Filter Analysis3

Generalizing the Fourier Transform !
The CTFT expresses a time-domain signal as a linear combination of complex sinusoids of the form e j! t . In the generalization of the CTFT to the Laplace transform, the complex sinusoids become complex exponentials of the form e st where s can have any complex value. Replacing the complex sinusoids with complex exponentials leads to this definition of the Laplace transform. L ( x ( t )) = X ( s ) =
#
The Laplace Transform
L x ( t ) %' & X(s)
"#
$ x (t ) e
" st
dt
M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !
1 !
M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl ! 2 !

The variable s is viewed as a generalization of the variable ! of the form s = " + j! . Then, when " , the real part of s, is zero, the Laplace transform reduces to the CTFT. Using s = " + j! the Laplace transform is X(s) =
$

The extra factor e! " t is sometimes called a convergence factor because, when chosen properly, it makes the integral converge for some signals for which it would not otherwise converge. For example, strictly speaking, the signal A u ( t ) does not have a CTFT because the integral does not converge. But if it is multiplied by the convergence factor, and the real part of s is chosen appropriately, the CTFT integral will converge.
$
#$
% x (t ) e
# (" + j! )t
dt
=F & ' x (t ) e ( ) which is the Fourier

#" t
transform of x ( t ) e
#" t $
!$
% A u (t ) e
!" t
! j# t
dt = A % e! j# t dt & Does not converge

0
!$
% Ae
u (t ) e
! j# t
dt = A % e!(" + j# )t dt & Converges (if " > 0)

0
3 !
Complex Exponential Excitation !
Complex Exponential Excitation !
5 !
6 !
1 !
Pierre-Simon Laplace !
() ()
The Transfer Function !

Let x t be the excitation and let y t be the response of a system with impulse response h t . The Laplace transform of y t is Y s =
" "
()
()
( ) # y (t ) e
!" "
! st
dt =
!"
' #% & h (t ) $ x (t )( e ! st
! st
dt
Y s =
e ( ) #, # h () ) x (t ! ) ) d) / + .
!" !"
"
dt
Y s =
3/23/1749 - 3/2/1827!
( ) # h () ) d) # x (t ! ) ) e
!" !"
"
"
! st
dt
8 !
The Transfer Function !

Let x t = u t and let h t = e!4 t u t . Find y t . y t = x t "h t =
() ()
()
()
()
Cascade-Connected Systems !
u t ! # d#
( ) ( ) ( ) % x (# ) h (t ! # ) d# = % u (# ) e
!$ !$
!4 t !#
( )
( ) ( )( ) () 1 1 1 1/ 4 1/ 4 X ( s) = 1 / s , H ( s) = * Y ( s) = + = ! s+4 s s+4 s s+4 x ( t ) = (1 / 4 ) (1 ! e ) u ( t )

!4 t
t & t !4(t !# ) e4 t ! 1 1 ! e!4 t d # = e!4 t % e4# d # = e!4 t = , t >0 ( e y t = '% 4 4 0 0 ( , t <0 )0 y t = 1 / 4 1 ! e!4 t u t
()
If two systems are cascade connected the transfer function of the overall system is the product of the transfer functions of the two individual systems.
9 !
10 !
Direct Form II Realization !
11 !
12 !
2 !
13 !
14 !

A system is defined by y!! ( t ) + 3 y! ( t ) + 7 y ( t ) = x! ( t ) " 5 x ( t ) . H (s) = s"5 s 2 + 3s + 7
15 !
16 !
Inverse Laplace Transform !

There is an inversion integral
Existence of the Laplace Transform !

() x ( t ) is also bounded for all t , the Laplace transform integral
If x t = 0 for t < t0 and t > t1 it is a time limited signal. If converges and the Laplace transform exists for all s.
Time Limited Signals!
y t =
()
1 Y s est ds , s = " + j& j 2! " #%j$
" + j$
()
for finding y t from Y s , but it is rarely used in practice. Usually inverse Laplace transforms are found by using tables of standard functions and the properties of the Laplace transform.
()
()
17 !
18 !
3 !

