frequencies given by equation are called the
natural frequencies or modes of oscillation of the system.

This equation tells us that the natural frequencies of a string are
integral multiples of the lowest frequency
v
2L
v = , which
corresponds to n = 1. The oscillation mode that has lowest
frequency is called the fundamental mode or the first harmonic.
The second harmonic or first overtone is the oscillation mode
with n = 2. The third harmonic and second overtone corresponds
to n = 3 and so on. The frequencies associated with these modes
often labelled as
1 2 3
, , v v v and so on. The collection of all positive
modes is called the harmonic series and n is called the harmonic
number. Some of the harmonic of a stretched string fixed at both
the ends are shown in figure.


A string C on a piano has a fundamental frequency of 262 Hz, the string A has fundamental
frequency of 440 Hz. (a) Calculate the frequencies of the next two harmonics of the C string. (b) If
Example-14
A
A
A
A
A
A
N
A A A
N N
A A A
A A A A
A A A A
N N N
(a)
Fundamental
or first
harmonic
v0 = v/2L
(b)
second harmonic
or first overtone
=v1 = 2v0 = 2v/2L
(c)
third harmonic or
2
nd
overtone
= v2 = 3v0, = 3v/2L
(d)
fourth harmonic
or 3
nd
overtone
= v3 = 3v0, =
3v/2L
the strings for the A and C notes are assumed to have the same mass per unit length and the same
length, determine the ratio of tension in the two strings.
Solution
(a) Because
1
f 262Hz = for the C string, we can use Equation to find the frequencies f2 and f3;

2 1
f 2f 524Hz = =
3 1
f 3f 786Hz = =
Using Equation for the two strings vibrating at their fundamental frequencies gives

A
1A
T 1
f
2L
=

C
1C
T 1
f
2L
=

1A A
1C C
f T
f T
=
2
2
A 1A
C 1C
T f 440Hz
T f 262Hz
| |
| |
= =
|
|
\ .
\ .
= 2.82.

A wire having a linear mass density
3
5.0 10 kg/ m

is stretched between two rigid supports with a

tension of 450 N. The wire resonates at a frequency of 420 Hz. The next higher frequency at which
the same wire resonates is 490 Hz. Find the length of the wire.
Solution
Suppose the wire vibrates at 420 Hz in its nth harmonic and at 490 Hz in its (n + 1) th harmonic

1
n F
420s
2L

..(i)
and
1
(n 1) F
490s
2L

+
=

...(ii)

490 n 1
420 n
+
= n = 6
From (i)


900
L
420
= m = 2.1m.
Fixed at one End
Standing waves can be produced on a string /rod which is fixed at one end and whose other end is free to
move in a transverse direction. If the vibrations are produced by a source of correct frequency, standing
waves are produced. If the end x = 0 is fixed and x = L is free, the equation is given by
y = A sin (kx - et) + A sin (kx + et)
y 2Asinkxcos t = e
with the boundary condition that x = L is an antinode. The boundary condition that x = 0 is a node is
automatically satisfied by the above equation. For x = L to be an antinode.
sinkL 1 =
or,
1
kL n
2
| |
= + t
|
\ .

2 L 1
n
2
t | |
= + t
|

\ .

or,
2
1
n
v
L 2
+ =
v

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= |
.
|

\
|
+ = v
F
L 2
2
1
n
L 2
v
2
1
n .
These are the normal frequencies of vibration. The fundamental frequency is obtained when n = 0, i.e.

0
v = v/4L
The overtone frequencies are

1 0
3v
3
4L
v = = v and
2 0
5v
5
4L
v = = v
We see that all the harmonic of the fundamental are not the allowed
frequencies for the standing waves. Only the odd harmonics are the
overtones. Figure shows shapes of the string for some of the normal
modes.

N
N
A A A
N
N N
A
Fundamental
First
Overtone
Second
Overtone
A
(a)
(b)
(c)
E
x
a
m
pl
e-
1
7
(
d
)
fo
u
rt
h
h
Example-15