Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172

www.elsevier.com/locate/ces
Axial dispersion of particles in a slugging columnthe role of the
laminar wake of the bubbles
O. N. Cardoso, T. Sotto Mayor, A. M. F. R. Pinto, J. B. L. M. Campos

Centro de Estudos de Fen omenos de Transporte, Departamento de Engenharia Qumica, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto,
Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
Received 2 December 2002; received in revised form 18 June 2003; accepted 27 June 2003
Abstract
Axial solid dispersion promoted by Taylor bubbles in a batch liquid column was studied. A mechanistic model was developed to
predict the axial solid dispersion. The model is based on the upward transport of particles inside closed wakes of non-interacting Taylor
bubbles. The model predictions are compared with experimental data. The experimental data were obtained in a test tube of 32 mm
internal diameter. The particle volumetric distribution was measured by several dierential pressure transducers placed along the column.
Two classes of glass beads, mean diameter 180 and 280 m, were suspended in aqueous glycerol solutions, with glycerol percentage
ranging from 40% (v/v) to 100% (v/v). The amount of particles in the column was such that the volumetric particle fractions were
0.1, 0.2 and 0.3, supposing homogeneous liquidsolid suspension. The air ow rate ranged from 90 10
6
to 250 10
6
m
3
}s at
PTN conditions. The obtained experimental data are in good agreement with the model predictions for laminar wakes, i.e., closed wakes
with internal recirculation and without vortex shedding. The experimental data show a higher upward particle transport for wakes in the
transition laminar-turbulent regime; closed wakes with internal recirculation and vortex shedding. The upward particle transport is higher
for increasing air ow rate, decreasing particle diameter and increasing amount of particles in the column.
? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fluid mechanics; Multiphase ow; Slurries; Suspension; Slug ow; Laminar wakes
1. Introduction
Three-phase ows are widely used in several industrial
catalytic processes, and more recently in biological wastew-
ater treatment and bacterial leaching processes. The bubble
phase promotes the suspension and dispersion of the solids
in the liquid phase. In suspension, the activity of the solids
increases, either acting as a catalyst or undergoing a chemi-
cal reaction. Numerous investigations about solid phase dis-
persion in three phase ows have been carried out, and a
long list of works is supplied by Abraham, Khare, Sawant,
and Joshi (1992). They also describe the measurement tech-
niques used and the correlations proposed to quantify the
axial solid phase dispersion. According to these correlations,
the relevant parameters to quantify the axial solid dispersion
are: liquid properties such as density, viscosity and surface
tension; particle properties such as density and size; and gas
properties such as bubble velocity and bubble frequency.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +351-225081692; fax: +351-225081649.

E-mail address: jmc@fe.up.pt (J. B. L. M. Campos).
The so-called axial dispersionsedimentation model has
been widely used to quantify the axial solid dispersion in
three-phase batch columns. The model contains two basic
parameters: a particle settling velocity, t
P
, and a particle
axial dispersion coecient, D
P
. The formulation is phe-
nomenological and is based on the concept of a particle
dispersion ux, described by a diusion-type equation, to-
gether with a particle ux due to the gravitational settling.
Jean, Tang, and Fan (1989) summarized the dierent ver-
sions of the dispersionsedimentation model, as well as the
large number of empirical correlations proposed in the lit-
erature to quantify t
P
and D
P
.
Mechanistic models describing the solid dispersion in
bubbling columns have also been developed. In these
models, the transport in the bubble wake is the mech-
anism responsible for the upward motion of the parti-
cles. Dayan and Zalmanovich (1982) proposed a fully
mechanistic model to quantify the axial solid dispersion.
The model was developed for spherical cap bubbles and
the wakes of the bubbles were taken as spherical and
closed.
0009-2509/$ - see front matter ? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0009-2509(03)00305-1
4160 O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172
Coppus, Rietema, and Ottengraf (1977), Komasawa,
Otake, and Kamojima (1980), Bhaga and Weber (1981),
Campos and Guedes de Carvalho (1988) and Fan and
Tsuchiya (1990) published works about bubble wake dy-
namics, most of them concerning spherical cap bubbles.
Slug ow is one of the several gasliquid ow regimes
occurring inside pipes over a wide range of gas and liquid
ow rates. In a vertical pipe, this ow pattern is character-
ized by long bullet-shaped bubbles, called Taylor bubbles
or gas slugs, rising and almost lling the pipe cross section.
Campos and Guedes de Carvalho (1988) investigated the
wake ow patterns of gas slugs rising through stagnant liq-
uids. They identify three ow patterns: a closed and axisym-
metric wake with internal recirculatory ow (laminar wake
regime); a closed and unaxisymmetric wake with recircula-
tory ow and wake shedding (transition wake regime), and
an open and perfectly mixed wake (turbulent wake regime).
Pinto, Coelho Pinheiro, and Campos (1998) studied the
wake ow patterns in a co-current gasliquid slugging col-
umn and observed the same regimes.
In the present work, a simplied mechanistic model is
developed to predict the particle axial dispersion in a verti-
cal slugging column. The particles are transported upward
inside closed wakes and, during the bubble path, some par-
ticles are expelled due to gravitational and inertial eects.
The upward wake displacement induces a downward ow
of the suspension. This downward ow and the particle set-
tling velocity are responsible for the downward transport of
particles. The model predictions are compared with experi-
mental data.
2. Experimental work
2.1. Basis of the experimental method
The experimental method used to measure the axial parti-
cle distribution is based on the response of low-range dier-
ential pressure transducers (8 cm H
2
O) placed along the
bubbling tube.
In the experimental set-up, the plastic tubes connecting
the transducers to the pressure taps, as well as the pres-
sure cavities, were lled with the liquid in the bubbling
tube. The dierence in piezometric pressure is then given by
(Fig. 1)
P =P
+
P

