Disusun Oleh:

ADRIANTARJA (10510234) ASRI MINANG AGUSTIN (1851082) AZZAH AZIZ BAZED (19510107) BELLA CINTIA P. (11510371) ERMA HERMAWATI (15510407) FAHMI SUMITRA (12510510) LULU TRIFACILA (14510089) NURUL AMAN (19510059) PAULA YANIARISTA D. (15510329) PUSPA KEN NISA (19510312)

UNIVERSITAS GUNADARMA DEPOK, JAWA BARAT 2010

INTRODUCTION
Praise the presence of God Almighty who has mercy, Taufik and his guidance, so that we can complete the papers in English courses of Memory. On this occasion, we thank Mrs. Joseph Zulfiah Ridwan, as the course lecturer in English. We as the paper's authors, aware that in the writing of this paper is still far from perfect. Therefore, we are looking forward to suggestions and criticisms from readers. Hopefully this paper can provide benefits to our readers for the pleasure of the world and the hereafter. Amen

Depok, Oktober 2010

DEVELOPMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE 1 INTRODUCTION.. PAGE 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS.. PAGE 3 HUMAN MEMORY PAGE 4 LONG TERM MEMORY.. PAGE 5 TYPES OF MEMORY. PAGE 6,7,8 THE BRAINS GROWTH. PAGE 8,9 LOSS OF MEMORY PAGE 10,11 HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR MEMORY PAGE 12,13 UNPRECEDENTED MEMORY MEMORIALIZED. PAGE 13,14 HUMAN MEMORY CONSTRUCTION PAGE 15,16 BRAIN STRUCTURES PAGE 17,18, 19,20,21 CONCLUSION.. PAGE 22

Human Memory

Memory is the next part of our model of the user as an information processing system. There are generally three types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

Sensory memory The sensory memories act as buffers for stimuli received through the senses. A sensory memory exists for each sensory channel: iconic memory for visual stimuli, echoic memory for aural stimuli and haptic memory for touch. Information is passed from sensory memory into short-term memory by attention, thereby filtering the stimuli to only those which are of interest at a given time. Short-term memory Short-term memory acts as a scratch-pad for temporary recall of the information under process. For instance, in order to understand this sentence you need to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence you read the rest. Short term memory decays rapidly (200 ms.) and also has a limited capacity. Chunking of information can lead to an increase in the short term memory capacity. Thst is the reason why a hyphenated phone number is easier to rememeber than a single long number. The successful formation of a chunk is known as closure. Interference often causes disturbance in short-term memory retention. This accounts for the desire to complete the tasks held in short term memory as soon as possible.

Long-term memory Long-term memory is intended for storage of information over a long time. Information from the working memory is transferred to it after a few seconds. Unlike in working memory, there is little decay.HAL 3. Long-term memory structure

There are two types of long-term memory: episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory represents our memory of events and experiences in a serial form. It is from this memory that we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at a given point in our lives. Semantic memory, on the other end, is a structured record of facts, concepts and skills that we have acquired. The information in semantic memory is derived from that in our own episodic memory, such that we can learn new facts or concepts from our experiences. Long-term memory processes There are three main activities related to long term memory: storage, deletion and retrieval. Information from short-term memory is stored in long-term memory by rehearsal. The repeated exposure to a stimulus or the rehearsal of a piece of information