Let x t = rect t = u t + 1 / 2 ! u t ! 1 / 2 . X s =

Right- and Left-Sided Signals!
()
() (
! st
) (
( ) # rect (t ) e
!"
"
1/2
dt =
!1/2
! st
e! s /2 ! es /2 es /2 ! e! s /2 dt = = , All s !s s
Right-Sided!
Left-Sided!
19 !
20 !

Right- and Left-Sided Exponentials!

Right-Sided Exponential!
x ( t ) = e! t u ( t " t 0 ) , ! # ! X ( s ) = % e! t e" st dt = % e(! " & )t e" j' t dt If Re ( s ) = & > ! the asymptotic behavior of e(! " & )t e" j' t as t ( $ is to approach zero and the Laplace transform integral converges.
t0 t0 $ $
x ( t ) = e! t u ( t " t 0 ) , ! # !
Right-Sided!
x ( t ) = e! t u ( t 0 " t ) , ! # !
21 !
Left-Sided!
22 !

Left-Sided Exponential!
x (t ) = e u (t0 " t ) , ! #!
!t
t0 t0

The two conditions ! > " and ! < # define the region of convergence (ROC) for the Laplace transform of right- and left-sided signals.
X(s) =
"$
%e
! t " st
e dt =
"$
%e
( ! " & )t
e" j' t dt
If & < ! the asymptotic behavior of e( ! "& )t e" j' t as t ( "$ is to approach zero and the Laplace transform integral converges.
23 !
24 !
4 !

Any right-sided signal that grows no faster than an exponential in positive time and any left-sided signal that grows no faster than an exponential in negative time has a Laplace transform. If x ( t ) = x r ( t ) + x l ( t ) where x r ( t ) is the right-sided part and
!t
Laplace Transform Pairs !

The Laplace transform of g1 ( t ) = Ae! t u ( t ) is G1 ( s ) =
# "#
$ Ae u (t ) e
!t
" st
dt = A $ e"( s "! )t dt = A $ e(! "% )t e" j& t dt =

0 0
A s "!
This function has a pole at s = ! and the ROC is the region to the
"t
x l ( t ) is the left-sided part and if x r ( t ) < K r e and x l ( t ) < K l e
right of that point. The Laplace transform of g 2 ( t ) = Ae't u ( " t ) is G2 ( s) =

# "#
and ! and " are as small as possible, then the Laplace-transform integral converges and the Laplace transform exists for ! < # < " . Therefore if ! < " the ROC is the region ! < " . If ! > " , there is no ROC and the Laplace transform does not exist.
$ Ae u ( "t ) e
't
" st
dt = A $ e( ' " s )t dt = A $ e( ' "% )t e" j& t dt = "

"# "#
A s"'
This function has a pole at s = ' and the ROC is the region to the left of that point.
25 !
26 !
Region of Convergence !
The following two Laplace transform pairs illustrate the importance of the region of convergence. 1 L e!" t u ( t ) #% $ , & > !" s +" 1 L !" t ! e u ( ! t ) #% $ , & < !" s +" The two time-domain functions are different but the algebraic expressions for their Laplace transforms are the same. Only the ROCs are different.
Region of Convergence !
Some of the most common Laplace transform pairs! (There is more extensive table in the book.)!
! ( t ) "$ # 1 , All % & u ( & t ) "$ # 1/ s , % < 0 () ramp ( t ) = t u ( t ) "$ # 1/ s , % > 0 ramp ( & t ) = & t u ( & t ) "$ # 1/ s , % < 0 e u ( t ) "$ # 1/ ( s + ' ) , % > &' & e u ( & t ) "$ # 1/ ( s + ' ) , % < &' ( ( e sin (( t ) u ( t ) "$ # , % > &' & e sin (( t ) u ( & t ) "$ # , % < &' (s + ' ) + ( (s + ' ) + ( s+' s+' e cos (( t ) u ( t ) "$ # , % > &' & e cos (( t ) u ( & t ) "$ # , % < &' (s + ' ) + ( (s + ' ) + (
L L u t "$ # 1/ s , % > 0 L 2 L L 2 &' t L &' t L &' t L 0 0 2 &' t L 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 &' t L &' t L 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0
27 !
28 !
Laplace Transform Example !

