Elearning by Design

E-Learning
by Design
2nd Edition

By
William Horton

Copyright 2012 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Published by Pfeiffer
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Horton, William K. (William Kendall)
E-learning by design / William Horton. 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-90002-4 (pbk.)
1. EmployeesTraining ofComputer-assisted instruction. 2. Computer-assisted instructionDesign. I. Title.
HF5549.5.T7H6357 2011
658.3'124040285dc22
Book design and composition: William Horton Consulting, Inc.
Printed in the United States of America
Printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

iii

Preface
Whal's nev in lhe 2
nd
edilion`
I musl confess lhal I am lhe kind of reader vho skis over refaces, acknovIedgemenls,
and olher lhroal varming found al lhe fronls of books. If you are lhal kind of reader aIso,
go ahead and |um lo Chaler 1. Il von'l hurl my feeIings as an aulhor. There are no greal
reveIalions here or secrel confessions, onIy a brief descrilion of vhal's nev in lhis edilion
and vhy.
What's different about e-learning?
Since lhe firsl edilion of |-|carning |q Ocsign, e-Iearning has evoIved raidIy and fringe
lechniques have moved inlo lhe mainslream. RevoIulionaries have become bankers.
UnderIying and undervriling lhese changes in e-Iearning are advances in lechnoIogy and
changes in sociely.
Ior one lhing, Iearning games and simuIalions have gone from being lrealed as noisy
chiIdren al a formaI dinner lo being lhe Iife of lhe arly. Iroven successes have earned
games and simuIalions serious consideralion by even lhe mosl conservalive designers.
Our abiIily lo search vasl informalion reosilories has become universaI and
commonIace. Many e-book oulseII lheir aer counlerarls. IubIic and rivale Iibraries
and encycIoedias have grovn in number and size. More reIiabIe search engines have
made onIine search a arl of lechnoIogicaI cuIlure. GoogIe is a verb.
Mechanisms for onIine coIIaboralion have advanced as veII. Name a sub|ecl and lhere is a
discussion forum, bIog, odcasl, or nevs feed dedicaled lo il. GIobaI conversalions,
enabIed by sociaI media, arise sonlaneousIy and carom viIdIy. IoIilicians la inlo lhese
ad hoc discussions lo samIe lhe tcx pcpu|i.
Oul of lhis bursl of onIine coIIaboralion bursl sociaI nelvorking. Ils ouIarily has given
us nev lechnoIogies, nev lerminoIogy, and nev modes of Iearning. WeII, nol reaIIy. The
lechnoIogies and lerminoIogy are nev, bul Iearning from olhers is among lhe mosl
ancienl and lhoroughIy roven modes of Iearning.

iv ! Preface ! E-Learning by Design

MobiIe hones have laken on lhe funclions reviousIy offered by searale ersonaI digilaI
assislanls and media Iayers. They are as overfuI as many of lhe Ialo comulers used
for e-Iearning vhen lhe firsl edilion remiered. Today's smarl hones are easy lo use,
rugged, and reIiabIe. And olenliaI Iearners have one vilh lhem aII lhe lime.
Some earIy forms of e-Iearning, such as virluaI-cIassroom courses, Webinars, and soflvare
demonslralions (screencasls) have slabiIized. Though lhey have nol advanced in basic
caabiIilies, lhey have become easier lo roduce and more rediclabIe lo lake. They have
enlered lhe mainslream and are nov heIing lo define il.
What's new in this book?
To lrack lhe changes in lechnoIogy and sociely, severaI seclions have been romoled lo
fuII chalers. IIease congraluIale "Games and simuIalions," "SociaI Iearning," and "MobiIe
Iearning" on lheir exanded coverage and much-deserved emhasis. I have lried lo avoid
lhe common lendency lo lriviaIize lhese sub|ecls. I romise you lhal I do nol define
mobiIe Iearning as duming desklo courses onlo mobiIe devices or suggesl lhal sociaI
Iearning is nolhing more lhan leIIing sludenls lo ask lheir sociaI nelvork inslead of asking
lhe leacher.
As requesled by readers of lhe firsl edilion, I have fIeshed oul lhe inslruclionaI design
scheme in lhe firsl chaler. I vas gIad lo do so because my exerience as a consuIlanl,
since lhe firsl edilion, has laughl me lhal mosl faiIures of e-Iearning ro|ecls can be lraced
back lo fIaved inslruclionaI design. I have added an aendix delaiIing a simIe
lechnique lo delermine vhal lo leach and vhal lo Ieave oul.
Some chalers have moved onIine al horlon.com/eId/. Chalers on designing Iessons,
slralegic decisions lhal affecl lhe vhoIe course, visuaI design, and navigalion are nov
onIine. Thal aIIovs lhe aer orlion lo focus on issues of vilaI inleresl lo aII designers,
eseciaIIy firsl-Iine designers vilh direcl resonsibiIily for accomIishing secific Iearning
ob|eclives. The onIine chalers offer advanced skiIIs and lechniques for issues usuaIIy
deaIl vilh by senior designers and ro|ecl Ieaders.
Whal eIse` Oh, I have ul in nev lyos lo reIace lhe oId ones, or al Ieasl lo kee lhem
comany.
So, go on and slarl reading, skimming, scanning, or hovever you Iike lo consume books.
If you are reading lhis in a bookslore, go ahead and buy lhis book. eller sliII, buy lvo
coies and give one lo your boss.

v

Contents
1 DESIGNING E-LEARNING ......................... 1
What is e-learning? 1
Definilion of e-Iearning 1
Varielies of e-Iearning 2
What is e-learning design? 2
Slarl vilh good inslruclionaI design 3
AIy design lo aII unils of e-Iearning 5
Design quickly and reliably 8
Idenlify your underIying goaI 10
AnaIyze Iearners' needs and abiIilies 13
Idenlify vhal lo leach 14
Sel Iearning ob|eclives 16
Idenlify rerequisiles 26
Iick lhe aroach lo meel each ob|eclive 35
Decide lhe leaching sequence of your ob|eclives 42
Creale ob|ecls lo accomIish ob|eclives 47
Creale lesls 50
SeIecl Iearning aclivilies 51
Choose media 61
Then redesign again and again 64
Re-design bul do nol reeal 65
Nol your sequenliaI ADDII rocess 65
Make sleady rogress 65
In closing 66
Summary 66
Ior more . 66

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2 ABSORB-TYPE ACTIVITIES ..................... 67
About Absorb activities 67
Common lyes of Absorb aclivilies 68
When lo fealure Absorb aclivilies 68
Presentations 69
Aboul resenlalions 69
Tyes of resenlalions 70
esl raclices for resenlalions 84
Ixlend resenlalion aclivilies 92
Readings 93
Aboul reading aclivilies 93
Assign individuaI documenls 95
Creale an onIine Iibrary 98
ReIy on Inlernel resources 99
esl raclices for reading aclivilies 101
Ixlend reading aclivilies 103
Stories by a teacher 105
Aboul sharing slories 105
TeII slories lhal aIy lo Iearners 107
esl raclices for slories by a leacher 110
Ixlend slories by a leacher 111
Field trips 112
Aboul fieId lris 113
Guided lours 113
VirluaI museums 119
esl raclices for fieId lris 123
Ixlend fieId-lri aclivilies 126
In closing 127
Summary 127
Iick Absorb aclivilies lo accomIish ob|eclives 127
Ior more . 128

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3 DO-TYPE ACTIVITIES ......................... 129
About Do activities 129
Common lyes of Do aclivilies 129
When lo fealure Do aclivilies 130
Practice activities 130
Aboul raclice aclivilies 130
DriII-and-raclice aclivilies 132
Hands-on aclivilies 133
Guided-anaIysis aclivilies 137
esl raclices for raclice aclivilies 143
Ixlend raclice aclivilies 144
Discovery activities 146
Aboul discovery aclivilies 146
VirluaI-Iaboralory aclivilies 147
Case sludies 152
esl raclices for discovery aclivilies 155
Ixlend discovery aclivilies 156
Games and simulations 157
Use games as singIe aclivilies 157
Ixlend game aclivilies 160
In closing 161
Summary 161
Iick Do aclivily lo accomIish Iearning ob|eclive 162
Ior more . 162
4 CONNECT-TYPE ACTIVITIES .................. 163
About Connect activities 163
Common lyes of Connecl aclivilies 164
When lo fealure Connecl aclivilies 164
Ponder activities 166
Aboul onder aclivilies 166
RheloricaI queslions 167
Medilalion aclivilies 168
Cile-examIe aclivilies 171

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IvaIualion aclivilies 172
Summary aclivilies 174
Ixlend onder aclivilies 175
Questioning activities 176
Why use queslioning aclivilies` 177
Incourage Iearners lo ask lhe righl eoIe 177
Incourage good queslions 179
Insisl on good ansvers 180
esl raclices in queslioning aclivilies 181
Mechanism for asking queslions 181
InabIe queslioning al lhe righl lime 182
Assess Iearners and Iearning 182
Ixlend queslioning aclivilies 183
Stories by learners 184
Have Iearners leII slories 184
Good slories are hard lo leII 185
IvaIuale sloryleIIing fairIy 185
esl raclices for sloryleIIing aclivilies 186
Ixlend sloryleIIing aclivilies 186
Job aids 187
Aboul |ob aids 187
GIossaries 188
CaIcuIalors 192
I-consuIlanls 193
esl raclices for |ob aids 194
Ixlend |ob aids 195
Research activities 196
Aboul research aclivilies 196
Scavenger hunls 198
Guided research 200
esl raclices for research aclivilies 203
Ixlend research aclivilies 206
Original-work activities 207
Aboul originaI-vork aclivilies 207

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Decision aclivilies 208
Work-documenl aclivilies 208
}ournaI aclivilies 210
esl raclices for originaI-vork aclivilies 211
Ixlend originaI-vork aclivilies 212
In closing 213
Summary 213
Iick Connecl aclivilies lo accomIish Iearning ob|eclives 213
Ior more . 214
5 TESTS ........................................ 215
Decide why you are testing 215
When are formaI lesls needed` 216
Why are you lesling` 216
Whal do you hoe lo accomIish` 217
Whal do you vanl lo measure` 218
Measure accomplishment of objectives 219
Select the right type of question 220
Consider lhe lye queslion you need 220
Common lyes of lesl queslions 221
True/faIse queslions 222
Iick-one queslions 225
Iick-muIliIe queslions 228
IiII-in-lhe-bIanks queslions 231
Malching-Iisl queslions 234
Sequence-lye queslions 235
Comosilion queslions 237
Ierformance queslions 240
Iick lye queslion by lye ob|eclive 242
Write effective questions 243
IoIIov lhe slandard queslion formal 243
Ask queslions simIy and direclIy 244
Make ansvering meaningfuI 255
ChaIIenge lesl-lakers 258

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Combine questions effectively 260
Ask enough queslions 261
Make sure one queslion does nol ansver anolher 261
Sequence lesl queslions effecliveIy 262
Vary lhe form of queslions and ansvers 262
Give significant feedback 263
Reorl lesl scores simIy 263
Irovide comIele informalion 263
GenlIy correcl vrong ansvers 265
Avoid vimy feedback 266
Give feedback al lhe righl lime 266
Advance your testing 269
Hinl firsl 269
Use advanced lesling caabiIilies 269
Monilor resuIls 273
Make lesls fair lo aII Iearners 273
Tesl earIy and oflen 275
Sel lhe righl assing score 276
Define a scaIe of grades 278
Ire-lesl lo roeI Iearners 278
Explain the test 280
Ireare Iearners lo lake lhe lesl 280
Kee Iearners in conlroI 281
Consider alternatives to formal tests 281
Use more lhan formaI, graded lesls 282
HeI Iearners buiId orlfoIios 282
Have Iearners coIIecl lokens 282
Adal lesling lo sociaI Iearning 282
Adal lesling lo mobiIe Iearning 283
In closing 283
Summary 283
Ior more . 284

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6 TOPICS ....................................... 285
What are topics? 285
Toics are Iearning ob|ecls 285
IxamIes of loics 286
Analomy of a loic 293
Design the components of the topic 294
TilIe lhe loic 294
Inlroduce lhe loic 296
Tesl Iearning in lhe loic 299
Secify Iearning aclivilies for lhe loic 301
Summarize lhe loic 303
Link lo reIaled maleriaI 305
Wrile meladala 307
Design comonenls IogicaIIy and economicaIIy 310
Design reusable topics 313
Crafl recombinanl buiIding bIocks 313
Design consislenl loics 314
Avoid lhe as-shovn-above syndrome 314
Integrate foreign modules 315
IxamIe of a docking moduIe 316
Whal lo incIude in a docking moduIe 317
In closing 318
Summary 318
Templates for topics 319
Ior more . 322
7 GAMES AND SIMULATIONS .................... 323
Games and simulations for learning 323
IxamIe of a Iearning game 324
Hov are games, lesls, and simuIalions reIaled` 325
Do you caII il a game or a simuIalion` 325
Demos are nol lrue simuIalions 326
Hov do games and simuIalions vork` 327
Whal do ve mean design` 328

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Why games? 328
Whal can games do for us` 328
When lo use games 329
Types of learning games 330
Quiz-shov games 331
Word games 332
}igsav uzzIes 333
ranching scenarios 334
Task simuIalions 335
IersonaI-resonse simuIalions 337
InvironmenlaI simuIalions 340
Immersive roIe-Iaying games 341
Design games for learning 342
Design lo accomIish Iearning ob|eclives 342
Ixress lhe goaI as a secific lask 344
Iick lhe righl sized game 344
Imhasize Iearning, nol |usl doing 345
Secify chaIIenge and molivalion 345
Manage comeliliveness 345
Irovide muIliIe vays lo Iearn 345
Create a micro-world 346
Secify lhe game's vorId 346
Secify characlers and imorlanl ob|ecls 347
Creale a sloryIine 349
Creale a back slory 349
Secify lhe game slruclure 350
Assign lhe Iearner's roIe 350
Make lhe game meaningfuIIy reaIislic 350
Secify ruIes of lhe game 351
Design a rich, reaIislic environmenl 351
Irovide a dee, unifying chaIIenge 352
Define indicalors of game slale and feedback 352
Specify the details 353
Skelch oul lhe user inlerface 353

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Wrile lhe vords 353
Secify lhe grahicaI slyIe 353
Secify olher media 354
Engage learners 354
Hook lhe Iearner 354
Ask Iearners lo susend disbeIief 355
Sel lhe conlexl 356
Irovide reaI-vorId romling and suorl 356
Iresenl soIvabIe robIems 357
Adal lo lhe Iearner's needs 357
ChaIIenge vilh lime Iimils 358
Lel Iearners lry muIliIe slralegies 359
Irogram variely inlo lhe game 359
InvoIve lhe Iearner 359
Teach through feedback 359
Irovide inlrinsic feedback 359
In|ecl educalionaI feedback vhere needed 361
Irovide conlinuaI feedback 361
ul give cruciaI feedback immedialeIy 362
Confronl bad behavior and choices 363
Defer Ienglhy feedback 364
Anliciale feedback (feedforvard`) 364
InabIe Iearning lhrough a variely of exeriences 365
Irovide comIele, delaiIed feedback 366
HeI Iearners correcl mislakes 367
Offer abundanl raclice 367
AcknovIedge achievemenl 368
Progressively challenge learners 369
ChaIIenge Iearners 369
Ralchel u lhe chaIIenge 370
Give cIosure belveen hases 371
ConlroI lhe rhylhm of difficuIly 372
Require consoIidaling smaII sles 372