= (P
2
j
L
qh
2
) (P
1
+ j
L
qh
1
)
= (P
2
P
1
) j
L
qd
12
, (1)
where P is the actual pressure, h
1
and h
2
are the verti-
cal distances from a reference datum level, d
12
is the dis-
tance between pressure taps 1 and 2 and j
L
is the liquid
density.
When the test tube is lled between taps 1 and 2 with
liquidsolid suspension, the pressure dierence, P
2
P
1
,
P = P
+
- P
-
P
-
P
+
2
h
2
h
1
1
P
2
P
1
d
1-2
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of a transducer and connecting tubes.
is given by
P
2
P
1
=j
P
qc
S
d
12
+ j
L
q(1 c
S
)d
12
= [j
P
c
S
+ j
L
(1 c
S
)]qd
12
, (2)
where j
P
is the particle density and c
S
is the volumetric
particle fraction.
The dierence in piezometric pressure is obtained by com-
bining Eqs. (1) and (2) and depends on c
S
:
P = (j
P
j
L
)c
S
qd
12
. (3)
For the low-range dierential pressure transducers used
(8 cm H
2
O), the uncertainty associated to the P values
is lower than 1 mm H
2
O. According to Eq. (3) and the
experimental conditions, the uncertainty associated to the
c
S
values is lower than 0.01.
2.2. Experimental set-up
The experimental facility is schematically shown in Fig. 2.
Experiments were performed in an acrylic tube with 32 mm
internal diameter and 7.5 m height. Five dierential pressure
transducers (Validyne P305D) were used and their location
along the tube is shown in the gure. The distance between
pressure taps, d
12
, was 80 mm.
The signals from the pressure transducers were ac-
quired at a frequency of 200 Hz by a computer with an
analogical-digital board and recorded for later processing.
Two sizes of glass beads, 125200 and 225325 m, were
used. The particle size distribution was measured by a laser
granulometer, and the mean diameter of each class was,
respectively, 180 and 280 m.
Experiments were carried out with aqueous glycerol so-
lutions, from 40% (v/v) to 100% (v/v) in glycerol, and the
liquid temperature was continuously measured by two ther-
mocouples placed at the top and the bottom of the tube. The
temperature dierence between the top and the bottom of
the column was always less than 0.5

C. The liquid viscosity

was measured with a rotating Brookeld viscometer.
O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172 4161
Data Acquisition
System
0.08 m
+
T
1
-
+
T
2
-
+
T
3
-
+
T
4
-
+
T
5
-
2.75 m
2.35 m
1.62 m
0.83 m
0.46 m
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up.
The amount of particles supplied was pre-determined sup-
posing homogeneous solidliquid suspension; the homoge-
neous volumetric liquidsolid fractions, c
0
S
, were 0.1, 0.2
and 0.3.
The air was axially injected at the bottom of the column
through an orice with 5 mm of internal diameter. The gas
ow rate was measured by calibrated rotameters and at PTN
conditions ranging from 90 10
6
to 250 10
6
m
3
}s.
2.3. Experimental procedure
The liquid was poured into the column and some prelim-
inary data acquisitions were done to conrm the zero of the
pressure transducers. After these tests, the desired amount
of particles was fed into the column. The height of liquid
and particles was always around 3.0 m.
The bubbling air was turned on, sometimes, before the
settling of the particles at the bottom of the tube, other times
after the settling of all the particles, depending on the type
of experiment desired. In the second type of experiment
the settling time of 90% of the particles, initially dispersed
in homogeneous suspensions with the following character-
istics, 280 m, c
0
S
= 0.2 and 70% (v/v) in glycerol, and
280 m, c
0
S
= 0.3 and 80% (v/v) in glycerol, was about 40
and 170 min, respectively.
After a pre-dened bubbling time, the air was turned o
and the volumetric particle fraction in the unareated suspen-
sion was instantaneously measured in ve locations along
the tube. The values measured were the mean values be-
tween pressure taps (8.0 cm). After a short reading time,
about 3 min, the bubbling air was turned on again and
the bubbling time increased before new data acquisition.
This procedure was repeated until identical distribution was
obtained in three consecutive acquisitions. Following this
procedure, the steady state was attained. In the most severe
condition, high liquid viscosity, low gas-ow rate, high par-
ticle diameter and high particle volumetric fraction, the bub-
bling time needed to reach steady state was less than 1 h.
3. Flow patterns in a slugging three-phase column
3.1. Physical properties
In the literature, there are several studies concerning
physical properties of liquidsolid suspensions. According
to Barnes, Hutton, and Walters (1989), suspensions with
volumetric particle fractions less than 0.3 behave like a
Newtonian uid. At very low and very high shear rates, the
suspension viscosity is essentially the same.
The eective Newtonian viscosity of a liquidsolid sus-
pension, j
S
, can be evaluated by Ball and Richmonds
(1980) equation:
j
S
= j
L
(1 kc
S
)
5}2k
, (4)
where j
L
is the dynamic liquid viscosity.
This equation assumes that the eect of all the particles
in the suspension is equal to the sum of the eects of the
particles added in sequence. The parameter k accounts for
the so-called crowding eect and 1}k is identied with
the maximum solid fraction. For a random closed packing
of monodisperse spheres, the value of k is 0.637.
The eective density of the liquidsolid suspension, j
S
,
can be evaluated by
j
S
= j
L
(1 c
S
) + c
S
j
P
. (5)
3.2. Slug bubble velocity
If a liquidsolid suspension behaves like a Newtonian liq-
uid, the velocity, U
B
, of a slug bubble rising in a suspension
can be evaluated by the following equation:
U
B
= CU
G
+ U
B

, (6)
where U
B

is the velocity of an individual slug bubble, U

G
the supercial gas velocity and C an empirical coecient,
which depends on the ow regime in front of the bubble
nose.
For gasliquid slug ow, Nicklin, Wilkes, and Davidson
(1962) and Collins, De Moraes, Davidson, and Harrison
(1978) suggested the value of C = 1.2 for turbulent regime
and Collins et al. (1978) the value of C = 2.0 for lam-
inar regime. The value of the parameter C can be eval-
uated measuring the expansion of an aerated suspension.
4162 O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172
Re