Find the inverse Laplace transform of 4 10 X(s) = ! , ! 3<" < 6 s+3 s!6 4 The ROC tells us that must inverse transform into a s+3 10 right-sided signal and that must inverse transform into s!6 a left-sided signal. x ( t ) = 4 e!3t u ( t ) + 10 e6 t u ( ! t )
Find the Laplace transform of x ( t ) = e! t u ( t ) + e2 t u ( ! t ) 1 , % > !1 s +1 1 L e2 t u ( ! t ) "$ #! , % <2 s!2 1 1 L !t 2t e u ( t ) + e u ( ! t ) "$ # ! , !1< % < 2 s +1 s ! 2
L e! t u ( t ) "$ #
30 !
5 !
Find the inverse Laplace transform of 4 10 X(s) = ! ," >6 s+3 s!6 The ROC tells us that both terms must inverse transform into a right-sided signal. x ( t ) = 4 e!3t u ( t ) ! 10 e6 t u ( t )
Find the inverse Laplace transform of 4 10 X(s) = ! , " < !3 s+3 s!6 The ROC tells us that both terms must inverse transform into a left-sided signal. x ( t ) = !4 e!3t u ( ! t ) + 10 e6 t u ( ! t )
31 !
32 !
MATLAB System Objects !

A MATLAB system object is a special kind of variable in MATLAB that contains all the information about a system. It can be created with the tf command whose syntax is
sys = tf(num,den) where num is a vector of numerator coefficients of powers of s, den is a vector of denominator coefficients of powers of s, both in descending order and sys is the system object.
MATLAB System Objects !

For example, the transfer function
s2 + 4 s + 4 s + 7 s 3 + 15 s 2 + 31s + 75 can be created by the commands H1 ( s ) =

5 4
num = [1 0 4] ; den = [1 4 7 15 31 75] ; H1 = tf(num,den) ; H1 Transfer function: s^2 + 4 ---------------------------------------s ^ 5 + 4 s ^ 4 + 7 s ^ 3 + 15 s ^ 2 + 31 s + 75
33 !
34 !
Partial-Fraction Expansion !
35 !
36 !
6 !
H (s) =
( s + 4 )( s + 9 )
10 s = K1 K + 2 , ! > "4 s+4 s+9 # & 10 s "40 # 10 s & K1 = % ( s + 4 ) =% = = "8 ( s+9( 5 s + 4 s + 9 $ ' ( ) ( ) % ( s = " 4 $ ' s = "4 # & 10 s "90 # 10 s & K2 = % ( s + 9) =% = = 18 ( s+4( ' s = "9 "5 ( s + 4 ) ( s + 9) ( % $ ' s = "9 $ "8 18 "8 s " 72 + 18 s + 72 10 s H (s) = + = = . Check. s+4 s+9 ( s + 4 )( s + 9 ) ( s + 4 )( s + 9 ) ))))) h ( t ) = "8 e"4 t + 18 e"9 t u ( t )
37 !
38 !
39 !
40 !
10 s K12 K K H (s) = = + 11 + 2 , ! > 4 ( s + 4 )2 ( s + 9 ) ( s + 4 )2 s + 4 s + 9 " Repeated Pole # 2 K12 = % ( s + 4 ) % $ Using K qk = K11 = 1 10 s
" ( s + 9 )10 ! 10 s % 18 K11 = $ = ' 2 s + 9 ( ) # & s = !4 5 18 !8 18 / 5 !18 / 5 K2 = ! ( H ( s) = + + , ) > !4 5 ( s + 4 )2 s + 4 s + 9 H (s) = H (s) = !8 s ! 72 + 10 s 18 2 18 2 s + 13s + 36 ! s + 8 s + 16 5 5 2 ( s + 4 ) ( s + 9) , ) > !4
( s + 4 )2 ( s + 9 ) ( ' s = )4
d m) k # s ) pq
& (
)40 = )8 5
, ) > !4
( m ) k )! ds m ) k $ ( 2 ) 1)! ds 2)1 $
1 d 2 )1
H ( s )& , k = 1, 2,!, m ' s* pq
( s + 4 )2 ( s + 9 )
d # 10 s & #( s + 4 )2 H ( s ) & ' s*)4 = ds % $s + 9( ' s*)4