transfers it into long-term memory. Experiements also suggest that learning time is most effective if it is distributed over time. Deletion is mainly caused by decay and inerference. Emotional factors also affect long-term memory. However, it is debatable whether we actually ever forget anything or whether it becomes increasingly difficult to access certain items from memory. Having forgotten something may just be caused by not being able to retrieve it ! Information may not be recalled sometimes but may be recognized, or may be recalled only with prompting. This leads us to the third provess of memory: information retrieval. There are two types of information retrieval: recall and recognition. In recall, the information is reproduced from memory. In recognition the presentation of the information provides the knowledge that the information has been seen before. Recognition is of lesser complexity, as the information is provided as a cue. However, the recall can be assisted by the provision of retrieval cues which enable the subject to quickly access the information in memory. Human Memory: What It Is and How to Improve It You have to begin to lose your memory, if only in bits and pieces, to realise that memory is what makes our lives. Our memory is our coherence, our reason, our feeling, even our action. Without it, we are nothing. Luis Buue, spanish fim makerl Silvia Helena Cardoso, PhD What makes us remember a detailed story that had occurred in the past? Why don't we ever forget how to drive a car? How do we naturally let flow complicated phrases of long songs? In these examples, the memory appears as a process of information retention in which our experiences are archived and then recovered when we recall them. Memory is intimately associated with learning, which is our ability to change behavior through experiences that are stored in memory. In other words, learning is the acquisition of new knowledge, and memory is the retention of this learned knowledge. Thus, learning and memory are the basis of all our knowledge, abilities, and planing, making us consider the past, to place us in the present, and to predict the future.

Types of memory Consider the difference between memorizing a few friends' birthdays, versus learning to ride a bicycle. Several things we learn and remember are

not processed by the same neural mechanism. There are different categories of memory, as the following examples: Declarative memory (memory for facts and events), is the memory of dates, historical facts, telephone numbers, etc. Procedural memory (memory for procedures and abilities), is the ability to drive a car, to play football, to tie your shoe strings or your tie, etc. The memory for dates (historical or other events) is easier to build, but it is easily lost or forgotten, while the memory for skills learning might require a repetitive practice.

Remembering and Forgetting You just heard someone's phone number being spelled, but in a few seconds you are incapable to remember part or the whole number. Why? There is a memory that is temporary, limited in its capability, as it is stored for a very short time in the brain, of the order of milliseconds or at most to a few minutes. This is called a short-term memory. For this short-term memory to become permanent, it requires attention, repetition and associated ideas. However, through a still unknown mechanism you can suddenly remember a forgotten fact, as that telephone number you have forgotten. In this case, the information was stored in the long-term memory, which is the more lasting one and has a more ample capacity. The process of storing new information in this long-term memory is called consolidation. An elaboration of the short-term memory concept that has been made in recent years is Working Memory (a more general term for storage of temporary information). Many specialists consider that short-term memory and working memory are the same in one thing. However, a key feature that distinguishes it from short-term memory is that there may be multiple sites in the brain where temporary storage occurs, rather than a single shortterm memory system. This implies that we could not be consciously aware of all the information held in working memory at the same time, in different parts of the brain. Let's take the example of driving a car. This is a complex task requiring several types of information to be simultaneously processed such as sensory, cognitive and motor information. It seems unlikely that these several types of information can all be handled by a single short-term memory system.

The Brain Mechanisms of Memory What makes us remember a detailed story that had occurred in the past? Why don't we ever forget how to drive a car? How do we naturally let flow complicated phrases of long songs? In these examples, the memory appears as a process of information retention in which our experiences are archived and then recovered when we recall them. Memory is intimately associated with learning, which is our ability to change behavior through experiences that are stored in memory. In other words, learning is the acquisition of new knowledge, and memory is the retention of this learned knowledge. Thus, learning and memory are the basis of all our knowledge, abilities, and planing, making us consider the past, to place us in the present, and to predict the future.

The Brain's Growth Did you know that every time you learn something or acquire a new experience your brain's cells suffer a modification, and that modification will be reflected in your behavior? For example, if you have ever walked through a street during the night and perceived that there were people looking like criminals, you would have avoided going through that street again. Or, a child who gets an electrical shock after inserting his or her finger in an outlet, will never repeat that behavior again. In these examples, the behavior was modified as a result of an experience. Each neuron contributes to behavior and to each mental activity, producing or not electrical impulses. All memory processes are explained in terms of these electrical discharges.

