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Review: Assessing Presidential Character Author(s): Alexander L. George Source: World Politics, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Jan.

, 1974), pp. 234-282 Published by: Cambridge University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2009901 Accessed: 03/12/2010 15:24
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Review QAirticles
ASSESSING PRESIDENTIAL CHARACTER
By ALEXANDERL. GEORGE*
JamesDavid Barber,The Presidential Character:Predicting Performance in the WhiteHouse. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, I972, 479 pp.,
$I0.00.

in late March i949, the nationwas shockedto learn thathe was fora severe mentalillness. Withina fewmonths Forundertreatment suicide.This tragicoccurrence, restalcommitted coming afterForrestal'shighlysuccessful career in government, directly challenged in Washington. mental-health thelong-standing mythology prevalent Deutschat thetime,'was The essence as notedby Albert of themyth, the beliefthat"no Very Important Person,under any circumstances, can possibly froma psychosis." The denial of this possibility suffer in official Washington was of a piece withwidelysharedbeliefsthat to suffer a mentalillnesswas a disgracethatautomatically and perrendered forpublicoffice. one unfit manently It would go muchtoo farto say thata new set of attitudes has replaced the mental-health mythology prevalent twenty-five yearsago. Nonetheless, therehas been some change in this respect, partlyas a resultof a better understanding of the natureof mentalillnessand mental and wideracceptance and therahealth, of modernpreventive In addition, the disposition peuticapproaches. to challengethe mental-health mythology has been strengthened by concern over the posthatan unbalancedpoliticalor military sibility leader mighttrigger thermonuclear war.2
* Copyrighti974 by Alexander L. George. For extensive on an earlierdraftof this reviewI am inand helpfulcomments I remainsolelyresponsible, debtedto Fred Greenstein. of course, forthe contents. In an extensive David Barberkindlyoffered and usefulcritiquewhich addition, James enabledme to clarify manypointsand to avoid inadvertent misrepresentations. Howon a number ever, of important issueswe have notbeen able to reachagreement. 1 Deutsch's delivered at a meeting of theAmerican remarks, Psychiatric Association, A Studyof Personality, are quotedin ArnoldA. Rogow,James Forrestal: Politics, and Policy (New York i963), 44. 2The possibility thatmentalillnesscould strike politicalor military leadersin the era ofpush-button warfare in films has beendramatized and novelssuchas Dr. Strange-

of Defense HORTLY after as Secretary James Forrestal resigned

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The possibility that in an important majorpsychiatric impairment in timeto prevent a policy official or controlled maynotbe detected nonetheless it identifies disaster forlegitimate is a matter concern; would a small a part-some only There sayonly part-oftheproblem. that of theadverse effects remains thebroader and murkier question on public thepersonalities ofleaders whoarenotill mayexert policy and theconduct theconof theaffairs of state. Thus,paradoxically, manhas his breaking ventional serves to wisdom that"every point" obscure from viewthefactthatfewpolitical leaders break actually down thestress ofmaking under difficult decisions or under theeven greater ofhaving to copewiththeadverse of destress consequences cisions made. already Certainly we needto knowmoreaboutpsychological and institutional mechanisms thathelppolitical emocoping to remain leaders themto continue tionally intact, enabling acute functioning despite orpersistent stress ofvarious kinds. an individual Narrowly construed, whocopes with without downcanbe saidtoenjoy stress adebreaking quate mental health. Butsince we areconcerned here with individuals whooccupy we cannot limit attention to theconhigh political office, of a leader's understress sequences forhis own performance solely emotional We mustbe at leastequallyconcerned well-being. with theconsequences for others oftheways in which he copes withlatent or actual of policy personal stresses and other making tasks. Coping that fortheindividual devices arefunctional havea maysometimes on policy and political dysfunctional impact outcomes. Forthis broader criteria areneeded thanthose reason, traditionally and psychiatrists in judging applied bypsychologists whether an individual with stress. copes adequately Buttodevelop andapply broader criteria is not, as we shallsee,an easy task. Forone thing, theinvestiown can gator's political values easily color hisjudgment as towhether a leader withstressful copes successfully tasks from thestandpoint of thepolity. whentheinvestigator Thus,forexample, disagrees with a leader topursue the continues policy evidence despite ofitsmounting
love,SevenDays in May,and Nightof Camp David. A soberstatement of thisstark was also offered possibility scientist by political ArnoldRogow in his perceptive biogof Forrestal raphy (fn. I), 346. In a laterpublication Rogow noted thatthe serious of illnesses such as Forrestal's forpolicydecisions consequences tendto be checked by various built-in of officeholding in a hierarchical, safeguards bureaucratic formof gov"Mostkeypolicydecisions ernment: are distributed over a number of persons and a of agencies," and thereis a tendency variety withinthe bureaucracy "to removeor reducethedecision-making of the sick official authority while leavinghim in office." "Private Illnessand Public Policy:The Cases of James Forrestal and JohnWinant," American Journal cxxv (February of Psychiatry, i969), i096.

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he is morelikely to judge thatleaderas rigidand stubborn costs, thanwhenhe supports thatpolicy. a leaderwho takesa Similarly, firm anddraws thelinein disputes stand with political opponents may in highly be judgedto be engaged behavior adaptive byan investigatorwhobelieves thatsuchbehavior is required by thesituation; but thesamebehavior maybe judgedto be irrationally aggressive by a different whosesystem ofvalues investigator leadsto a different perception oftherequirements anddangers in thesamesituation. implicit The intrusion of theinvestigator's own political valuescan distort both thevalidity andreliability ofhisjudgments a political regarding leader's for fitness office. in the psychological Thiswas all tooevident responses psychiatrists madeto a pollbyFACT magazine the during presidential campaign of i964. Amongthequestions askedwas the "Do youbelieve following: Barry Goldwater is psychologically fitto serve as President of theUnited States?" The questionnaire, sentto all 12,356 psychiatrists in theUnitedStates, in thecurrent as listed directory oftheAmerican Medical was returned Association, by2,417 (abouti9.5 percent).Of these, i,i89 saidhe was notfit and 657said he was fit. On theother almost hand, 6ooindicated wereunable they to answer did notknowenough because they aboutGoldwater. In addition, were comments volunteered bysomei62 ofthepsychiatrists whoresponded to themailsurvey. In hisanalysis of these comments(as reproduced in FACT magazine), David Ray notesthat there was virtually no agreement thepsychiatrists in question among about what qualities would make a leader psychologically fit orpsychounfit. logically there was evidence Moreover, in the comments that evaluations ofGoldwater's fitness were influenced bythediagnosticians' own political values. In quitea fewcases, psychiatrists explicitly or implicitly linked their judgments about Goldwater's psychological fitnessto endorsements or repudiations of thepolitical valuestheyattributed toGoldwater.3 It is sobering torecall, as Rayreminds us,that almost 2,000 psychiatrists werewilling on thisoccasion to claimand express professional in a situation in which expertise they wereclearly in doingso. It should unjustified be notedthatFACT's survey was repudiated byboth theAmerican Medical Association, which referred toit as "an example ofyellow journalism," and theAmerican Psychiatric whichdismissed it as "a hodge-podge Association, of personal political rather thanprofessional opinion diagnosis."4
3David Ray, "The Psychiatric Screening of PoliticalLeaders: The Goldwater Case and Beyond," seminar paper,PoliticalScienceDepartment, Stanford University I972. See alsothebrief account in Arnold Rogow,The Psychiatrists (New York I970), I25-27. Ralph Ginzburg(publisher of FACT, whichhad since Despite theseadmonitions,

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We areconfronted, with thequestion whether therefore, itis feasible office and to preto assess thepersonalities ofcandidates forpolitical in waysthat will satisfy thecriteria of objecdicttheir performance and validity. Consideration of thisquestion tivity, reliability, must andtheadequacy ofprodealwith both thescope ofsuchevaluations cedures for In discussing thescope such ofpsychomaking judgments. detection logical a useful distinction canbe madebetween assessments, mental onthe ofmajor illness ofpsychological onehandandassessment a particular fitness for office ontheother. To focus evaluation exclusivelyon detection ofa current mental illness makes thetaskofdiagnosis more butitleaves thedooropento lesser dismanageable, personality turbances or characteristics risks. Althatmayentailhighpolitical itis increasingly illness can be rethough whether mental questioned garded as an entity, ofat least somesevere illnesses themanifestations are relatively clearcut and moreeasilyidentifiable thanthe wider ofpersonality range unfit for characteristics that maymakea person high political office. The distinction andmonitorbetween candidates for office screening health ofofficials is alsoonetokeepin mind. If an official sufingthe a disabling fered mental wouldbe to obtaina illness, theproblem competent medical certification and either theofficial to to persuade ortoputinto resign effect provisions for himfrom removing hisofficial duties, either orpermanently. temporarily is conSo faras a President cerned, such a procedure would be much more difficult than for a lesser and it is problematical official, whether the25th amendment offers a satisfactory solution forsucha contingency. Thescreening ofcandidates for elected office encounters special difficulties. Thequestion tobe asked about candidates isnotmerely whether they currently suffer majormental illness, butalsowhether they are todevelop in office. likely onelater Butprediction of a majormental illness isnotonly more difficult andmore uncertain than itsdiagnosis; it alsoraises very difficult "decision rule"problems: whatdegree of risk ofa future mental breakdown should be regarded as unacceptable andasgrounds for disqualifying a candidate, andwhoshould make this judgment? Since very few persons arelikely tobe certified as altogether
expired, and now publisher of Avant Garde) announced fouryearslater thatmore than2,000 psychiatrists had responded to questions about the psychological fitness of President Johnson. The results, however, were neverpublished, perhapsbecause of announcement Johnson's thathe would not be a candidate forreelection. Rogow (fn. 3), I28. Also,in i968 Senator Goldwater sued the publishers of FACT forlibel and was awardeda judgment of $75,000 in punitive damagesby a FederalDistrict Court. The judgment was subsequently upheldon appeal.

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mental a conservative decito theriskof future invulnerable illness, sionrulewouldeliminate most whereas a more candidates, permissive candidates forwhomsomeriskof a future one wouldaccept many mental breakdown couldnotbe excluded. Where should thelinebe fewobdrawn? And bywhom?Because of these several difficulties, thanto suggest should servers go further thatcandidates voluntarily andrelease examinations the subject themselves toappropriate medical in results to thepublic so that can deems it vote whatever wayit appropriate.5 The task ofdesigning validandacceptable forscreening procedures candidates becomes morecomplicated appreciably if thescopeof the evaluation is broadened to cover anddetection of fitness psychological character flaws. It wouldbe extremely difficult tojudgewhether motiandcoping in thepersonality vational structures imbedded of patterns a candidate out to be acutely in performing will turn dysfunctional the duties ofan office. Whether given characteristics personality willbe decision or affect ofrational disruptive making performance adversely in other to be a matter ofdegree waysis likely as well as of circumstance. For a leader's the of certain performance, disruptive potential tobe highly personality patterns is likely and a copsituation-specific, ing strategy thattends to produce in adverse political consequences certain situations in other be quitefunctional may situations. It would be all themore todrawa lineas tothelevelofrisk difficult, therefore, judgedtobe acceptable (theproblem ofdecision rulealready alluded Additional observations onproblems ofscreening andmonitoring to).6 willbe presented in theconcluding section ofthis review. II Withthese in mind, considerations we turn to James David Barber's effort to devise means in thePresidency forpredicting performance wellenough toassist inthe andselection evaluation ofcandidates tothat office. Barber "this acknowledges that kindof prediction is noteasy" andrecognizes that "predicting with evenapproximate accuracy is go5Publicdiscussion of thispossibility was triggered by the disclosure, after his nominationas Vice President on the Democratic Partyticket, thatSenatorEagletonhad been treated fordepression on several earlier occasions in his career.See, forexample, MichaelJ.Halberstam, M.D., "Who'sMedically Fit fortheWhiteHouse?" New York TimesMagazine, October 22, I972, pp. 39ff; James Reston, "The Need fora System of Health Checks," in San Francisco reprinted SundayHerald Examiner and Chronicle, August6, I972. 6 The preceding paragraphs draw in part upon the seminardiscussion of David Ray'spaperin whichDr. RudolfMoos and Dr. John Adams,M.D., of the Psychiatry Department, Stanford MedicalCenter, participated.

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in their use" (p. 6). ing to require somesharptoolsand closeattention forthis honed theory Barber doesnotclaimto haveproduceda finely a hundredpurpose. Nonetheless, he published hisbook,whichcontains page analysis ofRichard Nixon entitled "The Nixon Prediction," early in 1972 forpossible use in thepresidential election;and he followedit with up,after Senator McGovern's nomination bytheDemocratic Party, in thePresia brief analysis ofhispersonality and expected performance dency.7 Barberjustified his decisionto do so not only on practical at pregrounds, butalso withreference to thepossibility thatattempts diction can serve to sharpen thetheory (p. 6; also p. vii). Barber has beencriticized forintroducing as yetuntheunfinished, tested results of his scholarship intothepoliticalarena.This is a criticismwithwhich I happen to sympathize, and which I will discuss in theconcluding Barber's further section. At thesame time, however, and coneffort critics mustcometo gripswiththe serious intellectual ofhis theory. siderable research that has goneintotheconstruction For, in marked characcontrast to thepseudo-scientific, indeedantiscientific terof FACT's muckraking Goldwater's approachto assessing psychoin of intensive fitness Barber's book reflects the logical i964, manyyears of he has devotedto developing a rich and complextheory research thewaysin whichthepersonality itself ofpolitical leaderscan express in their political behavior. itis possible thatBarber's itslimitations Besides, theory, notwithstandhim-to make a prediction ing,enabledhim-or at leastencouraged in hisbookregarding if thelikelihood of a majorpoliticalcatastrophe Richard Nixon werereelected to whichmayturnout in somerespects be a correct prediction. Certainly theWatergate scandaland the other illegalactivities undertaken by members of theAdministration, which a political havecometo lightsinceMarch,i973, constitute catastrophe ofthefirst this magnitude. The question remains, however, whether was thekindofcatastrophe Barber and to predicted; additionally, whether whatextent in question theevents in terms can be explained ofNixon's in terms character; and,if so,whether of Barber's theory of character, somemodification of it, or some otherpersonality theory. These are to be difficult forqualified, likely questions objective psychohistorians to answer evenat somepointin thefuture, whenthecrisis engendered has runitscourseand thehistorical byWatergate recordis fuller and
7 "The Question of Presidential Reviewof the Society, LV (OcCharacter," Saturday toberi972), 62-66. In thisarticle, Senator McGovern is diagnosed as exemplifying one fourcharacter of Barber's types, the active-positive, whichpresents him in a favorable light;however, Barberalso notedpossiblelimitations in McGovern's performance if electedPresident.