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Manage game complexity 373
evare combinaloriaI exIosion 373
Menu excursions 374
Mission-sequenliaI slruclure 376
Shorl-Ieash slralegy 377
Safari slruclure 378
reaklhrough slruclure 378
Simplify learning the game 380
Guide aclions vilh inslruclions 380
IxIain lhe game cIearIy 380
Slarl vilh lraining vheeIs 381
Assisl vhen needed 382
Shov soIulion afler a fev allemls 383
Lel Iearners requesl assislance 384
IncIude erlinenl hinls 384
SimIify lhe disIay for quick resonse 385
Minimize dislraclions 385
Accel aII successfuI aclions 386
Design coached task simulations 386
IIan rogressive inleraclivily 387
Archileclure of coach-me aclivilies 387
Lel lhe Iearner conlroI coaching 389
Design branching-scenario games 390
Harvesl sloryIine ideas 390
Iick a silualion 390
Ma ob|eclives lo scenes 391
Derive secific ob|eclives lo leach 391
TransIale ob|eclives lo a slory 392
Secify each scene 394
Thread logelher lhe scenes 395
Add conlexl-selling scenes 396
Use games as e-learning courses 396

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In closing 398
Summary 398
Ior more . 398
8 SOCIAL LEARNING ............................ 399
What is social learning? 399
A definilion, sorl of 399
So vhal` 400
Consider lhe varielies of sociaI Iearning 400
Whal is nol sociaI Iearning` 401
Whal is lhe grou` 401
How do we design social learning? 402
Whal do ve mean by design` 402
The roIe of lhe designer 402
Decide where and when to use social learning 404
Make Iearning more reIiabIe 404
Make Iearning more en|oyabIe 404
Teach difficuIl sub|ecls 405
ImIemenl Iearning quickIy and inexensiveIy 405
uiId a nelvork lo suorl lhe Iearning in lhe fulure 406
What social learning requires 406
Whal is required of Iearners 406
Whal is required of lhe organizalion 408
Patterns of interaction 410
The eIemenls of sociaI Iearning 410
Combine allerns for comIele aclivilies 414
Social capabilities of software 415
Send largeled messages 416
Meel reaI-lime 418
Discuss asynchronousIy 425
roadcasl soradic messages 426
Iosl message sequences 428
CoIIaboraliveIy creale documenls 433
Share crealions 440

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Vole and rale 446
IiIler messages 450
IslabIish a oinl of conlacl 450
Sel u and adminisler a leam or olher grou 453
Facilitate rather than teach 454
Define lhe dulies of lhe faciIilalor 454
IslabIish a code of conducl 455
Inlervene in cases of bad behavior 456
Grade fairly in social learning 463
Assess againsl ob|eclives 464
Use avaiIabIe evidence 464
Ways lo assess Iearners 464
Sel crileria for messages and osls 465
Or, forego individuaI assessmenl 466
Extend conventional activities for social learning 466
Ixlend Absorb aclivilies for sociaI Iearning 466
Ixlend Do aclivilies for sociaI Iearning 467
Ixlend Connecl aclivilies for sociaI Iearning 467
Use proven social activities 468
Share vhal you Iearn 468
ack channeI for resenlalions 469
rainslorming aclivilies 472
Team-lask aclivilies 474
RoIe-Iaying scenarios 476
Comarison aclivilies 480
Grou-crilique aclivilies 481
Encourage meaningful discussions 483
Design discussion aclivilies 484
Insure Iearners have necessary skiIIs 486
Moderale discussion aclivilies 487
Ierform message mainlenance 490
Promote team learning 490
Meel lhe requiremenls of a successfuI leam 491
Iorm a leam from individuaIs 492

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AIign goaIs of leam members 492
Learn vho can do vhal 493
Adol leam roIes 495
Iick a Ieader, al Ieasl lo slarl 496
Team rocesses 497
Sel norms of behavior 497
Team varm-u aclivilies 497
Iade oul suorl 498
Design aclivilies for leams 498
Ingage in oen inquiry 499
In closing 500
Summary 500
Ior more . 500
9 MOBILE LEARNING ........................... 501
What is mobile learning? 501
Start with worthy goals 501
Learn from lhe vhoIe vorId 502
Take advanlage of leachabIe momenls 502
Teach in lhe conlexl of aIicalion 502
Teach ouldoor sub|ecls 502
Make Iearning heaIlhier 503
Learn more of lhe lime 503
InabIe virluaI allendance 504
Reduce infraslruclure cosls 504
Ireare for an increasingIy mobiIe vorId 504
Adapt existing learning for mobile learners 505
InabIe arlicialion in cIassroom Iearning 505
Accommodale mobiIe Iearners in lhe virluaI cIassroom 506
Lel mobiIe Iearners lake slandaIone e-Iearning 506
Make sociaI Iearning mobiIe 506
Ierformance suorl 507

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Use the capabilities of the device 507
Design for the learner, environment, and device 515
Design for lhe mobiIe Iearner 516
Design for lhe environmenl vhere Iearning occurs 517
Design for lhe mobiIe device 519
Design guidelines for overcoming limitations 520
Design for easy reading 520
Mainlain conlacl vilh Iearners 521
Design for lhe devices Iearners aIready have 522
Use Iearners' lime efficienlIy 522
Iil lexl and grahics lo lhe disIay 523
Irovide Iov-bandvidlh aIlernalives 524
Design for imerfecl nelvork conneclions 525
InabIe dovnIoad and go 525
SimIify enlering lexl 526
IoIIov eslabIished user-inlerface guideIines 526
Remember, aer is a mobiIe device 526
Reuse exisling conlenl 527
Real mobile learning 528
MobiIe discovery Iearning 528
Dislance arenliceshi rogram 530
Archileclure lour 532
In|ecl mobiIe aclivilies inlo olher forms of Iearning 536
Extend conventional activities for mobile learning 536
Ixlend Absorb aclivilies for mobiIe Iearning 536
Ixlend Do aclivilies for mobiIe Iearning 537
Ixlend Connecl aclivilies for mobiIe Iearning 537
In closing 538
Summary 538
Ior more . 538
10 DESIGN FOR THE VIRTUAL CLASSROOM ...... 539
Create a virtual classroom 540
Why creale a virluaI cIassroom` 540

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Whal are Webinars and virluaI-cIassroom courses` 540
Decide vhelher you need a Iive meeling 541
Select and use collaboration tools 542
SeIecl your coIIaboralion looIs 542
SIide shovs 545
reakoul rooms 547
Conduct online meetings 548
IIan lhe meeling 548
Ireare for lhe meeling 552
Announce lhe meeling 556
Manage lhe Iive onIine meeling 556
Aclivale meelings 558
IncIude foIIov-u aclivilies 560
Design Webinars 560
When lo use Webinars 561
Iick aclivilies lo leach 561
Design virtual-classroom courses 563
SeIecl a quaIified leacher 563
Teach lhe cIass, don'l |usl Iel il haen 565
IIan rediclabIe Iearning cycIes 566
Resond lo Iearners 568
Irovide comIele inslruclions 568
SimIify lasks for Iearners 575
DeaI vilh robIem Iearners 577
IoIIov u afler lhe course 580
In closing 581
Summary 581
Ior more . 582
11 CONCLUSION ............................... 583
How we will learn 583
Where ve are headed 583
Hov ve viII gel lhere 584

xx ! Table of contents ! E-Learning by Design

What has to happen 585
Secrets of e-learning design 585
Just the beginning 586
APPENDIX ESSENTIALISM ....................... 587
Essential essentialism 587
Set up the test 588
Supervise the test 588
The roIe of lesl sub|ecls 589
The roIe of lhe exerl 590
RoIe of lhe lesl conduclor 591
Analyze test results 591
Record needed Iearning 591
Idenlify lhe Iearning aroach 593
Infer design rinciIes 594
Make testing better 595
Overcome lhe Havlhorne effecl 595
Leave lhe Iab-coal behind 595
Tesl a lvosome 596
Irovide aII reaI resources 596
Reassure lesl sub|ecls 597
Walch lhe video fuIIy 597
Conducl enough lesls 597
Iick vaIid lesl sub|ecls 598
Recap: Master the essentials of essentialism 598
INDEX ........................................... 599

1

Designing
e-learning
IIanning lhe deveIomenl of
onIine Iearning

Ior lens of lhousands of years, human beings have come logelher lo Iearn and share
knovIedge. UnliI recenlIy, ve have had lo come logelher al lhe same lime and Iace. ul
loday, comuler and nelvorking lechnoIogies have eIiminaled lhal requiremenl. Nov
anybody can Iearn anylhing anyvhere al any lime. And deveIoers of educalion can
deIiver Iearning vhen needed, vhere needed, on any sub|ecl, in |usl lhe righl amounl, in
lhe mosl effeclive formal, and for nol much money.
WHAT IS E-LEARNING?
I-Iearning marshaIs comuler and nelvork lechnoIogies lo lhe lask of educalion. SeveraI
definilions of e-Iearning are common. Some eoIe hoId lhal e-Iearning is Iimiled lo vhal
lakes Iace enlireIy vilhin a Web brovser vilhoul lhe need for olher soflvare or Iearning
resources. Such a ure definilion, lhough, Ieaves oul many of lhe lruIy effeclive uses of
reIaled lechnoIogies for Iearning.
Definition of e-learning
There are a Iol of comIex definilions of e-Iearning, so I'II offer you a simIe one:
E-!carning is thc usc nI c!cctrnnic tcchnn!ngics tn crcatc !carning cxpcricnccs.
This definilion is deIiberaleIy oen-ended, aIIoving comIele freedom as lo hov lhese
exeriences are formuIaled, organized, and crealed. Nolice lhal lhis definilion does nol
!

2 ! Designing e-learning ! E-Learning by Design

menlion courses, for courses are |usl one vay lo ackage e-Iearning exeriences. Il aIso
does nol menlion any arlicuIar aulhoring looI or managemenl syslem.
Varieties of e-learning
I-Iearning comes in many forms. You may have laken one or lvo forms of e-Iearning, bul
have you considered lhem aII` Here are some varielies of e-Iearning lo consider:
# 5tanda!nnc cnurscs: Courses laken by a soIo Iearner. They are seIf-aced vilhoul
inleraclion vilh a leacher or cIassmales. There are numerous examIes of slandaIone
courses ciled in lhis book. Search lhe index for Using Ganii Cnaris, GAI|NA S|cpc
Sia|i|iiq Ana|qsis, and Visicn an! inc Cnurcn. You can aIso go lo lhe Web sile for lhis
book (horlon.com/eId/) lo find Iinks lo Iive examIes.
# Lcarning gamcs and simu!atinns: Learning by erforming simuIaled aclivilies lhal
require exIoralion and Iead lo discoveries. We have devoled lhe vhoIe of Chaler 7
lo lhe discussion of games and simuIalions. AIso go lo horlon.com/eId/ for Iinks lo Iive
examIes.
# Mnbi!c !carning: Learning from lhe vorId vhiIe moving aboul in lhe vorId. Aided by
mobiIe devices, such as smarl hones and labIel devices, mobiIe Iearners arliciale in
convenlionaI cIassroom courses and slandaIone e-Iearning vhiIe oul and aboul. They
may aIso arliciale in aclivilies vhere lhey Iearn by inleracling vilh ob|ecls and
eoIe lhey encounler aIong lhe vay. MobiIe Iearning is discussed in Chaler 9.
# 5ncia! !carning: Learning lhrough inleraclion vilh a communily of exerls and feIIov
Iearners. Communicalion among arlicianls reIies on sociaI-nelvorking media such
as onIine discussions, bIogging, and lexl-messaging. See Chaler 8 for advice on
designing sociaI Iearning.
# Virtua!-c!assrnnm cnurscs: OnIine cIasses slruclured much Iike a cIassroom course,
vilh reading assignmenls, resenlalions, discussions via forums and olher sociaI
media, and homevork. They may incIude synchronous onIine meelings. Read Chaler
10 for more on designing Webinars and virluaI-cIassroom courses.
And lhal is |usl lhe slarl. As you read lhis, cIever designers are crealing even more forms
of e-Iearning and bIending mixlures of lhe lyes Iisled here.
WHAT IS E-LEARNING DESIGN?
I-Iearning can be lhe besl Iearning ossibIeor lhe vorsl. Il aII deends on design.
Crealing effeclive e-Iearning requires bolh design and deveIomenl. They are nol lhe
same lhing. Design is decision, deveIomenl is conslruclion. Design governs unai ve do,
deveIomenl governs ncu ve carry oul lhose decisions. Design invoIves |udgmenl,

E-Learning by Design " Designing e-learning " 3

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comromise, lradeoff, and crealivily. Design is lhe 1001 decisions, big and smaII, lhal
affecl lhe oulcome of your e-Iearning ro|ecl. This book is aboul design.
Start with good instructional design
Iffeclive e-Iearning slarls vilh sound inslruclionaI design. InslruclionaI design requires
seIecling, organizing, and secifying lhe Iearning exeriences necessary lo leach
somebody somelhing. Good inslruclionaI design is indeendenl of lhe lechnoIogy or
ersonneI used lo creale lhose Iearning exeriences.
Apply just enough instructional design
InslruclionaI design is a vasl sub|ecl. This humbIe chaler cannol cover il aII. Whal you
viII find in lhis chaler is a slreamIined, raid inslruclionaI-design melhod. Il is simIe,
quick, informaI, and ragmalic. Use il as your survivaI kil vhen you do nol have lime or
money for more. Or, use il as a check on your Ionger, more formaI rocess.
efore you fasl-forvard lo anolher chaler vilh more screen snashols and fever
diagrams, lake a momenl lo refIecl on lhis: UnIess you gel inslruclionaI design righl,
lechnoIogy can onIy increase lhe seed and cerlainly of faiIure.
Instructional design determines everything else
InslruclionaI design lransIales lhe high-IeveI ro|ecl goaIs lo choices for lechnoIogy,
conlenl, and everylhing eIse. The inslruclionaI design of e-Iearning informs decisions on
vhal aulhoring looIs, managemenl syslems, and olher lechnoIogies lo buy or Iicense.
InslruclionaI design direcls lhe deveIomenl of conlenl and lhe seIeclion of media. Il
orcheslrales decisions on budgel, scheduIe, and olher asecls of ro|ecl deveIomenl. So,
design your inslruclion |cjcrc buying lechnoIogy or recruiling nev slaff members.
Good design can prevent common failures
I've done edagogicaI aulosies on a Iol of faiIed e-Iearning ro|ecls over lhe years and
have seen cIearIy lhal mosl faiIures can be lraced back lo bad or non-exislenl inslruclionaI
design. Such faiIures are oflen bIamed on defeclive lechnoIogy, inadequale budgel, Iack of
lime, or insufficienl managemenl suorl. ul lhese causes are reaIIy secondary. The
ro|ecl ran oul of lime, money, and managemenl alience because of common faiIures of
inslruclionaI design, such as:
# Trying tn tcach tnn much. Inslead of being reciseIy largeled, ob|eclives vere a
Iaundry Iisl of everylhing every sub|ecl-maller exerl and manager on lhe ro|ecl
lhoughl any Iearner mighl someday need lo knov.
# Fai!ing tn tcach what pcnp!c rca!!y nccd. Too oflen ro|ecls lry lo leach disconnecled
knovIedge vhen eoIe need aIicabIe skiIIs. Learners do nol vaIue such ob|eclives
and ul IillIe efforl inlo Iearning lhem.