0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0 20 40 60 80 100
laminar regime
transition regime
eq.8 ( = 1)
U
B

(
m
s
-
1
)
Fig. 3. Experimental data for the velocity of individual bubbles rising
in liquidsolid suspension versus Re
o
. The non-dashed symbols refer to
c
0
S
= 0.2, right and left dashed symbols to c
0
S
= 0.1 and 0.3, respectively.
The open symbols refer to particle size 180 m and the full symbols to
280 m. The circles refer to 60% (v/v) in glycerol, the squares to 70%,
the lozenges to 80% and the triangles to 90%.
According to Matsen, Hovmand, and Davidson (1969) and
Grace, Krochmalnek, Clift, and Farkas (1971), the expan-
sion of liquids in slugging columns is given by the following
expression:
H
max
H
0
H
0
=
U
G
J
=
U
G
(C 1)U
G
+ U
B

=
x
(C 1) x + 1
, (7)
where H
max
is the maximum liquid height in the aerated
column, H
0
the liquid height before slugging, J the relative
velocity between the slug and the liquid owing ahead the
slug nose and x = U
G
}U
B

.
This equation can be applied to a three-phase column if
the velocity of an individual slug bubble and the maximum
suspension height are measured. The velocity of individ-
ual slug bubbles was measured by the pressure transducers
placed along the test tube. This technique and the respective
data processing are described by Pinto and Campos (1996).
Fig. 3 shows the results obtained for a large range of exper-
imental conditions: particles with 180 and 280 m of diam-
eter, aqueous glycerol solutions ranging from 70% to 90%
in glycerol and c
0
S
=0.2 and 0.3 . The experiments were per-
formed injecting one single bubble just after the addition of
an homogeneous suspension to the column (prepared out-
side of the column). The Reynolds number represented in
the gure is given by Eq. (10) with U
G
= 0. According to
the gure, U
B

in the suspensions is similar to U

B

in a
liquid, which, according to White and Beardmore (1962), is
given by
U
B

= 0.35
_
qD, (8)
where D is the internal tube diameter and = 1.
The technique used to measure the maximum suspension
height is described by Coelho Pinheiro, Pinto, and Campos
U
B

U
G
C = 2.0
C = 1.2
(
H
m
a
x
-
H
0
)
H
0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Fig. 4. Expansion of a three-phase bubble column.
(2000). In Fig. 4, Eq. (7) and experimental data of (H
max

H
0
)}H
0
versus x are represented. In most of the experiments
performed, the value of the constant C is around 2.0, the
value suggested by Collins et al. (1978) for gasliquid slug
ow in laminar regime.
3.3. Wake ow regime
Campos and Guedes de Carvalho (1988) studied the wake
ow regime for individual long slug bubbles rising in a stag-
nant liquid. Pinto et al. (1998) extended the work to individ-
ual slug bubbles rising in a co-current owing liquid. Both
works concluded that the ow regime in the wake bubble
depends on the Reynolds number of the liquid lm, Re
o
, at
the bottom of the bubble, i.e., before the liquid expansion:
Re
o
=
t
o
o
v
=
(U
B
U
G
)D
4v

1
1 o}D
, (9)
where v is the kinematic viscosity, t
o
the mean velocity in
the stabilized liquid lm relatively to a referential moving
with the bubble and o the thickness of the stabilized lm.
Most of the times, the liquid lm is very thin, o}D1,
and the previous equation can be simplied as
Re
o
=
t
o
o
v
=
(U
B
U
G
)D
4v
. (10)
According to Pinto et al. (1998), the ow wake regime
is laminar, with liquid in recirculation in a toroidal vortex
when Re
o
50, is transitional, with vortex shedding when
50 Re
o
90 and is turbulent when Re
o
90.
Visualization experiments, with particle suspensions,
were performed to characterize the bubble wake regime in a
three-phase ow. A suspension of inert particles (liquid and
particles with the same density) colored by a strong red dye
was placed in the lower part of an acrylic tube of 32 mm of
internal diameter. At the top of this suspension, there was a
ball valve. With this ball valve closed, the upper section of
the tube was lled with the same suspension but colorless.
After the opening of the valve, individual slug bubbles were
injected at the bottom of the tube, and their images rising
O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172 4163
Fig. 5. (a, b) Images of bubble wakes rising in inert suspensions; (a)
laminar wake, Re
o
= 40; (b) transition wake, Re
o
= 53.
in the colorless suspension recorded by a fast CCD camera.
For laminar and transition wakes, the images show a de-
ned red region attached to the bottom of the bubble and ris-
ing at the same velocity. These images were digitalized and
the volume and length of the wakes determined by a soft-
ware developed. This visualization technique is described
in detail, for gasliquid slug ow, by Campos and Guedes
de Carvalho (1988). Fig. 5 shows images of laminar and
transition wakes, Re
o
= 40 and Re
o
= 53, respectively. The
owpatterns and the corresponding ranges of Re
o
were iden-
tical to those cited for gasliquid slug ow. The values of
Re
o
were determined with the eective viscosity of the sus-
pension.
3.4. Length and volume of the wake
The visualization technique described was used by
Campos and Guedes de Carvalho (1988) to determine the
length, !
w
, and volume, J
w
, of closed wakes in gasliquid
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
V
w

/

D
3
laminar regime
transition regime
eq. (12)
Re

0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
D l
w
transition regime
laminar regime
eq. (11)
Re