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alsokeepin mindthatBarber's accessible.8 more We must prediction forNixonis an open-ended of a character-induced tragedy one,and in theremainder of thePresident's that it mayreceive confirmation term. second an exposition as coherent ofBarber's work toprovide I shall attempt andto strike a balanced If I focus on theweakas possible appraisal. totry nesses ofhistheory as I seethem, itis in order toshow howthis can be puton a moresolid, It kindof research cumulative footing. be saidat theoutset that thetask ofevaluating is must Barber's theory he haschosen rendered more difficult bythewayin which to present a broader it in this book.In order to reach theelection public during Barber decided to popularize thepresentation year, apparently of his bookisnotas tightly somewhat. In any the andcertheory case, argued documented as itwouldhavetobe in order tainly notas adequately to a specialized audience ofthemerits persuade professional ofhistheory. an effort to combine sensitive Rather, thebookreflects clinical-literary toward withstrong normative a rather insights impulses finding ima President-for handle-the ofselecting mediate process with dealing someofthedilemmas ofourera. understood and morefairly Barber's is better study judgedwhen in thecontext towhich viewed ofhisearlier he callstheattenwork, tionofthereader is among those scholars whohave (p. 455). Barber demonstrated that to absorb all political leaders intoa single attempts followed a misreading personality type-which from of HaroldLasswell'searlier and should be abandoned. writings-were unjustified In weshall TheLawmakers return (i965), towhich later, Barber skillfully differentiated a variety ofmotivational that leda diverse patterns group ofindividuals theConnecticut to enter state legislature. He identified four oflegislators-"Lawmaker," types "Spectator," "Advertiser," and "Reluctant"-and offered ofthewayin insightful speculative analyses whichthedistinctive associated personality configurations witheach affected their orientation to and activity in theroleof legislator. type This setofhypotheses, withimportant to be notedlater, adaptations was carried in Barber's overand applied workon presidential leader8 Speculation on thesematters in mid-July of I973, when I had an opportunity to thathad been written beforethe Watergate revisean earlierdraft scandalbegan to in Marchof I973, seemednot onlyhazardousand premature, unravel but also necesvalue to thosewho would read thisreviewsomesix or moremonths of limited sarily themanuscript I decidedto make no alterations in revising later.Accordingly, in the assessment of Barber's book whichmightbenefit substance of myearlier in some way to add a few observafromWatergate hindsight. However,I have permitted myself on the emerging tionsthathave come to mind since thenin reflecting Watergate scandals.

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in which a decade. The origins, ship, he hasbeenengaged foralmost and empirical-theoretical of Barber's development, foundations study inhisearlier ofpresidential character aremore amply reported publications; these should be consulted by readers who wishto understand andto evaluate, book better, baseon whichthepresent thescholarly rests. Thisisnottosaythat oftheory andmethodolthedifficult problems ogy, on which Barber hasrelatively little to sayin Presidential Character, havebeenadequately dealtwithin his earlier enpublications, abling himtomove easily and comfortably his to thetaskofmaking findings available fora moregeneral audience. Indeed, Presidential is entirely in acknowledging Character explicit uncertain thetentative, nature ofthetheory. Barber that theambitious taskhe has recognizes setforhimself carries withit a most and difficult setof recomplex Letus turn, tothewayin which quirements. he attempts therefore, to andmeet define these requirements. In keeping with theemphasis inmodern ofpersonality, Bartheories a narrow withunconscious beravoids needsand ego preoccupation andinstead fora broader defenses, opts viewofperego-psychological Barber indicates that In hisPreface, he haseschewed sonality. "psychoat thesymbolic analytic interpretations level"and has employed an that is "much approach closer tothepsychology ofadaptation" (p. vi). in terms He defines of three personality components: "character,"
"world All three view,"and "style." of these ofpersonality components -especially "world view" and "style"-highlight the developmental and adaptive ofpersonality. In addition, facets forBarber(and others), "character" provides at leasta link to,and a reflection of,unconscious needs, and psychodynamics. ego defenses, To employ variables forexplaining or predicting a Presipersonality dent's behavior political requires situational analysis-or,morespecifically,some way of analyzingor anticipating the complex,two-way interplay between personality and situational factors. Butsituational factors arenumerous affecting presidential performance and complex, and they includevariables as well as constants; so the taskof assessing the between interaction and situation personality cannotbe easilyaccomThe investigator mustassess not onlythewaysin whichsituaplished. tional factors constrain thebehavior of a President, butalso thewaysin whichthePresident's and behavior personality shapethesituation over time. Barber doesmakeat leastgeneral provision forsituational factors in histheoretical framework. He postulates thata President's personalwith (a) "thepowersituation" ityinteracts (i.e., "the support he has

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the andinterest theparty balance in Congress, from public the groups, ofSupreme Court thrust "the opinion" [p.8]), andalsowith climate (b) needs thrust ofexpectations" (i.e.,"the predominant up to himbythe forreassurance, a around needs suchas thedemand people," focusing andin,the oflegitimacy sense ofprogress andaction, anda sense from, Presidency [p. 9]). thisconceptualizaHowever andrichin itsimplications, suggestive tion ofsituational constraints on presidential performance is,as Barber ofrich for thekind recognizes (p. vii),only a starting point developing typology of thevariety of situations within whichpresidential pertakesplace.9 of bothpower formance the description And,indeed, in theindividual situation and climate of expectations is elaborated profiles ofthePresidents. and operationalizes The wayin whichBarber defines each of the The most three further. components ofpersonality must be discussed leader's which Barvisible ofa political is his"style," part personality berdefines as his "habitual roles: wayof performing three political andhomework" rhetoric, personal relations, (p. 7). A clearer explication facet in Barber's ofthis important ofpersonality isprovided earlier An individual's publications. is a creative style that adaptation emerges from a confluence in lateadolescence orearly adulthood ofhismotives the (orneeds), andcompetences) andthe resources (skills hepossesses, the situation opportunities offers unfolding him, somewhat fortuitously, to makesomething of himself, to findsomething that"works" for himself and infuses and a senseof competence. self-confidence The ofa style discovery theindividual provides witha wayofrelating seandproductively lectively to theenvironment in a manner that is expected to yield satisfaction. Thusunderstood, Barber's notion of style andhisrelated notion of"first independent political success" is reminiscent, as he hasnoted earlier,10 ofparts ofErikErikson's conception of identity crisis and of whatI havecalledtheprocess of defining, carving out,or discovering a sphere of competence forperformance as an adult. Barber's concept ofstyle provides a particularly useful wayofbridgingroleandpersonality variables instudying a leader's behavior in any One of thelimitations position. of traditional roletheory from this has beenthattypologies standpoint of roleorientations (and/or role
9WithWatergate I would emphasize hindsight, thispointeven more.Some aspects of Nixon's behavior which appear to have contributed substantially to the crisisof his Presidency occurred in situational contexts otherthanthosethatBarber singledout as beingmostgermane. 10Barber, "Classifying and Predicting Presidential Styles:Two 'Weak' Presidents," Journal of Social Issues,xxiv (Julyi968), 62, 78.

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definitions) havebeencouched with reference tothetasks orfunctions ofa particular position."1 or role Thusthevarious of functions, tasks, a President havebeentraditionally in terms described ofchief-of-state, commander-in-chief, party leader, forstudying etc.Muchmore useful theinteraction between androleis Barber's personality ingenious way ofidentifying of role functions inmore general terms, independentthe idiosyncratic features ofanyparticular position. role The three general demands orfunctions that Barber identifies-rhetoric business (words), in some (work),andpersonal as he notes, relations (people)-arise, wayin anypolitical position. Bydefining as thepersonality's of a characteristic style acquisition wayofutilizing to environforadapting words, work, and/or people mental demands and opportunities, Barber an incius with provides but flexible sive for the"fit" starting point between oneaspect assessing ofpersonality (i.e.,style) andthespecific roledemands ofa given position. Since different political positions different roledemands, generate itispossible for theinvestigator tonote whether a leader's which style, hasbeen highly inoneposition, adaptive is likely tobe equally adaptive -or perhaps evenmaladaptive-in a different position. Collective a theoretical biographical framework analyses employing arerare. Barber's trenchant analysis ofthestyles ofthe eleven Presidents discussed in hisbook(and,in an earlier essay,12 ofAndrew Johnson's muchto an understanding style)contributes of their different approaches to thePresidency and their in thatoffice. behavior Clearly, theanalysis of style is alsorelevant forassessing someaspects of the expected performance ofcandidates for thePresidency. A style suchas Lyndon B. Johnson's, which washighly adaptive to theroleofSenate Majority Leader andresulted in a brilliant performance byhimin that was predictably position, lesssuited to thedifferent roledemands of the Presidency. The resulting orlackoffit, strain, to account helps for serious in LBJ'sperformance deficiencies in thePresidency.13
"See, for example, the well-developed of the variousfunctions typologies in the roleof legislator, and thetypologies of thewaysin whicheach of thesefunctions can be defined bytherole-incumbent. J.Wahlkeand others, The Legislative System (New Yorki962). Whileuseful fora differentiated in role orientations studyof the variance adopted bylegislators, thesetypologies are notrelevant forstudy of therole definitions of other political nor do they positions; providea direct and useful way,as Barber's concept of style theinteraction does,forassessing between role and personality in theincumbent's performance in the legislature. 12 Barber, "AdultIdentity and Presidential Style:The Rhetorical Emphasis," Daeda-

18 This point is emphasized particularly by PhilipGeyelin, LBJand the World(New York i966); see also Nelson W. Polsby,Congress and the Presidency (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.I971), 33-4i, 64-66.

lus, xcvii (Summer i968), 938-68.

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and the an individual's lackoffit between The possible personality ofhisrolehaslongbeenrecognized demands as oneofthesources of ofstudy"role strain," butithasnotbeeneasy tofind satisfactory ways and ingit andassessing itsactual or expected impact on performance is therefore an outcomes.14 Barber's of style political conceptualization reimportant theoretical contribution. Eventhough thenotion ofstyle mains andundeveloped, eachofthethree modes of adaptative simple activity-toward words, work, and people-is capableof elaboration. for themoment, discussion oftheneedfora substantial (I shalldefer, elaboration ofBarber's ofstyle.) concept in Barber's "World view," another ofpersonality component theory, consists of theindividual's "primary, politically relevant beliefs, parandthecenhisconceptions ticularly ofsocial human causality, nature, to the tralmoral conflicts of thetime"(pp. 7-8).Worldviewrefers heldby fundamental andideological beliefs andpremises philosophical are leaders that their political behavior. Butonlya fewofthese shape listed andemployed byBarber. For Barber, it thecoreofpersonality liesin "character." He defines as "the waythePresident orients himself toward life-not forthemoin ment, butenduringly" (p. 8). Character has itsmaindevelopment in childhood in adolescence, (whereas worldviewemerges and style andremains "The stance early adulthood) relatively stable thereafter. toward life I callcharacter," Barber explains, "grows outofthechild's in relating to parents, brothers and sisters, and peersat experiments aswellas tohisownbody it" playandinschool, andtheobjects around of thethree (p. io). Further, components of personality, "character main the thrust provides andbroad direction-but itdoes not determine, in anyfixed sense, world viewand style" (p. II; Barber's emphasis). WhatBarber tobe saying-and appears certainly it is justified-is that one'scharacter willconstrain theworld viewand style he will adopt butthat there is still forvariation in theworldviewand later, room that willemerge as congruent style with a given type ofcharacter. Barber's an understanding theory of theinterplay requires between these three ofa leader's components personality inshaping hisbehavior. Although he emphasizes thisand disavows reductionist explanations in terms ofcharacter, thecoreofhistheory anditsusein explanation
14 Particularly usefulapproaches for conceptualizing the relationship betweenperand role are to be foundin Edwin J.Thomas,"Role Theory, sonality Personality, and the Individual," in E. R. Borgatta and W. Lambert, eds., Handbook of Personality Theoryand Research(New York i968); R. C. Hodgson and others, The Executive Role Constellation: An Analysisof Personality and Role Relationsin Management (Bostoni965).

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ofthemost ofpresidential andprediction important aspects performtotherole he attributes ancecomes torest uponthespecial significance ofthebook, at thebeginning "the ofcharacter. Thus, as he announces ofthe structure book)isthat core ofthe argument (which organizes the character Presidential . . . comes in four varieties. The most important he fits is where among thing toknowabout a President or candidate these types...." (p. 6). inBarber's stand theory, Theconcepts ofstyle andworld view, asthey ofchoice ofthepropensities provide only themost general indications an individual intodecision-making situations. It wouldbe parbrings ofstyle from this toenrich Barber's concept ticularly useful standpoint which itwiththose in cognitive psychology bylinking developments an information-processing viewpersonality as, amongother things, broader with the Itwould alsobeuseful toreplace "world view" system. of and of"belief maps politics concept system" (to include cognitive of enrichment codesas well as ideology). The resulting operational tounderBarber's theinvestigator wouldenable concept ofpersonality decisionmore ofa President's take refined andmore specific analyses behavior. making ofsituations A President's both hisdiagnosis belief influences system andthe A President's cognitive style, wayinwhich heresponds tothem. ontheother he attempts toprovide hand, influences thewayin which Decision forhis cognitive and emotional needsas a decision-maker. canbe stressful tonoting In addition how making in a variety ofways. a President theinvestigator willwant provides for hiscognitive needs, tonote needsgenerated howtheexecutive fortheemotional provides thewayin which byhisdecision-making activity. Bothwillinfluence he organizes analysis, and advice, and useschannels of information, andthe ofpersons satisfying cognitive andemokinds herelies upon for tional is particularly germane for needs. The concept ofcognitive style in theperformance of understanding theroleofpersonality variables Presidents It is byemploying the and,indeed, ofexecutives generally. ofcognitive within theframework of concept style, and byworking the that theinvestiparticular cognitive style displayed bythesubject, canidentify among thepsychodynamic gator andassess theinteraction coping resources available to patterns, ego defenses, and constructive theindividual. withthevariable of cognitive willfacilitate theimstyle Working ofmoving qua individual portant task from thestudy oftheexecutive toa study in small-group conofhisinteractions with other individuals andwithrepresentatives organization overwhich texts, of thelarger

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In themost hepresides. a President's general sense, cognitive constyle thenature ofhisparticipation in small-group strains with others decisionmaking to theorganizational andshapes hisorientation processes of search, evaluation, and choice, ofbureauand to thephenomenon cratic within Use oftheconcept politics theorganization. ofcognitive style willfacilitate to many whatHaroldLasswell referred years ago as "impact analysis"-the ofstudying thekinds ofmenwith technique whom a leader surrounds himself andtheways inwhich serve his they various needs.15 In sum, both belief andcognitive areaspects system ofpersonalstyle itythatplayan important role in determining in the performance Presidency. Thesevariables and their arenotignored in the influence biographical ofPresidents profiles that comprise thebulkof Barber's book,butthey aredealtwithin an impressionistic and fragmentary way. is no explicit Moreover, there for provision with suchimdealing portant in Barber's personality variables framework. His conceptualizationofpersonality, in terms therefore, of character, worldview,and remains style, The emphasis on "character" incomplete. in his theory doesnotmake up for theneglect ofbelief under "world system view" andtheadditional ofcognitive inhisotherwise neglect style admirable andhighly notion useful of"style." Instead ofamplifying andelaboratinghisconcept inthese directions, however, Barber several began years ago toshift from hisearlier on style emphasis to stress on theimportance ofcharacter as a basis for explaining andpredicting Presidential In shifting from tocharacter, emphasis style Barber doesnothavethe ofinheriting advantage from thework ofpersonality theorists a firm, well-established on character. handle The concept is notat all welldefined or consistently defined within therealmof personality theory.
15 Harold D. Lasswell, Powerand Personality (New York I948), ioi-4. The adverse impactsmall-group dynamics can have on politicaldecisionmakingis intensively exploredby IrvingL. Janis, Victims of Groupthink (BostonI972). 16The shift of emphasis from styleto character can be seen by comparing the two articles Barber published in i968 (bothofwhichfocus on style withhardly anymention of character) withhis paper,"The President and His Friends," given at the annual of the American meeting PoliticalScienceAssociation in New York, September i969, in whichtheimportance of character beginsto be stressed. A further shift in emphasis fromstyleto character-andthe conversion of his earliertypology of styleinto the present one of character-took place duringthe revision of thisAPSA paper,forsubsequentpublication undera new title,"The Interplay of Presidential Character and Style:A Paradigmand Five Illustrations," in Fred I. Greenstein and MichaelLerner, eds.,A SourceBook fortheStudyof Personality and Politics(Chicago I971), 384-408. See also Barber's"Some Consequences of Pluralization in Politics," in Harvey S. Perloff, ed., The Future of the UnitedStates Government: Toward the Year 2000 (New York I971).

performance."