41 !
18 18 * h ( t ) = , !8te!4 t + e!4 t ! e!9 t / u ( t ) + . 5 5

7 !
10 s 2 H (s) = , ! > "4 # Improper in s ( s + 4 )( s + 9 ) 10 s 2 H (s) = 2 , ! > "4 s + 13s + 36 10 Synthetic Division $ s 2 + 13s + 36 10 s 2 10 s + 130 s + 360 " 130 s " 360
2
Inverse Laplace Transform Example !

Method 1 s G (s) = ( s ! 3) s 2 ! 4 s + 5 , " <2 , " <2 , " <2
G (s) = G (s) =
130 s + 360 % "32 162 ( H ( s ) = 10 " = 10 " ' + , ! > "4 ( s + 4 )( s + 9 ) &s + 4 s + 9* )
"9 t "4 t h ( t ) = 10+ ( t ) " % &162 e " 32 e ( ) u (t )
s!3
( s ! 3) ( s ! 2 + j ) ( s ! 2 ! j ) 3 / 2 (3 + j) / 4 (3 ! j) / 4 ! !
s!2+ j s!2! j
3 + j ( 2 ! j )t 3 ! j ( 2 + j )t & # 3 g ( t ) = % ! e 3t + e + e ( u ( !t ) $ 2 ' 4 4
43 !
44 !

3 + j ( 2 ! j )t 3 ! j ( 2 + j )t % " 3 g ( t ) = $ ! e 3t + e + e ' u ( !t ) # 2 & 4 4 This looks like a function of time that is complex-valued. But, with the use of some trigonometric identities it can be put into the form
3t g ( t ) = ( 3 / 2 ) e2 t ( ) cos ( t ) + (1 / 3) sin ( t ) * + ! e u ( !t ) which has only real values.

Method 2 s G (s) = ( s ! 3) s 2 ! 4 s + 5
, " <2 , " <2
G (s) = G (s) =
, " <2 s!3 s!2+ j s!2! j Getting a common denominator and simplifying 3 / 2 1 6 s ! 10 3/2 6 s! 5 / 3 G (s) = ! = ! , " <2 s ! 3 4 s 2 ! 4 s + 5 s ! 3 4 ( s ! 2 )2 + 1
( s ! 3) ( s ! 2 + j ) ( s ! 2 ! j ) 3 / 2 (3 + j) / 4 (3 ! j) / 4 ! !
45 !
46 !

Method 2 3/2 6 s ! 5 / 3 G (s) = ! , " <2 s ! 3 4 ( s ! 2 )2 + 1 The denominator of the second term has the form of the Laplace transform of a damped cosine or damped sine but the numerator is not yet in the correct form. But by adding and subtracting the correct expression from that term and factoring we can put it into the form G (s) = 3/2 3# s ! 2 1/ 3 & ! % + ( , " <2 s ! 3 2 $ ( s ! 2 )2 + 1 ( s ! 2 )2 + 1 '

Method 2 3/2 3" s ! 2 1/ 3 % G (s) = ! $ + ' , ( <2 s ! 3 2 # ( s ! 2 )2 + 1 ( s ! 2 )2 + 1 & This can now be directly inverse Laplace transformed into
3t g ( t ) = ( 3 / 2 ) e2 t " # cos ( t ) + (1 / 3) sin ( t ) % & ! e u ( !t )
which is the same as the previous result.
48 !
8 !