# Omitting suppnrting nb|cctivcs. Iro|ecls oflen concenlrale on lhe exIicil goaIs and
forgel lhe underIying molivalion and fundamenlaI skiIIs necessary lo roeI and
vaIidale Iearning. Courses are |am-acked vilh vhal eoIe shouId knov or
undersland bul deficienl in vhal lhey musl beIieve or feeI.
# Tcaching what is casy tn tcach. uiIders of e-Iearning oflen lake lhe easy road and
leach vhal is easy or fun lo leach ralher lhan vhal Iearners reaIIy need. Afler aII,
Iearners are more IikeIy lo "Iike" lhe course if ve make il easy.
# Bnring and Irustrating !carncrs. Many ro|ecls vasle Iearners' lime by leaching vhal
lhey aIready knov or can easiIy figure oul on lheir ovn.
# Fnrcing pcnp!c tn !carn in ways thcy Iind awkward and cmbarrassing. Somelimes
crealors of e-Iearning imose lheir ovn referred Iearning slyIes on Iearners for vhom
lhese slyIes are lolaIIy unsuiled.
Avoid bad instructional design models
InslruclionaI design is nol rockel scienceil's harder. And some of ils faiIures are even
more seclacuIar lhan a carlvheeIing Tilan IIIC missiIe. Here are some common
melhodoIogies of non-design:
# RAPRAPRAPAWAP, vhich slands for read a aer, read a aer, read a aer, and
vrile a aer. Il is a sad slaIe of graduale universily courses and conslilules lhe onIy
inslruclionaI design some lenured facuIly seem caabIe of.
# Pack 'cm, yak 'cm, rack 'cm, and track 'cm, vhich is designed lo economicaIIy handIe
Iarge numbers of Iearners. In il, lhe inslilulion enroIIs Iarge numbers of eoIe ("ack
'em"), Ieclures lo lhem ("yak 'em"), lesls lheir regurgilalive abiIilies lo ensure
conformily and comIiance ("rack 'em"), and records exlensive slalislics lo creale lhe
iIIusion of Iearning ("lrack 'em").
# Warn and scnrn (AKA Cover lhe Cororale Assels) force marches Iearners lhrough
screens Iisling reIevanl Iavs and reguIalions and requires lhem lo acknovIedge each
screen vilh al Ieasl a bullon cIick, vhich lhe course scruuIousIy records as roof lhal
il varned emIoyees againsl forbidden behavior. The cynicaI goaI of such lraining is so
lhe organizalion can say, "See, il's nol our fauIl lhe emIoyee behaved badIy." The
urose of such comIiance courses is nol Iearning or imroved behavior bul
mounling a IegaI defense.
# Fi!! in thc b!anks. Many designers slarl oul vilh a lemIale course vhose sIols lhey
fiII vilh chunks of sub|ecl-reIaled conlenl. This slralegy is very common among Iov-
cosl conlenl deveIoers vho use minimum-vage coy-and-asle drones lo buiId
courses.


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# Wnu!dn't it bc cnn! iI . (AKA Iad-chasing) consisls of lrying lo imress Iearners or
managemenl by using lhe Ialesl gizmo or lhe lrendiesl lechnique. Symloms of lhis
melhodoIogy incIude so-caIIed designers sending more lime laIking aboul "vov
faclor" lhan aboul Iearningand never comIeling a ro|ecl before Iaunching
sidevays inlo a quesl of lhe nexl lechno-fad.
Dont expect a guarantee of learning
Some inslruclionaI design exerls cIaim lhal lheir melhodoIogy guaranlees successfuI
Iearning. They Iie. We cannol guaranlee any oulcome invoIving more lhan a fev human
beings. IeoIe are simIy loo unrediclabIe, and oulside faclors inlrude.
Like il or nol, some eoIe are going lo faiI regardIess of vhal lhe designer and leacher
do. Some cannol be molivaled lo Iearn. Some Iack basic Iearning skiIIs. Olhers slruggIe
vilh Iearning disabiIilies. Inlransigenl bad alliludes are common. Subslance abuse and
menlaI iIIness are exlreme cases. We cannol undo damage done over a Iifelime and nol
aIready correcled by arenls, friends, souses, bosses, co-vorkers, sychoIogisls, and
decades of schooIing.
OnIy by Iovering slandards sufficienlIy (dummying dovn lhe Iearning) can ve ensure
lhal everyone aears lo succeed. Doing so usuaIIy faiIs lhose mosl IikeIy lo masler vhal
you leach, aIy il effecliveIy, and leach lhose around lhem.
Don'l bIame yourseIf. Don'l Iay lhe oId bulls-in-seals game vhere Iearning is evaIualed
by hov many eoIe sil lhrough il. And, don'l give u on any Iearners. Consider vhelher
everyone reaIIy needs lo Iearn vhal you are leaching. Can lhey Iearn by olher means
(. 36)` Inslead of Iearning lhe sub|ecl, can lhey succeed by asking or being direcled by
lhose you do educale`
Apply design to all units of e-learning
Design musl be aIied al aII IeveIs of e-Iearning from vhoIe curricuIa dovn lo
individuaI media comonenls. Il is imorlanl lo undersland lhese unils because lhey
infIuence vhal design lechniques ve use. efore roceeding, Iel's gel our lerminoIogy
slraighl.


Al lhe lo of lhe yramid are curricu|a, rograms lhal incIude reIaled courses lhal Iead lo
a degree or cerlificale in a sub|ecl area.
A curricuIum is lyicaIIy comosed of ccurscs, each of vhich leaches a broad bul secific
area of a sub|ecl. We mighl aIso caII such unils |ccks or kncu|c!gc prc!ucis. Course-IeveI
design issues are discussed in onIine Chaler 13, Siraicgic !ccisicns, al horlon.com/eId/.
Courses are comosed of cIuslers of smaIIer comonenls caIIed |csscns. Iach Iesson is
organized lo accomIish one of lhe broad ob|eclives of lhe course or a cIusler of reIaled
ob|eclives. OnIine Chaler 12, Icsscns, al horlon.com/eId/ viII heI you design Iessons.
Al a Iover IeveI are lhe individuaI icpics, each designed lo accomIish a singIe Iov-IeveI
Iearning ob|eclive. Toics are oflen designed as seIf-conlained Iearning ob|ecls. Ior heI
designing loics, lurn lo Chaler 6.
Near lhe bollom IeveI are |carning aciitiiics, each designed lo rovoke a secific Iearning
exerience. Iach aclivily may ansver a secific queslion or make a oinl, bul no singIe
Iearning aclivily is sufficienl lo accomIish a Iearning ob|eclive. Aclivilies are lhe sub|ecl
of Chalers 2 lhrough 4. Aclivilies used lo measure Iearning are caIIed lesls and are lhe
sub|ecl of Chaler 5.
IinaIIy lhere are lhe media eIemenls: lhe vords, iclures, voice, music, sound effecls,
animalion, and video lhal resenl aclivilies lo Iearners. These are nol covered direclIy in
lhis book.
Courses and Iessons may somelimes be designed as Iearning ob|ecls, hovever, lhis lerm is
mosl commonIy aIied lo loics.


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Recognize various names for levels
The hierarchy of curricuIum, course, Iesson, loic, aclivilies, and media is common bul
nol universaI. You may encounler a variely of olher names for lhese IeveIs. Lel's see some
aIlernalives:

The SCORM slandard (vvv.adInel.gov) refers lo courses and Iessons as ccnicni
aggrcgaiicns. Toics are caIIed snara||c ccnicni c|jccis, or SCOs, for shorl. Any conlenl
beIov lhe IeveI of a loic is caIIed an assci.
Olher names for unils are common in secific universilies, cororalions, looIs, and
melhodoIogies. Ior inslance, a curricuIum mighl be caIIed a |i|rarq, prcgran, or pcrijc|ic.
Inslead of course, ve mighl use lhe lerm !ccuncni, |cck, or pain. Lessons are somelimes
caIIed cnapicrs or nc!u|cs. A loic may be caIIed a age or a rcusa||c |carning c|jcci (|IO
for shorl). In virluaI-cIassroom Iearning, loics equale lo evenls. Aclivilies are roughIy
equivaIenl lo vhal some caII ||ccks or icacning pcinis. Media eIemenls may be caIIed
injcrnaiicn c|jccis or asscis. If lhese lerms do nol malch lhe ones al your organizalion, do
nol frel. }usl vrile in your ovn names for lhese unils.
Time for a real example
Lel's see hov lo aIy lhese IeveIs in lhe reaI vorId. Here is a sIice dovn lhrough a singIe
sub|ecl area:
Curricu!um: Masler's of usiness Adminislralion rogram.
Cnursc: Accounling 101.
Lcssnn: Assels and LiabiIilies.
Tnpic: IvaIualing assels.
Activity: Using a sreadsheel lo caIcuIale lhe vaIues of assels.
Mcdia Voice-over animalion exIaining lhe concel.
Live sreadsheel used in an aclivily.


DESIGN QUICKLY AND RELIABLY
IarIier in lhe chaler I romised you a lried and lrue aroach lo e-Iearning design. WeII,
here il is.
I-Iearning benefils mosl from a raid, cycIicaI design rocess. In lhis seclion you viII find
a minimaIisl, vasle-no-lime, resuIls-focused aroach lo secifying e-Iearning lhal
acluaIIy vorks. This rocess omils unnecessary sles and concenlrales on lhe design lasks
lhal rca||q maller.
In lhe inleresl of seedy Iearning, ve'II slarl vilh a reviev, overviev, summary, and |ob
aid aII roIIed inlo one. An Adobe IDI version is avaiIabIe al horlon.com/eId/. DovnIoad
il, rinl il oul, and in il lo your vaII, vhere you can refer lo il lhroughoul your ro|ecls.

The firsl sle in quick inslruclionaI design is lo cIarify lhe goaI of your ro|ecl. This is a
simIe lvo-sle rocedure. Iirsl you naiI dovn vhal mallers lo your organizalionlhe
one sonsoring deveIomenl of Iearning. Is il rofil or ubIic service` Relurn on
inveslmenl or reulalion`


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Nexl you describe hov your ro|ecl viII conlribule direclIy lo lhal organizalionaI goaI. If
you drav a bIank al lhis oinl, canceI lhe ro|ecl nov before vasling resources. Once you
do define hov your ro|ecl conlribules, you have a soIid basis lo ask for funding and
olher suorl.
The nexl sle is lo vrile lhe overaII Iearning ob|eclive. This ob|eclive slales hov your
e-Iearning changes lhe Iearner. Il describes lhe end resuIl of Iearning. Thal ob|eclive,
hovever, may have rerequisile ob|eclives. And lhose second-IeveI ob|eclives may have
rerequisiles as veII. You kee idenlifying rerequisile ob|eclives unliI you reach lhe
slarling abiIilies of inlended Iearners.
I use a simIe formuIa lo slale ob|eclives: Teach ||ank lo ||ank vho ||ank. TyicaIIy il lakes
lhe form: leach a su|jcci lo a grcup cj pccp|c vho kncu ccriain inings aIready. The firsl sIol
records vhal ve inlend lo leach. Il is vhal ve vanl lhem lo creale, decide, do, knov,
beIieve, or feeI. The second sIol names lhe grou of Iearners vho musl accomIish lhis
ob|eclive. Il describes a grou of Iearners. The lhird sIol records rerequisiles for lhe
ob|eclive, for examIe, vhal asecls of lhe sub|ecl lhe Iearners musl aIready knov or vhal
lhey musl be abIe lo do. Il may oinl lo olher ob|eclives lhal salisfy lhese rerequisiles.
Iach Iearning ob|eclive requires us lo design a Iearning ob|ecl lo accomIish lhal
ob|eclive. Thal ob|ecl requires lvo lyes of conlenl: Iearning aclivilies and lesls.
Tesls are queslions or olher aclions lo verify lhal Iearning occurred and lhe ob|eclive vas
accomIished.
Learners comIele Iearning aclivilies in order lo Iearn. There are usuaIIy lhree lyes of
Iearning aclivilies required: lhe Iearner a|scr|s knovIedge by reading or valching, lhe
Iearner !ccs raclice or discovery aclivilies lo deeen Iearning, and Iearners comIele
aclivilies designed lo ccnncci vhal lhey are Iearning lo lheir Iives and vork.
OnIy afler secifying lhe aclivilies can ve make choices of vhal media lo emIoy: vords,
iclures, sounds, and so forlh. Al lhis oinl, ve musl aIso kee an oen mind. Ierhas
lhe besl vay lo imIemenl lhe aclivily is nol vilh eIeclronic media, bul vilh aer and
en. The besl vay lo rovoke lhe needed Iearning exerience may require aclivilies
erformed avay from lhe comuler. Our decisions here may Iead us lo bIend
convenlionaI and eIeclronic Iearning or lo use non-Iearning soIulions as veII.
Don'l vorry if lhis rocess is nol cryslaI cIear or does nol seem lo cover every ossibIe
silualion. I viII exIain each of lhese sles in more delaiI and suggesl hov you can vary il
lo meel any need.


Identify your underlying goal
Design slarls vilh a goaI. You may be designing an office buiIding or a monumenlaI
scuIlure. You may be designing a rockel or an aulomobiIe. You may be designing
e-Iearning. efore you can design any of lhese lhings, you musl knov vhal il is your
design musl accomIish.
Ralher lhan slarl Iisling lhe lhings you viII accomIish for Iearners, lhink aboul vhal you
viII do for your emIoyer, your sonsor, or your financiaI backers. Whal does your
organizalion hoe lo accomIish` Your goaI mighl Iook Iike one of lhese:
# Recerlify 150 nucIear over Ianl oeralors.
# Cul cosls of educalion by 50% over lhe nexl year.
# Reduce buIIying among sludenls in our middIe schooIs.
# QuickIy reare a gIobaI markeling Ian lo seII a nev Iine of roducls.
# Cul misdiagnoses of ballery faiIures by 90%.
# Iarn $200,000 by seIIing courses.
Kee lhe organizalionaI goaI in mind as you make olher decisions. Wrile lhis goaI on a
nole card and lack il lo your vaII. Ivery day, ask yourseIf: Hov am I heIing achieve
lhal goaI`
Ask what matters
Your overaII goaI leIIs you vhal reaIIy mallers. To cIarify lhis goaI, you need lo ansver
lvo queslions.
The firsl queslion is Whal mallers lo your organizalion` We mighl hrase lhe queslion
lhis vay: Ior your comany, universily, dearlmenl, governmenl, or inslilulion, vhal is
lhe singIe mosl imorlanl measure of success` Try lo ansver in lhree vords or fever.
Thal reslriclion focuses your goaI. The goaI mighl be bollom-Iine rofil or relurn on
inveslmenl. Or il mighl be ubIic service or firsl-rale reulalion. On one of our ro|ecls,
lhe Ganll Grou, a consuIling firm seciaIizing in leaching ro|ecl managemenl,
idenlified lheir goaI as:

They figured if lhey allracled enough cIienls, revenues and rofils vouId foIIov.
The second queslion asks hov your ro|ecl viII heI accomIish lhal goaI. I am nol saying
your e-Iearning viII accomIish lhe goaI by ilseIf, bul you cerlainIy shouId be abIe lo slale
hov il viII conlribule. If you cannol convincingIy and honeslIy argue lhal your ro|ecl
conlribules lo lhe goaI, consider canceIing lhe ro|ecl nov. Wilhoul such aIignmenl vilh


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organizalionaI goaIs, your ro|ecl may run oul of money, lime, and managemenl suorl.
eller lo slo nov before anlagonizing lhe managemenl of your organizalion by vasling
resources on an endeavor lhal does nol maller lo lhe organizalion.
Lel's Iook al hov lhis queslion vas ansvered for lhe Ganll Grou:

The roosed ro|ecl vas aimed al garnering more cIienls by convincing olenliaI cIienls
lhal underslanding Ganll charls, vhich are a common looI of ro|ecl managemenl, couId
make lhem more successfuI and lhal lhe Ganll Grou vas lhe source for lhal
underslanding.
Consider a wide range of goals
OrganizalionaI goaIs are nol Iimiled lo rofil or relurn-on-inveslmenl. Observe vhal your
Ieaders emhasize as lhe vaIues and goaI of lhe organizalion. Here are some ossibiIilies.
Typc gna! Dcscriptinn Mcasurcs
IinanciaI Monelary success of a
for-rofil or nol-for-
rofil enlerrise.
#

Irofil amounl and margin.
#

Cash fIov.
#

Slock rice.
#

Venlure cailaI.
#

Iundraising.
InleIIecluaI
cailaI
KnovIedge lhe
organizalion conlroIs.
#

Iducalion IeveI of slaff.
#

IrofessionaI exerience of slaff.
#

Rales of allracling and relaining laIenl.
#

Ialenls, invenlions, and lrade secrels.
Cuslomers Consumers of lhe
organizalion's services
or roducls.
#

Accounls, cIienls, sonsors.
#

Sludenls.
#

Markel share.
ImIoyees Slaff of lhe
organizalion.
#

Relenlion of essenliaI emIoyees.
#

ImIoyee moraIe.
#

Crealivily and osilive alliludes.