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of or core component Althoughintended to refer to a fundamental and means personality, theterm "character" inpractice is appliedloosely manydifferent things. influenced thatthoughapparently It is not surprising, therefore, by avoidsleaningtooheavily KarenHorney's writings in particular, Barber he formucharacter theories.1" or explicitly on anyoftheextant Rather, thatis ostensibly of character latesan eclectic conceptualization quite forfourcharacter parsimonious. Barberchoosesto settle typesof his and own whichhe evolves fromtwo dimensions-"activity-passivity" These two dimensions "positive-negative affect towardone's activity." to as variables or "baselines")refer to how (whichhe sometimes refers in hisactivity and how he feelsabout invests muchenergy an individual laterto someof theambiguity and whathe does (p. ii). I shallreturn withthe two dimensions. difficulties associated other of character that his conceptualization Barber defends by asserting and commonto mosttheories his twodimensions tap whatis essential nor in his earlier in Presidential Character Butneither ofpersonality.'8 aregrounded doeshe attempt to showhow histwodimensions writings on personality." it is verymuch in thespecialized literature Moreover, the Barberhas modified to thepointthatas his workhas progressed, ofone of his two dimensions,20 and also has movedfroman definition
17 One can sympathize drawninto the quagmire withhis desireto avoid becoming theories Barberis not thefirst of competing of character. and unsatisfactory (nor will to discover he be the last) politicalscientist that the task of borrowing responsibly cannotbe discharged to find from theneighboring fieldof psychology by attempting book or article written a single, authoritative that neatly packaged, by a psychologist tellsyou all youneed to know abouttheproblem. in psychoanalytic For a review of developments of character, conceptions see chap. 2 of ErnstPrelinger and Carl N. Zimet,An Ego-Psychological Approach to Character Assessment (New York i964). 18 "Why we expect to outlinethemain character thesetwosimpledimensions might standfortwo central features Becausethey of anyone's types? orientation towardlife. In nearly of personality, someform of theactive-passive every study contrast is critical; in suchconcepts to act or be actedupon is evident thegeneral as dominancetendency ensubmission, extraversion-introversion, aggression-timidity, attack-defense, fight-flight, gagement-withdrawal, approach-avoidance" (p. i2). 19The brief A of The Lawmakers(New Haven and Lonstatement in Appendix don i965) was cautious, carefully qualified, and, it mustbe said, onlya small stepin thatone can find"somereflections, thisdirection. In it, Barbersuggested some comin the accounts to his own types mon themes" similar of those"who have observed He referred the readerto specific humans actingin similarcircumstances." portions studies where"relevant evidence or theory" of somethirty could be found.However, of spacedid not permit Barberto quote,summarize, or analyzethesemalimitations thusthereaderwas leftto pursuethematter forhimself. terials; 20 The second affect dimension towardone's activity") ("positive-negative constitutes of whatBarber a significant reformulation called "commitment to theoffice" (or "willto return")in The Lawmakers, ingness ibid., I8, 2I2. This reformulation and reconof the seconddimension, as Fred Greenstein ceptualization suggests[personalcomin orderto accommodate was apparently munication], necessary to the factthatthe

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modest ofthetwodimensions initially in TheLawmakers employment fordescribing thephenomenological of behavior merely to the layer present, muchmoreambitious use of themfortapping underlying ofcharacter. facets In Presidential Barber that histwodimenCharacter, acknowledges sions "arecrude cluesto character." he asserts that Nonetheless, "they areleads into four basic character inpsychological familiar patterns long research" (p. 12). Notonly doesthestatement lackdocumentation; no effort is madeto argue that ofthecharacter in thefamiliarity patterns theliterature for vouchsafes their andtheusetowhich validity he will putthem. andcombining Bycrossing thetwodichotomous Barber dimensions, obtains four character types: theactive-positive, theactive-negative, the and the passive-negative. passive-positive, At first glance,therefore, whatever elsemaybe saidabout itssimplicity, this four-fold character typology seems atleast tobe derived quitesystematically from thetwo explicit dimensions. thefourtypes But,in fact, are muchricher in content and farmorecomplex thanthiswouldindicate. For,as the reader quickly finds out, toeachofthe four character-type labels Barber addsa great dealofadditional personality theory that goeswellbeyond theinitial totheactive-passive andthe meanings given positive-negative dimensions. He inserts a distinctive psychodynamic anddevelopmental pattern intohisdescription ofeachcharacter type. Thus,briefly paraand quoting from phrasing pp. I2-I3, theresults are as follows: The "active-positive" character is "adaptive." He displays a congruencebetweenmuch of his activity and the enjoyment of it, thereby "indicating relatively high self-esteem and relative success in relating to theenvironment." He shows"an orientation toward as a value and an ability productiveness to use his styles flexibly, adaptively.... He seeshimself as developing overtimerelatively well defined personalgoals,"and emphasizes "rationalmastery." The "active-negative" is "compulsive." character He experiences a "contradiction ... between relatively intense effort and relatively low emotional rewardfor thateffort." His activity has a "compulsive,"compensatory character;"he seems ambitious, striving upward, he has a power-seeking ... persistent problem in managing his aggressive His self-image feelings. is vague and discontinuous ... .'

vicissitudes ofpresidential recruitment arelikely to screen outthose whoutterly reject thepresidential role.

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The "passive-positive" is "compliant." He is "recepcharacter for tive"and "other-directed," a personality "whoselifeis a search affection as a rewardforbeing agreeableand cooperative rather He experiences than personally assertive." a "contradiction . . . betweenlow self-esteem (on groundsof being unlovable,unatand a superficial tractive) optimism." The "passive-negative" character is "withdrawn." He is oriented "toward doingdutiful service; thiscompensates forlow self-esteem basedon a senseof uselessness." His tendency is "to withdraw, to escapefrom theconflict and uncertainty ofpolitics by emphasizing vagueprinciples (especially and procedural prohibitions) arrangements...." Giventherichness and implications ofthesecharacter we shall types, in mind want to keep the problems of constructing such typologies and theproblems of usingthemforpurposes of explanation and predictionof presidential performance. III of the expected Prediction of a candidatewho exemperformance plifies one of thesecharacter theinvestigator types requires to envisage how thecandidate would interact withthe majorrole demandsof the in turn, as these, are shapedby theconstraints Presidency of the many situational he can be expected in thatposiconfigurations to encounter tion.How, then,does Barberarriveat and justify his judgments regarding theexpected of facets performance of the presidential role by thefourdifferent character types?He adoptsan inductive procedure of somewhat The reviewer complexproportions. mustproceedwith caution in attempting to graspBarber's research strategy and to reconstruct theoften implicit logic of inquiry imbeddedin the study. The inductive ofhisprocedure in first component consists explaining someimportant of theperformance aspects of pastPresidents in terms oftheir character and thenextrapolating types, from theresults ofthese historical somegeneral explanations hypotheses to theeffect thatcandidateswithsimilarcharacter typescan be expectedto perform those oftherolesimilarly, at leastin a general aspects way,undercomparable circumstances. From thisinductive procedure emergegeneralpredictions foreach of his fourcharacter types.
21 Post-Watergate hindsight makesmore noticeable the importance of old-fashioned moralcharacter of incorporating and thedifficulty thisconcept intocharacter typologies suchas Barber's.

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Thus, the active-positives (FDR, Truman,Kennedy) "displaypersonal strengths speciallyattunedto the Presidency, which strengths enabledthemto make of thatoffice an engineof progress" (p. 2IO). the virtues of the active-positive While emphasizing typein general, Barberdoes notein passingcertain dangersor risksforthistype.AlthoughBarberevidently does not considerthe risksassociated with active-positive Presidents to be equal to thoseto whichactive-negative to characters areprone, thehistorical examplehe citesof FDR's effort pack the SupremeCourtis hardlyreassuring in thisrespect. Indeed, commenting on this event,Barberobserves that active-positives, "in their hasteto make things happen,may too quicklyand easilyknock that holdthedemocratic order in place" (p. 246). downthe'formalities' The active-negatives (Wilson, Hoover,LBJ) have character-rooted needsthat"invadeand dominate, to an unusualdegree, their political in a habitsand perceptions" (p. I40). They tendto "persevere rigidly disastrous policy"(p. 95). Passive-negatives (Coolidge, Eisenhower)"pose a different danger ... thedangerof drift"(p. I45). They leave "vacantthe energizing, of therole" (p. I73). Yet in certain initiating, stimulating possibilities this type can provide a needed "breathing circumstances historical spell"forrecovery after a periodof frantic politics(p. i45). "rePassive-positives (Taft,Harding) are,like thepassive-negatives, or pushers . . ." (p. i74). Yet, "fora people in notinitiators sponders, searchof community, theyprovidea refreshing and at hopefulness leastsomesenseof sharing and caring"(p. 206). and issuesraisedby Barber's We now turnto someof theproblems inductive research strategy, not all of which I can assesswith confidence.In orderto discussthesematters in the necessary detail,I will on onlyone ofBarber's fourtypes, focus theactive-negative, and forego attention to theinteresting on theotherthree. chapters he presents
A. USING THE CHARACTER TYPOLOGY FOR DIAGNOSING PRESIDENTS

the inductiveproceduredepends, among other Quite obviously, of thediagnosis on thecorrectness of each President's character. things, SomeofBarber's seemmoreaptthanothers. Thereareseveral diagnoses forthis.While thefourtypes reasons are sharply drawn at the outset and are stated as if they were mutually exclusive, in factevery person is,as Barber some mixture of all four. This complicates recognizes, the task of using the typology to diagnosea President and leads Barber to look forthe dominant type-tendency displayed by each. Even that

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to establish to thisproblem is difficult on occasion. (We shallreturn from thefactthatthe later.)Stillanother of difficulty stems source dataavailable andquality. historical for in quantity thediagnoses vary tome that It appears on occasion theavailable Barber data interprets rather to reach Moreto thepoint, heavily someofhisdiagnoses. the diagnostic is notoperationalized to theextent that procedure it is obin all respects jective enough to offer thatacceptable assurance levels to speakof validity-can of reliability-not in be achieved scoring judgments. (Scholars specializing ononeoranother ofthese Presidents may with ofthat disagree Barber's character diagnosis individual.) Some orattributes ofeachcharacter aremore components type easily applied thanothers. It must be remembered in thisconnection that Barber's is very it dealsnot conceptualization of character complex; merely withsurface manifestations and positiveof activity-passivity negative affect, butalsowith basic underlying psychodynamic patterns, andpersonality self-esteem, needs for and so power, affection, respect, forth. The twodimensions areeasiest touseforpurposes ofdiagnosis since they tapthesurface orphenomenological ofbehavior. layer The dataarenot as always goodfor lending strong toBarber's addisupport tional contention that a President who is,forexample, an active-posiora passive-negative tive onthe alsodisplays surface the psychodynamic etc.said to be associated patterns, needs, withthattypein Barber's character theory. Barber's ofpastPresidents diagnoses mayhelpto establish thevalidofeachofhischaracter ity types. Whatisparticularly inneedofvalidation is thecritical in eachofBarber's premise that character types the various features tothat attributed type do indeed go together, andonly with eachother. Each ofhistypes is presented as a highly distinctive or cluster of characteristics. composite The theoretical and empirical basis for this important assumption remains obscure, notwithstanding Barber's assurance thathis fourcharacter patterns havebeen "long
familiar in psychological research" (p.

taskof diagnosing thePresidents, therefore, thereader who is concerned about thevalidity ofthecharacter typology is interested to see whether Barber willbe abletoshowthat all components ofa character type areclearly present in the biography ofeachPresident diagnosed as exemplifying that type. Indeed, one mayspeculate thatBarber found himself under somepressure to find suchevidence. If eachPresident clearly displayed all of thebehavioral components of one type or anthen thehistorical other, profiles of thePresidents will serve to test

I2).