(a)
(b)
Fig. 6. (a, b) Wake volume (a) and wake length (b) versus Re
o
. The
symbols represent data obtained in inert suspensions. The lines represent
Eqs. (11) and (12).
slug ow. The following equations were established:
!
w
D
= 0.30 + 1.4 10
2
Re
o
, 15 Re
o
90, (11)
J
w
D
3
= 8.6 10
3
Re
o
, 15 Re
o
90. (12)
From the visualization experiments, values for the volume
and length of closed wakes were determined. These data are
in agreement with Eqs. (11) and (12), as can be seen in
Figs. 6a and b. The values of Re
o
were determined using the
eective viscosity of the suspension.
3.5. Wake shape
The images in Fig. 5 suggest that the wake shape is simi-
lar to the shape of a half-ellipsoid with the largest axis ver-
tical. To prove this similarity, the volume of a half-ellipsoid
was calculated and compared with the wake volume from
Eq. (12). To calculate the volume of the half-ellipsoid, the
vertical axis was taken equal to two times the wake length,
!
w
, and the horizontal axis was taken equal to two times the
dierence between the tube radius and the lm thickness,
R o.
Brown (1965) deduced an expression to estimate the
thickness of a stabilized laminar liquid lm, in gasliquid
4164 O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
laminar regime
transition regime
V
w
V
e
l
l
i
p
Re

Fig. 7. Comparison between the wake volume and the volume of a half
ellipsoid versus Re
o
.
slug ow. Taking the physical properties of the suspension,
Browns equation is written as
o =
_
3v
S
D
4q

1
1 o}R
_
_
1
o
R
_
2
U
B
U
G
__
1}3
. (13)
The comparison between the volume of a half-ellipsoid and
the wake volume is shown in Fig. 7. The relative dierence
between volume increases with Re
o
, and in the transition
regime has a maximum value around 25%.
3.6. Velocity prole in the liquid lm at the bottom of
the slug bubble
Brown (1965) presented the velocity prole, reference
frame attached to the bubble, for a stabilized liquid lm.
Taking the physical properties of the suspension, the velocity
prole is given by
t(r) =
q
v
S
_
R
2
r
2
4

(R o)
2
2
ln
R
r
_
+ U
B
. (14)
The velocity at the suspensionbubble interface, i.e. the
maximum velocity in the lm, is given by
t(r =R o) =
q
v
S

_
R
2
(Ro)
2
4

(Ro)
2
2
ln
R
Ro
_
+ U
B
. (15)
4. Mechanistic dispersion model
A mechanistic model was developed to predict the axial
particle dispersion in a slugging vertical column. Accord-
ing to the model, the particles are transported upward
inside closed wakes and, during the bubble path, they
are expelled due to gravitational and inertial eects. The
upward wake displacement induces a downward ow of
the suspension. This downward ow and the particle set-
tling velocity are responsible for the downward transport
of particles. This simplied model was developed under
F
d
F
g
F
c
r ()
Gas Bubble
Particle
Film

Fig. 8. Schematic representation of a laminar wake with a half ellip-

soidal shape. The trajectories and the forces acting on the particles are
represented.
several assumptions:
the bubbles do not interact during their rise;
the bubbles are long enough to generate a stabilized sus-
pension lm owing around;
the wake regime is laminar; the wake shedding observed
in the transition regime cannot be modelled;
when a bubble enters into the column, all the bubbles and
suspension above are displaced in a volume equal to the
volume of the bubble. The ow regime in the suspension
between the bubbles is laminar and so the particles placed
near the axis of the column suer a higher displacement
than those near the wall. There is an eective upward
transport of particles. However, during the bubble rise, the
suspension ows down around the bubble. In this down-
ward ow, once again, the particles at the axis of the col-
umn travel a higher distance than those near the wall (due
to the non-slip condition). The model assumes that the ef-
fective particle transport promoted by the bubble inlet into
the column (upward transport) and by the ow of the sus-
pension around the bubble (downward transport) is much
smaller than the transport induced by the wakes. This last
assumption is controversial and will be a matter of dis-
cussion when the results of the experiments are analyzed.
4.1. Forces acting on a particle in recirculation in the
wake
In a closed wake, the particles are in intense recirculation
in trajectories around the so-called toroidal vortex-ring (ref-
erence frame attached to the bubble). A closed wake, with
a half-ellipsoidal shape, and the trajectories of the particles
are schematically represented in Fig. 8. The particles have
O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172 4165
tangential (t
t
) and radial (t
r
) velocity components. In the
radial direction, the slip velocity is the result of the com-
bined action of gravitational, centrifugal and drag forces.
The forces acting in a particle recirculating in a trajectory
near the boundary of the wake are represented in Fig. 8.
Assuming Stokes law, the drag force is expressed by
F
d
= 3j
SW
t
r
d
P
, (16)
where d
P
is the particle diameter and j
SW
is the viscosity
of the suspension inside the wake.
In the radial direction, the apparent weight of a particle
is given by
F
q
= (j
P
j
SW
)

6
d
3
P
q sin 0, (17)
where the angle 0 is shown in Fig. 8 and j
SW
is the density
of the suspension inside the wake.
The centrifugal force is given by
F
c
= m
P
t
2
t
r(0)
= (j
P
j
SW
)

6
d
3
P
t
2
t
r(0)
, (18)
where m
P
is the mass of a particle and r(0) the radius of the
trajectory, coincident with the radius of the wake.
Assuming a constant radial velocity, the forces acting on
the particle are in balance. The radial particle velocity is
evaluated from Eqs. (16)(18):
t
r
= t
I
P
_
sin 0 +
1
q
t
2
t
r(0)
_
, (19)
where t
I
P
represents the settling velocity of an individual
particle dened by
t
I
P
=
_
q(j
P
j
SW
)
1
18j
SW
d
2
P
_
. (20)
In laminar wake conditions, the value of t
I
P
is very low
and so, according to Eq. (19), t
t
t
r
. This means that,
in a short interval of time, only particles recirculating in
trajectories near the boundary of the wake have any chance
to exit.
4.2. Tangential velocity of a particle
In a reference frame attached to the bubble, the tangen-
tial velocity of a particle recirculating in the vicinity of the
wake boundary is equal to the velocity of the suspension
owing around the wake. Therefore, the tangential velocity
of a particle recirculating at 0 = 0 (Fig. 8) is equal to the
velocity of the suspension lm at R o, Eq. (15):
t
t
(0 = 0) =
q
v
S