Method 3 When we have a pair of poles p2 and p3 that are complex conjugates A K2 K3 we can convert the form G ( s ) = + + into the s ! 3 s ! p2 s ! p3 form G ( s ) =

Method 3 A can be found as before to be 3 / 2. Letting s = 0, the 3/2 C identity becomes 0 ! " + and C = 5 / 2. Then, letting 3 5 s = 1, and solving we get B = "3 / 2. Now G (s) = or 3/2 3 s " 5 / 3 " , # <2 s " 3 2 s2 " 4 s + 5 This is the same as a result in Method 2 and the rest of the solution is also the same. The advantage of this method is that all the numbers are real. G (s) =
49 ! M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl ! 50 !
s ( K 2 + K 3 ) ! K 3 p2 ! K 2 p3 A A Bs + C + = + s!3 s 2 ! ( p1 + p2 ) s + p1 p2 s ! 3 s 2 ! ( p1 + p2 ) s + p1 p2
3 / 2 ( "3 / 2 ) s + 5 / 2 + , # <2 s"3 s2 " 4 s + 5
In this example we can find the constants A, B and C by realizing that s A Bs + C G (s) = " + , # <2 ( s ! 3) s 2 ! 4 s + 5 s ! 3 s 2 ! 4 s + 5
is not just an equation, it is an identity. That means it must be an equality for any value of s.
Use of MATLAB in Partial Fraction Expansion !

MATLAB has a function residue that can be very helpful in partial fraction expansion. Its syntax is [r,p,k] = residue(b,a) where b is a vector of coefficients of descending powers of s in the numerator of the expression and a is a vector of coefficients of descending powers of s in the denominator of the expression,
r
Laplace Transform Properties !

L Let g ( t ) and h ( t ) form the transform pairs, g ( t ) !# " G (s) L and h ( t ) !# " H ( s ) with ROC's, ROCG and ROCH respectively.
Linearity Time Shifting s-Domain Shift
L $ g ( t ) + % h ( t ) !# "$ G ( s) + % H ( s) ROC & ROCG ' ROCH L g ( t ( t 0 ) !# " G ( s ) e( st0
is a vector of residues, p is a vector of finite pole locations and k is a vector of so-called direct terms which result when the degree of the numerator is equal to or greater than the degree of the denominator. For our purposes, residues are simply the numerators in the partial-fraction expansion.
L e s0t g ( t ) !# " G ( s ( s0 )
ROC = ROCG
ROC = ROCG shifted by s0 , ( s is in ROC if s ( s0 is in ROCG )


Time Scaling g ( at ) !# " (1 / a ) G ( s / a )
L

Convolution in Time
L g ( t ) ! h ( t ) "$ # G (s) H (s)
ROC % ROCG & ROCH Time Integration

()
Time Differentiation
s-Domain Differentiation
ROC = ROCG scaled by a ( s is in ROC if s / a is in ROCG ) d L g ( t ) !# " s G (s) dt ROC $ ROCG d L % t g ( t ) !# " G (s) ds ROC = ROCG
# G (s) / s * g (' ) d' "$

L
ROC % ROCG & (+ > 0 )
If g ( t ) = 0 , t < 0 and there are no impulses or higher-order singularities at t = 0 then Initial Value Theorem: Final Value Theorem: g 0 + = lim s G ( s ) lim g ( t ) = lim s G ( s ) if lim g ( t ) exists
t #) s# 0 t #)
54 !
( )
s #)
53 !
9 !

Final Value Theorem
limg ( t ) = lim s G ( s )
t !" s! 0 t !"