When Barberturnsto the

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thevalidity ofBarber's ifnot, theentire andsupport type constructs;22 willneedto be modified or discarded.23 typology
B. EXPLAINING A PRESIDENT S ACTIONS IN TERMS OF HIS CHARACTER

of The inductive is also sensitive, in the study strategy employed course, to Barber's of a President's acefforts to explain various facets interms tions ofpersonality orcharacter The methodological variables.
22 Before we can attribute of some kind to the case studiesof a validating function the Presidents, themselves we have to consider constructs whether the character-type have been formulated fromthe in part via induction of findings and incorporation case studies. Thus, if some of the postulated of a generalcharacter psychodynamics of circularity typeare drawnfromthe historical case studies, an element may be involved.To theextent are extracted fromthecase studies, thatthetype constructs partly theycannotbe assessed and validated by thosecase studies. Admittedly, exploratory research and circularity the are oftenhard to distinguish; issue is of secondary importance for the development and statement of a theory as against itstesting. is nottoo clearin indicating how he arrived Barber at thecomposite of characteristics he imputes to each type.That the case studiesare part of the empiricalmaterial from whichthetheory is derived is suggested by some of thelanguage Barberemploys in summarizing and drawingtogether "the main character themes emerging fromthesethreecases" (Wilson,Hoover,and Johnson). He notesthatthe "active"and "negative" variablesthat definethis typewere "relatively accessible to even thecasual observer" on thesethreePresidents. of thebiographical materials ConBarberthenmakesa statement tinuing, the skeletal whichsuggests thathe enriched via thecase studies active-negative category of thethree "Whatmakesthese Presidents: simpledimensions is theirpower in highlighting interesting beyondmeredescription a wholerangeof personality qualitieswhichemergefromthe case studiesand which explainwhy we findin the Presidency men who striveso mightily and enjoy it so little"(p. 95; emphasis added). 23Sometimes the validity of the fourcharacter in Barber's typesis boldlyasserted biographical profiles of the Presidents. Thus, for example,Harding is said clearlyto display"thetypical passive-positive theme:the hungerforlove,the impelling need to confirm one's lovableness"(p. i99; emphasisadded). As for Coolidge and Eisenhower,"Both sharedwith otherpassive-negative people in politicsa propensity for withdrawal . . ." (p. I72; emphasis of such language added). The clear implication is thata much largernumberof politicalleadershave been studiedfromthe same and that the resultshave confirmed characterological perspective the clustering of characteristics undereach of Barber'stypes. For this,however, no documentation is providedin Presidential Character. (On the otherhand, perhapssuch a "claim" is not intended and the statement shouldbe regarded as a rhetorical merely embellishmentof thedescriptions of the Presidents.) Nor can one findadequatedocumentation in Barber's earlier book,The Lawmakers. That study contained fewreferences to characterper se; but some of the distinctive personality characteristics Barberinferred as withhis fourlegislative beingassociated types("Lawmakers," "Advertisers," "Spectators" and "Reluctants") do indeedbeara closeresemblance to thecharacteristics he now to his fourcharacter imputes types. It shouldbe noted,however, thatthe personality characteristics associatedwith his legislative typeswere impressionistically derived, beingsuggested by Barber's observations of Connecticut legislators. Indeed,withexemplaryrigorand explicit Barber caution, notedthatthehypotheses he advancedin The Lawmakerswere "speculative not verified generalizations, results," and discussedin detail the methodological of his study(pp. 27I, i6). Since the hypotheses problems advancedin The Lawmakers were evidently not subsequently assessedsystematically againsta new body of data, the earlierstudyoffers usefulimpressionistic supportat best; it does not containrigorous empirical evidenceon behalfof the validity of the fourcharacter advancedin his latestwork. types

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It is notdifficult tofind evidence insuch is acute. problem explanations of or other needsor motives, character-rooted thata subject's aspects in a particular in hisbehavior situation. hispersonality, areexpressed condition forestablishing is a necessary butinsufficient Suchevidence of those in the exfactors causalimportance thecritical personality ofthat behavior. The fact thatan individual strives foror planation or motives in hisperformance ofpersonal needs achieves gratification roledoesnotautomatically bestow decisive causalimporofa political in executive to this Performance tance variable. suchas the positions is sensitive to a variety Facedwiththeplay ofconstraints. Presidency causalvariables, theinvestigator is ofmultiple, complexly interacting in tohave the ofany bound great factor. difficulty assessing weight given and often Muchbehavior the mostthatcan be is over-determined, saidis that needsor other characteristics personality personality were the factors. Whenthebehavior oftheexecuamong many contributing roleofpersonality is subject to cross-pressures, thecritical tive factors in hisdecisions butevenin suchsituations more mayemerge clearly; causal ordecisiveness ofthepersonality factor be low.24 the weight may ofthemany An understanding the and facets, complexities, theapof an individual's inconsistencies parent the personality (not merely ofthetype he most dominant anda familpatterns closely resembles), in a variety of pastsituations is necessary in with hisbehavior iarity order tomakemore of and discriminating explanations pastbehavior ofprediction. thetreacherous todealwith Of considerable improblem inthis is thestrength andoperation oftheindividual's portance respect andregulate to control theexpression egocontrols-that is,hisability in and of personal needs, anxieties, defenses orderto prevent them to appraise from his effort situations distorting realistically and deal The effectiveness of ego controls withthem is not to be effectively. in denying at all to personal gauged bysuccess anyexpression needs in one'spolitical This wouldbe impossible in anycase. functioning. thatarewell developed include thecapacity Rather, egocontrols for in more constructive directions theexpression ofone'sperharnessing in political behavior.25 sonal needs
of the conditions 24For a systematic discussion under which personalvariability in a given role,see Fred I. Greenstein, actorsmay affect behavior amongdifferent and Politics: Problems and Conceptualization Personality of Evidence, Inference, (Chidiscussion of the circumstances cago i969), 46-57.See also Greenstein's underwhich needsare likelyto manifest in an actor'spoliticalbehavior, ego-defensive themselves ibid.,57-6i. 25 Duringthecourse of an individual's maturation and development, he developsa of constructive in additionto his ego defenses. variety ego strategies As Brewster and RobertWhite noted many yearsago, the earlypsychoSmith, Jerome Bruner,

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Thus,personal motives and needsaroused situation by a particular toperceive theopportunities may serve toalert theindividual presented ofgratifying these bythat situation. The possibility needs personal may theindividual to meetdifficult role and situaalsohelpto energize As a result, tional requirements. factors and personality mayfacilitate At thesametime, an inof rolerequirements. improve performance be strong tocurb theexpression dividual's of egocontrols may enough personal needs unless thebehavior that wouldgratify them is alsoreand theroledemands. In other quired bythesituation an inwords, needs dividual's toeffective personality maybe subjected reality-testing anddisciplined ofroleandsituational byawareness requirements before inhisperformance. areallowed canbe said they expression Personality tohavea dysfunctional, effect on theindividual's adverse performance there is reason tobelieve it has led himto a distorted only when that orinadequate ofroleand situational or to a perception requirements, ofinferior ofmeeting them.26 choice ways of making Giventhedifficulties of complex thetype historical exthat Barber itwouldnotbe reasonable to holdup planation attempts, in evaluating ofhisexplanaunusually theplausibility highstandards ofthem areindeed as wellas insightful. tions. I would Many plausible others without in therelehavedifficulty assessing immersing myself historical vant butvast materials oneachofthePresidents. Nonetheless, even a sympathetic andreasonably careful ofthe historical reading chapleft ters me withtheimpression thatBarber's aresomeexplanations times strained in thedirection andbent ofhistheory. Alternative exaccountof ego defense analytic mechanisms "failedto mentionthe tremendous imof constructive portance strategies [employed by 'normalindividuals']as a means of thatmake crippling defenses avoidingthe vicissitudes . . . [They] often necessary. that might disruptthem or, more positively, preventthingsfromoccurring they in such a way [so as to] operateeffectively. Opinions ... plan events and Personality (New York I956) 283; see also 22. 26We should also take note of complicating factors:(i) the role and situational on a political thatimpinge actormay containconflicting requirements or ambiguous for him to exerciseeffective elements thatmake it more difficult controland conof his personality structive role may itselfinregulation needs; (2) the politician's which activatepersonality clude aberrant requirements motivesand needs that are In other as WillardGaylin, ordinarily keptundercontrol. words, M.D., has emphasized, and what it takesto be successful the natureof politics in politics-as in businessand paranoidpersonality may attract sociopathic to be ruthless, types:"The capacity if also combined and immoral, with intelligence and imagination, driving can be a in politics as well as commerce.. . . Sociopathic winningcombination and paranoid thatare mostdangerous traits in people of powerare precisely personality thosecharforthe attainment mostsuitable acteristics of powerin a competitive culture such as ours.""What'sNormal?", New York TimesMagazine,AprilI, I973.

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for a given behavior arenotalways planations oradequately recognized discussed. Barber's him-andthrough himthereaderindeed sensitizes theory toseeunexpected itself facets ofthewayinwhich personality expresses in political and richly behavior. Thatis fascinating so far rewarding as itgoes. But, causalvariables, faced with theplayofmultiple Barber tends togive greater tothepersonality faced weight with variable; and, ofthree the choice components ofhispersonality heisquicker construct, to attribute to the impact critical of a President's events character tothat than that ofhisworld view.For example, one might suppose itwasHoover's deeply ingrained political ofindividualism philosophy in thewayofhisaccepting stood that thenovelideaof a federal dole as a response For Barber, to unemployment. Hoover's however, continued tothepublic in terms opposition doleis clearly tobe explained ofhischaracter-i.e., thepeculiar psychodynamics of "rigidification" that the active-negative isdisposed istriggered towhen ego-involvement byopposition and criticism. thekeyto Johnson's Similarly, of policy escalation and his persistence in thatpolicy against North Vietnam despite rising costs andpublic criticism is all tooclearly and decisively attributed byBarber to Johnson's character rather thanto world view, domestic or other politics, factors. Barber is fully Thus, although aware ofandwarns thekind against ofpsychological reductionism that haslongplagued psychobiography, the ofthe difficulty task himinjeopardy places ofcommitting this cardinal sinhimself. At thesametime, it is only fair to recognize that the requirements ofhisinductive strategy pushBarber intoattempting an unusually large number of difficult historical explanations within the spanof a single book.It has simply notbeenpossible, as Barber acinhisPreface, knowledges for oneinvestigator todischarge so heavy a burden ofscholarship.
C. VALIDATING THE HYPOTHESIS OF THE "TRAGEDY-PRONE" ACTIVE-NEGATIVE CHARACTER

Letus takea closer looknowat Barber's explanatory thesis thatall three active-negative Presidents (Wilson, Hoover, LBJ) suffered political that in their "tragedies" were"rooted" distinctive type of charwhich acter, pressed eachofthem to "persevere rigidly in a disastrous policy" (p. 95; similar formulations elsewhere). This explanation is toBarber's crucial inductive strategy. Fromithe concludes that activenegatives areparticularly disposed to disastrous performance ifelected tothePresidency.

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it is theinteraction of personality withsituational As I notedearlier, For the active-negative thatshapespresidential variables performance. factor thatcreates thepossibility of a catastrophic thesituational type, ofpolitical has to do withthespecialnature performance powerin our ofpresidential government. Richard Neustadt's Recalling analysis power as beinghighly Barbersees dependent upon thepowerto persuade, in adjusting to the active-negative typeas havingparticular difficulty in thissituational therequirements constraint. He observes at implicit of Chapter2, "Three Tragic Tales," thatit is about "three the outset Presidents who seemto have forgotten thatpowermeanspersuasion." Barber states the inductive he has drawn Continuing, generalization fromhis threecase studies:"Different as theywere in otherways, WoodrowWilson,Herbert came to Hoover,and LyndonB. Johnson a common a process Presidencies sharein their pattern: ofrigidification, from to narrowinsistence on a failing a movement politicaldexterity course of actiondespite abundant evidence of thefailure. Each ofthese and in the courseof doing that, threehelpedarrange his own defeat, leftthe nationworseoffthan it mighthave been" (p. i8; emphasis added). to an evaluation Three questions are relevant of thisinductive generalization. (i) Are the tragedies comparable enoughto support the critical Is the role which Barber chargeneralization? (2) assignsto acter in his explanation of each tragedyadequatelydemonstrated? psychodynamic underlie pattern ("rigidification") (3) Does a similar each man's behavior duringthe eventsleadingto his disaster? to completely The threetragedies refer different kinds of political events:Wilson's failureto get Senate ratification of the League of of the public'sconfidence Nations; Hoover'sdissipation in him, as a resultof whichhe failedin his bid forreelection in I932; Johnson's increasingly costlyand unpopularVietnampolicy,which led to his notto standforreelection. decision What is critical forevaluating Barber'sgeneralization is whether thestructure ofthesituation in each of thesethreetragicepisodesbrought to the forethatpeculiarproblem ofpresidential powerdescribed byNeustadt which,as we noted, Barber critical in explaining considers and predicting tragedies foractive-negaA situational tivePresidents. constraint of thiskindwas certainly presentin Wilson'stragedy; indeed,it playsa veryvisibleand important role in descriptions and explanations of Wilson's astonishingly inept of theSenate.Wilson'saggressive handling in thatstrugstubbornness withreference gle can be plausibly to latent explained psychodynamic in hispersonality imbedded patterns whichwereactivated bythissitua-

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on several had beenactivated Barber failsto recall, tion(and which, in similarly occasions structured earlier situations). foractive-negative Sincethekindof tragedy predicted by Barber of between coreelements Presidents canoccur via an interaction only and a particular kindof situational contheactive-negative character ofthesituaan equally ofthestructure figuration, careful delineation in order to tionthat faced wouldbe necessary Hooverand Johnson judgewhether thetragedies they suffered have explanations similar factoWilson's. Barber's descriptions ofthesituational configurations ingHoover and Johnson areinadequate in thisrespect; do not they himto display enable thattheir withequal visibility or plausibility character between and situatragedies developed outofan interaction tobring into theLeagueofNations Wilson's effort theUnited States waswidely acknowledged tobe a worthwhile goal and enjoyed more tobring than sufficient support both intheSenate andinthecountry it tofruition. that hisownbeWilson's tragedy developed from thefact havior wasinstrumental inpreventing andexpected realitheimminent zation ofthis goal.Barber fails tonote that, ofthethree Presidents, only Wilson snatched defeat from the Thenature ofHoover's jawsofvictory. is muchmorediffuse. Barber seems to define of tragedy it in terms Hoover's a publicdole fortheunemrefusal to authorize prolonged which ledto a lossofpublic confiployed bytheFederal Government, andHoover's dence defeat in theelection of I932. Indeed, thetragedy for thepublic layin theprolongation ofthemisery oftheunemployed occasioned attitude a public dole.It is notwholly byHoover's towards ofBarber's as some formulations toregard Hoover's satisfactory, imply, in I932 as thechief defeat of Hoover's component personal tragedy, inreelection since heseems been nottohave much interested until after hispolicies andleadership cameunder strong attack. The personal side inthe ofthe fact a sincere tragedy surely laymore that Hoover, humanito thecontinued tarian, nonetheless contributed misery of theunemto thepublic dole. ployed byhisopposition continued Barber's thesis is thatHoover's to thedole is opposition to whichactiveexplained bythepeculiar psychological rigidification negative persons are subject whenthey perceive political opposition as posing totheir andrectitude. fundamental threats Thisinterpower ifBarber would be more pretation plausible gaveevidence that he had and found considered alternative reason to reject explanations them. Hoover stubborn on the of a was matter public Certainly dole,buthe itfrom tohavestrongly thebeginning-before appears opposed attacks
tion.