Typc gna! Dcscriptinn Mcasurcs
Oeralions Ifficiency and seed
vilh vhich lhe
organizalion erforms
ils mission.
#

Time lo markel.
#

Cosl er unil.
#

AgiIily in changing business rocesses.
Reulalion IubIic image of an
organizalion.
#

Induslry avards.
#

Rankings and ralings.
#

Communily-service avards.

Identify the real goals
Don'l |usl read Iofly mission slalemenls and Iislen lo fIovery seeches by your residenl.
These are oflen loo abslracl and usuaIIy designed for exlernaI consumlion onIy. Inslead,
do your ovn research. Here are some lechniques lo lry:
# Ask your Ieaders hov lhey execl you lo conlribule lo lhe success of your
organizalion. Oflen ve faiI lo ask for fear of seeming oul of louch or feeIing ve shouId
aIready knov. Mosl reaI Ieaders are deIighled vilh such queslions.
# Idenlify vhal is cruciaI lo survivaI of your organizalion or accomIishmenl of ils
mission. Do a Web search using keyvords of survivaI and crisis aIong vilh lhe
name of your organizalion or ils markel segmenl.
# Observe vhal areas are being cul back and vhal areas are exanding vilhin your
organizalion and your induslry.
# Research vhal is imorlanl lo organizalions Iike yours. Consider comeling
organizalions and lhose in anaIogous fieIds.
# ConsuIl IegaIIy binding slalemenls, such as financiaI reorls and Securilies and
Ixchange Commission reorls. Read carefuIIy seclions on Ianned grovlh and reIaled
risks.
Link learning objectives to organizational goals
Creale a bridge connecling a high-riorily goaI of your organizalion and lhe Iearning
ob|eclives of your e-Iearning so bolh business managers and inslruclionaI designers see
lhe vaIue of e-Iearning lo lhe organizalion. Nolice hov lhis slalemenl rovides |usl such a
bridge:
Misdiagnosing ballery faiIures cosls AnCaallery Comany miIIions of doIIars
er year in reIacemenl cosls and cuslomer good viII. Mosl misdiagnoses occur
because cuslomer service lechnicians (CSTs) cannol idenlify lhe underIying
robIem from lhe symloms described by cuslomers. y leaching CSTs lo
idenlify lhe cause of faiIure, ve can reduce misdiagnoses by 90%.


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Sad lo say, many inslruclionaI designers slubbornIy refuse lo consider lhe underIying
organizalionaI goaI vhen designing inslruclion. They do nol feeI lhal organizalionaI goaIs
are lheir resonsibiIily. As a resuIl lhey design courses lhal accomIish IillIe or eIse die for
Iack of organizalionaI suorl. This is lragic because il onIy lakes lvo queslions lo aIign
Iearning ob|eclives lo organizalionaI goaIs.
Analyze learners needs and abilities
Whose skiIIs, knovIedge, and alliludes are you lrying lo aIler` efore you can design
e-Iearning for eoIe, you musl knov enough aboul lhem lo choose lhe lyes of Iearning
exerience lo besl leach lhem. You musl assess Iearners' caabiIilies, nol mereIy
demograhics and reIaled slereolyes. Remember, abiIilies and alliludes maller more
lhan |usl age, gender, nalionaIily, and economic cIass.
Whal caabiIilies and lrails are mosl imorlanl`
# Mntivatinn Inr !carning. Why vouId Iearners devole lhe lime and efforl necessary` Is
il lo accomIish lheir currenl |ob` Or lo quaIify for a nev |ob` AIso consider vho ays
for lhe Iearning: lhe Iearner or lhe Iearner's emIoyer.
# Psychnmntnr ski!!s. Whal is lhe IeveI of lhe Iearner's erceluaI acuily, vorking
memory caacily, and seed and recision of eye-hand coordinalion` These abiIilies
delermine hov Iearners can gel informalion and inleracl vilh devices.
# Attitudc and mindsct. Whal are Iearners' alliludes lovard Iearning and lovard
aulhorily` Are lhey inlroverled or exlroverled` SociaI or soIilary`
# Mcnta! discip!inc. Do Iearners have a shorl or Iong allenlion san` Are lhey easiIy
dislracled` Are lhey seIf-molivaled and seIf-disciIined` Do lhey refer lo vork aIone
or vilh olhers` Can lhey ski quickIy among simuIlaneous lasks or do lhey need lo
comIele one lask before moving on lo anolher`
# Cnmmunicatinn ski!!s. Hov veII can lhey read, Iislen, seak, and vrile in lhe Ianned
Ianguage for lhe course`
# 5ncia! ski!!s. Hov veII do Iearners vork vilh olhers` Are lhey oen lo crilicism` Can
lhey molivale olhers` Can lhey offer emalhy and suorl`
# Ta!cnts and intc!!igcnccs. Whal basic abiIilies do Iearners ossess: verbaI, visuaI,
IogicaI, malhemalicaI, musicaI, erformance, alhIelic, inlraersonaI, or inlerersonaI`
# Mcdia prcIcrcnccs. Which media do Iearners allend lo firsl: video, grahics, voice,
music, or lexl` Which do lhey consider rimary and vhich secondary` Which do lhey
lreal as more aulhorilalive`
# Backgrnund knnw!cdgc and cxpcricncc. Whal do olenliaI Iearners aIready knov
aboul lhe sub|ecl` Do lhey knov lhe basic rinciIes, vocabuIary, and laxonomy of lhe
fieId` Or are lhey onIy famiIiar vilh delaiIed facls and role rocedures vilhoul
underslanding lhe bigger iclure`


# Lcarning cnnditinns. Where and vhen viII lhey Iearn` Hov much lime do lhey have
avaiIabIe for Iearning` Do lhey have lo Iearn in shorl surls belveen olher aclivilies` Is
lhe environmenl noisy and dislracling`
# Lncus nI cnntrn!. Whal do Iearners have over over` Can lhey change lheir Iearning
environmenl and condilions` Do lhey have lhe abiIily lo aIy vhal lhey Iearn in lheir
day-lo-day vork`
# 5ty!c nI prinr cducatinn. Whal kinds of Iearning have Iearners arlicialed in` Which
viII lhey find famiIiar` Which lrigger negalive associalions`
# Digita! I!ucncy. Is lhe olenliaI Iearner digilaIIy nave or a digilaI nalive` To gel a
handIe on hov Iearners use lechnoIogy in lheir Iives ask some queslions:
! Hov do lhey gel lheir nevs: lhrough nevsaers, leIevision, or nevsfeed on a
mobiIe device`
! Hov do lhey communicale vilh friends and famiIy: by Ieller, hone, e-maiI, or
sociaI media`
! Whal do lhey do for fun` Ior examIe, do lhey valch leIevision assiveIy or
immerse lhemseIves in video games`
! Whal digilaI skiIIs have lhey maslered` Ior examIe, can lhey quickIy enler lexl,
inslaII and configure aIicalion rograms, or search for informalion`
Though you may find il roduclive or necessary lo grou Iearners by shared
characlerislics, never forgel lhal Iearners are individuaIs and no lvo are exaclIy lhe same.
Identify what to teach
Success requires leaching lhe righl lhings. Try lo leach loo much and you bIov your
budgel. Teach lhe vrong lhings and you accomIish nolhingal Ieasl nolhing osilive.
Hov do you delermine lhe Iearning necessary lo accomIish an organizalionaI goaI`
SeveraI forms of anaIyzing needs are ready al hand. Since needs anaIysis is a fieId unlo
ilseIf vilh ils ovn courses and books, I viII |usl summarize lhe lechniques here.
Test to identify essentials
|sscniia|isn is a lechnique lo focus Iearning on essenliaIs needed lo accomIish goaIs
and omilling everylhing eIse. When racliced scruuIousIy, essenliaIism slreamIines
educalion, lyicaIIy eIiminaling 90% of lhe conlenl vhiIe sliII accomIishing lhe goaI
beller lhan by using convenlionaI means.
The core of essenliaIism is lesling vilh olenliaI Iearners lo delermine exaclIy vhal lhey
need and vhal lhey do nol need. Learners are given a lask lo erform. Il is a lask lhal
lhose vho meel lhe goaIs of lhe Iearning can accomIish bul lhose vho do nol meel lhe
goaI cannol accomIish. Learners are given no rior lraining bul are given access lo
resources lhey viII have vhen lhey are execled lo aIy Iearning in lhe reaI vorId.


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Learners vork in airs as lhey alleml lhe lask. Al any lime lhey can ask queslions of an
exerl, vho can ansver lheir queslions bul nol voIunleer informalion. The enlire session
is recorded and anaIyzed lo idenlify vhal Iearners asked aboul, vhal lhey figured oul on
lheir ovn, and vhal lhey Iearned from olher sources. Afler a dozen or so lesls, designers
have a relly cIear idea of vhal Iearners musl Iearn and hov lhey besl Iearn.
IssenliaIism is eseciaIIy effeclive in idenlifying smaII misconcelions lhal bIock success
in a vide range of ideas, as veII as solling Iaces vhere alliludes, ralher lhan
knovIedge, is lhe barrier. I use lhis lechnique as my ersonaI secrel veaon lo cul
ro|ecls dovn lo size.
Analyze the gap between real and ideal performance
The urose of mosl educalion is lo cIose gasgas belveen lhe currenl slale of
Iearning and lhe goaI, for examIe, belveen currenl IeveIs of erformance and required
IeveIs, belveen novice and exerl behavior, or belveen unsuccessfuI and successfuI vork.
Ga anaIysis asks vhal is needed lo cIose lhe ga. Whal do lhose al lhe largel IeveI creale,
decide, or do differenlIy` And, is lhe difference a resuIl of vhal lhey knov, beIieve, or
feeI`
Irobe lhe ga by inlervieving eoIe on bolh sides of lhe ga. IseciaIIy heIfuI are
suervisors of grous vhose members san lhe ga.
Analyze how work is done
}ob anaIysis examines vork lo idenlify ils basic comonenls and vhal each comonenl
requires from lhe vorker. TyicaIIy an area of vork, caIIed a goaI, is divided inlo jc|s, lhal
is, discrele ieces of vork vilh a cIear resuIl. }obs require iasks, vhich are unils of vork
erformed in a conlinuous san. Tasks, in lurn, are made u of a mixlure of !ccisicns and
aciicns.
Once you idenlify lhe individuaI decisions and aclions, delermine vhal abiIilies lhe
Iearner musl acquire lo erform each aclion or make each decision.
Ask "those who should know"
Insighl inlo vhal eoIe need lo Iearn can come from asking lhose vho roulineIy inleracl
vilh lhem and observe lheir behavior. Slarl vilh lhe Iearner and vork oulvard lo lheir
bosses, co-vorkers, subordinales, cuslomers, and cIienls. If you can elhicaIIy do so,
consuIl lheir ersonaI and rofessionaI nelvorks.
Ior |ob-reIaled lraining, be sure lo ask immediale suervisors. SimIy ask, "Whal do you
vanl your subordinales lo do differenlIy`" If suervisors never menlion lhe sub|ecl of
your roosed e-Iearning efforl, lake lhal as a varning.


Analyze critical incidents
CrilicaI incidenls are imorlanl haenings lhal indicale lhe olenliaI need or vaIue of
Iearning. CrilicaI incidenls incIude coslIy faiIures, videsread mislakes, surrising
resuIls, and invaIuabIe successes.
Ask vhal did eoIe creale, decide, or do (or faiI lo creale, decide, or do) lo cause
incidenls` IoIIov u by asking vhy. Whal did lhey knov, beIieve, or feeI (or nol knov,
beIieve, or feeI) lhal caused lhem lo acl as lhey did`
Do not let the "content committee" decide
The vorsl vay lo delermine vhal lo leach is lo assembIe a commillee of sub|ecl-maller
exerls and have lhem Iisl aII lhe lhings lhey lhink Iearners shouId Iearn. Such efforls
resuIl in a Iaundry Iisl of everylhing every "exerl" lhinks any Iearner mighl need lo
knov, en|oy Iearning, or shouId Iearn as a lesl of inilialion inlo lhe rofession.
Sub|ecl-maller exerls are nol deIiberaleIy dishonesl, bul lhey oflen unconsciousIy beIieve
lhal lhe goaI of educalion is lo recreale lheir IeveI and lye of exerlise in Iearners. As a
resuIl, sub|ecl maller exerls Iisl everylhing lhey knov. Or everylhing lhey had lo Iearn
"back in lhe day." Or everylhing lhey Iove aboul lhe sub|ecl.
Remember, il may be a Iong lime since lhese exerls had lo Iearn lhe sub|ecl. Much of lhe
knovIedge lhey do nol roulineIy aIy may be oul of dale. And, even lhey do nol
consciousIy knov much of vhal lhey knov. They may be unfamiIiar vilh more efficienl
vays lo Iearn lhe sub|ecl.
Don'l ignore sub|ecl-maller exerls, bul do nol bIindIy foIIov lheir advice eilher. Inslead
of Ielling lhem define lhe course, have lhem verify lhe accuracy of lhe finished e-Iearning.
Set learning objectives
Good ob|eclives are a mission-crilicaI, sin qua non, musl-have, make-or-break
requiremenl for effeclive e-Iearning. Iorgive me for slacking u so many ad|eclives, bul,
vilhoul excelion, cIear ob|eclives make everylhing go beller. In my exerience, veII over
haIf lhe faiIures of e-Iearning ro|ecls couId have been revenled by cIear ob|eclives.
Iverylhing slems from lhe ob|eclives. Irom lhe ob|eclives, ve idenlify rerequisiles, seIecl
Iearning aclivilies, and design lesls. Good ob|eclives focus efforls, reduce faIse slarls, and
cul vasle enormousIy.


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Write your learning objectives
Once you have cIarified lhe goaI of your ro|ecl, you can vrile lhe rimary Iearning
ob|eclive for your ro|ecl. This ob|eclive slales vhal lhe ro|ecl viII accomIish.
There are many oinions on hov lo vrile ob|eclives and comIele melhodoIogies on |usl
hov lo hrase ob|eclives. Search amazon.com for books by Roberl Mager or Roberl Gagne
and you viII find some examIes. Ior quick inslruclionaI design, hovever, I use a singIe,
simIe formuIa lhal vorks veII aImosl aII lhe lime. Il slales Iearning ob|eclives in lhree
arls. Iirsl, lhe ob|eclive slales lhe inlenl, lhal is, vhal viII be laughl. Second, il idenlifies
lhe largel Iearner. Third, il idenlifies slarling requiremenls.