_
R
2
(R o)
2
4

(R o)
2
2
ln
R
R o
_
+ U
B
. (15)
Along the wakesuspension boundary, the tangential veloc-
ity of a particle in recirculation is given by
t
t
(0) = t
t
(0 = 0) cos 0. (21)
At 0=0, the tangential velocity has the direction of the tube
axis and at the rear of the wake, 0 = }2, its value is zero.
The particle radial velocity is obtained combining Eqs. (19)
and (21).
4.3. Concentration prole
The mass of particles leaving the wake through a innites-
imal element of area oA in the interval of time ot, o m, is
given by
o m = j
P
c
w
t
r
oA, (22)
where c
w
is the particle volumetric fraction inside the wake.
The innitesimal area of an ellipsoidal element in polar co-
ordinates is given by
oA = 2r
2
(0) cos 0o0. (23)
The integration of Eq. (22) between 0 = 0 and 0 = }2
gives the mass ow rate of particles leaving the wake:
m(t) = 2j
P
c
w
(t)t
I
P
_
I
1
+
t
2
t
(0 = 0)
q
I
2
_
, (24)
where I
1
and I
2
are the following integrals:
I
1
=
_
}2
0
r
2
(0) cos (0) sin (0) d0, (25)
I
2
=
_
}2
0
r(0) cos
3
(0) d0. (26)
The relation between r(0) and 0 is given by the denition
equation of an ellipse in polar coordinates:
r(0) =
!
w

1 e
2
_
1 e
2
sin
2
(0)
, (27)
where e is the sphericity of the ellipse.
Eq. (24) can be rewritten assuming, at any instant, uni-
form particle concentration inside the wake:
m(t) =
dm(t)
dt
= 2
m(t)
J
w
t
I
P
_
I
1
+
t
2
t
(0 = 0)
q
I
2
_
, (28)
where m(t) is the mass of particles inside the wake at a given
instant t and J
w
is the wake volume.
The integration of Eq. (28) between the bubble departure
(t = 0, : = 0) and instant t(=:}U
B
) gives
m(:)
m
0
= e

2
U
B
J
w
t
I
P
_
I
1
+
t
2
t
(0=0)
q
I
2
_
:
, (29)
4166 O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172
where m
0
represents the mass of particles inside the wake
after the bubble formation (: = 0).
The height of the bubbling suspension : can be related
to the height of the unaerated suspension :

. If the bubble
distribution along the column is supposed uniform, : and :

are related by
:

= :
_
1
U
G
U
B
_
. (30)
The mass of particles inside the wake at a level :

is then
given by
m(:

)
m
0
= exp

2
(U
B
U
G
)J
w
t
I
P
_
I
1
+
t
2
t
(0=0)
q
I
2
_
:

. (31)
The dierence between the mass inside the wake at levels
:

1
and :

2
gives the mass of particles expelled from the wake
between these two levels.
The downward mean particle velocity, t
S
(:), is induced
by two mechanisms: (i) the settling velocity of the particles
in the suspension, and (ii) the downward suspension velocity
caused by the upward displacement of suspension inside the
wakes:
t
S
(:) = t
S
P
(:) +
J
w
[
A
, (32)
where t
S
P
(:) represents the settling velocity of the particles
in the suspension and [ the slug bubble frequency.
The settling velocity of small particles in high viscous sus-
pensions is very small. This velocity was determined from
Khan and Richardsons (1989) equation, and the conclusion
is that t
S
P
(:) 60.01J
w
[}A for all the experimental condi-
tions studied. The bubbling frequency was experimentally
measured and the wake volume is given by Eq. (12). There-
fore, the contribution of the settling velocity to the down-
ward transport can be neglected and the downward velocity
expressed only by
t
S
(:)

=
J
w
[
A
. (33)
At this point, the model can be described in a straightforward
way. There is an upward transport of particles inside the
wakes and some of them are expelled during the wake rise.
The particles still inside the wake at the top of the column are
deposited. In counterpart, there is a downward ow caused
by the upward displacement of the wakes. An elucidative
image is a little bag taken from the bottom, some of the
pieces inside the bag are lost during the rise, and the bag
is deposited at the top with the pieces still inside it. The
bag taken from the bottom to the top, creates a hole at
the bottom and so all the suspension moves down along a
distance equal to the height of the bag to ll the hole.
Based on this model, the particle dispersion along the
column was numerically simulated. In the next section, the
numerical procedure developed is briey described.
5. Numerical simulation
The test tube was divided in a ne horizontal grid. The
distance between horizontal lines was lower than 1 mm,
corresponding to more than 3000 horizontal grid lines. The
particle dispersion was simulated, bubble after bubble. Two
initial particle distributions were considered: (i) a distribu-
tion in step, with particles packed from the bottom until a
certain level and liquid free of particles from there until the
top; (ii) a uniform particle distribution along all the test tube.
The volume of the wake )=1, and of the following wakes,
was estimated by Eq. (12), using the physical properties of
the suspension at the bottom of the column; to be more pre-
cise, the mean properties in a distance equal to the equiva-
lent height of the wake, from : =0 to J
w
}A (this calculation
needs an iterative process). The volumetric fraction in the
wake at the bottom was the mean volumetric fraction from
: = 0 to J
w
}A. In the upward motion, the mass lost by the
wake ) =1 inside mesh i

, between grids i 1 and i, was de-

termined by subtracting the mass inside the wake, Eq. (31),
at grid levels i 1 and i.
The mean volumetric fraction inside mesh i