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to his powerand rectitude-because on hispolicies posedthreats he found theideapeculiarly antithetical to hispolitical One philosophy. so important might a rolein consider, therefore, whythedoleplayed Hoover's and whatit had cometo symbolize personal ideology, for himin terms ofhisownpersonal This is merely a redevelopment. minder that ofpersonality involvements many different kinds maylie attheroot ofstrongly-held It behooves theinvestigapolitical opinions. torto consider alternative and to give psychological interpretations evidence thathe has resisted the temptation to impose his favored psychological on thedatasimply theory itprovides a plausible because interpretation. Barber's interpretation ofHoover's character-induced would tragedy alsogainin plausibility ifhe hadgiven evidence ofhaving considered a purely cognitive of it in terms explanation of worldviewand had found itunsatisfactory. Here(and elsewhere in hisstudy) Barber fails tocome togrips with a major theoretical andmethodological problem that is central tohistheory. "Stubborn" behavior at themanifest level canhavedifferent causes. underlying Thus,theunderlying dynamics ofWilson's in thefight stubbornness overtheLeagueappear to me to be quitedifferent from in thematter Hoover's of thepublicdole. There isstrong evidence ofan ego-defensive, aggressive psychodynamic in Wilson's pattern stubbornness vis-a-vis his Senateopponents over the formin whichtheirreservations aboutthe League Covenant should be expressed. In Hoover's case, thematerials reported byBarber the suggest ofa strong possibility cognitive basis for Hoover's opposition tothedole, in hispolitical rooted philosophy. Moreover, Barber recognizes(pp.28-29) that from the ofthedepression beginning Hoover did everything he couldto encourage relief fortheunemployed through private andvoluntary channels; and, while opposing a public dolefrom he stated Washington, than more oncethat ifthedaycame when voluntary agencies were unable to find resources toprevent hunger andsufhe wouldemploy fering, federal resources. Indeed, however belatedly,
he did movein thisdirection in thesummer of I932. Barber reports this (p. 30), but failsto note thatHoover'spolicyreversal would seem to contradict thethesis thathe was in thegripof a characterological rigidification.27

27 Thereis ampleevidence thatcognitive dissonance mechanisms distorted Hoover's perception of reality thescopeand depthof the suffering vis-a-vis of the unemployed. Arthur notesstriking Schlesinger, Jr., examplesof Hoover's tendency to downgrade and dismiss ofsuffering reports and malnutrition, and to favor moreoptimistic reports. He also notesthat"thestrain of maintaining his principles in thefaceof the accumuof humanneed doubtless latingevidence led bothto anxiety and to self-righteousness."

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whenhe A similar reversal tookplace in LBJ'sVietnam policy policy and thensuspended de-escalated the bombingof North Vietnamin
i968. This, too, isnoted byBarber (pp.4I-42),

thatit also apparently contradicts his thesisregarding rigidification. Nor does Barbertake into accountthat,in contrast to Hoover and coursein his battlewith the Senate; Johnson, Wilsondid not reverse ratherthan accept relatively that would insignificant compromises of have assured the passage treaty, Wilson acceptedits defeat. In thisand other Barber's ofthe"tragic tales"ofthe respects, analysis three active-negative Presidents is marred by a tendency to focuson the similarities and to ignoreor downplaythe significance of the differences.In his searchforgeneralization, Barberappearsto have taken an essentially forWilson'stragedy correct explanation and imposedit, for Hoover's with much less evidencethatit fits, as an explanation and Johnson's tragedies.28 Barberfailsto mention the wellCuriously, knownand well-documented factthatthe League tragedy was strikinglyforeshadowed by Wilson's difficulties of Princeton as President of and as Governor of New Jersey.29 The repetitive University pattern behaviorin his careerprovidesstrongsupportfor the self-defeating of Wilson. Noteworthy is the factthatsuch repetitive interpretation
The Crisis A. M. Schlesinger, Jr., ofthe Old Order(BostonI957), 241-43. But cognitive other than the type of characterological occursin many circumstances dissonance an acute conflict at rigidification postulated by Barber.Hoover evidently experienced levelbetween his humanitarian valuesand his political which thecognitive philosophy, One cannotexclude, of course, he resolved in favorof the latter. thatthe conflict exlevelwas reinforced needsand anxieties. at thecognitive But perienced by personality nature theprecise of thispersonality involvement another matis, as I have suggested, ter. of personality As thisdiscussion students need to developbetter implies, ways of between and differentiating of behavior in terms of cognidistinguishing explanations in terms of psychodynamic tivevariables and explanations aroused patterns by thesituahas frequently been called to thedangerof confounding tion.In recent yearsattention In addition these variables. to theneed forfinding twoexplanatory indicators thatwill enabletheinvestigator to discriminate betweenthe two,ways mustbe foundto inbetween and psychodynamic therelationship vestigate cognitive variables. 28 Thus,Barber concludes thechapter "ThreeTragicTales" witha generalobservaintotheexplanation of Wilson'stragedy tionthatfits but not intothatof Hoover and of the way in whichthe process of rigidification Johnson. Speaking leavesthe activePresident locked in mortalcombatwith an opponentwho personifies negative a feltat thepersonal threat level,Barberstatesthatforthe beleaguered President "suris suicide, an admission of guiltand weakness. render Having invested all his moral capitalin the cause,he will-he must-plungeon to the end" (p. 57). Since such a wouldbe falsified prediction by theHooverand Johnson policyreversals, questions are the adequacyof Barber's raisedregarding characterological theory whichimpliesthat President an active-negative loses the possibility of controlling or cuttingshortthe of rigidification once it has started. process 29 Rather, he triesto explainwhy the characterological propensities to rigidification in Wilson's(as well as Hoover'sand Johnson's) earlier werenotevident careers (p. 99).

butwithout recognizing

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tragic were evidently patterns lackingin the careersof Hoover and The questionariseswhether Johnson. certain Wilson,thoughsharing traits with Hoover and LBJ, was not also difcompulsive character from themin important ferent respects. becauseBarberdoes not take into acFinally,as alreadysuggested, of ego controls, count the strength and operation his theory of the character does not offer active-negative or preanyhelp in explaining and whentheprocess ofrigidification, whether dicting onceunderway, gets turnedoffin personswith this typeof character. And yet this is central to thetaskof usingthetheory possibility to predict performance.

IV
Barber's ofNixon is by farthelongest analysis and mostdetailedof about a hundredpages, almosta his presidential profiles, occupying book. It is testimony to Barber's quarter of the entire forevirespect of the hazardousnatureof the enterprise dence and his recognition thathe finally comesto question whether Nixon reallyfitsthe activenegative character well enoughto support theprediction of a tragedy. But one mustread to theveryend of Barber's long analysis(pp. 44Iof his uncertainty about 42) to becomeaware of the full dimensions Barberappearsto be unequivocaland quite conNixon. At theoutset, of his diagnosis of Nixon and of theprediction. fident "Nixon wasand is-an active-negative type.The dangerin his Presidency is the same as thedangerWilson,Hoover,and Johnson to: rigid succumbed in theWilson,Hoover,and Johnson theelements found casesis present in thehistory and discernible ofhispublicyears"(p. 347). "One could be wrongaboutNixon'soverall in theactive-negative hardly placement and prediction (p. 348).3? The diagnosis category" are repeated along theway (pp. 418, 44). A note of uncertainty when Barberturnsto the enters, however, taskof interpreting Nixon's performance duringthe first termof his Barber thatthekindof tragedy Presidency. acknowledges predicted for Nixon had not materialized as of late-I97L. Instead,Nixon thus far
on Nixon's negativeaffect 30Compare Barber's emphasis towardshis activity with WhiteHouse correspondent "Nixon wears the Presidency Hugh Sidey'sobservation: like a comfortable coat of armor. It has been dentedhereand thereand it has a few tarnished butit fits himand it feelsgood. He lovesthejob." Life Magazine,Nospots, vember I7, I972, p. 4. BruceMazlish,too, findsthatNixon "obviously enjoyshis new role" as President, of President, and that "in the office Nixon believesthat his role and his self have In Searchof Nixon (New York I972), 76. come together." finally

adherence to a failing line of policy....

In Nixon's case, everyone of

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of issuesas he approached the I972 campaign"(p. 418). in i968-69 in part as an Having undertaken the Nixon prediction in I97I to testhis theory experiment (p. 6), Barberwas confronted and non-events bythedifficult taskof deciding whether events during thefirst to disconfirm or at leastimportant served his theory term parts of it.3" of a The priorquestion, is whether the prediction however, to testthe political tragedy can indeedbe takenas a critical experiment view theory. Barber to think so at theoutset; butthecontrary appeared is moredefensible. It is of some im(whichhe eventually embraces), portance for our purposesto understand cannot why his prediction servethe function of a criticaltestof his theory. Assumingthat a in the active-negative to political is present tendency tragedy character, whether it develops variables whichmayor maynot dependson other For one thing, it materialize duringthecourseof a man'sPresidency. on theoccurrence of a situation of the kind thatwill trigger depends rigidification. What arethecharacteristics of sucha situation, and how likely is it to occurduringa President's It is difficult for incumbency? Barberto postulatethe objectivecharacteristics of such a situation withanyspecificity. as he does,thekind (It is mucheasierto identify, of subjective perception of it by an active-negative which President would lead to or accompany rigidification.) Not onlysituational variables but also personality variables thatare notincluded in Barber's conceptualization of personality are critical to hisprediction. Whether theprocess of rigidification is triggered in the first place and whether it proceedsuncheckedto producea political catastrophe dependson the person's ability to control such tendencies within himself. The strength of theseego controls underdiffering ciris difficult cumstances to foresee. Even if we assumethevalidity of the theory oftheactive-negative it doesnottellus how thecriticharacter, cal variableof ego controls will appear in different individuals who
31 It may be notedin passingthatBarberevidently assumedthatthe kind of political tragedy he predicted would be plainly visiblein publicevents. This would seem to excludefrom the scope of the effort of prediction such eventsas the secret illegal activities of the specialinvestigation unit Nixon set up in the WhiteHouse in I97I. At first glance,it does not appearthatthe personality factors thatmay have entered intoNixon'sauthorization are thesame as thepsychodynamic of suchactivities process of rigidification in Barber's On theotherhand,retrospective postulated theory. analysis of these disclosed activities Barberan opportunity recently mayoffer fora "correction thatwould attempt to show thattheseactivities, by evidence" although not initially are at leastconsistent with an amplified predicted by his theory, and revisedversion of it.

as a highly "appeared to many, including manystrong opponents, a tangle hiswaythrough flexible expert politician carefully wending

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That can be deduced-only withdiffithischaracter exemplify type. himself and thehisof theindividual a careful culty-from analysis thatsomeactive-negative One can imagine ofhispastbehavior. tory andmore resourceful much conareabletoacquire characters stronger latent in their tendencies thanothers trols overthe disruptive peran individual's sonalities. Moreover, ego controls and,more generally, canbe strengthened in unimpaired hisability toengage reality-testing in which and or impeded contexts bythesmall-group organizational andpersonal Forexample, with thehelpofcloseadvisers hefunctions. in strucan executive considerable staff, maydevelop resourcefulness himso as to shield turing andmanaging theimmediate environment or otherself from stressful experiences that distract, provoke, fatigue, in therole.32 wiseintrude uponhispreferred wayofperforming Forthese andperhaps other theuseofsucha prediction to reasons, to andtopermit theinvestigator toproceed, ifnecessary, test thetheory eluthelaudable objective of"correction byevidence" (p. 6) becomes ofnotbeing subSo elusive, is in danger sive. that thetheory perhaps, ofthekindofprediction-experijecttofalsification, at least bymeans Barber was indeed in deciding notto ment Barber employs. justified ofNixon's first term. abandon histheory on thebasisoftheevidence ofthebehavioral assufficient indications he found Instead, dynamics in Nixon'sfirst sociated withtheactive-negative term to justify type hiscontinued andtheprediction. adherence toboth thetheory Thisis unexceptional tobe sure; butat thesametime we must notethat since even oftheprediction cannot thenon-occurrence be heldto invalidate without a clearindication thetheory, we are left of whatit would taketofalsify it. I2 of Presidential Character islargely Chapter given over to"the critical question: hasthePresident already shown signs presaging thekind of tragic freezing Wilson, Hoover, and Johnson fellinto?"(p. 4I9). mostof thischapter Barber Throughout (pp. 42I-4I), answers this thatthePresident question affirmatively, noting indulged in aggressiverhetoric, concentrated powerin his office, increasingly isolated andgaveunmistakable evidence in theCarswell himself, caseandthe Cambodian he scored venture that high"on thecoreactive-negative demand-to control andnotbe controlled . . ." (p. 425). The missing for element a full-blown tragedy, Barber suggests, was that in hisfirst
32 However, thiscopingstrategy may in turncreatea different set of risksforperformance in therole.Long before thedisclosures associated withtheWatergate scandal, to the dangersof isolation observers called attention fromthe President's stemming fora staff of tight buffers aroundhim. preference system

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Nixonhad "notyetfounda causecomparable term to Wilson'scrusade fortheLeague,Hoover'sstandagainstthe dole, or Johnson's pursuit of military victory . . ." (p. 425). A closer look at theCarswellcase and theCambodianventure, however, raises questions Barber's thesis. If theseexamples concerning furnishhimwithindications "thattheunderlying Nixon character is still there"(p. 425), as evidenced by the factthatNixon threwdown the gauntlet in the Carswellcase and reactedto opposition with "the air of injured pride,the attribution and [a] threatening of low motives, tone. . ." (p. 429),33 theyalso furnish evidencethatNixon's controls overthese tendencies werestrong and effective enoughto limitand cut short theprocess of rigidification.34 At first, the signifiBarberignores canceofthese controls, while attempting to finda basisforsavingand reformulating histheory. Butin theend he tacitly themand recognizes concedes that Nixon is a "specialvariant" of theactive-negative characterin that, "withhisremarkable flexibility regarding issuesand ideoloNixoncan be 'defeated' gies, anynumber oftimeson specific questions ofpolicywithout feeling personally His investment threatened. is not in values, not in standing fastforsomeprinciple.... His investment is in himself, and Nixon's selfis takenup withits management .. (pp. 44I-42;emphasis added). Nixon'sbehavior now emerges as so different fromwhat we have been led to expectfromactive-negative Presidents that one wonders whetherBarberhas misdiagnosed him or whetherthe differences amongactive-negatives are greater afterall than the similarities and commonpatterns that Barberhas emphasizedthroughout his study. These differences maywell be crucialto Barber's prediction. Is Nixon another Wilson? I thinknot. Some of the differences have already beennoted;in addition, although theysharea compulsive component in their personalities, onlyWilson was a compulsive reformer. Nixon has lackedWilson'sunquenchable need forserving as the instrument
33Mazlish's interpretation of theHaynsworth-Carswell affair emphasizes even more than Barber's thatNixon overreacted and became personally involved, experiencing his defeat as a humiliation (fn. 30, I27-31). 34The backlashagainstthe Cambodianinvasionwould seem to provideprecisely thekindof challenge to Nixon'spower, virtue, etc.,that, according to Barber's theory, shouldhave triggered the ruinous of rigidification process in Nixon. In fact,the oppositeoccurred (as Barberreports withoutrecognizing its possiblesignificance as a "test"thatdisconfirms his prediction);for when "the reaction[to the Cambodian venture] across thecountry, exploded Nixon beganto back-pedal. On May 5 he pledged to Congressional committees meeting in theWhiteHouse thattheCambodian venture would be overin threeto sevenweeks,with all Americans withdrawn, and thathe would not ordertroopsdeeperinto Cambodia than 2I miles withoutseekingCongressional approval . . ." (pp. 439-40; emphasis added).