The cellular alterations resulting from learning and memory are called plasticity. They refer to an alteration in the efficiency of the synapses that can increase the transmission of nervous impulses, thus modulating behavior.. The neuron An experience can happen through an active learning, or by living in an rich environment that includes other individuals, colors, music, sounds, books, smells, etc. It was also possible to demonstrate in scientific laboratories that a rat's brain presents a much greater number of brain cells interconnected to each other when they live together in a cage filled with toys as wheels, balls, etc., than rats living in a cage alone and without anything to do or learn. Donald Hebb, from Montreal, and Jersey Konorski, from Poland, some of the major experts on the phenomenon of learning and memory in the 40's, were the first ones to believe memory should involve changes or increases of nervous circuits. Nervous circuits are sets of brain cells (or neurons) that communicate to each other through junctions called synapse. When a cell is activated, it is triggered the liberation of chemical substances in the synapses, called neurotransmitters, becoming them more effective. Research has found that neurons that are more "exercised" bear a greater number of ramifications dendrites communicating with the dendrites of other neurons. Thus, for memory to be established, it is necessary that nervous cells form produce new protein molecules.

new

interconnections

and

Synaptic transmission Silvia Helena Cardoso is a psycobiologist, doctor of Sciences by the State University of So Paulo, Brazil, post doctoral by the University of California, Los Angeles, associate researcher at State University of Campinas, managing and editor-in-chief of the Brain & Mind magazine.

Loss of Memory Contrary to the common forgetting normally occurring in our daily lives, there are some diseases and injuries in the brain that produce severe loss of memory, and may also interfere with the ability to learn. This inability is called amnesia. Factors that may cause total or partial loss of memory are: Chronic alcoholism Brain tumor Concussion Encephalitis Brain traumas may cause loss of memory manifested in two different ways: Retrograde amnesia. The person will remember things after the trauma, but will forget facts from that moment back to months or even years before. Anterograde amnesia. The events before the trauma might be remembered, but facts following the trauma will not be remembered. In severe cases, the person might be incapable of learning any new skill, as is the case of a patient who every time he met his physician he would greet him as if it was the first time. Global transitory amnesia. This is a form of amnesia that lasts a short period of time and involves the anterograde followed by the retrograde amnesia. This type of amnesia is caused by cerebral ischemia (temporary decrease of blood flow). According to Bear & al., 1996(1), although rare, there are records of this type of amnesia being caused by: Stress Car accidents Soccer Drugs

Cold baths Sex

How to Improve Your Memory There are many things you can do to improve your memory, among them the use of certain mental techniques, as well as special care with nutrition and medicines. To stimulate memory. Use your memory to the utmost. Challenge a novelty. Learn new skills. If you work in an office, learn to dance. If you are a dancer, learn to deal with a computer; if you work with sales, learn to play chess; if you are a programmer, learn to paint. This could stimulate your brain's neural circuits to grow. Pay attention. Don't try to memorize all the facts that happen, but focus your attention and concentrate in what you consider more important, avoiding all other thoughts. Exercise: take any object, as a pen, and concentrate on it. Think on its various characteristics: its material, its function, its color, its anatomy, etc. Don't allow any other thought to occupy your mind while you are concentrating on that pen. Relax. It is impossible to pay attention if you are tense or nervous. Exercise: hold your breath for ten seconds, then release it slowly. Associate facts to images. Learn mnemonic techniques. They are a very efficient way to memorize large quantities of information. Visualize images. See figures with the "eyes of your mind". Exercise: Close your eyes and imagine a big and juicy steak. Smell its aroma and feel the softness of its meat. Imagine yourself cutting it with a knife and fork, then tasting it. If your mouth filled with saliva while you visualized this scene, then you have done a good work! Do these exercises with other objects, like a bowl of soup, an ice-cream cup, a chocolate pie, anywhere, as a dental office, an examination room, etc. Foods. Some vitamins are essential for the proper working of memory: tiamin, folic acid, and B12 vitamin. They are found in bread and cereal, vegetable and fruits. Some experts say that synthesized vitamins improve memory, but others have doubts about this, arguing that the studies have not confirmed these nutrients do work.