Ior lhe examIe of lhe course Using Ganii Cnaris, lhe lo-IeveI ob|eclive of lhe course vas
lo leach hov lo shorlen ro|ecls. Il vas lo leach lhis sub|ecl lo mid-IeveI managers. ul
lhose managers had lo knov hov lo recognize lhe crilicaI alh in a Ganll charl.
The firsl sIol in our formuIa records vhal ve vanl lo leach, lhal is, our inlenl. Ior lhe lo
ob|eclive, il is lo creale, decide, or do somelhing. Ior Iover-IeveI ob|eclives, il may aIso be
lo knov, beIieve, or feeI somelhing.
The second sIol records lhe grou of eoIe ve vanl lo accomIish lhis inlenl. If an enlire
course is aimed al a singIe grou of eoIe, lhis sIol may have lhe same ansver for every
ob|eclive in lhe course.
The finaI sIol records lhe rerequisiles necessary lo make accomIishing lhe inlenl
raclicaI. Irerequisiles are usuaIIy slaled as lhe abiIilies, knovIedge, beIiefs, and feeIings
Iearners musl ossess. The rerequisiles sIol can have muIliIe ansvers, bul lhe leach sIol
has onIy a singIe inlenl.
Iach rerequisile may in lurn require anolher ob|eclivevilh ils ovn rerequisiles
Ieading lo even more ob|eclives.


What makes a good objective?
Good Iearning ob|eclives are cIear, recise, and vorlhy. Lel's Iook al each of lhese
requiremenls.
Clear
A Iearning ob|eclive shouId be cIear lo everyone invoIved vilh il. The ob|eclive musl leII
lhe ro|ecl's managemenl leam vhal you inlend lo accomIish. Il musl give lhe designer
of Iearning aclivilies secific largels lo achieve. And il musl communicale lhe vhal's in il
for me lo lhe Iearner.
Precise
The Iearning ob|eclive musl secify lhe required Iearning in enough delaiI lhal ve can
measure ils accomIishmenl. You may be lhinking lhal vhal ve have |usl Iisled as an
ob|eclive is nol comIele or recise enough. Correcl. Righl nov, il is more of a goaI. ul
don'l vorry, ve viII lighlen il u considerabIy.
My advice is: don'l gel loo recise loo soon. IarIy in a ro|ecl, il is more imorlanl lo
vrile dovn aII your ob|eclives briefIy lhan lo secify lhem in excrucialing delaiI. Once
you have aII your Iearning goaIs sread oul in fronl of you and have eIiminaled
unnecessary ones, you can fIesh lhem oul one al a lime.
Worthy
Your Iearning ob|eclives musl aII conlribule lo accomIishing lhe underIying
organizalionaI goaI. ResonsibIe deveIoers conlinuaIIy check lheir ob|eclives againsl lhe
organizalionaI goaI: Why am I leaching lhis`
There are six types of objectives
Some comIex melhodoIogies for vriling ob|eclives Iisl hundreds of differenl lyes of
ob|eclives. I Iisl six lyes of ob|ecliveslhree rimary and lhree secondary. AIied vilh
sensilivily and common sense, lhey suffice 99% of lhe lime.
InslruclionaI inlenl can be exressed in lhe foIIoving formal. This formal consisls of a
slandard reambIe and one of six ossibIe comIelions.
By cxpcricncing this cnursc, !cssnn nr tnpic, thc !carncr wi!!:
Primary nb|cctivcs
(bc ab!c tn .)
5ccnndary nb|cctivcs
# Crcatc or design an X lhal does Y.
# Dccidc X, given Y.
# Dn rocedure X lo accomIish Y.
# Knnw X aboul Y
# eIieve X.
# Fcc! X aboul Y.


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Primary and secondary objectives
Ob|eclives can be rimary or secondary. Irimary ob|eclives are lhe uIlimale reasons for
Iearning vhiIe secondary ob|eclives enabIe accomIishmenl of lhe rimary ob|eclives,
even lhough lhey are seIdom lhe largeled resuIl.

olh are imorlanl, bul lhe rimary ob|eclives are lhe ones you musl leach lo accomIish
your overaII ob|eclive. Irimary ob|eclives are pcrjcrnancc ob|eclives in lhal lhey rescribe
lhings eoIe viII be abIe lo do as a resuIl of your e-Iearning. As such, lhey are somelimes
caIIed icrnina| ob|eclives. ul lhere can aIso be cna||ing ob|eclives, lhal is, lhings you leach
so lhal Iearners can Iearn lhe lerminaI ob|eclives. Secondary ob|eclives are aIvays
enabIing ob|eclives. They are nol lhe main goaI, bul may be essenliaI, nonelheIess, lo
accomIish lhe rimary ob|eclives.
So, if you vrile lhe ctcra|| ob|eclive for your e-Iearning and il Iooks Iike one of lhe
secondary ob|eclives here, reconsider. Ask yourseIf, vhy do you vanl someone lo knov,
beIieve, or feeI somelhing` Whal viII meeling such an ob|eclive accomIish` The ansver
lo lhese queslions inoinls your rimary ob|eclive.
Primary objectives state your goals
Irimary ob|eclives are lhe goaIs of your e-Iearning, lhal is, vhal lhe Iearner viII be abIe lo
do. The foIIoving labIe Iisls lhe various forms of rimary inslruclionaI ob|eclives and
rovides examIes of hov lhey mighl be vorded.


Typc nb|cctivc Whcn situatinn Z nccurs, thc
!carncr wi!! .
Examp!cs
Crcatc
Synonyms:
uiId
Design
Drav
Comose
Synlhesize
Aulhor
Ien
Conceive
Iorm
IormuIale
Invenl
Dcsign nr bui!d an X that dncs
Y.
Noles:
# OriginaIily is required for a
creale ob|eclive, nol mereIy
buiIding somelhing by a
role rocedure, for inslance,
ainling an originaI scene
bul nol ainling-by-number.
# Crealion does nol have lo be
from scralch. Iinding a nev
use for an ancienl looI is a
creale inlenl. So is
slreamIining an eslabIished
rocedure.
# The lhing crealed can be a
hysicaI ob|ecl, a concel, or
a Ian. Il does nol have lo be
somelhing commonIy
considered "crealive." Any
innovalion quaIifies.
. spcciIy lhe Iayoul of a cily
ark lhal meels environmenlaI,
aeslhelic, and IogislicaI
requiremenls.
. writc a rogram lo exorl
informalion from a common
dalabase lo an XML formal
conlaining |usl lhe informalion
secified.
. bui!d a 1/24-scaIe modeI of
lhe roosed dveIIing.
. adapt a generic disasler-
reIief Ian lo a secific
calaslrohe.
Dccidc
Synonyms:
Choose
Iick
SeIecl
Rale
Rank
Iriorilize
Vole
ResoIve
}udge
ConcIude
Differenliale
Discriminale
IiIler
Dccidc Y.
Noles:
Tyes of decisions incIude:
# CalegoricaI (Yes/No,
Go/No-go, Is/Is nol, and
Accel/Re|ecl).
# Quanlilalive (Hov many`
Hov much`).
# SeIeclive (Which one`)
A lrue decision requires some
degree of |udgmenl, nol
mereIy foIIoving an evaIualion
rocedure.
. pick a course of lrealmenl
based on a hysicaI
examinalion of lhe alienl and
slandard bIood lesls.
. dccidc a slralegy for deaIing
vilh a difficuIl co-vorker based
on lhe asl behavior of lhe co-
vorker.
. nrdcr a saIad ralher lhan a
doubIe cheeseburger.
. pick leam members based
on vhal lhey can conlribule
ralher lhan on famiIiarily,
friendshi, or suerficiaI
characlerislics.


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Typc nb|cctivc Whcn situatinn Z nccurs, thc
!carncr wi!! .
Examp!cs
Dn
Synonyms:
Ierform
Oerale
Acl
Conslrucl
uiId
Carry oul
AccomIish
Arrange
ComIele
ComIy
Ixecule
ImIemenl
Dn X tn accnmp!ish Y.
Noles:
# Oc means erforming a
rocedure vilhoul having
lo make decisions.
# Irocedures can be hysicaI,
menlaI, or a combinalion.
# Define vhal suorl viII be
avaiIabIe during
erformance, for examIe,
romling, heI on
demand, or vrillen
inslruclions.
.once a monlh, cnmp!ctc lhe
cIeanu rocedure lo remove
invaIid e-maiI addresses from
lhe maiIing Iisl.
. mix base and linl coIors lo
malch a samIe rovided by
lhe cuslomer.
. !iIt heavy ackages by
fIexing lhe knees ralher lhan
bending lhe back.
. app!y rinciIes Iearned in
CaIcuIus 101 lo robIems
encounlered in CaIcuIus 201.

Secondary objectives help accomplish goals
Secondary ob|eclives leach somelhing necessary lo accomIish a rimary ob|eclive. They
slale vhal lhe Iearner musl knov, beIieve, or feeI.
Typc nb|cctivc Whcn situatinn Z nccurs,
thc !carncr wi!! .
Examp!cs
Knnw
Synonyms:
Undersland
RecaII
Remember
Areciale
e informed
Comrehend
Remember
Recile
Cile
Knnw X abnut Y.
Noles:
Kncuing can mean being
abIe lo:
# RecaII facls and figures.
# Oblain informalion by
onIine search or lhrough a
sociaI nelvork.
# Use one's menlaI modeI
of hov lhings vork lo
ansver queslions. The
menlaI modeI consisls of
connecled assumlions
and generaIizalions.
. rcca!! lhe counlry codes for
99% of our inlernalionaI
shimenls.
. rcmcmbcr caIming vords
lo use during disules.
. idcntiIy aII bones in lhe
human hand by name.
. idcntiIy lhe Iasl fIighl of lhe
day lo lhe cuslomer's
deslinalion.
. citc lhree reasons lo use
cenlrifugaI ums inslead of
osilive-disIacemenl ums.


Typc nb|cctivc Whcn situatinn Z nccurs,
thc !carncr wi!! .
Examp!cs
Bc!icvc
Synonyms:
Have failh lhal
Trusl
ReIy on
Accel
Affirm
Think lhal
e convinced of
Ixecl
Deem
Mainlain
Iresume
Assume
Bc!icvc X.
Noles:
# eIieve ob|eclives
convince lhe Iearner lhal
a cIaim is lrue, lhal
somelhing exisls, or lhal
an idea is imorlanl.
# eIieve and feeI ob|eclives
oflen occur logelher.
eIieve is lhe inleIIecluaI
arl and feeI is lhe
emolionaI arl.
. bc!icvc lhal our comany is
lhe mosl reIiabIe suIier in
our markel.
. bc!icvc lhal lhey can
accomIish lheir financiaI
ob|eclives lhrough
conservalive inveslmenls.
. dccm muluaI funds vorlhy
of a Iace in lheir orlfoIios.
. bc!icvc lhal risk-
managemenl lechniques can
reduce insurance remiums.
Fcc!
Synonyms:
Sense
Suffer
Ixerience
|emolionj

Fcc! X abnut Y.
Noles:
To idenlify feeI ob|eclives,
comIele lhe foIIoving:
# To succeed, Iearners musl
feeI _________.
# Or musl nol feeI loo much
__________.
IiII in lhe bIanks vilh lhe
aroriale emolions.
. Icc! osiliveIy aboul our
comany's enlire roducl Iine.
. rcmain caIm vhen
confronled by an angry
slranger.
. havc confidence lhal lhey
can use our roducls lo soIve
lheir ovn robIems.
. Icc! symalhy (ralher lhan
ily) for co-vorkers vilh
disabiIilies.

Pick objectives by what you teach
You may nol be used lo lhinking in lerms of Creale, Decide, Do, Knov, eIieve, and IeeI.
Ierhas your organizalion idenlifies Iearning needs in lerms of knovIedge, skiIIs, and
alliludes (KSAs), or as lyes of informalion, such as concels, rinciIes, facls, rocesses,
and rocedures. TransIalion is nol difficuIl. The foIIoving seclions shov hov.


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Pick objectives for KSAs
You may be accuslomed lo vriling ob|eclives in lerms of knovIedge, skiIIs, and alliludes
(KSAs). If so, |usl remember lhal skiIIs lyicaIIy require Creale or Do ob|eclives.
KnovIedge requires, you guessed il, Knov ob|eclives. Alliludes occasion Decide
ob|eclives because alliludes reveaI lhemseIves in decisions eoIe make. ecause alliludes
have lheir rools in eoIe's beIiefs and emolions, lhey may require eIieve and IeeI
ob|eclives.
Pick objectives for types of information
Some deveIomenl melhodoIogies vork in lerms of informalion lyes or sub|ecl areas,
such as rinciIes, rocedures, rocesses, and facls. If you have cIassified your Iearning
inlo lhese informalion lyes, you are haIfvay lo ob|eclives.
The foIIoving labIe Iisls ob|eclives common for each informalion lye.
InIn typc Cnmmnn nb|cctivc
Iacl Dn: Look u efficienlIy.
Knnw: RecaII a fev crilicaI facls.
Knnw: Iormal of codes, names, elc. lo aid in recaIIing and verifying.
Dccidc: AIy lhe concel lo make a decision.
Concel Knnw: Add lhe concel lo a menlaI modeI.
Irocess Dccidc: Hov lo imrove a rocess.
Dccidc: Assign eoIe and ob|ecls lo roIes in lhe rocess.
Dccidc: One's roIe in a rocess.
Dccidc: Who lo conlacl for rocess-reIaled robIems or queslions.
Fcc!: A vaIued arl of a Iarge endeavor.
Dccidc: Diagnose robIems.
Dccidc: Iredicl resuIls.
Irocedure AIlernale belveen:
Dccidc: Whal lo do nexl.
Dn: Ierform lhe nexl sle.
Syslem Knnw: Iorm and refine a menlaI modeI.
Dccidc: Iredicl oulcomes of changes lo lhe syslem.


InIn typc Cnmmnn nb|cctivc
IrinciIe Knnw: RecaII lhe rinciIe.
Knnw: Add il lo lhe menlaI modeI.
Dccidc: Whelher il aIies.
Dn: AIy lhe rinciIe.
Dccidc: AIy lhe rinciIe lo make a decision.
RuIe Knnw: RecaII lhe ruIe.
Dccidc: Recognize lhal il aIies.
Dccidc: AIy lhe ruIe lo make a decision.
Allilude Dccidc: Whal lhe allilude Ieads lo.
Knnw: Ignorance is lhe cause of lhe robIem.
Bc!icvc: Trulh of cIaim, imorlance of decision, and effecliveness of
aclion.
Fcc!: Urgency lo acl, emovered lo acl, courageous enough lo acl.
Isychomolor
skiII
Dn: Ixecule moves fIuenlIy.
Knnw: Necessary moves lo accomIish lhe goaI.
Dccidc: Hov lo resond lo change.
Fcc!: CaIm and undislracled.

Flesh out objectives
We've made a good slarl on defining ob|eclives, bul ve have a bil more vork lo do. To
fIesh oul our ob|eclives, ve need lo add crileria ve can use lo delermine vhelher Iearners
have mel lhe ob|eclives.
Spell out the situation
We leach so lhal Iearners can aIy vhal lhey Iearn, nol mereIy accumuIale knovIedge.
IeoIe aIy Iearning in reaI-vorId silualions. As arl of lhe ob|eclive, ve need lo secify
vhal lhose silualions are. Thal vay, designers can laiIor lhe design lo accomIish resuIls
in lhose silualions.
Siiuaiicn is a relly broad lerm. Il can incIude lhree main faclors: evenls lhal iriggcr
aIicalion of Iearning, ccn!iiicns under vhich lhe Iearner musl acl, and rcscurccs lhe
Iearner viII need in order lo aIy Iearning.