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forhigh moralachievements in the political arenawhich,when his commitment thwarted, couldtrigger rigidification. (Whether to constitutes certain foreign a changein thisrespect policy objectives tobe seen.) remains Another is that that Barber attributes difference thepower drive to bothmenwas clearly needstructure present onlyin theunderlying anddynamics ofWilson's it should be personality (and was aroused, added, under only special The caseBarber constructs circumstances). forNixon's "power need"(pp. 365-74) is notwell-founded and only superficially plausible. a more (Whether casecould be made convincing isproblematical andmust an openquestion.) Muchoftheberemain havior that Barber as evincing a power cites needmaywellturn out, uponcloseinspection, tobe evidence notofthat, butrather ofNixon's needfor strong In certain circumstances respect.35 it maybe quiteimtogaugecorrectly portant a President's is motivated whether behavior as against a needfor bya needfor Ifhispersonal stakes respect power. in a contested issue havetodo with rather respect than he may power, find it easier-if an appropriately deferential face-saving can scenario be improvised oris provided backdown. byopponents-to ForNixon, power appears tobe a secondary, instrumental value, not a core needofhischaracter. Nixondoesshowample in power interest andis often skillful in power maneuvers. traits But,as is wellknown, atthe surface level displayed ofbehavior canhavequite different underAs thehistory lying dynamic ofresearch patterns. on theauthoritarian andmuch other type on personality work indicates, it is risky to infer from thepresence oftraits at thephenomenological layer ofbehavior thata deep-seated personality needexists forthatkindof behavior.36
35In stating thisreinterpretation of the materials Barberprovides, I draw also on an unpublished ofNixon'spolitical study personality and political style by Richard Born Born concludes (Stanford I970). thatboth in his prepolitical periodand duringhis career Nixonhas consistently political evinced a strong need forrespect rather thanfor power.As criteria thata highvalue is placed on respect by the person, Born utilizes Harold D. Lasswell'sthreeindicators of thisneed: (I) constant need forreassurance about"how am I doing?"; (2) sensitivity to the admiration of others;(3) reactions of woundedpride and resentment to slights, real or imagined.See "Democratic Character,"in The Political Writings of Harold D. Lasswell (Glencoe, Ill. I951), 499. Whether Lasswell'sindicators are adequate is less germanethan the factthatsome set of explicit indicators is necessary to avoid the dangersof a purelyimpressionistic judgment. The difficult problem of identifying valid indicators of a power need and related problems connected with this conceptand Lasswell's general hypothesis regarding the compensatory natureof powerneed are discussed in George,"Power as a ComValue forPolitical pensatory Leaders," Journal of Social Issues,xxiv (Julyi968), 29-49. 36 A useful and incisive account of theambiguities thatplaguedmuchof the earlier on theauthoritarian research type, with direct relevance to the problems encountered in theconstruction of Barber's character is provided types, by Fred I. Greenstein, Per-

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Manifest ofthesame behavior kind, displayed bydifferent individuals, mayserve different in theworkings functions oftheir personality systems. More refined, indicators and instruments discriminating are needed toinfer deep-seated characterological from needs behavior. An interest andskillin power maybe learned and displayed bya person in response to roleand situational And it maybe emrequirements. to facilitate ployed gratification of other kindsof personality needs, such as for respect, achievement, etc. well-being, Unlike who displayed Wilson, ambitions from political adoearly lescence, theyoung Nixonshowed in politics. little interest Wilson as an adolescent identified withpolitical statesmen and consciously modeled himself on great in contrast, political orators; political leadershipforNixon,as Barber notes, "justhappened" when accidentally hewasapproaching hismid-thirties (p. 359).Thisin itself is notdecisive, since an individual's power drive neednotbe directed tothearena ofpolitics but may find anoutlet insome other kind inwhich ofactivity political conflict andopportunities for expressing power needs areavailable.Butifa power needis imbedded in a person's one excharacter, tofind pects some indication in hisearlier years that he pursues power as a means ofcompensation fordamaged self-esteem. No evidence of this kindis presented for Nixon's earlier years; rather, hisambition as a youth tohavebeenmotored seems bya needfor respect andfinancial security than rather bya power needperse. Barber recognizes, moreover, that"ambition is a quality nearly every politician shares" and that "initsbroadest sense it means little more thanstriving itself-for whatever goal" (p. 366). Ambition perse,then, is notevidence ofpower needorpower drive (thetwoterms are usedinterchangeably here).Nonetheless, Barber confuses evidence ofNixon's ambition with power drive. Muchofthe material cited as evidence ofa power needisdrawn from various events that occurred whileNixonwas Vice President under Eisenhower. In reviewing thefrustrations and dilemmas Nixonexperienced as Vice President, Barber istooquicktoregard as power maneuvers andpower Nixon'sefforts sensitivity to remain on the Republican presidential in I952, hisresentment ticket of slights, and hisefforts to survive the Vice Presidency and preserve opportunities forbecoming the presidential candidate. toanother Turning aspect oftheinterpretation, Barber correctly preand Politics: sonality Problems of Evidence, and Conceptualization Inference (Chicago
i969), chap. 4.

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ofNixon's inthe various that dicts aspects style Presidency and, further, Nixon wouldmove toward concentration rather than out power carry hisstated intention ofdiluting thehistoric trend toward centralization in thehandsof the in theWhite ofpower House-and,within that, hasroots in comofcourse, President himself (pp.42I-22). Thattrend, concentrathefact of further plexproblems ofmodern government; Nixoncannot be taken in theWhite Houseunder tionofpower ipso as reliable need.Therehas ofa characterological evidence power facto indeed been unusual centralization ofdecision making bytheexecutive Council branch in theWhiteHouse.The National was reSecurity organized byNixonand Kissinger so as to drawthepowerto influencemajorforeign thedeand national security policies awayfrom partments and intothe WhiteHouse. This NSC modelhas been in other has beena replicated to someextent policy areas. The result "miniaturization" oftheexecutive branch within theWhiteHouse.37 with toexplain ofthis kindsolely reference Attempts developments of to a President's presumed power needcarry withthem thedanger an oversimplified theconor totally erroneous explanation. To bypass in favor of sideration ofother variables that affect suchdevelopments a characterological explanation canonly reduce theplausibility ofpersonality interpretations. Besides, to theextent thatthepersonality of thechief executive is a factor, variables other thanthepostulate of a OnecanseeNixon's deep-seated power needmay be involved. centralization ofdecision-making power intheWhite Houseas a management for with theever-present, stubborn ofbureaustrategy coping problem cratic politics within theexecutive branch (which in various waysrea President's in policy duces to engage and forobability initiatives), taining implementation ofhispolicies bythedepartments andagencies. Sucha management indeed have hadparticular strategy may appeal for onewho, likeNixon, hashada pronounced distrust ofthebureaucratic wanted topreserve as much as possible toinfluence departments, power at leastthemostimportant his administration policy problems must dealwith, todealwith crises with as little as poshoped policy damage tohispersonal sible andwhose tohiswork political position, approach has beeninfluenced by thespecial cognitive style and conscientiousnessengendered bythe"compulsive" component in hispersonal makeup.

a coping strategy thatis designedto deal with certain Ironically,

of these 37Fordiscussion Thomas developments see,forexample, E. Cronin, The Stateof thePresidency (forthcoming); Richard T. Johnson, Managing the White
House (New York I974).

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to govern one'sability clearly perceived problems affecting mayitself a newsetofdimly entail risks. As many observers ofNixon's perceived there arerealdangers ofmanagement havecontinually style in noted, theextent to which executive-branch decision has beencenmaking thePresiwith when inthe House, tralized White particularly coupled for solo decision Notwithdent'swell-known preference making. from hisstaff and the hisdemand forwell-prepared standing options an in conscientious homework he engages before making important consultation and from direct Nixon's to withdraw decision, tendency or mulfrom thegive-and-take of a system of adversary proceedings ofpoordecisions tiple isworrisome. It increases advocacy thelikelihood thatmisjudge of the situation. however salient aspects Nonetheless, thepersonality seriously flawed suchdecisions maybe on occasion, in theexplanation characterofactor is notnecessarily a deep-seated nor a logical the mere invocation of need power drive; does presumed ofthis orilluminate andpsychokind clarify wellthose very cognitive variables within thepersonality thatare interacting dynamic system androlevariables. with situational I notedearlier whileBarber his interpretation that, concludes of Nixon's in thefirst performance term thatNixon by acknowledging is a special variant he continues of theactive-negative to assert type, his prediction of a character-induced tragedy. He emphasizes (not implausibly, butcryptically) that a second term may posespecial temptations tothe President (pp.348, 442, 447),andfocuses hisprediction of rigidification on a more sharply delimited situation: "Butlettheissue reach his central concern, theconcern of self-management, and the fatmaygo intothefire. Threats to his independence in particularthesense he is beingcontrolled from without because he cannot be trusted, because he is weak or stupid or unstable-will call forth a inner strong response." (Werenottheoppositions to theCarswell apandtotheCambodian pointment venture, onemayask, precisely such threats?) Barber continues, "only when. . . he cannot escape[a crisis] on tosomealternative bymoving andhe experiences crisis, a sense of is he to entrapment likely movetoward theclassic form ofrigidification" (p. 442).

and reasserted Having thusredefined his prediction, Barbercloses hisprofile ofNixon withan unexpected hedge.Speakingof heroesfor whom Nixon has expressed admiration in the past, Barberobserves that"conceivably" Nixon "could come to findan examplein another
man of independence,unheroic Harry Truman . . ." (p. 442). The

of thiscryptic significance remark lies in thefactthatHarryTruman

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in thebookas having an active-positive characelsewhere is diagnosed ter. It wouldappear, that Barber's about therefore, uncertainty Nixon, whom hehasalready conceded tobe a special variant oftheactive-negative type, is such that he cannot exclude thepossibility that Nixonmay as an active-positive. emerge In viewoftheforegoing, itis all themore that Barber disappointing tosayabout thepossible of the followhasso little significance period from in i962, after in the "withdrawal" hisdefeat ingNixon's politics California election. andchange Was there gubernatorial growth during Did therealization oftheambition in hisearly this period? thwarted to into a adulthood be accepted prestigious New Yorkor Washington and theprocess of staging a successful law firm in politics comeback to theshaping of a "newNixon," contribute as was widely suggested at thetime?Barber overthis passes possibility very quickly, stressing oftheman's earlier canbefound instead that evidences durpersonality term and that these arelikely to "overshadow inghisfirst anytranshis moves formations from New Yorkto Washington mayhaveengendered"38 (pp. 4V8-i9).

is a major in Barber's ofpersonalHighlighted here problem theory is notfirmly that character in childhood ity. Whilehe recognizes fixed he operates witha notion ofcharacter structure (e.g.,p. io), in effect asbeing for static atleast three character generally ofhisfour types, and in particular fortheactive-negative. The important in this exception respect is the active-positive typewho,unburdened by problems of is capableof growth self-esteem, through experience. It maybe recalledin thisconnection thatego psychology and thepsychology of on which adaptation, Barber draws effectively in other respects, have the earlier notion thatcharacter muted retains a timeless structure in childhood. fixity onceithasbeenshaped Thisimportant theoretical hasnotfound itswayadequately intoBarber's development conceptuof personality. alization it wouldnotbe an easymatter Admittedly, for toincorporate Barber into hisowntheory ErikErikson's notion of
38 Neither does Barber or refer to thepossible mention significance, if any,of Nixon's while Vice President, with ArnoldHutschnecker, consultations, M.D., who in i95i a book on psychosomatic had written to rumors medicine-leading lateron thatNixon In an articlewritten had seen a psychiatrist. in i969, Dr. Hutschnecker statesunthat"during theentire Mr. Nixon,I detected equivocally periodthatI treated no sign of mentalillnessin him."He also statesthat,becauseof the rumors, he and Nixon cameto "an understanding, before the i960 elections, years thatwe shoulddiscontinue our doctor-patient Hutschnecker also refers relationship." to havinghad "an amicable personal withNixon "overthe years"duringwhich timethey"became relationship" friends and, as such,we discussed many subjects in an open and relaxedmanner." A. A. Hutschnecker, M.D., "The MentalHealth of Our Leaders,"Look Magazine, Julyi5, i969, pp. 5I-54.