, after the
passage of the wake ) = 1, is given by
c
S
)
i

, 1
= c
S
)
i

, 0
+
m
i1
m
i
j
P
Ah
i
, (34)
where c
S
)
i

, 0
is the volumetric particle fraction inside mesh
i

before the passage of the wake and h

i
is the height of the
mesh i

.
At the arrival of wake ) = 1 at the top, the suspension
still inside the wake is deposited in a distance equal to the
equivalent height of the wake. The downward ow was sim-
ulated bringing down all the suspension in a distance equal
to the equivalent height of the wake.
The particle distribution before the simulation of wake
) =2, or any wake ), was known, and the simulation process
described for wake ) =1 was successively applied. The sim-
ulation was repeated the number of times (Taylor bubbles)
required to reach a steady or quasi-steady particle distribu-
tion. The simulation stopped when, after 100 consecutive
bubbles, the volumetric particle fraction did not change in
any point of the grid more than 1%.
6. Experimental results
Same of the experiments performed and the correspond-
ing operation conditions are listed in Table 1. The values
of the Reynolds number in the liquid lm, Re
o
, and of the
Reynolds number in the suspension owing in front of the
nose of the bubbles, Re
U
L
, are also listed. In most of the ex-
periments, the wake regime is laminar or in transition from
laminar to turbulent. In both regimes, there is recirculation
inside the closed wakes, respectively, without and with vor-
tex shedding. According to Re
U
L
values, the regime in the
O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172 4167
Table 1
Experimental conditions
Reference d

c
0
S
j
L
U
G
Re
o
Wake Re
U
L
Liquid
number (m) (Pa s) (m/s) regime regime
A 280 0.2 0.017 0.187 152 T 300 L
B 280 0.1 0.039 0.248 90 L/T 210 L
C 280 0.2 0.038 0.111 50 L 80 L
D 280 0.2 0.038 0.187 68 L/T 135 L
E 280 0.2 0.038 0.248 79 L/T 180 L
F 280 0.2 0.038 0.311 90 L/T 220 L
G 180 0.2 0.036 0.111 60 L/T 85 L
H 180 0.2 0.036 0.187 73 L/T 140 L
I 180 0.2 0.036 0.248 84 L/T 190 L
J 280 0.3 0.038 0.111 44 L 65 L
K 280 0.3 0.037 0.248 66 L/T 150 L
L 180 0.3 0.037 0.111 46 L 65 L
M 280 0.2 0.069 0.111 31 L 45 L
N 280 0.2 0.069 0.187 38 L 75 L
O 280 0.2 0.069 0.248 44 L 100 L
P 280 0.2 0.069 0.311 50 L 125 L
Q 280 0.3 0.071 0.111 24 L 35 L
R 280 0.3 0.071 0.187 30 L 60 L
S 280 0.3 0.071 0.248 34 L 80 L
T 280 0.3 0.071 0.311 40 L 100 L
U 280 0.3 0.071 0.343 42 L 110 L
V 280 0.2 0.216 0.187 12 L 25 L
Y 280 0.2 1.45 0.187 2 L 4 L
W 180 0.2 0.076 0.111 28 L 40 L
X 180 0.2 0.076 0.187 35 L 70 L
Z 180 0.2 0.076 0.248 40 L 90 L
suspension owing ahead the bubbles is always laminar,
supporting the values found for the coecient C (Fig. 4).
6.1. Reproducibility, initial distribution eect and steady
state
Several preliminary experiments were done to study the
reproducibility of the results, the bubbling time needed to
reach the steady state, and the eect on the particle dispersion
of the initial particle distribution.
The reproducibility was very good, in most of the cases
the deviations observed were less than the experimental un-
certainty. The steady state was reached, in the most adverse
conditions, 1 h after the beginning of the bubbling process.
The eect of the initial particle distribution on the axial
dispersion was studied performing experiments with dier-
ent initial distributions: a packed bed at the bottom of the
column (bubbling turned o), and a homogeneous distri-
bution (bubbling turned on); this homogeneous suspension
was prepared outside of the column. The steady-state parti-
cle distribution was the same, whatever the initial condition.
6.2. The transport in the wake
The data obtained with increasing liquid viscosity are plot-
ted in Fig. 9 (each run is associated to a letter according to
0.0
0.5
1.0
2.0
2.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
z*
A
Y
V
N
D
1.5

s

/

s 0
Fig. 9. Experimental axial dispersion data for dierent liquid viscosities.
Table 1). For the lower liquid viscosity, run A, the wake
regime is not closed, the axial particle transport is poor,
and the volumetric particle fraction at the top is practically
zero. With a liquid of viscosity two times greater, run D, the
wake is closed and there is vortex shedding along the wake
rise (transition regime). The axial dispersion increases re-
markably and at the top, the particle volumetric fraction is
almost one-third of the value at the bottom. With a liquid
of viscosity two times greater, run N, the wake regime is
laminar, there is no vortex shedding, but the wake volume
is lower than in the previous run. The axial dispersion is
4168 O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Q
R
S
T
z*

s

/

s 0
Fig. 10. Experimental axial dispersion data for dierent supercial gas
velocities.
identical to that observed in run D. With a liquid of viscos-
ity two times greater, run V, the wake regime continues to
be laminar, but the wake volume is much lower. There is
an evident decrease in the axial transport. The same trend
is observed in the last data, run Y, a smaller wake volume
induces a smaller transport.
The previous results are relevant to demonstrate the im-
portance of the wake in the axial particle transport. The
gure also shows that the wake transport overlaps the com-
bined particle transport due to bubble inlet and bubble rise
(assumption of the model). In all the experiments, the ow
regime in the suspension between bubbles is laminar (A, D,
N, V and Y - Table 1), and so the upward transport due to
bubble inlet should be identical for all these runs. Campos
(1987) studied the distortion suered by a horizontal line
of uid, initially placed in a cross section above the bubble
nose, due to the ow around a long slug bubble. According
to this study and taking on account the properties of the sus-
pensions represented in the gure, it can be concluded that
the downward transport is identical for all of them. More
precisely, the downward displacement of 90% of each sus-
pension is identical for all the runs, and only 10%, placed
near the wall, suers a higher downward transport in the less
viscosity runs. If the combined particle transport due to bub-
ble inlet and bubble rise was a relevant mechanism, identi-
cal dispersions should be observed in all the runs, but Fig.
10 shows the opposite. Therefore, according to the data, the
transport in the wake overlaps the particle transport induced
by this combined mechanism. It should be referred that the
high bubbling frequency can reinforce this behavior since,
along the column, most part of the suspension is inside the
wakes and only a small part is owing between and along
bubbles.
6.3. The eect of the supercial gas velocity
Data obtained with increasing supercial gas velocity
are plotted in Fig. 10, runs Q to T. In all the experiments,
the bubbles were long slugs. For the lower supercial gas
velocity, the mean bubble length was higher than 140 mm;
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
3.0
0