Final Value Theorem!
The final value theorem applies to a function G ( s ) if all the
This theorem only applies if the limit lim g ( t ) actually exists. It is possible for the limit lim s G ( s ) to exist even though the limit lim g ( t ) does not exist. For example
t !" L x ( t ) = cos (# 0t ) $% ! X(s) = s! 0
poles of sG ( s ) lie in the open left half of the s plane. Be sure
s 2 s2 + # 0
to notice that this does not say that all the poles of G ( s ) must
lie in the open left half of the s plane. G ( s ) could have a single pole at s = 0 and the final value theorem would still apply.
lim s X ( s ) = lim
s! 0 s! 0 t !"
but lim cos (# 0t ) does not exist.
s2 =0 2 s + #0
2
55 !
56 !
Use of Laplace Transform Properties !

Find the Laplace transforms of x ( t ) = u ( t ) ! u ( t ! a ) and Then, using the time-shifting property u ( t ! a ) "$ #e
L L L x ( 2t ) = u ( 2t ) ! u ( 2t ! a ) . From the table u ( t ) "$ # 1 / s, % > 0. ! as ! as
Use of Laplace Transform Properties !

Use the s-domain differentiation property and
L u ( t ) !# "1 / s , $ > 0
Using the linearity property u ( t ) ! u ( t ! a ) "$ # 1! e Using the time-scaling property
) / s, % > 0.
/ s, % > 0.
1 & 1 ! e! as ) 1 ! e! as /2 L u ( 2t ) ! u ( 2t ! a ) "$ # ( = ,% >0 2' s + s * s# s /2
to find the inverse Laplace transform of 1 / s 2 . The s-domain d L differentiation property is % t g ( t ) !# " ( G ( s )) . Then ds d & 1) 1 L % t u ( t ) !# " ( + = % 2 . Then using the linearity property ds ' s * s 1 L t u ( t ) !# " 2. s
The Unilateral Laplace Transform !

In most practical signal and system analysis using the Laplace transform a modified form of the transform, called the unilateral Laplace transform, is used. The unilateral Laplace transform is defined by G ( s ) = # ! g ( t ) e! st dt . The only difference between
0 "

The unilateral Laplace transform integral excludes negative time. If a function has non-zero behavior in negative time its unilateral and bilateral transforms will be different. Also functions with the same positive time behavior but different negative time behavior will have the same unilateral Laplace transform. Therefore, to avoid ambiguity and confusion, the unilateral Laplace transform should only be used in analysis of causal signals and systems. This is a limitation but in most practical analysis this limitation is not significant and the unilateral Laplace transform actually has advantages.
this version and the previous definition is the change of the lower integration limit from ! " to 0 !. With this definition, all the Laplace transforms of causal functions are the same as before with the same ROC, the region of the s plane to the right of all the finite poles.
60 !
10 !

The main advantage of the unilateral Laplace transform is that the ROC is simpler than for the bilateral Laplace transform and, in most practical analysis, involved consideration of the ROC is unnecessary. The inverse Laplace transform is unchanged. It is 1 + st g (t ) = %j$ G ( s ) e ds j 2! " #
" + j$

Some of the properties of the unilateral Laplace transform are different from the bilateral Laplace transform. Time-Shifting Time Scaling First Time Derivative Nth Time Derivative Time Integration
L g ( t ! t 0 ) "$ # G ( s ) e! st0 , t 0 > 0 L g ( at ) "$ # (1 / a ) G ( s / a ) , a > 0
d L g ( t ) "$ # s G ( s ) ! g 0! dt
( )
N % d n !1 ( dN L # s N G ( s ) ! + s N ! n ' n !1 ( g ( t )) * (g (t )) "$ dt N n =1 & dt )t = 0!
0!
# G (s) / s - g (, ) d, "$
L
61 !
62 !