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Triggcr. Whal evenls viII lrigger aIicalion of lhe Iearning` Whal musl lhe Iearner
recognize as a cue lo acl` WiII lhe Iearner receive exIicil romls lo aIy Iearning` Or
viII lhe Iearner need lo infer lhe need for aclion from sublIe cues in lhe environmenl` Is
lhis an aclion lhal is aIied eriodicaIIy or on a scheduIe`
Cnnditinns. Under vhal condilions does lhe Iearner erform lhe aclion` In vhal
environmenl does lhe Iearner acl` Where does lhe aclion lake Iace` Hov noisy is lhe
environmenl` Is il eseciaIIy hol or coId` Hov much room does lhe Iearner have` Is
Iighling adequale` Is lhe Iearner sub|ecl lo frequenl inlerrulions` (See . 13 for a Iisl of
difficuIl condilions.)
Rcsnurccs. Whal resources can lhe Iearner drav on: books, caIcuIalors, or access lo lhe
Web` Whal assislance viII lhe Iearner have: suervisor lo guide lhe Iearner or eers vilh
vhom lo discuss robIems`
Set criteria for success
Whal degree of success viII Iearners accomIish` We Iike lo lhink lhal aII Iearners viII be
erfeclIy successfuI in accomIishing lhe inlended resuIls. IronicaIIy, lhough, designing
for a goaI of erfecl erformance oflen Ieads lo vorse, nol beller, resuIls. Thus, for each
ob|eclive, ve shouId reaIislicaIIy slale hov successfuI Iearners shouId be in aIying vhal
lhey Iearn.
Quanlifying lhe degree of success is nol easy, bul ve can adal melrics such as lhese:
# Iercenl of Iearners vho viII accomIish lhe ob|eclive erfeclIy.
# Average error rale.
# Time required erforming lhe lask.
# ResuIls roduced in a secified eriod of lime.
# Reduclion in frequency of robIems or increase in rale of favorabIe incidenls.
Examples of complete learning objectives
Here are some examIes of Iearning ob|eclives from differenl courses:
Lcarncrs 5ituatinn Actinn Critcria
IuII-lime foreslers
vilh Iess lhan five
years' exerience.
When asked lo
recommend a
oIicy.
They viII have
access lo Web-
based resources.
Ob|ecliveIy
consider
conlroIIed burns as
a means of foresl
managemenl.
Novice foreslers
viII recommend
conlroIIed burning
vilh lhe same
frequency as more
exerienced
foreslers.


Lcarncrs 5ituatinn Actinn Critcria
Cuslomer suorl
lechnicians.
When ansvering
cuslomer
comIainls over
lhe hone.
Using a diagnoslic
rocedure recaIIed
from memory.
CorreclIy idenlify
lhe cause of
ballery faiIures.
Reduce lhe
currenl rale of
misdiagnosis by
90%.
IndividuaI
inveslors.
Using Web-based
resources during
lhe course.
DeveIo a
baIanced financiaI
Ian lo accomIish
lheir individuaI
ob|eclives.
Over 90% viII
comIele lheir
Ians.

Identify prerequisites
No ro|ecl of any comIexily viII have |usl a singIe, simIe Iearning ob|eclive. Whalever
lhe lo-IeveI Iearning ob|eclive, il has rerequisiles lhal you musl idenlify. Such
rerequisiles secify lhe abiIilies, knovIedge, beIiefs, and feeIings Iearners musl ossess
before lhey can begin lo accomIish lhe main ob|eclive. These rerequisiles may have
rerequisiles of lheir ovn.
Spot related objectives
Slarling vilh lhe lo ob|eclive, ve begin idenlifying rerequisile ob|eclives.

Ior examIe, Iel's Iook al lhe lo ob|eclive for lhe course Using Ganii Cnaris. Il is lo leach
hov lo shorlen ro|ecls lo mid-IeveI managers vho can inlerrel lhe crilicaI alh. Iine,
bul nol aII mid-IeveI managers viII aIready knov hov lo inlerrel lhe crilicaI alh.
Objective
Teach how to shorten projects to mid-level managers
who can interpret the critical path.
Objective
Teach how to interpret the critical path to mid-
level managers who can interpret Gantt charts.
Objective
Teach how to interpret
task bars to mid-level
managers who can
recognize task bars.
Objective
Teach how to interpret
task dependencies to mid-
level managers who can
recognize dependency
markers.


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Thal means ve need anolher Iover-IeveI ob|eclive lo meel lhal rerequisile. This ob|eclive
vouId require leaching hov lo inlerrel lhe crilicaI alh. Il vouId be aimed al lhe same
mid-IeveI managers as before. This nev ob|eclive has ils ovn rerequisile, nameIy, lhe
abiIily lo inlerrel Ganll charls in generaI.
Inlerreling Ganll charls in lurn requires ob|eclives on hov lo inlerrel lask bars and hov
lo inlerrel lask deendencies. olh of lhese lvo nev ob|eclives are rerequisiles of lhe
rior ob|eclive.
Thus, ob|eclives deveIo in a cascade dovnvard from lhe lo-IeveI Iearning ob|eclive as
ve reealedIy ask vhal lhe Iearner musl knov before beginning an ob|eclive.
State objectives in shorthand
My formuIa for vriling ob|eclives is simIe, even so, vriling dozens of ob|eclives can
become ledious. Ierhas lhal is vhy many designers ski aII lhal vork and |usl begin
deveIoing conlenl. Resisl lhal urge. If you vanl lo, you can slreamIine lhe rocess by
vriling ob|eclives in a shorlhand fashion.
To slreamIine lhe slalemenl of an ob|eclive, slale |usl vhal lhe Iearner viII be abIe lo do
afler accomIishing lhe ob|eclive. Teach hov lo shorlen ro|ecls lo mid-IeveI managers
vho can inlerrel lhe crilicaI alh becomes |usl shorlen ro|ecls. Our nexl ob|eclive
becomes |usl inlerrel lhe crilicaI alh. And our finaI lvo ob|eclives become |usl
inlerrel lask bars and inlerrel lask deendencies.

We can slreamIine lhe slalemenl of ob|eclives because lhe Iearners are lyicaIIy simiIar
lhroughoul an enlire course and because lhe rerequisile for a higher-IeveI ob|eclive
becomes lhe sub|ecl for lhe nexl ob|eclive dovn lhe cascade.
This shorlhand vorks besl vhen lhe ob|eclive is slaled in lhe grammalicaI form lhal
exresses il as a lask lhe Iearner viII be abIe lo accomIish. The firsl arl of lhis
grammalicaI form is an aclive verb, such as inlerrel or shorlen. The second arl is a
hrase reresenling lhe direcl ob|ecl of lhe verb, lhal is, vhal lhe verb acls on. This formal
kees lhe focus on erformance.

interpret
task bars
interpret task
dependencies
interpret the critical path
shorten projects
interpret the critical path
Active verb
Direct object


Here's a besl raclice for you: The lo looIs for calaIoging your slreamIined Iearning
ob|eclives are a vhileboard or Iosl-il noles because lhey make il easy for you lo change
your mind.
Hierarchy of learning objectives
Our cascade of Iearning ob|eclives and lheir rerequisiles naluraIIy forms a lree-slruclure
or hierarchy. Ior examIe, Iel's Iook al lhe anaIysis lhal vas conducled for lhe Using Ganii
Cnaris course. Il slarled vilh lhe lo-IeveI ob|eclive, lo leach hov lo shorlen ro|ecls lo
mid-IeveI managers vho can inlerrel lhe crilicaI alh.

Ior lhal ob|eclive, I idenlified lvo rerequisiles, nameIy lhe abiIily lo inlerrel lhe crilicaI
alh (vhich I menlioned earIier) and lo manage ro|ecls generaIIy. Inlerreling lhe
crilicaI alh had lhree rerequisiles. Il required lhe abiIily lo recognize lhe crilicaI alh,
inlerrel lask bars, and inlerrel lask deendencies. Recognizing lhe crilicaI alh required
lhe abiIily lo define lhe crilicaI alh and dislinguish non-crilicaI alhs from crilicaI alhs.
Inlerreling lask bars required lhe abiIily lo recognize lask bars, lo read lhe charl grid,
and lo recognize fIoal Iines. Inlerreling lask deendencies required lhe abiIily lo
recognize deendency markers and lo dislinguish miIeslones from deendency markers.
Recognizing markers required lhe abiIily lo recognize lhree lyes of markers: slarl-finish,
arliaI comIelion, and Iagging slarls. The acluaI anaIysis vas a bil more comIex lhan
lhis, bul essenliaIIy of lhe same slruclure.
Looking al lhis lidy hierarchy, il is lemling lo roceed lo lhe nexl sle. We shouId nol do
so vilhoul deaIing vilh some of lhe lras lhal oflen Iurk al lhis slage. Ior one lhing, some
of lhe ob|eclives may be loo basic or loo vasl lo fil vilhin lhe scoe of lhe ro|ecl. Ior
examIe, lhe ob|eclive of being abIe lo manage ro|ecls is loo eIemenlaI lo fil in a course
on using Ganll charls.


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Anolher lra in such a neal hierarchy is lhal ve may assume il reresenls aII lhe
rerequisile reIalionshis. A cIoser Iook reveaIs lhal dislinguishing non-crilicaI from
crilicaI alhs requires lhe abiIily lo recognize fIoal Iines and lo read lhe charl grid, vhich
vere earIier idenlified as rerequisiles for inlerreling lask bars. The reIalionshis among
ob|eclives are cIearIy nol a simIe hierarchy.
Scanning lhe Iover-IeveI ob|eclives may aIso cause us lo queslion vhelher some
ob|eclives are loo delaiIed or esoleric lo be incIuded direclIy. We mighl consider omilling
lhese ob|eclives or ulling lhem in reference maleriaIs. One susecl area covers lhe delaiIs
aboul lhe differenl lyes of deendency markers.
One finaI lra is lo aulomalicaIIy adol lhis hierarchy as lhe slruclure for lhe course
menu. Somelimes lhal is a good idea, bul oflen il is nol, eseciaIIy if ve feeI lhal
rerequisiles shouId be laughl firsl.
Identify what each objective requires
Ior each ob|eclive, idenlify lhe requiremenls for Iearning lo lake Iace, lhal is, ils
rerequisiles.
To idenlify rerequisiles for an ob|eclive, ask vhy Iearners may faiI lo accomIish lhe
ob|eclive. Do lhey nol recognize lhe need or miserceive lhe silualion` Do lhey Iack a
cruciaI facl` Are lhey slumed on hov lo roceed, or are lhey afraid lo lake lhe nexl sle`
Or, are lhey |usl unmolivaled or uninleresled`
To slale lhe robIem as an ob|eclive, ask vhal lhe Iearner musl be abIe lo creale, decide, or
do and vhal lhe Iearner musl knov, beIieve, and feeI.
Ior examIe, in a course on reducing vorkIace vioIence, one ob|eclive vas lhal nev
suervisors be abIe lo reduce disules belveen subordinales.

To meel lhe ob|eclive of resoIving disules belveen subordinales viII require firsl
meeling lhe six rerequisiles Iisled.


List prerequisites
Hov do ve quickIy and syslemalicaIIy idenlify lhe rerequisiles for a secific ob|eclive`
There is no magic formuIa, bul carefuI anaIysis of ob|eclives viII heI. Ior examIe, ve
mighl idenlify comonenl skiIIs as rerequisiles. Comonenl skiIIs are Iover-IeveI arls
of a higher-IeveI skiII. Ior examIe, if a rocedure has five sles, each sle mighl be a
comonenl skiII of lhal rocedure.
Anolher calegory of rerequisiles is definilions. UnIess Iearners have lhe basic vocabuIary
of a fieId, lhey cannol Iearn lhe more advanced asecls of lhal fieId. Concels may be
needed vhen ve vanl lo go beyond role Iearning and enabIe crealive robIem soIving.
RuIes and reguIalions may be required lo inform Iearners of lhe conslrainls on hov lhey
can aIy lheir Iearning. Here are some common rerequisiles for differenl lyes of
ob|eclives:
Typc nb|cctivc Cnmmnn prcrcquisitcs
Crcatc an X lhal
does Y.
Dn rocedure for Ianning or buiIding.
Knnw requiremenls for Y and ruIes governing lhe rocess.
Dccidc aroaches lo lake.
Fcc! oen lo nev ideas.
Dccidc X. Knnw ruIes lhal govern lhe decision.
Knnw vhal choices are avaiIabIe.
Knnw lhe consequences of each choice.
Knnw rinciIes and concels lhal can guide lhe decision.
Bc!icvc lhal lhe decision is necessary.
Fcc! osiliveIy lovard lhe correcl choice.
Dn rocedure X
lo accomIish Y.
e abIe lo dn lhe individuaI sles of lhe rocedure.
Fcc! confidenl lo erform lhe rocedure.
Dccidc lo erform lhe rocedure.
Knnw X aboul Y. Knnw lerms necessary lo undersland X.
Knnw suorling facls, rocesses, and concels.
Bc!icvc X. Knnw facls, concels, and rinciIes lhal suorl X.
Fcc! lhal X is imorlanl.
Fcc! X aboul Y. Bc!icvc somelhing aboul Y.
Knnw somelhing aboul Y.


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Teach essential objectives
Inslruclion is onIy effeclive if il leaches lhe righl lhings. Ior examIe, robIems oflen
occur vhen ve leach Iov-IeveI, exIicil knovIedge lhal Iearners aIready knov, couId
figure oul on lheir ovn, or viII never aIy. Ior inslance, many courses on comuler
oeralions leach lying ralher lhan lhe skiIIs reaIIy needed lo use lhe comuler
successfuIIy.

Ior examIe, lhis orlion of a simuIalion
requires Iearners lo lye numbers inlo lhe
ceIIs of a grid.
The robIem vilh lhis aroach is lhal il
focuses allenlion on lhe lask of lying in
numbers. Il encourages lunneI vision lhal
dislracls from lhe more imorlanl lask of
leaching unai goes inlo lhe grid.

Tying skiIIs are nol lhe crilicaI
skiII. The crilicaI skiII is enlering
lhe righl allern of dala. This
revision of lhe aclivily focuses
allenlion on lhe reIalionshis
among vaIues ralher lhan mereIy
lying numeraIs.

Crealed vilh Adobe Calivale.