s

/

s
z*
M
W
Fig. 11. Experimental axial dispersion data for dierent particle diameters.
this value was obtained reading the surface height before
and after the bubbles burst at the top of the column. The
wake regime is laminar (Table 1), and the axial disper-
sion increases with increasing supercial gas velocity. This
behavior is partially explained by the decrease of the resi-
dence time of the bubbles, which induces a lower amount
of particles expelled from the wake during the wake rise.
The number of bubbles is not an important parameter
since the steady state is reached for dierent bubbling
times.
6.4. The eect of the particle diameter
Data obtained in experiments with particles of dier-
ent size are plotted in Fig. 11, runs M and W. The wake
regime is laminar, and the axial dispersion is higher for
the smaller particles. This behavior is partially explained
by the less amount of particles expelled during the wake
rise due to the lower centrifugal force acting on the smaller
particles. In both experiments, the settling velocity of the
particles can be neglected when compared with the down-
ward velocity of the suspension promoted by the upward
displacement of the wakes (Eq. (32)). If the previous re-
ferred combined particle transport due to bubble inlet and
bubble rise was the relevant transport mechanism, the ax-
ial particle dispersion should be independent of the particle
diameter.
6.5. The eect of the particle charge
Data obtained with dierent particle charges are plot-
ted in Fig. 12, runs B, E and K. The axial dispersion
increases fairly with increasing values of particle charge.
This behavior is partially explained by the increase of
the eective viscosity of the suspension, which induces
a decrease in the centrifugal force. This eect overlaps
the lower transport due to a small decrease in the wake
volume.
O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172 4169
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0

s

/

s
z*
B
E
K
Fig. 12. Experimental axial dispersion data for dierent particle charges.
7. Numerical results and comparison with experimental
data
The axial particle dispersion was numerically simulated
for some of the operation conditions in Table 1. The sim-
ulation was based on the laminar wake model developed.
The experiments with open wakes, run A, were not sim-
ulated, as well as the experiments with an Re
o
15, runs
V and Y. From the visualization experiments, it is evident
that for very low Reynolds number, there is a quick ex-
pansion of the suspension coming from the lm owing
around the bubble. The wake volume decreases markedly,
the shape is quite dierent from ellipsoidal and the wake
length and volume are no more well represented by Eqs. (11)
and (12).
7.1. Initial distribution eect and steady state
Figs. 13a and b show the simulated particle distribution
for increasing number of slug bubbles, run N. The simu-
lation was done for two initial conditions: a homogeneous
suspension and a packed bed at the bottom of the column.
Two important conclusions can be taken, both in agreement
with the experimental data:
after a large number of bubbles, the axial distribution
tends to be constant, i.e., the suspension tends to a steady
state;
the steady state does not depend on the initial distribution.
7.2. Laminar wake regime
For laminar wakes, experimental and simulated data are
compared in Figs. 1416 the symbols represent experimen-
tal data and the solid lines simulated data. The data in Fig.
14 refer to experiments with the larger particles and dier-
ent supercial gas velocities, runs MP (c
0
S
=0.2). The data
in Fig. 15 refer to experiments with the smaller particles and
dierent supercial gas velocities, runs W to Z (c
0
S
= 0.2).
The data in Fig. 16 refer to experiments with both particle
0.0
2.0
4.0
Steady state distribution
Initial distribution
j = 10 j = 130 j = 710
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
0.0 2.0
z* (m)
Steady state distribution
Initial distribution
j = 980 j = 390 j = 20
1.0 3.0
0.0 2.0
z* (m)
1.0 3.0

s

/

s

/

s 0
0
Fig. 13. Simulated axial dispersion data for two initial particle distribu-
tions: a homogeneous suspension (a), and a suspension in step (b).
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0 0.5 3.0
z*
M
N
O
P
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

s

/

s 0
Fig. 14. Comparison, for laminar wake regime, between experimental
and simulated axial dispersion data for dierent supercial gas velocities
(larger particles). Lines represent simulated data and symbols experimental
data according to Table 1.
sizes and c
0
S
= 0.3, runs J and L. In all the conditions, the
agreement between experimental and simulated data is quite
good. The eects in the particle dispersion of the super-
cial gas velocity, particle size and particle charge are well
predicted by the model.
4170 O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172
W
X
Z
z*
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

s

/

s 0
Fig. 15. Comparison, for laminar wake regime, between experimental
and simulated axial dispersion data for dierent supercial gas velocities
(smaller particles). Lines represent simulated data and symbols experi-
mental data according to Table 1.
J
L
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
z*
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

s

/

s
0
Fig. 16. Comparison, for laminar wake regime, between experimental and
simulated axial dispersion data for dierent particle sizes and c
0
S
= 0.3.
Lines represent simulated data and symbols experimental data according
to Table 1.
z*
G
H
I
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0

s

/

s
0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
Fig. 17. Comparison, for transition wake regime, between experimental
and simulated axial dispersion data for dierent supercial gas velocities
(particle size 180 m). Lines represent the simulated data and symbols
the experimental data according to Table 1.
7.3. Transition wake regime
Data referring to experiments in the transition wake
regime are plotted in Figs. 17 and 18; runs GI (smaller
particles) and runs CF (larger particles). The agreement
between experimental (identical to that observe in laminar
C
D
E
F
z*
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

