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Dynamic characteristics
Many experimental measurements are taken under
conditions where sufficient time is available for the
measurement system to reach steady state, and hence
one need not be concerned with the behaviour under
non-steady state conditions. --- Static cases
In many other situations, however, it may be desirable
to determine the behaviour of a physical variable over a
period of time. In any event the measurement problem
usually becomes more complicated when the transient
characteristics of a system need to be considered (e.g. a
closed loop automatic control system).
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Temperature Control
T
v
in
T
a
v
f
v
in
- v
f
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K
H

+
Input, v
Output, T
A simple closed loop control system
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System response
The most important factor in the performance
of a measuring system is that the full effect of
an input signal (i.e. change in measured
quantity) is not immediately shown at the
output but is almost inevitably subject to some
lag or delay in response. This is a delay
between cause and effect due to the natural
inertia of the system and is known as
measurement lag.
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First order systems
Many measuring elements or systems can be
represented by a first order differential equation in
which the highest derivatives is of the first order, i.e.
dx/dt, dy/dx, etc. For example,
( )
( ) ( ) t f t bq
dt
t dq
a = +
where a and b are constants; f(t) is the input; q(t) is the
output
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An example of first order measurement systems is a
mercury-in-glass thermometer.
where u
i
and u
o
is the input and output of the
thermometer. Therefore, the differential equation of
the thermometer is:
( )
( )
( ) t
dt
t d
T t
i
o
o
u
u
u = +
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) | | t t
T dt
t d
t t
dt
t d
o i
o
o i
o
u u
u
u u
u
=

1
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Consider this thermometer is suddenly dipped into a
beaker of boiling water, the actual thermometer
response (u
o
) approaches the step value (u
i
)
exponentially according to the solution of the
differential equation:
u
o
= u
i
(1- e
-t/T
)
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u
i
u
0
(t)
u
0
(T)~0.632u
i
Response of a mercury in glass thermometer to a step
change in temperature
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The time constant is a measure of the speed of
response of the instrument or system
After three time constants the response has reached
95% of the step change and after five time constants
99% of the step change.
Hence the first order system can be said to respond
to the full step change after approximately five time
constants.
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Frequency response
If a sinusoidal input is input into a first order system,
the response will be also sinusoidal. The amplitude of
the output signal will be reduced and the output will lag
behind the input. For example, if the input is of the
form
u
i
(t) = a sin e t
then the steady state output will be of the form
u
o
(t) = b sin (e t - | )
where b is less than a, and | is the phase lag between
input and output. The frequencies are the same.
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Response of a first order system to a sinusoidal input
Increase in frequency, increase in phase lag (0~90)
and decrease in b/a (1~0).
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Second order systems
Very many instruments, particularly all those with a
moving element controlled by a spring, and probably
fitted with some damping device, are of second
order type. Systems in this class can be represented
by a second order differential equation where the
highest derivative is of the form d
2
x/dt
2
, d
2
y/dx
2
, etc.
For example,
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) t t
dt
t d
dt
t d
i o n
o
n
o
u u e
u
e
u
= + +
2
2
2
2
where and e
n
are constants.
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For a damped spring-mass system,
m
k
n
= e
(in rad/s)
m
k
f
n
t 2
1
=
(in Hz)
Natural frequency
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Damping ratio
The amount of damping is normally specified by
quoting a damping ratio, , which is a pure number, and
is defined as follows:
where c is the actual value of the damping coefficient
and c
c
is the critical damping coefficient. The damping
ratio will therefore be unity when c = c
c
, where occurs
in the case of critical damping. A second order system
is said to be critically damped when a step input is
applied and there is just no overshoot and hence no
resulting oscillation.
km
c
c
c
c
2
= =
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Response of a second order system to a step input
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The magnitude of the damping ratio affects the transient
response of the system to a step input change, as shown in the
following table.
Magnitude of damping ratio Transient response
Zero Undamped simple harmonic motion
Greater than unity Overdamped motion
Unity Critical damping
Less than unity Underdamped, oscillation motion
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If a sinusoidal input is applied to a second order
system, the response of the system is rather more
complex and depends upon the relationship between
the frequency of the applied sinusoid and the natural
frequency of the system. The response of the system
is also affected by the amount of damping present.
Frequency response
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Consider a damped spring-mass system (examples of
this system include seismic mass accelerometers and
moving coil meters)
x
1
= x
0
sin e t
(input)
k
m
x (output)
c
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It may be represented by a differential equation
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) t x t kx
dt
t dx
c
dt
t x d
m
1
2
2
= + +
Suppose that x
l
is a harmonic (sinusoidal) input, i.e.
x
l
= x
o
sin e t
where x
o
is the amplitude of the input displacement and
e is its circular frequency. The steady state output is
x(t) = X sin (e t - | )
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Frequency response of a second order system
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Phase shift characteristics of a second order system
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Remarks:
(i) Resonance (maximum amplitude of response)
is greatest when the damping in the system is
low. The effect of increasing damping is to
reduce the amplitude at resonance.
(ii) The resonant frequency coincides with the
natural frequency for an undamped system but
as the damping is increased the resonant
frequency becomes lower.
(iii) When the damping ratio is greater than 0.707
there is no resonant peak but for values of
damping ratio below 0.707 a resonant peak
occurs.
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(iv) For low values of damping ratio the output
amplitude is very nearly constant up to a
frequency of approximately e = 0.3e
n
(v) The phase shift characteristics depend strongly on
the damping ratio for all frequencies.
(vi) In an instrument system the flattest possible
response up to the highest possible input
frequency is achieved with a damping ratio of
0.707.
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