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as a dynamic identity in different with roots ofdedevelopment phases velopment andrelated to changing historical or to modify forces, his topersonality approach bydrawing uponsocial-learning theory, with its onmodeling, heavy emphasis andsituationally learning, determined behavior. Butit seems to me thatsomething contained important in these alternative theories in a theory ofpersonality is missing suchas Barber's. Without it,hisapproach isnotconducive tograsping possibly important in personality.39 changes to thisquestion (I shallreturn in discussing theproblems ofusing personality typologies fordiagnosing individuals.) Before proceeding, I should additional pointout several of aspects theanalysis ofNixon. The active-negative character, itwillbe recalled, displays a "compulsive" quality in his activity. This characteristic is indeed evident insome aspects ofNixon's approach todecision making. Barber describes in fascinating Nixon'sclassic crisis detail, drawing onNixon's ownrevealing account (in SixCrises) ofhowhehaslearned tohandle critical events, whathe perceives thedangers to be,and the satisfactions he derives from mastering them. Barber offers theinterpretation that goingthrough suchcrises fulfills an important needin Nixon's personality: "he relives each timethe agonyof self-definition.... Therein a short spaceof time Nixonactsoutthedrama of
his life-overand overagain" (pp. 417, 42I). The implication of Barber'sanalysis is not onlythatNixon maintains self-esteem in thisway, butthathe relishes (seeks? evenprovokes?)crises forthisreason, and thattheeffort to satisfy his need forself-esteem by crisis decision-making carries graverisks.40 Afterall, even Nixon recognizes and speaks of theway in whichhe muststeer openly himself through such crises in orderto control tendencies he perceives withinhimself-atfirst to avoid the issue and laterto indulgehis aggressive feelings or to let downhisguard. Admittedly, Nixon's own description is occasionforconcern at first glance.We mustremindourselves, however, thatNixon experienced in thepastand thatnoneofthemresulted manysuchcrises in thekind of tragedy Barberpredicts. While Nixon may have to struggle for

" The possibility of changeand maturation in personality is dealt with more explicitly and withsomedegreeof plausibility in Mazlish'spsychohistorical interpretation of Nixon.Whilefinding thatNixon has not changed"in anyfundamental sense" (fn. 30, I43), Mazlishsees evidence thatNixon achieveda releasefromold emotions and attained and moreeffective stronger ego controls. Ibid., I05, I25, I44-45. 40 Similar observations aboutNixon's"crisis" behavior are offered by Mazlish,ibid., 26, 77, 87-88, 92, I27, I38; and by Arthur Woodstone's psychoanalytically inspired journalistic Nixon'sHead (New York I972). study,

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attheconscious much ofitappears self-management, level;and,in any Nixon far been successful in self-management.4' hasthus case, relatively a different Viewed from onemaysee,inNixon's perspective, therefore, with decisional stresses thathe is classic methods forcoping crises, aware ofandattentive to. andthesubstance onemust theprocess Finally, distinguish between of thedecisions. of theclassic crisis be disThe process mayindeed ruptive at times ofrationality andofreality-oriented decision making. Butthis a determination cannot simply be assumed tobe thecase;such requires careful analysis andjudgment on theinvestigator's part. The factthatone disapproves of a policy decision thatemerges from the process ofa classic crisis doesnotconstitute a validbasisforassuming that thesubstance ofthedecision was contaminated bythesubjective substratum. Moreover, even an objectively bad decision may stem from causes (e.g.,inadequate information, bad advice, stupidity) other thantheintrusion of disruptive personality dynamics. It is appropriate in thisconnection to recallthatsomeyears ago, in ego whenpolitical to earlydevelopments scientists wereexposed psychology, they were struck bythe fact that arousal ofa leader's anxieties andegodefenses hisability couldseverely todealrationally impair witha situation. As a result, some political scientists-and, indeed, psychiatrists and psychologists as well-tended to regard anydisplay of ego defenses or rationalization) (suchas denial, projection, by a in a stressful as a telltale political leader situation signthat his ability tocoperationally andeffectively with that situation hadbeenimpaired. in these Decisions taken circumstances wereregarded withsuspicion, and anyinadequacy in thesubstance perceived of the decision was as being oftheleader's explained theunfortunate by-product resort to tocopewith hisanxieties. egodefenses Explanatory hypotheses ofthis kindoften and distorted emotheroleof unconscious oversimplified in decision tional factors making. in egopsychology andin studies Recent ofthenature developments ofcoping a muchmorerefined offer scientists and processes political of these matters. discriminating understanding Manyof theclassical canbe usedconstructively in mechanisms ego-defense byan individual thetotal of coping. Defensive suchas withdrawal, process operations or projection do notnecessarily denial, preclude intelligent and reasonable to a difficult situation. these adaptation Rather, defensive ma41 Amongthe changesMazlish sees in Nixon's development since the nadir in his politicalcareeris that "his controlof impulse,his planningand deliberation were thanever" (fn. 30, I25). greater

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and neuvers maygivetheindividual timeto regroup ego resources him provide himwith that sustains theshort-run, tactical ego support until to employing moreconstructive he canreturn momentarily ego in capacities suchas information or planning seeking, rolerehearsal, order to deal withtheproblem.42
V

Central toBarber's is histypology ofcharacter, theory many aspects ofwhich havealready been discussed. on itmore HereI shallcomment from ofsome explicitly thestandpoint well-known that have problems beenencountered in theconstruction ofpersonality and in typologies their use.The twosets ofproblems related: theuse to are,of course, which a typology is to be putdefines thenature and requirements of thetypology to be constructed. Barber's intended use of his typology is,as we havenoted, a very ambitious one; accordingly, therequirethat ments haveto be metin constructing it arevery A demanding. form ofpsychological complex is presumed. analysis A reconstruction of thelogicbymeans of which his types are erected identifies three butanalytically overlapping separate In FredGreenstein's operations. these tasks terminology,43 include (i) a description ofthephenomenology (or "presenting of the individual's characteristics") behavior; toestablish (2) anattempt the psychological dynamics underlying these ofobserved patterns and (3) an attempt behavior; to identify thedevelopmental that experiences account for theemergence oftheobserved andinferred patterns underlying psychodynamics. Thissetofdistinctions among thephenomenological, psychodynamic,andpsychogenetic of is behavior layers useful, indeed necessary, for clarifying theoretical and methodological issuesand foridentifying the for requirements theinterrelationships validating postulated within
42 For a fuller discussion see George,"Adaptation to Stressin PoliticalDecisionThe Individual, and Organizational making: Small-Group, in G. V. Coelho, Contexts," D. A. Hamburg, and J.Adams,eds., Copingand Adaptation (New York I974). See also Ole R. Holstiand Alexander L. George, "The Effects of Stress on thePerformance of Foreign Policy-makers" (forthcoming). 43 Greenstein (fn.36), especially pp. 65-68, 95-96, I02-44. For a briefer account somewhat differently see Greenstein, stated, and Politics," "Personality preparedfor The Handbook of PoliticalScience (forthcoming). Harold Lasswell employsa different and "developmental") terminology ("nuclear,""co-relational," in discussing similar problems. See his "A Note on 'Types'of PoliticalPersonality: Nuclear,Co-Relational, in Journal Developmental," of Social Issues,xxiv (Julyi968), 8I-92; a helpful introductionto Lasswell'sarticleis providedby Greenstein and Lerner (fn. i6), 23I-32. terms(phenomenology, Greenstein's dynamics, genesis) are used here because their substantive referents are clearerand more relevant for our purposes than Lasswell's terminology.

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A character each of Barber's typeconstructs. typeof the kind Barber of the threelevelsof analysis. has postulated is a composite What is more,his typology presumes a causal theory linkingstatedpatterns of behavior at thephenomenological level with underlying dynamics thataccountforthem.Validation and the developmental experiences to of the typeconstruct thatis appropriate requires empirical analysis and concepts the causal theory imbeddedtherein. Definitions cannot do theworkof validation. ofthiskindpresumably Typologies summarize findings from a wide ofindividuals. common rangeofstudies Typologies necessarily abstract fromindividual features cannotjustify cases,but abstraction ignoring oftheimplicit or lowering forvalidation therequirement causaltheory of behavior. in the linkingthe threelayers Puttingthe causal theory thanin a moredetailedanalysis formof a typology rather of a single ofvalidation. individual doesnotgetridofor simplify therequirement in somedetailtheproblem of validation for discussed We have already Rather thanto repeator summarize, let us go Barber's character types. and use of personality on to anotherproblemin the construction typologies. fromindividualcases forthe purIn abstracting commonfeatures The fullcomplexity of each pose of a typology, one has to be selective. into a type; an cannotbe easilyincorporated individual's personality the numberof specializedtypes to do so would proliferate attempt formulated. At least initially, therefore, relatively few characteristics and positive-negative are sin(e.g., Barber's active-passive dimensions) a relatively gled out fromwhichto construct small numberof basic An attempt or syndromes types. maybe made laterto identify clusters to be associated characteristics thatare thought withthese ofstillother initialnucleardefining characteristics. is oftensmall, The numberof basic typesin personality typologies and thesefew basic typesare sharply demarcated and mutuallyexand separate. clusive.Each type,thatis, is distinct As Carl Hempel in this notes,however, thereare dangersin constructing typologies of a way. Drawing preciseboundarylines betweenthe dimensions can easily prove to be an "artificial, sterile, typology theoretically The resulting procedure." personality typesare in the natureof "extreme" or "pure"types, "of whichconcrete instances are rarely if ever found...."'
44Carl GustavHempel,Aspectsof Scientific Explanation(New York i965), I57. on "Typologies" in International See also thearticle by EdwardA. Tiryakian, Encyclo-

pedia of the Social Sciences, xvi, I77-86.

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Barber's four character in this areindeed types pure each types sense; type isbutonecomponent ofthecomplex structure ofanyindividual's character. As Hempel notes (and as Barber wouldagree),45 puretypes "cannot be construed as classconcepts: cannot individual cases be subsumed under them as instances, butcanonly be characterized as tothe extent towhich they approximate them."46 Consistent withthis postulate, Barber notes (p. 449) that is somemixof every character person's a mixinwhich allfour types, onetype orisespedominates presumably cially prominent. Again, itis a matter of"tendencies, broad directions; noindividual manexactly fits a category" (p. I3; seealsop. 7). hasbeensaidto makeit clearthatBarber's Enough four character types canonly bea starting for thediagnosis point ofan individual. Inhe doesusethem deed, as starting in developing points hisprofiles of thePresidents; but,somewhat he also tends to use his inconsistently, four as labels forthem, pure types since he has notdeveloped a more refined setofmixed towork with. types We must that recall thevalue ofa typology kindtothebiographer-who ofthis must todeattempt scribe and explain therelevant behavior in itsconof an individual creteness and complexity-is necessarily limited because of theartificially pure character ofeachtype construct. The biographer cannot be satisfied withlabelling hissubject as beingan instance of,or bearing a certain resemblance To do so oversimplifies to,a puretype. thetask ofmaking useofthetheories andfindings ofdynamic and psychology and is likely to yield personality studies, of a limited results and discharacter. appointing The problem at issuehereis notalways clearly recognized orproperly dealt with. Classification is often confused with To tagthesubject diagnosis. witha labeldrawn from a typology, to ina pigeonhole place him ofoneofits pure types, doesnot provide what thebiographer needs most: a more namely, discriminating, differentiatedtheory regarding the individual's morecomplex personality.47 The problem of diagnosis versus classification is a familiar one in clinical psychology wherea distinction is sometimes made between the"sponge" and the"file-drawer" clinician. The former approaches
45 In The Lawmakers, Barber himself warnedagainst thebeguiling nature of typologies suchas his own: "At a certain stagein the development of a typology, one exa peculiar periences intellectual seduction. The worldbeginsto arrange itself in fourfold tables.The lines separating the categories get blackerand thicker, the objects nearthe margins move quietlytowardthe centers of the cells or fade into invisibil."

ity ..

46Hempel(fn. 44), I58 and I51-54; see also Tiryakian (fn. 44), i83. 47This and the following paragraphs draw on an earlier, more detaileddiscussion in George, "Some Uses of DynamicPsychology in PoliticalBiography," reprinted in Greenstein and Lerner(fn. i6), 78-98.

(p.

26i).

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thesubject with a relatively openmind-sensitized, tobe sure, bygeneraltheory andbyavailable order to develop typologies-in a specific theory about that particular from an intensive person of his analysis behavior and casehistory. In contrast, thefile-drawer clinician is into gaininsight clined intothepatient an astute bymaking classificationofhimin terms oftype For present characteristics. it is purposes important to recognize thatthe sophisticated file-drawer clinician often goesbeyond theuse of simple puretypes to articulate subtypes for eachofthebasicclassifications. In this a simple way, can typology be expanded toprovide a setof mixed which is more types, discriminating anduseful for diagnosing thecomplexity ofanyindividual subjectthan theuseofpuretypes. Barber's ofthePresidents diagnoses strike me,forthemost as part, ofa file-drawer those clinician. Although Barber is aware ofthelimitations ofpuretypes generally, theinadequacies ofhisapproach areaccentuated because he hasnotyet found a wayoftransforming hisfour pure types into a larger number ofmore complex As a result, subtypes. Barber's scheme classificatory doesnotprovide himwitha systematic description of whatHempelcallsmixedtypes, whichwould come closer than hispuretypes to catching thecomplexity ofcharacter and in his theory, personality. Lacking subtypes Barber tends to squeeze each President intoone or another of the fourpuretypes, hoping thereby to catchat leastthedominant or most prominent aspects of hischaracter. This is notto saythatBarber his types; reifies to someextent at least, he recognizes thelackof a closefitand attempts to describe it in an ad hocfashion. Thus we learnthatEisenhower, though "best in thepassive-negative approximated category" (p. i56) is a "more complicated mix"(p. 146) and"comes as closeas anyPresident tobeingonewhostrays beyond ourcrude categories" (p. 157); thatthere was a strong "compensatory" in Truman's element rhetoric and his andthat decisiveness, hisaggressiveness requires that hebeplaced "near theactive-negative end"oftheactive-positive category towhich Barber has assigned him (pp. 26i-62, 292); thatin 1932-33, there was some question whether Roosevelt would"turn out to be a passive-positive rather type" as itemerged, than, "active-positive" (pp. 235, 292); that John F. Kennedy's orientation toactivity wasnotwithout ambivalence andcontradictory themes, andthat this "active-positive" President had tocope with thetemptation towards detachment andpassivity (p. 343); that there wasconsiderable active leadership in theearly years of"pas-

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as notedearlier, sive-positive" Harding's Presidency (p. 193); and that, Nixon is a "specialvariant" of the"active-negative" type(p. 441). In theend,therefore, variant Barber's use ofa primitive, undeveloped version of the file-drawer approach-as againsta more sophisticated of the adequacy employing mixedtypes-leavesthe readeruncertain of his diagnoses of thePresidents forthe taskat hand. It is clearthat Barber hasbecome in thefamiliar and evertreacherous enmeshed problem offalling of the between stools:as he plungesintothecase studies but of theirindividuality, Presidents, he is pulled towardrecognition thestrong typological impulse motivating his workand his searchfor of imcommon patterns maywell have cutshort a fuller consideration to portant differences amongindividuals once theyhad been assigned the same character type. A number of difficult questions emergewhich are not takenup by Barber. If every what are President is somemixture of all fourtypes, theimplications forthe taskof explanation and prediction of his performance? How do diverse character trends coexist within thepersonaland how does thetension itself in behavior ity, between themmanifest under different circumstances? What aspects oftheroleand situational charof thePresidency requirements fitwell witheach of the diverse actertrends to be foundwithineach individual?Can the presidential role bringout or strengthen one particular side of the incumbent's mixedcharacter type? As these questions imply, although character types can be usefulas a a starting pointforthe diagnosis of an individual, theydo not offer substitute fora full-fledged modelof thatindividual's or a personality short-cut method fordeveloping one. Such a limitation is inherent in thenature ofcharacter types, forthey alwaysabstract and simplify. Accordingly, character types cannotidentify thefullsetof needs,psychodynamic patterns, ego resources, and copingstrategies possessed by the individual, all of which are relevant to his performance in the Presidency. Another problem encountered in Barber's typology concerns theclarityand usefulness of the two dimensions-active-passive and positivenegative-that serveas thestarting pointand formtheostensible basis forhis fourcharacter types. I alludedearlier in thisreviewto the amof thesetwo dimensions. biguity In one usage,theyare employed as in orderto portray terms descriptive behavior at the manifest leveli.e.,the"presenting characteristics" at the phenomenological level.So longas thisusageoftheterms is observed, theonlyquestion thatarises