Hov lhen do ve idenlify vhich ob|eclives are essenliaI for effeclive Iearning`


Identify high-value objectives
Nol aII ob|eclives are equaIIy vaIuabIe. Some conlribule more lo uIlimale success or go
furlher in revenling faiIure lhan olhers. Ior examIe:
# A singIe Iov-IeveI ob|eclive may be a rerequisile for many higher-IeveI ob|eclives.
# Some rerequisile ob|eclives, once accomIished, render deendenl ob|eclives easy lo
accomIish.
# Some rinciIes and concels enabIe Iearners lo infer a vide range of aIicalions, for
examIe a basic formuIa from vhich more comIex formuIas can be derived.
# Some ob|eclives creale schemas or menlaI modeIs necessary for Iearners lo organize
nev Iearning.
# Learn-lo-Iearn ob|eclives can obviale lhe need lo leach vasl amounls of rouline
maleriaI.
Eliminate unnecessary objectives
}usl as some ob|eclives are eseciaIIy vaIuabIe, olher ob|eclives are of so IillIe vaIue lhal
lhey do nol |uslify lhe cosl of accomIishing lhem. Queslion aII "nice lo knov" ob|eclives.
AIy lhe "So vhal`" lesl. Ask vhere exaclIy Iearners viII aIy lhe roosed Iearning,
eseciaIIy if lhe ob|eclive is ureIy lhe ossession of knovIedge.
Consider omilling delaiIs lhe Iearner can infer from rinciIes, Iook u in reference
maleriaIs, or |usl ask olhers.
Queslion goaIs lhal lry lo lurn lolaI novices inlo sub|ecl-maller exerls. Learners are
seIdom comIele novices and rareIy need lo become fuII exerls. Learners are usuaIIy
molivaled (or funded) lo Iearn |usl enough lo meel immediale needs.
Tip: Say no to Know objectives
Ior beller e-Iearning, reduce lhe number of Knov ob|eclives. Wilh informalion readiIy
avaiIabIe onIine and onboard mobiIe devices, eoIe seIdom faiI for a Iack of knovIedge.
Il is more IikeIy lhal lhey are unabIe lo aIy lheir knovIedge. Iocus more on Creale and
Decide ob|eclives lo emhasize aIicalion of Iearning. And consider vhelher a Iack of
erformance is due lo lhe facl lhe Iearner does nol beIieve vhal you are leaching or does
nol feeI il is imorlanl. If so, increase lhe number of eIieve and IeeI ob|eclives.
Nexl lime you are lemled lo vrile an ob|eclive using lhe vord kncu or un!crsian!, slo
and consider vhelher anolher ob|eclive mighl nol vork beller.
Don't ignore Feel objectives
Imolion is necessary for behavioraI change. We do nol heed a varning unIess il insires
al Ieasl a IillIe fear in us.
IeeI ob|eclives are difficuIl. They are hard lo define. TaIking aboul lhem makes you sound
Iike a second-rale, nev-age, seIf-heI guru. ul IeeI ob|eclives can be cruciaI, eseciaIIy in


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revenling faiIures, even in highIy lechnicaI lraining. Oflen sub|ecl-maller exerls and
lrainers fIuenl in a sub|ecl have no fear lhemseIves, and hence faiI lo nolice lhe degree lo
vhich Iearners fear lhey viII faiI and be embarrassed.
Language, even oelry, cannol reciseIy define emolions, bul ve can usuaIIy gel cIose
enough lo slale a vorkabIe ob|eclive. Slarl vilh lhese main famiIies of emolions,
remembering lhal some are simIy differences of degree or oIarily.
Fami!y Emntinns
Affeclion adoralion, Iove, Iiking, indifference, aalhy, disIike, conleml,
Ioalhing, hale, abhorrence
Hainess ecslasy, euhoria, hainess, indifference, dissalisfaclion,
sadness, deressed, de|eclion, misery
Iride ride, embarrassmenl, guiIl, shame
Inleresl curiosily, inleresl, disinleresl, reuIsion
Imovermenl emovermenl, fruslralion, discouragemenl
Confidence cerlainly, comforl, concern, unease, anxiely, vorry, fear
ReIalionshis emalhy, symalhy, gralilude, idenlily, envy, |eaIousy, hosliIily
Olimism olimism, hoe, fear, horror, deression
Surrise ave, vonder, surrise, shock
Inergy energy, eagerness, Ielhargy
ResonsibiIily idenlily, resonsibiIily, guiIl

Consider defined curricula
When selling ob|eclives for a course or curricuIa, consider vhelher someone has aIready
defined lhe required body of knovIedge or skiIIs lo be laughl. Ior lhe area of your course
or curricuIum, requiremenls may be defined by:
# Governmenl reguIalions.
# Cerlificalion or Iicensing rocedures.
# Slandard reference vorks.
# IrofessionaI associalions.
# Slandardized academic curricuIa.
Such definilions can save you monlhs of research and debale in defining Iearning
ob|eclives for your ro|ecl.


Stop before you go too far
Idenlifying rerequisiles can easiIy gel oul of hand. Al some oinl you have lo slo
adding ob|eclives. Consider sloing vhen:
# You can'l lhink of any requiremenls lhal Iearners do nol aIready ossess.
# Iree, avaiIabIe resources adequaleIy handIe requiremenls.
# Requiremenls are handIed by slaled rerequisiles for lhe course.
But not before the miracle occurs
MiracIes do occur. Or al Ieasl vhal seems Iike a miracIe occurs, in my exerience, aboul
90% of lhe lime vhen decomosing ob|eclives. Al firsl, decomosing ob|eclives by
rerequisiles Ieads lo an exIosion of ob|eclives. The number of ob|eclives grovs
exonenliaIIy. Ior examIe, if each ob|eclive has lhree rerequisiles, lhe numbers of
ob|eclives added al successive IeveIs of decomosilion are: 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, . and so on.
Al lhis oinl dismay sels in. Many, in desair, eilher quil earIy or abandon ob|eclives
aIlogelher. Sorry lo say, mosl eoIe give u righl al lhe oinl vhere lhings gel beller. If
you, hovever, ersisl a bil furlher, lhe miracIe occurs. DuIicale ob|eclives slarl
occurring. Thal is, you discover lhal severaI ob|ecls have lhe same rerequisile. And lhal
meeling lhese rerequisiles viII make achieving higher-IeveI rerequisiles much easier.

The nevIy discovered rerequisiles may make meeling higher-IeveI ob|eclives lriviaI
because, once Iearners have maslered lhese rerequisiles, lhey can figure oul high-IeveI
ob|eclives on lheir ovn or |usl Iook u missing delaiIs onIine.
This miracIe is so counler-inluilive lhal fev beIieve il vilhoul roof and fever sliII go
dee enough lo rove il lo lhemseIves. ul il makes sense. The more you decomose
ob|eclives, lhe more you Iearn aboul lhe sub|ecl and lhe inlerconneclions among ils
individuaI facls, formuIas, and oeralions.


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Ierhas lhe miracIe is inherenl in lhe slruclure of knovIedge. Mosl scienlific fieIds
conlain a fev Iavs lhal exIain vasl reaIms of scienlific dala and give rise lo many
searale rocedures, formuIas, and rocesses.
Or, lhe miracIe may |usl be an exression of lhe nalure of nalure. Our enlire genelic code
resuIls from combinalions of |usl four searale moIecuIes. AII maller is lhe resuIl of
combinalions of a fev subalomic arlicIes. Combinalions of |usl a fev rimary coIors can
reIicale lhe vide gamul of coIors ve erceive.
ComIexily emerging from underIying simIicily may be a naluraI Iav ilseIf.
WouIdn'l il be nice if lhere vere a vay lo avoid aII lhis vork and |usl idenlify lhe
essenliaI rerequisile ob|eclives direclIy` There is. Il is caIIed |sscniia|isn and is described
briefIy on age 14 and in more delaiI in lhe Aendix, Iocaled in lhe back of lhis book.
Pick the approach to meet each objective
Once you have idenlified a reIiminary sel of ob|eclives, you musl nov change direclion a
bil. U lo lhis oinl, you have considered onIy unai you vanl lo accomIish, nol ncu you
viII accomIish il. You have nol even decided vhelher e-Iearning is arl of lhe soIulion
or even if Iearning is necessary.
Decide what you must actually teach
Whal musl be Iearned, in lhe cIassic sense of lhe vord` One of lhe firsl decisions you need
lo make aboul an ob|eclive is vhelher il requires Iearning or vhelher il can be mel by
some olher means.
Cerlain ob|eclives can be mel onIy vilh Iearning. Learning is usuaIIy lhe besl aroach for
ob|eclives and conlenl lhal is:
# Needed inslanlIy and oflen, as for fIuency of vork.
# Needed under slress.
# Used for a Iifelime.
# Conslanl and unchanging.
# Needed vhen lhere is no access lo reference sources.
# Needed lo enabIe effeclive search, sociaI nelvorking, and olher means of meeling
ob|eclives.
# Needed lo make sense of vhal ve find by search or inleraclion vilh sociaI nelvorks.
evare lhe baby-hammer syndrome: To a baby vilh a hammer, everylhing is a naiI.
Training dearlmenls and universilies have a lendency lo rescribe educalion lo
accomIish every ob|eclive. }usl be sure lo ask vhelher Iearning is lhe besl vay lo
accomIish lhe ob|eclive.


Choose how to meet objectives
As a designer, oenIy consider aII lhe ossibIe vays lo meel ob|eclives and ick lhe besl
soIulions for your Iearners, your mission, and your silualion. IossibIe soIulions incIude
slandaIone e-Iearning, games and simuIalions, virluaI-cIassroom e-Iearning, hysicaI-
cIassroom Iearning, coaching, referring Iearners lo exisling Iearning maleriaIs, inleracling
vilh a sociaI nelvork, searching onIine resources, Ielling Iearners find soIulions on lheir
ovn, and changing exlernaI faclors lo make Iearning unnecessary. This is a Iong Iisl, so
Iel's consider each in delaiI.
Standalone e-learning
ConvenlionaI slandaIone e-Iearning Ieads Iearners individuaIIy lhrough slruclured
sequences of Iearning exeriences chosen lo accomIish secific Iearning ob|eclives. In
lhis form of Iearning, eoIe inleracl vilh e-Iearning lhrough a comuler or mobiIe
device. This is a roven, fIexibIe aroach. Lel's consider vhere il fils in your mix of
soIulions.
Lcarncrs. SlandaIone e-Iearning can be designed lo vork for a vide range of Iearners. Il is
oflen lhe besl soIulion for nave, novice Iearners vho refer lo Iearn by lhemseIves and
are viIIing lo lrusl lhe aulhorily of lhe e-Iearning. Il does require a moderale IeveI of seIf-
molivalion and lechnicaI skiIIs lhough.
5ub|ccts. SlandaIone e-Iearning has been adaled lo a vide range of sub|ecls. Il exceIs in
leaching broad, fundamenlaI sub|ecls of generaI aIicabiIily. Il vorks besl for
eslabIished, exIicil knovIedge, ralher lhan raidIy evoIving lacil knovIedge. SlandaIone
e-Iearning has roven economicaI and effeclive in leaching common vork skiIIs. Though
effeclive for aII Iearning inlenls, slandaIone e-Iearning vorks eseciaIIy veII for Decide,
Do, and Knov ob|eclives.
5ituatinns. SlandaIone e-Iearning vorks veII for roviding economicaI Iong-lerm
soIulions lo lhe need lo educale many eoIe in a vide range of sub|ecls lo a uniformIy
high slandard of erformance. Il can aIso be designed lo cuslomize Iearning lo lhe
individuaI Iearner. The inveslmenl required for slandaIone e-Iearning is |uslified vhen lhe
risks of faiIing lo Iearn are high.
Rcquircmcnts. SlandaIone e-Iearning requires adequale budgel and lime lo research,
design, deveIo, lesl, refine, and deIoy lhe Iearning.
Games and simulations
Games and simuIalions (See Chaler 7) Iel Iearners discover knovIedge, oIish skiIIs, and
exerience lhe consequences of a variely of behaviors. Games and simuIalions require
efforl, lime, and money lo deveIo, so ve vanl lo use lhem viseIy, lhal is, vhere lhey are
lhe besl soIulion.


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Lcarncrs. Games come in a vasl variely lo fil a vide range of Iearners from deendenl lo
indeendenl, novice lo exerl, seIf- lo exlernaIIy-disciIined. Games do require Iearners
have enough lechnicaI skiIIs and sub|ecl-maller knovIedge lo begin lhe game. And games
vork beller for soIilary Iearners, lhough leam games are a ossibiIily for sociaI Iearners.
Games are eseciaIIy good for Iearners vho need exlra raclice lo masler a sub|ecl.
5ub|ccts. Games and simuIalions can handIe a vide range of sub|ecls. They exceI al
making abslracl, generaI sub|ecls accessibIe lo Iearners vho deaI besl vilh concrele,
secific silualions. Games vork eseciaIIy veII in leaching lhe fundamenlaI rinciIes
and ruIes of a fieId. They are, hovever, loo exensive lo leach vasl sub|ecls lhoroughIy or
ones lhal require frequenl revisions. They vork much beller for exIicil lhan lacil
knovIedge. Games vork veII for Decide, Knov, Do, and eIieve ob|eclives.
5ituatinns. Games are good Iong-lerm soIulions lo educaling many Iearners vho need lo
fuIIy masler a secific area of a sub|ecl. Their cosl is |uslified vhere lhe cosls of faiIure are
even higher.
Rcquircmcnts. IIan lo budgel adequale lime and money lo deveIo games. AIso lake
sles lo inlroduce non-gamers lo lhe game in vays lhal ensure lheir earIy success.
Virtual-classroom e-learning
VirluaI-cIassroom courses (Chaler 10) slruclure Iearning on lhe modeI of a hysicaI
cIassroom. Scallered Iearners connecl lhrough an onIine meeling looI. An invoIved
leacher may Ieclure, make assignmenls, and iniliale discussions among Iearners direcls
aclivilies.
Lcarncrs. The virluaI cIassroom is good for Iearners vho are famiIiar vilh and Iike lhe
cIassroom modeI. Il is a good soIulion if you musl educale novice, deendenl Iearners
vho need lhe exlernaI molivalion rovided by lhe leacher. The lechnicaI skiIIs required
are nol many, and lhe anaIogy vilh a hysicaI cIassroom heIs overcome anxiely aboul a
nev form of Iearning.
5ub|ccts. The virluaI cIassroom vorks veII lo leach lhe same sub|ecls as in lhe hysicaI
cIassroom, nameIy broad courses covering fundamenlaI, generaI, abslracl sub|ecls. The
virluaI cIassroom is as fIexibIe as lhe leacher conducling aclivilies. Though lhe virluaI
cIassroom is beller for eslabIished, exIicil knovIedge, a sensilive leacher can adal
inleraclions lo leach lacil skiIIs and emerging knovIedge. VirluaI cIassrooms are naluraI
for leaching Knov, eIieve, and Do ob|eclives.
5ituatinns. The virluaI-cIassroom vorks in silualions vhere lhere is nol lime or budgel
enough lo imIemenl slandaIone e-Iearning, bul exerienced leachers are avaiIabIe.
Rcquircmcnts. VirluaI-cIassroom e-Iearning requires a virluaI-cIassroom syslem or al
Ieasl an onIine meeling looI. And il requires a leacher famiIiar vilh lhe sub|ecl, lhe
syslem, and lhe lye of Iearners enroIIed.