s

/

s
0
Fig. 18. Comparison, for transition wake regime, between experimental
and simulated axial dispersion data for dierent supercial gas veloci-
ties (particle size 280 m). Lines represent simulated data and symbols
experimental data according to Table 1.
wake regime) and simulated data is poor, as was expected
due to the assumptions of the model. However, a lower
experimental dispersion was previsible due to the appear-
ance of the vortex shedding phenomena, which goes along
with a continuous oscillation of the bottom of the bubble
and the wake. During the bubble rise, the fraction of the
wake falling out by vortex shedding is replaced by sus-
pension with a lower particle concentration, resulting, a
priori, in a lower transport. However, the vortex shedding
frequency is not known (how many times it happens inside
the column?), and also the continuous oscillation of the
bubble bottom and wake modies the tangential velocity
of the suspension owing along the wake boundary. The
consequences of these ow modications are physically un-
foreseeable. A study employing particle image velocimetry
(PIV) technique is presently underway to know more about
the ow pattern in the transition wake in a gasliquid slug
ow.
Another possible justication for the high particle trans-
port in the transition regime can be found in the interac-
tions between the bubbles owing continuously along the
column. According to Pinto et al. (1998), there is a mini-
mum distance between two bubbles for which the ow be-
hind the leading bubble does not interfere in the velocity of
the preceding one (increasing the velocity). This distance is
strongly dependent on the ow (velocity prole) emerging
from the wake region of the leading bubble and increases
with Re
o
. Therefore, a high minimum distance for bubbles
interaction is expected in the transition wake regime. If the
velocity of the bubbles increases during their rise, the resi-
dence time of the bubbles in the column decreases and the
axial transport increases.
8. Conclusions
The importance of the bubble wake in the upward trans-
port of particles in a three-phase reactor was highlighted
O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172 4171
in the present work. For dierent wake ow patterns,
dierential pressure transducers measured the axial particle
distribution. For laminar wakes, a simple model was devel-
oped to predict the axial particle dispersion. The model pre-
dictions are in good agreement with the experimental data.
For wakes in the transition regime, the experimental trans-
port is higher than the laminar model predictions. The
continuous oscillation of the bubble bottom induces vortex
shedding and modies the ow patterns around the wake.
This phenomena can be responsible by the higher transport
observed. According to the model predictions and to the ex-
perimental data, the upward transport of particles increases
with increasing particle charge, increasing gas ow rate and
decreasing particle diameter.
Notation
A cross-sectional area of the tube, m
2
C empirical coecient, Eq. (6)
d
P
particle diameter, m
d
12
distance between pressure taps, m
D internal pipe diameter, m
D
P
axial dispersion coecient, m
2
}s
e sphericity of the ellipsoid tted to the wake
[ slug bubble frequency, s
1
F
c
centrifugal force, N
F
d
drag force, N
F
q
apparent weight, N
q acceleration due to gravity, m}s
2
h
1
, h
2
vertical distances from a reference datum level, m
h
i
height of the mesh i

, m
H
max
maximum liquid height in the aerated column, m
H
0
liquid height in the column before slugging, m
I
1
, I
2
integrals dened in Eqs. (25) and (26)
!
w
wake length, m
) number of the iteration
k constant, Eq. (4)
m(t) mass owrate of particles leaving the wake at a
given instant t, kg/s
m(t) mass of particles inside the wake at a given instant
t, kg
m
0
mass of particles inside the wake after bubble for-
mation, kg
m
P
mass of a particle, kg
N number of slug bubbles
P pressure, Pa
P
1
static pressure at tap 1, Pa
P
2
static pressure at tap 2, Pa
r(0) radius of the particle trajectory, m
R internal radius of the pipe, m
t time, s
U
B
slug bubble velocity, m/s
U
B

velocity of an individual slug bubble rising in a

stagnant liquid, m/s
U
G
supercial gas velocity, m/s
t
P
settling velocity of the particles, m/s
t
I
P
settling velocity of an individual particle, m/s
t
S
P
settling velocity of the particles in the suspension,
m/s
t(r) velocity in the stabilized lm, m/s
t
r
radial velocity of a particle inside the wake, m/s
t
S
(:) downward mean particle velocity in the suspen-
sion, m/s
t
t
tangential velocity of a particle at the wake bound-
ary relatively to a referential moving with the bub-
ble, m/s
t
o
mean velocity in the stabilized lm relatively to
a referential moving with the bubble, m/s
J relative (to the bubble) mean velocity of the liquid
owing ahead of the slug nose, m/s
J
w
wake volume, m
3
x =U
G
}U
B

in Eq. (7)
: axial distance in the bubbling column, m
:

axial distance in the column free of bubbles, m

Dimensionless groups
Re
o
Reynolds number in the lm owing around the
bubble (=t
o
o}v
S
)
Re
U
L
Reynolds number in the suspension ahead the
bubble (=U
G
D}v
S
)
Greek letters
parameter in Eq. (8)
o thickness of the stabilized lm owing around a
slug bubble, m
P dierence in piezometric pressure, Pa
c
S
volumetric particle fraction in the solidliquid
suspension
c
0
S
volumetric particle fraction supposing homoge-
neous suspension
c
w
volumetric particle fraction in the wake
c
S
)
i

, 1
mean volumetric fraction inside mesh i

after the
passage of wake ) = 1
c
S
)
i

, 0
mean volumetric fraction inside mesh i

before
the passage of wake ) = 1
0 angle represented in Fig. 8, rad
j
L
dynamic liquid viscosity, Pa s
j
S
eective dynamic viscosity of the suspension, Pa s
j
SW
eective dynamic viscosity of the suspension in-
side the wake, Pa s
v kinematic viscosity, m
2
}s
v
S
eective kinematic viscosity of the suspension,
m
2
}s
j
L
liquid density, kg}m
3
j
P
particle density, kg}m
3
j
S
eective density of the suspension, kg}m
3
j
SW
eective density of the suspension inside the
wake, kg}m
3
4172 O. N. Cardoso et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 41594172
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the nancial sup-
port given by Funda c ao da Ci encia e Tecnologiaproject
POCTI 33761/99.
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