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as a dichotomous attribute (a pertoregard eachdimension iswhether and either or negative) or as a orpassive, positive sonis either active is placedat somepoint on eachdieachperson continuum (whereby Conto reflect an averaging-out or overallassessment).48 mension butthe in thetheory, couldmakea difference ceivably, sucha choice in Barber's treatment. matter is ignored theusageof thesetwo In anycase and perhaps moreimportant, in Barber's concept of character implications dimensions and their level.Thus,in phenomenological to thedescriptive, is notconfined can be expected "to dimensions" twosimple why"these explaining thatactive-pasBarber emphasizes outline themaincharacter types," of anyone's "stand features fortwocentral siveand positive-negative is thatthese life. . ." (p. 12). The implication orientation toward ofbehavior, layer phenomenological tapnot merely the twodimensions as has defined whichBarber of character butreachintotheorigins the way in whichhe intoa man'sbeing," "whatlifehas marked toward life"(p. 8). "orients himself asidebythe ofclarity ofusageis pushed Be that as itmay, theissue of at the manifest fact that nature "activity" the important evenmore can within thepersonality system anditssignificance level ofbehavior can have "Activity" to individual. from individual differ strikingly underlying psychoandcanalsoreflect quitedifferent different origins Barber maynot agreewiththe interAlthough dynamic patterns. thathigh suggest here,some of his materials pretation advanced atthe ofdecisiveness) anddecisiveness protestations (including activity "a defense canbe,as inTruman's level case, against phenomenological wanthat he wouldlapseintovagueness, itsopposite, thefear against of theactivity cowardice, dependence . . ." (p. 262); and that dering, can be motivated needsthat by personal evenan active-positive type controls of the personality and result in escapethereality-oriented for andthepolity (pp. 271theself that is counterproductive behavior at thepsychodynamic The relationship of activity to passivity and thanis implied is farmorecomplex levels, therefore, psychogenetic in these behavior terms.49 One is driven ofmanifest bythedescription to conclude it mayconfuse rather than that it is notuseful-indeed, ondescriptions ofbehavior basea character typology clarify matters-to
48 If the active-passive as a continuum, the objection dimension is treated may be underwhicha personis activeand the conditheconditions raisedthatthisobscures tionsunderwhichhe is not active. 49 On thispointsee,forexample, The CrucialPsychoEdritaFried,Active/Passive: logical Dimension(New York I97I).

73).

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in terms that of an undifferentiated arecouched dimenactive-passive thefactthat sionor variable at thephenomenological level, ignoring ferent individuals. The dimension difficulties. ofpositive-negative alsoencounters affect ofthesubject's The attempt todeal,as Barber withthequestion does, affect towards hisactivity oftheambiguities ofthisconinherits some as cept which we havealready andencounters other difficulties noted, well.A fewobservations thattheimwill haveto suffice to indicate portant question of affect from thatBarber has raisedcouldbenefit moredetailed The phenomenon of the "affectless" analysis. person, has led sometheorists a detachedwhich to postulate of personality character is noteasily or described in terms ofBartype, encompassed ber's dimension ofpositive-negative todo so would affect. (To attempt risk confusing ofanykindwithnegative low affect affect.) Similarly, ambivalence ofaffect towards isnoteasily accommodated one'sactivity herecannot scale.50 The questions raised bya simple positive-negative bebrushed aside since the ornon-expression ofaffect towards expression doesnotstand in Barber's butispart ofdistincactivity byitself theory, tive inwhich certain andpsychogenetic configurations psychodynamic processes arealsopostulated.51 Given the difficulties Barber's four-fold ofcharacter encountypology andthequestionable ters, assumptions andambiguities with associated thetwodimensions on which itis based, thequestion arises as towhat canbe doneabout them. One possibility, in ourdisalready suggested cussion oftheneedfor mixed types, is to develop a more complicated
50 A similar observation is made by Fred Greenstein, who comments thatBarber's twodimensions "need amplification to takeaccountof individuals who exhibit mood and behavior ambivalent swingsand for emotionally "PoliticalPsycholindividuals." ogy: A Pluralistic Universe," preparedfor The Handbook of PoliticalPsychology, Jeanne N. Knutson, ed. (forthcoming). 51In addition, seemto arisein applying the dimension specialproblems of positiveto the compulsively affect oriented negative active-negative type.Positive-negative, it will be recalled, to whether refers a persongenerally enjoyswhat he is doing.Barber findsthatthe euphoricreactions an active-negative personlike Nixon displaysare rareand short-lived and, besides, tingedwith "a masochistic element"(p. 350). This at least,that the emotions a compulsive acknowledges, personexperiences while at work,and the natureof his emotional reward, cannotbe described verywell with reference to thesimplepositive-negative dimension. While a compulsive person"worries"a decision, himself applying to it, he also gains important conscientiously satisfactions In some compulsives theremay be a need to denyopen or full exthereby. of thepositive affect pression as a kind of superstitious experienced, way of warding off and bad luck.Relianceon surface danger behavior forscoring a compulsive person on the positive-negative dimension involvesthe risk of overlooking the elementof or controlled secret and the more complexnatureof affect pleasures derivedfrom activity.

qualitativelydfigerent is displayed levelby difactivity at themanifest

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andsophisticated version ofthepresent typology. In myjudgment, the and positive-negative as presently of active-passive dimensions affect, for kind ofrich the areunsuitable defined andoperationalized, develophasattempted character Barber to mental andpsychodynamic typology canbe retained ifthey arealtered totakenote of formulate; they only inactivity atthe andaffect differences qualitative displayed phenomenocanbe accomplished, the ofbehavior. Ifthis differentiation logical level refined ofthe twodimensions be in order version more might employed a richer to develop of character whichwill movethe array subtypes from into that reflect commixed thegreater typology pure types types ofcharacter inreallife. plexity Another possibility wouldbe to simplify thepresent typology radiin some Barber's ambitious cally way.Instead ofcontinuing questfor character types that linkphenomenological, psychodynamic, and psycausalconfigurations, in distinctive onemight chogenetic variables reof phenomenology indicators ly on someconvenient (i.e.,presenting classifications characteristics) to formulate simpler trait/type thatdeto interconnect theresulting theattempt liberately forego personality format suchas Barber's four-fold types viasome deductive table.52 too difficult to envisage Stillanother at this possibility, probably wouldbe to movethetypology itspresent time, awayfrom use as a to an ordering classificatory scheme procedure. This movewouldinof volve individuals several thefourarrangement along axes, replacing ofseveral foldclassificatory table byreference spaces dimensions, persubtler distinctions thanthe present and opening mitting typology with the eachdimension as a quantitative waytoward dealing variable than a attribute.53 rather dichotomous In anycase, noneofthethree alternatives addresses thequestion of ofthetypology, which thevalidity must be accorded priority overthe todo with form inwhich problem ofwhat thepure Barber's character arepresently stated. types VI as thefirst effort toapply Barber's study emerges systematic personalfor tothe task ofassessing candidates the In doing ity theory Presidency.
52Interesting is JamesPayne'seffort to modify fromthis standpoint Barber'sapto avoidcharacterological in order issues. withOliverWoshinsky, proach Payne, together a numberof "incentive has formulated types"to characterize politicalactivists and political leaders.The authors emphasizethat"incentive" describes only a fraction of See James L. Payneand OliverH. Woshinsky, any individual politician's personality. xxiv (JulyI972), 5i8-46. WorldPolitics, "Incentives forPolitical Participation," 53 For a fuller of thispossibility, see Hempel (fn. 44), I52-54, i58-59. statement

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an exclusive moves thediscussion so,Barber awayfrom preoccupation an incumbent that with the dangers associated with thepossibility may to the a majormental illness. His study adds new support develop effect on canhavean important thesis that various facets ofpersonality theperformance andtheuseofpresidential ofpresidential duties powin terms of political makea real difference ers,and can sometimes outcomes. It isnotnewfor andothers tonotethat variations scientists political in performance of difof thepresidential rolecan occuras a result in thepersonalities In other of incumbents. ferences, among things, Presidential Power, Richard Neustadt offered suggestive but unformalizedobservations on variations in thepersonal qualities of past ofthedifficult Presidents which affected their todealwith some ability rolerequirements of theoffice. However, theconceptualization and or facets ofpersonality, operationalization of these personal qualities, hasremained a problem. ErwinHargrove attempted, witha measure ofsuccess, tofill this gapbydistinguishing between personality needs, mental andvalues hascome with andideology.54 Barber forward traits, in a more of of terms complex conceptualization personality character, world andstyle. view, Barber's itself-asdoes anygood theoryCertainly theory proves insofar as itsensitizes theinvestigator tonotice many interesting facets ofpersonality in a leader's thatare expressed political behavior. The alsohelps todrawsharp theory contrasts between Presidents withdifferent ofpersonalities, types and it enables theinvestigator to pull tohisobservations gether andinterpretations about a President intoa set ofcoherent patterns rather than to settle fora series ofinteresting but discursive A theory ofthis observations. kind alsoassists theinvestigator toprovide an explicit, reasoned basis for making predictions, ifhe is so inclined. Barber has displayed considerable courage in accepting the oftesting a theory challenge bymaking predictions in thehopethat such canthen beusedtohelpassess andimprove predictions thetheory. Theseareimportant contributions on whichto buildin thefuture. It is true, as Barber that evenan incomplete argues, theory basedon crude cluesto character can be usedto generate relevant assessments andpredictions about political candidates. However, if a theory is inandif, inaddition, validated adequately theassessments andpredictions itgenerates arelikely tobe affected bytheinvestigator's ownpolitical serious values, questions mayarise regarding theconfidence thatcan
York i966).

54Erwin C. Hargrove, Presidential and PoliticalStyle(New Leadership: Personality

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In myjudgment-and be attached tothepredictions. asidethe leaving hisownpolitical elusive whether values haveinfluenced question his and candidates-Barber's assessments of Presidents is insuffitheory and insufficiently to carry theburden ciently validated developed of Nixonillustrates, prediction. As Barber's forecast regarding predictions ofpresidential toconaresubject performance generated bythetheory thetheory siderable uncertainty. Onemay question, whether therefore, is ready for of practical usein theprocess of assessment and selection presidential candidates. As thisimplies, I believe thatthedistinction drawn between thescientific andpolicy arenas must be moresharply in evaluating Barber's theory and theuse to whichhe putsit. The desire toundertake in order predictions totest andimprove thetheory in thescientific arena is notat issue here;that taskcanbe attempted, ofcourse, arena. without introducing anongoing into study the political Noris Barber's right todo so,orhisjudgment in doing so,in question here. At thesametime, however, a reviewer has an obligation to express hisownassessment as towhether kindisready for a theory ofthis practical application. Efforts todevise relevant andvalidprocedures for screening political candidates raisemanycomplex and interlocking questions thatwill needto be studied by groups of diverse specialists working together overa period of years. It is by no meansclearthatsufficiently valid procedures canbe developed, or that they can then be operationalized and appliedadequately, forscreening candidates forelective office. And,in anycase, thequestion ofhowandbywhomsuchprocedures wouldbe applied, and how the results wouldbe inserted intothe processes of theselection of candidates and electoral choice, remains unanswered. Barber's to bypass someofthese effort questions byoffering hisresults tothegeneral public creates problems ofitsownandinvites new If individual dangers. scholars are to publish personality assessments of candidates in whichthey settheir own criteria and exercise their ownjudgment regarding thevalidity of their findings, thenwe can thepolitical arena tobe flooded expect bypseudo-scholarly, politically biased personality analyses ofpolitical candidates that fallfarshort of thestandards towhich Barber himself subscribes. The desire to make validated unfinished, inadequately efforts scholarly relevant in theexdifficult ofpersonality tremely enterprise assessment willundoubtedly leadto a lowering of standards and a debasement of objectivity. We arealready witnessing efforts to convert psychohistory intoa method for evaluating living political actors-adubious useofthehard-earned

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whichthreatens to of psychohistory, andfragile scholarly reputation todebunk psychoanalytic theory revive the discredited practice ofusing will decharacter historical If thistrend continues, analysis figures.55 and efforts to develop intocharacter assassination, scholarly generate in thebehavior andresponsible oftheroleofpersonality investigation will be setback a generation. ofpolitical leaders with dilemmas that willnotbe easily resolved. Insofar as We areleft ofconcern is psychological fitness forpolitical thefocus office, rather mental it doesindeed appear necessary (although than major illness, orpolitically feasible is an entirely itis scientifically different whether candidates an election on screening before to placeemphasis matter) in office. diffitheir It is farmore rather than monitoring performance an elected illbut, from office official whois notmentally cult toremove characin someone's ofpresumed because judgment, performs poorly candidate's than it to that a is persuade people terological problems makeit undesirable to electhimto an impersonality shortcomings office. portant political is majormental hand,ifthefocus of concern On theother illness, reliance will have to be on monitorthen itappears that placed greater in office officials of elected rather thanon attempting ingthehealth on thegrounds that arepoorrisks insofar toscreen outcandidates they is concerned.56 as future mental candidates forthe Screening illness inthe illness future its risk ofsevere mental (as against present actuality) acceptability or predictive is notlikely to achieve levelsof political would stillbe necessary to identify and treat validity. Monitoring in officeholders; mental and,indeed, monitoring can emergent illness contribute farmoreto dealing withtheriskof severe mental illness formental than monitoring illness wouldseem screening. Moreover, to be morefeasible and moreacceptable politically than medically canbe donewith We areleft with the that more thecircumprospect illness by reliance on monitoring scribed problem of majormental in somewaysmoreimportant rather than on screening; thebroader, ofpsychological or characterological fitness is likely to prove problem screening or monitoring prointractable to efforts to deviseeither
55 For a review of severalrecent efforts of thiskind,see RobertColes, "Shrinking History-Part Two," New YorkReviewof Books,xx (March8, I973). My own views L. George,are elaborated and thoseof my wife,Juliette in "Psycho-McCarthyism," Psychology Today,vii (JuneI973), 94-98. has been takenwith greatcautionby the Group for the 56Indeed, thisdirection in itsrecent Advancement ofPsychiatry "The VIP withPsychiatric study, Impairment," VIII, Report #83 (January I973).

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cedures. Whatever thepractical it is important outcome, however, to move forward withefforts to improve notmerely of the knowledge, stresses encountered typically by officials withdifferent kindsof personalities, butalso of thewaysin whichthey copewithstress and, particularly, oftheconsequences that their patterns ofcoping may have for thequality oftheir Suchknowledge, performance. combined with an awareness of variations in the cognitive styles of different kinds ofpersonalities, in efforts maybe helpful to makeappropriate adjustments in thestructure and management of top-level decision-making processes.

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