The time shifting property applies only for shifts to the right because a shift to the left could cause a signal to become non-causal. For the same reason scaling in time must only be done with positive scaling coefficients so that time is not reversed producing an anti-causal function. The derivative property must now take into account the initial value of the function at time t = 0 ! and the integral property applies only to functional behavior after time t = 0. Since the unilateral and bilateral Laplace transforms are the same for causal functions, the bilateral table of transform pairs can be used for causal functions.

The Laplace transform was developed for the solution of differential equations and the unilateral form is especially well suited for solving differential equations with initial conditions. For example, d2 d ! x (t )# $ + 7 dt ! " x (t )# $ + 12 x ( t ) = 0 dt 2 " d with initial conditions x 0 % = 2 and ( x (t ))t = 0% = %4. dt Laplace transforming both sides of the equation, using the new derivative property for unilateral Laplace transforms, d % # s 2 X ( s ) % s x 0 % % ( x ( t ))t = 0% + 7 ! " s X ( s ) % x 0 $ + 12 X ( s ) = 0 dt
( )
( )
( )
63 !
64 !

! ! !
Pole-Zero Diagrams and Frequency Response !
65 !
66 !
11 !

! " 0#

lim H ( j! ) = lim# 3
! "0
j! =0 j! + 3
! " 0+
lim H ( j! ) = lim+ 3
! "0
j! =0 j! + 3
! "#$
lim H ( j! ) = lim 3
! "#$
j! =3 j! + 3
! " +#
lim H ( j! ) = lim 3
! " +#
j! =3 j! + 3
68 !
67 !

! " 0#
lim ! H ( j! ) = #
$ $ #0=# 2 2
! " 0+
lim ! H ( j! ) =
# # $0= 2 2
! "#$
lim ! H ( j! ) = #
% & %) #(# + = 0 2 ' 2*
! " +#
lim ! H ( j! ) =
$ $ % =0 2 2
71 !
72 !
12 !
73 !
74 !
75 !
76 !
77 !
13 !

Filter Analysis3

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Filter Analysis3

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Generalizing the Fourier Transform !

The Laplace Transform

L x ( t ) %' & X(s)

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Generalizing the Fourier Transform !

Generalizing the Fourier Transform !

=F & ' x (t ) e ( ) which is the Fourier

dt = A % e! j# t dt & Does not converge

dt = A % e!(" + j# )t dt & Converges (if " > 0)

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Complex Exponential Excitation !

Complex Exponential Excitation !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

The Transfer Function !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

The Transfer Function !

( ) ( )( ) () 1 1 1 1/ 4 1/ 4 X ( s) = 1 / s , H ( s) = * Y ( s) = + = ! s+4 s s+4 s s+4 x ( t ) = (1 / 4 ) (1 ! e ) u ( t )

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Direct Form II Realization !

Direct Form II Realization !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Direct Form II Realization !

Direct Form II Realization !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Direct Form II Realization !

Direct Form II Realization !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Inverse Laplace Transform !

Existence of the Laplace Transform !

Time Limited Signals!

1 Y s est ds , s = " + j& j 2! " #%j$

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Existence of the Laplace Transform !

Existence of the Laplace Transform !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Existence of the Laplace Transform !

Existence of the Laplace Transform !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Existence of the Laplace Transform !

Existence of the Laplace Transform !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Existence of the Laplace Transform !

Laplace Transform Pairs !

dt = A $ e"( s "! )t dt = A $ e(! "% )t e" j& t dt =

x l ( t ) is the left-sided part and if x r ( t ) < K r e and x l ( t ) < K l e

right of that point. The Laplace transform of g 2 ( t ) = Ae't u ( " t ) is G2 ( s) =

dt = A $ e( ' " s )t dt = A $ e( ' "% )t e" j& t dt = "

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Laplace Transform Example !

Laplace Transform Example !

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl !

Laplace Transform Example !

d # 10 s & #( s + 4 )2 H ( s ) & ' s)4 = ds % $s + 9( ' s)4