Water. Water help maintain the memory systems working, specially in older persons. According to Dr. Trukington, lack of water in the body has an immediate and deep effect on memory; dehydration can generate confusion and other thought difficulties. Sleep. To be able to have a good memory, it is essential that we allow the brain to have enough sleep and rest. While sleeping, the brain disconnects from the senses, and proceeds to revising and storing memory. Insomnia would produce a chronic fatigue and would impair the ability of concentration and the storing of information. Medication. Some medicines can cause loss of memory: tranquilizers, muscular relaxants, sleep pills, and anti-anxiety drugs, particularly the benzoadiazepinics that include the diazepan (valium) and the lorazepan. Some medicines for the control of high blood pressure (hypertension) may cause memory problems and depression. Alcohol. The alcoholism is one of the most serious candidates to affect memory. Alcohol interferes specially with short-term memory, which impairs the ability of retaining new informations. Studies have shown that even the ingestion of low quantities of alcoholic beverage during one whole week will interfere with the ability of remembering. Smoking. It is already well known that smoking lower the amount of oxygen arriving in the brain, and this fact many times affect memory. Studies have shown that, when compared with non-smokers, individuals smokers of one or more packs of cigarettes a day had difficulties of remembering people's faces and names in a test of visual and verbal memory (Turkington, 1996). Caffeine. Coffee and tea have a very positive effect to maintain attention and to end sleepiness, but the excitation promoted by these drinks may interfere with the memory function. Other tips (such as take notes, get organized, use a diary, keep fit, regular health checks, memory aids, etc).

UNPRECEDENTED MEMORY MEMORIALIZED The brain is incredible. The human capacity for perception, reason, logic the sheer processing power inside our skulls is, well, mind-boggling. But as incredible an organ as is the human brain, it is fallible. Even the "geniuses" well hear from at TED2007 have imperfect brains. Take, for example, human memory we all forget things. Even Ken Jennings ultimately lost on Jeopardy (but, sadly, not until he had already dispensed with my brother Josh). The certain fallibility of human memory has been the lifes work of James McGaugh, a brain researcher at the University of California at Irvine. Which is precisely why, according to a recent story on ABCNews.com, Dr. McGaugh is so intrigued by a woman called AJ who came to him seeking an explanation for her monumental recall. For any given date over her lifetime, AJ can remember the day of the week, the weather, personal and historical events, you name it. Her memory so exceeds that of any individuals memory documented to date, that AJ has left researchers stumped. They have found no explanation for her incredible recall. In hopes of better understanding AJs database like brain, the UC Irvine researchers begin a comprehensive set of brain scans on AJ in the coming months. I certainly look forward to reporting what the researchers discover. That is, of course, if I can remember to check back on the story.

Human Memory Construction Overview Human memory exists in the brain. This is an organ, which works through an electro-chemical process. There are about 1011 active brain cells or neurons in a normal human brain. About 1010 of these are in the cerebral cortex. It is believed that memories are stored at the junctions between neurons, the Synapses. As learning takes place the number and specialisation of chemical receptors at the receptor site changes to reflect how the neuron will respond in future to a similar stimulus. Where does memory exist in the brain? People have postulated that ultimately, at the end of the memory chain, there are neurons that respond to specific items. For instance, there could be a granny cell, which fires when you see or think about your granny. This is not likely to be true. It is probable that memories are distributed within the various sub-sections of the brain. Memories for complex occasions may be distributed throughout

many sections involving vision, sound, touch etc. Unlike computer memory, if one cell fails, it does not lead to any particular memory failure. It is however known that the Hippocampus is crucial for laying down long term memories. Damage to this area of the brain may result in a person being completely unable to remember new things yet able to remember clearly, events from before the damage. Memories may be composed of elements from any or all of the sensory modalities and may therefore be truly diverse as far as storage is concerned. However, it is now known that certain structures in the brain have considerable responsibility for the storage and retrieval of long term memories. The hippocampus , part of the forebrain, is crucial for long term memory. Damage to this area of the brain can result in serious amnesia for past events and also considerable difficulty in creating new memories. It is not clear whether damage is affecting storage or retrieval since both would produce the same effect. Frontal lobe damage has been shown to affect the performance of the central executive part of working memory. The cerebral cortex and the hippocampus are relatively recent parts of the brain. Declarative memory the hippocampus and some related nearby areas of the cortex are thought to be involved in declarative memory, which itself may be a relatively recent phenomenon. The basal ganglion seems to be responsible for procedural knowledge. The cerebellum may play a key role in classical conditioned response acquisition. Certain neurotransmitters have been found to be closely related to memory events and hormonal effects are also known to increase glucose in the brain leading to improved event memory at certain times.

Brain Structures

Human Memory Operation Operation The mechanism of memory is believed to take place at the synapse, the junction between neuron cells. Both the actual synaptic connection and the way the synapse responds to stimulus, represent the elementary units of memory. Synaptic junctions form as the brain is developing but it is also possible that new junctions form later in life. Synaptic Operation When a signal, an action potential, travels down the axon of a neuron, it may reach many synaptic junctions with other cells. At these junctions, chemical transmitters such as acetycholine, adrenaline, noradrenalin, serotonin etc are released and travel the very short distance across the synaptic junction. Receptor sites on the dendritic spine of the next cell can each accept a molecule of transmitter. If enough receptor sites are activated, the dendrite will signal the cell body of the next neuron. Receptor sites may cause an excitatory (more likely to signal) or an inhibitory (less likely to signal) action. It is the sum of these effects that will eventually cause a response in the next neuron. Memories are laid down when permanent changes are made to the effect of the release of chemical transmitters. Postsynaptic sites may become more sensitised to the effect of the chemicals or additional receptor sites may be grown.

Neurological Research The great advance in the study of neurons was helped by the development of a staining technique that allowed individual cells to be viewed under a microscope. As the technology of microscopy has developed, it has been possible to investigate the activity of individual neuron cells. Initially, the large cells, such as those found in the giant squid provided information about how neurons transmitted information (the action potential). Later, the study of simple learning in uncomplicated animals such as Aplysia, a marine snail, has lead to the discovery that synaptic changes are taking place during learning. It has also been shown that the Hippocampus, a region in the brain, stores long term memories for weeks before transferring them to other parts of the brain. The hippocampus is essential for long term memory in humans. In 1973, Timothy Bliss and Terjelomo, in Oslo, first demonstrated that neurons in the Hippocampus have a remarkable plasticity, the kind that would be required for learning. They found that a brief high frequency train of action potentials in one of the neural pathways of the hippocampus produced an increase in synaptic strength in that pathway. The effect can last from hours to weeks. A dictionary Definition for memory could be as follows (Collins) "The ability of the mind to store and recall past sensations, thoughts, knowledge etc." Computers also have memory that performs a similar function but there is no mind involved. The definition shown could get confused with a definition for learning since the ability to store is also related to learning. Memory refers to the storage process and mechanism, which has a physical reality. Capability can be discussed in terms of both human and machine memories. It is not until we see the effects of no memory that we realise just how much we rely on it. In one particular case, a person suffered brain damage as a result of an illness. This damage left the person totally unable to lay down new memories.

Each time the person woke from sleep etc. for him, it was as though he had just regained consciousness from the illness. This situation has persisted for years. Imagine what it must be like to be incapable of remembering anything. Which would be considered the better memory; a large, fast computer memory or a typical human memory? There are several clear differences: A computer memory does not forget things but humans often forget things. A computer can store images with great accuracy but it is difficult for a computer to identify a previously stored image as just like to one that is being currently viewed. A computer can instantly remember extremely long lists of facts but humans require considerable training to match even the simplest computer feats in this area. How much use is accurate and vast storage if recall and recognition are difficult? Human memory seems to be highly integrated with rapid recall. For instance, recognition of faces. Will computers ever be this good? Human memory can be very fallible, two people can have different memories about the same incident. Computer memories however, are accurate and represent a true record of what was stored. Sources "Your Memory: A Users Guide" by Alan Baddeley: Peguin 1993 is an excellent book on human memory and also a good read. There is a great variety of publications on computer memory but Artificial Intelligence, a knowledge based approach: M.W. Firebaugh. PWS-KENT. 1989 provides some relevant information within the context of machine intelligence. Memory

Some experiences are hard to forget. Memory is the ability to retain and to recall personal experiences, information, and various skills and habits. But how does a person hold onto these personal movies? Using brainimaging techniques, scientists are unraveling the mechanism responsible for creating and storing memories. They are finding that the hippocampus, within the brains gray matter, could act as a memory box. But this storage area isnt so discriminatory. It turns out that both true and false memories activate similar brain regions. While memory is easy to define, there is no agreement among researchers to explain how it works, and scientists have not yet established a model for the actual mechanics of memory that is consistent with the subjective nature of consciousness. In psychology, memory is an organism s mental ability to store, retain and recall information. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing the memory.

If memory keeps failing you, worry not. IBM has been working on a software that might help you in recalling forgotten pieces of your life. Pensieve is a software that organizes information stored and recorded on mobile devices and helps

people recall names, faces, conversations and events. Though it might not help in short term memory or autobiographical memory, it might help in semantic memory, which is a part of the long-term memory. Pensieve organizes, stores and extracts collected information much like the human memory works. IBMs project is similar to Microsofts research work in the similar field. This kind of software may help people with memory difficulties and also those who suffer from recollection problems.

Conclusion
The discussion done in this review is just the tip of the iceberg in the understanding of source amnesia and the day will definitely come in future whereby different treatment options for source amnesia become available. Until we understand the simple and complex neural circuitry, map the neurological centers responsible for episodic memory and thus source amnesia, and identify the pathways for neuro-biological and -psychological maturation, deterioration, and damage, source amnesia and related conditions will remain largely unsolved. However, at this stage, we have pieced together a portion of the puzzle and, remarkably, eradicated the old-fashion notion that amnesia is a unitary disorder. As an episodic memory disorder, source amnesia is attributable to the dysfunction of the normal memory process involving encoding, storage, and retrieval. Thus, a parallel exists between advancements in the human memory process and neuropsychology and our comprehension of source amnesia. In future, it is fully expected that many more fascinating details of the molecular mechanisms responsible for memory formation and stabilization processes will come to light. Toward that end, the field will continue to benefit from the rich contribution of the diverse disciplines including psychology, physiology, pharmacology, cellular and molecular biology, biochemistry, genetics, biophysics and bioinformatics that have already shaped the study of memory during the last four decades. Although the ultimate goal of this multidisciplinary approach will be to explain, in molecular detail, how specific memories are encoded and maintained within the human brain, experiments in the different animal model systems, will continue to pave the way. The major question that now also needs to be addressed relates to the system properties of memory storage, such as how synaptic changes at different points in an explicit network, give rise to the storage capacity of the system. The long-term prospects are extremely exciting (Angel Barco, Craig H. Bailey and Eric R. Kandel. 2006). Presently, on the clinical side, it has been found that amnesiacs in general perform better in verbal recall when the retroactive interference is diminished by placing them in a dark quiet room (Nelson Cowan, Nicoletta Beschin and Sergio Della Sala, 2004). Also it has been understood that recognition memory deficit in amnesia is attenuated under conditions that increased the salience of studyinduced fluency possibly because memory for a past experience can be based on recollection of specific details from the experience or on a sense of familiarity that accompanies re-exposure to information from that episode (Margaret M. Keane, Frances Orlando, Mieke Verfaellie 2006). This is just a small step in the understanding of amnesia in general and the day will definitely come in future whereby different treatment options for source amnesia become available.

There are no specific preventive measures for source amnesia but the general guidelines outlined below can be followed. 1. Keep brain cells active by reading, doing puzzles, singing, exercising, conversing and eating a balanced diet to stimulate blood flow, improve activity and preserve them from degeneration 2. Antioxidants like Vitamin E and Selegiline can be taken when appropriate 3. Avoid head injuries. Wear seat belt and helmet at all times during driving. Children, adolescents and adults should also be taught sports safety guidelines. 4. Strokes, which can cause amnesia, should be prevented by treating predisposing factors like hypertension, obesity, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, smoking, alcoholism, stress and hyperhomocystinemia.

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