Physical-classroom learning
Some Iearners, sub|ecls, and silualions are nol suiled for e-Iearning, bul can sliII be
handIed by an oId-fashioned hysicaI cIassroom. IhysicaI cIassroom aclivilies incIude
Ieclures, queslion-and-ansver sessions, seminars, symosia, and olher face-lo-face
aclivilies.
Lcarncrs. The hysicaI cIassroom may be lhe besl choice for Iearners vho Iack lechnicaI
skiIIs, knov IillIe aboul lhe sub|ecl al hand, deend on exlernaI molivalion, reIy on lhe
aulhorily of exerls lo vaIidale informalion, and require direcl sociaI inleraclion.
5ub|ccts. The hysicaI cIassroom vorks veII lo leach fundamenlaI, generaI, abslracl
sub|ecls. The hysicaI cIassroom is as fIexibIe as lhe leacher in charge. Though beller for
eslabIished, exIicil knovIedge, a skiIIfuI leacher can leach lacil skiIIs and emerging
knovIedge. IhysicaI cIassrooms are naluraI for leaching Knov, eIieve, Do, and
somelimes IeeI ob|eclives. The hysicaI cIassroom is necessary vhen cIose observalion of
lhe hysicaI behavior, body Ianguage, faciaI exressions, and geslures of lhe Iearner is
required.
5ituatinns. The hysicaI cIassroom may be lhe besl aIlernalive vhen lhere is nol lime lo
deveIo e-Iearning, and exerienced leachers are avaiIabIe. And Iearners can afford lhe
lime and money required lo lraveI lo lhe sile of lhe cIassroom. Where a quick soIulion is
needed and lraveI cosls can be avoided, lhe hysicaI cIassroom is a good soIulion.
Rcquircmcnts. The hysicaI cIassroom requires a cIassroom, a leacher, and lhe abiIily lo
gel Iearners inlo lhe cIassroom. Il requires a budgel lo ay leachers and lo comensale for
lime off lhe |ob vhiIe allending cIassroom Iearning, Ius lhe lraveI cosls of Iearners vho
musl lraveI lo lhe cIassroom.
Coaching
Inslead of a formaI Iearning rogram, lhe besl soIulion may be lo assign a coach, menlor,
or advisor lo each Iearner. Arenliceshi is one of lhe oIdesl and mosl effeclive vays of
Iearning.
Lcarncrs. Coaching can heI |usl aboul any lye of Iearner, lhough nol aII Iearners accel
coaching veII. Coaching vorks besl for nave, deendenl Iearners vho resond lo lhe
aulhorily and exlernaI disciIine rovided by lhe coach. Learners vilh minimaI lechnicaI
skiIIs can receive coaching by hone or e-maiI. Learners vilh deeer lechnicaI skiIIs can
engage in a virluaI arenliceshi rogram (See Dislance arenliceshi rogram in
Chaler 9.).
5ub|ccts. The range of sub|ecls accessibIe lhrough coaching deends mainIy on lhe
exerlise and communicalions skiIIs of lhe coach. IronicaIIy, coaching vorks eseciaIIy
veII vilh very fundamenlaI sub|ecls and very advanced ones. The coach can diagnose lhe
robIems facing lhe iniliaI Iearner and quickIy remove misconcelions. eing an exerl,
lhe coach is Iikevise adel al refining lhe Iearner's knovIedge and behavior. Coaching


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vorks veII for buiIding lacil skiIIs vilhoul vrillen ruIes and rinciIes. Hovever, one-on-
one coaching is nol efficienl enough lo use for broad sub|ecls or Iarge numbers of Iearners.
Use coaching for Creale, Do, and eIieve ob|eclives lhal lake advanlage of lhe coach's
abiIily lo sur innovalion, modeI behavior, and give aulhorily and credibiIily lo ideas.
5ituatinns. Use coaching for seciaI cases vhere a fev Iearners each need lo Iearn a
differenl asecl of a sub|ecl or Iearn il lo a differenl degree and slandard of erformance.
Use il vhere lhe cosl of individuaI faiIure is high and lhe coach can lhoroughIy evaIuale
lhe Iearner's abiIilies before lhe Iearner is ul in harm's vay.
Rcquircmcnts. Coaching requires coaches vho ossess lhe necessary exerlise and
inlerersonaI communicalions skiIIs.
Referring to learning resources
Inslead of leaching an ob|eclive direclIy, you may choose lo send Iearners lo exisling
resources lhal can leach il for us. Such resources incIude olher courses, odcasls, e-books,
aer books, bIogs, and olher sources of veII-researched and slruclured Iearning
maleriaIs.
Lcarncrs. Referring Iearners lo exlernaI resources can be risky for nave, deendenl
Iearners vho Iack lhe seIf-disciIine necessary lo Iearn on lheir ovn, vho have yel lo
acquire lhe fundamenlaI knovIedge necessary lo undersland lhe exlernaI maleriaIs, or
vho have no abiIily lo access lhem eIeclronicaIIy. SliII, exlernaI resources can be usefuI for
heIing novices vho need inlroduclory or background knovIedge and for advanced
Iearners vho vanl lo go furlher inlo lhe sub|ecl.
5ub|ccts. Use exlernaI resources for asecls of lhe main sub|ecl lhal Iie oulside lhe needs
of mainslream Iearners. Use exlernaI resources lo ensure aII Iearners have necessary
rerequisiles, can ursue side inleresls, and are nol Iimiled by lhe narrov scoe of lhe
course. IxlernaI resources are mosl reIiabIe for eslabIished, exIicil knovIedge. Consider
exlernaI resources for Decide, Do, and Knov ob|eclives.
5ituatinns. Use exlernaI resources lo quickIy and inexensiveIy rovide soIulions for
ob|eclives reIevanl lo onIy a minorily of Iearners. Use lhem vhere you face Iarge
varialions in lhe needs of Iearners and in lheir slarling abiIilies. Do nol use lhis aroach,
hovever, if lhe cosl of faiIing lo Iearn lhe ob|eclive is high or you Iack failh in lhe exlernaI
maleriaIs lo accomIish lhe ob|eclive.
Rcquircmcnts. This aroach requires effeclive maleriaIs lhal viII accomIish lhe
ob|eclive for your Iearners. You musl carefuIIy Iocale, anaIyze, and even lesl lhese
maleriaIs. You may aIso need lo reare an inlroduclion or bridge from your course lo lhe
exlernaI maleriaIs (See Inlegrale foreign moduIes in Chaler 6.).


Searching online resources
Inslead of roviding lhe ansver or roviding secific resources, you can leach Iearners lo
find lhe ansver for lhemseIves. Sohislicaled search engines and vasl onIine resources
mean lhal much of vhal Iearners need lo knov is onIy a fev seconds avay. Teaching
facls, figures, and simIe rocedures makes Iess and Iess sense every day.
Lcarncrs. The search soIulion vorks besl for moderaleIy knovIedgeabIe, indeendenl
Iearners vho have lhe seIf-disciIine and variness lo driII lhrough Iayers of lhird-hand
reorls, arlisan oinions, gossi, and oulrighl decelion lo gel lo subslanliaI, accurale
informalion. Iffeclive search requires generic search skiIIs as veII as skiIIs searching
vilhin a arlicuIar documenl, dalabase, or Iibrary. Il aIso requires core knovIedge of lhe
vocabuIary, rinciIes, and slruclure of lhe fieId.
5ub|ccts. Search vorks besl for advanced Iearning in narrov areas of lacil knovIedge. Il
is a vay lo deaI vilh conslanlIy changing delaiIs, such as research dala, Iavs and
reguIalions, and areas of raid lechnicaI advancemenl. Use search lo accomIish Decide,
Do, Knov, and eIieve ob|eclives.
5ituatinns. Use search in areas vhere Iearners need informalion lhal is readiIy avaiIabIe
onIine. Use il lo avoid lhe cosls of leaching eoIe informalion lhey couId more easiIy
Iook u or lhal viII quickIy become obsoIele. Use il lo heI Iearners become more seIf-
reIianl.
Rcquircmcnts. A search aroach requires lhal lhe informalion be onIine and readiIy
accessibIe by Iearners. Il may aIso require leaching Iearners generic search skiIIs and
enough of lhe sub|ecl so lhey can conducl effeclive searches on lheir ovn.
Interacting with a social network
Advances in coIIaboralion soflvare and lhe emergence of sociaI nelvorking have
rovided nev vays for eoIe lo Iearn. One of lhe mosl imorlanl uses of sociaI
nelvorking is lo serve as a source of educalion, guidance, and informalion for Iearners. As
such, il serves as a human erformance-suorl mechanism. Learners, al any lime, can
ask lheir nelvorks of friends, exerls, and feIIov Iearners. Ansvers are nol Iimiled lo
shorl lexl ansvers, lhey can incIude any aroriale media and can incIude ongoing
conversalions. Ior more, see Chaler 8.
Lcarncrs. Using a sociaI nelvork for Iearning is nol for everyone. Il vorks veII for
Iearners vho are more sociaI lhan soIilary, vho undersland lhe rinciIes and vocabuIary
necessary lo inleracl roducliveIy, vho have lhe seIf-disciIine lo kee conversalions
focused, and vho queslion ralher lhan bIindIy accel nev informalion.
5ub|ccts. SociaI nelvorking is eseciaIIy effeclive for refining exisling skiIIs. Il can heI
Iearners find secific aIicalions for generaI rinciIes, see concrele examIes of abslracl
ideas, acquire lacil knovIedge Iacking cIear ruIes and formuIas. SociaI nelvorking is
eseciaIIy effeclive for raidIy emerging sub|ecls vhere knovIedge is rovisionaI al besl.


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AIso consider il as an eIemenl in any sub|ecl lhal is aIied by a leam ralher lhan by
individuaIs. Likevise, use il lo refine skiIIs of conversalion, negolialion, and coIIaboralion.
Consider il for Creale, Decide, eIieve, and IeeI ob|eclives.
5ituatinns. Use sociaI nelvorking lo round oul Iearning efforls. Use il lo handIe concerns
and needs of individuaI Iearners, lo rovide Iearning needed by onIy a fev, and lo
iIIuslrale slandards of erformance. SociaI nelvorking can be a soIulion vhen you Iack
lime and budgel lo deveIo formaI Iearning for |usl a fev Iearners or loics. SociaI
nelvorking vorks besl vhen il conlinues over Iong eriods of lime.
Rcquircmcnts. A sociaI-nelvorking soIulion requires a sociaI nelvork lhal sans lhe
needed exerlise and incIudes individuaIs viIIing lo share il. You may need lo ul in
Iace looIs lo make coIIaboralion naluraI and easy. You may aIso need lo ul in Iace
oIicies lhal encourage sharing informalion across lradilionaI boundaries. Iffeclive sociaI
Iearning viII aIso require lime for Iearners lo |oin grous, idenlify exerls, buiId lrusl, and
carry on conversalions.
Letting learners find the solution on their own
Somelimes lhe besl vay lo leach Iearners is lo do nolhingveII, nol exaclIy ncining.
Inslead of direclIy lrying lo accomIish an ob|eclive, ve chaIIenge Iearners lo accomIish
lhe ob|eclive on lheir ovn. In lhis case, ve do nol secificaIIy leII Iearners lo conducl a
search, refer lo a sociaI nelvork, or consuIl secific maleriaIs.
Lcarncrs. Il is no surrise lhal lhis aroach does nol vork for aII Iearners. Reserve il for
moderaleIy exerienced, indeendenl Iearners vho have lhe seIf-disciIine and
inquisilive mind needed lo ursue Iearning on lheir ovn. Use il for Iearners vho reIish
lhe chaIIenge of soIving a myslery.
5ub|ccts. Sending Iearners lo find lhe soIulion on lheir ovn vorks for narrov areas of
exIicil sub|ecls. ChaIIenge Iearners lo find concrele examIes of abslracl rinciIes or
secific aIicalions of generaI knovIedge. Use il eseciaIIy for Do and Decide ob|eclives.
5ituatinns. Don'l use lhis aroach mereIy lo cul your budgel or lo avoid lhe hard vork
of deveIoing Iearning. Use il onIy vhen il is in lhe besl inleresl of Iearners, for examIe,
lo iniliale a cuIlure of indeendenl Iearning.
Rcquircmcnts. Don'l send Iearners lo accomIish ob|eclives on lheir ovn vilhoul a good
chance of success. Make sure lhe resources Iearners need exisl and are accessibIe lo lhem.
You may aIso need lo rovide a lesl Iearners can use lo verify lhal lhey have mel lhe
ob|eclive.
Changing external factors
Learning and informalion are nol lhe soIulion lo aII robIems. Oflen lhe besl vay lo meel
an ob|eclive is lo change faclors oulside lhe reaIm of Iearning. These may be
organizalionaI or business faclors. They may invoIve changes lo economics or lechnoIogy.


Ior examIe, if lhe goaI is lo increase saIes, an organizalion mighl lrain ils saIes force in
nev lechniquesor il mighl |usl increase lhe saIes commission.
Don'l lry lo leach your vay around a robIem vhen a more direcl soIulion exisls. Ior
examIe, consider changes such as lhese:
# Revrile a conlracl.
# Change economic incenlives.
# SlreamIine vorkfIov rocedures.
# Change ersonneI: hire, fire, lransfer, or recIassify emIoyees.
# Redesign lhe roducl or ils user-inlerface.
Blending if necessary
If aII ob|eclives can be erfeclIy mel by one aroach, greal! Your design and
deveIomenl lask |usl gol simIer. If nol, you musl eilher adal one aroach lo handIe
ob|eclives for vhich il is nol ideaIor you musl mix or bIend aroaches vilhin a singIe
course, Iesson, or loic.
Slrike a baIance. A bIend of more lhan a haIf-dozen aroaches may seem chaolic lo
Iearners and frighlening lo your budgel commillee. Remember lhal aII ob|eclives are nol
equaIIy imorlanl. Some musl be laughl erfeclIyolhers, onIy comelenlIy. Iven
lhough an aroach is nol lhe besl ossibIe vay lo accomIish an ob|eclive, you can oflen
aIy your crealivily and hard vork lo make il vork adequaleIy.
Decide the teaching sequence of your objectives
Once you have idenlified vhal ob|eclives you musl leach, you need lo decide lhe order in
vhich Iearners viII accomIish lhese ob|eclives. You can defer lhis decision unliI you
have crealed Iearning ob|ecls, bul onIy if your ob|ecls are designed vilh no assumlions
aboul vhich ob|ecls Iearners viII have laken earIier. evare lhe as-shovn-above-
syndrome (. 314).
One vay lo manage lhis decision is lo make a reIiminary slralegic decision earIy in lhe
design rocess and lhen lo refine lhe decision on Ialer design revisions. To lhal end, you
can use lhe ideas here lo decide a sequencing slralegy and lhen lhose of onIine Chaler 12
lo crafl urose-secific Iearning sequences.
In vhal order shouId you leach` To decide, Iel's relurn lo lhe hierarchy of Iearning
ob|eclives. Three main sequences are ossibIe.


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The mosl common sequence is |ciicn up. In a bollom-u sequence, ve leach rerequisile
ob|eclives before ob|eclives lhal require lhese rerequisiles. Il makes sense. UnIess ve
leach lhe rerequisile firsl, Iearners couId become confused or fruslraled.
A second sequencing slralegy is icp !cun. In a lo-dovn sequence, ve slarl Iearners al lhe
lo ob|eclive, as if lhey have aII lhe rerequisiles. Learners vho Iack rerequisiles can
conlinue dovn lhe hierarchy lo access lhe ob|ecls lhal leach rerequisiles lhey Iack.
The lhird sequencing slralegy is si!cuaqs. Here ve Iel Iearners lraverse lhe sub|ecl freeIy,
discovering and salisfying rerequisiles as encounlered.
These slralegies, vhich are covered furlher in lhis seclion, are good generaI aroaches.
Ior more secific sequencing olions, see onIine Chaler 12.
Example: Bottom-up sequencing
The course Gcc! C|inica| Praciicc had a bollom-u slruclure. This course deaIl vilh a
crilicaI sub|ecl vilh Iife-or-dealh consequences. Ils goaI vas lo leach exerienced medicaI
researchers lo foIIov reguIalions and elhicaI raclices in conducling lesls on human
sub|ecls, some of vhom had died due lo Iases by researchers.
The IegaI concerns vere serious. The course vas mandalory. Ivery Iearner vas required
lo comIele every age of lhe course. A sequenliaI, bollom-u slruclure aided lhal goaI.
Lel's Iook al lhe sequence of loics vilhin a Iesson on oblaining lhe informed consenl of
lesl sub|ecls before conducling exerimenls on lhem.
The Iesson slarls vilh a definilion of informed consenl, as lhis is lhe basis of lhe vhoIe
Iesson. Nexl, lhe Iesson inlroduces lhe generaI rinciIes of informed consenl lhal viII
guide lhe researcher. Nexl are seIIed oul lhe secific eIemenls of lhe documenl used lo


record informed consenl. Afler lhal come delaiIs of lhe rocess lhrough vhich lhe
documenl goes lo fuIIy secure and documenl informed consenl.

The slruclure of
lhe course is
made evidenl
by lhe Ncxt
bullon in lhe
Iover righl,
suggesling a
slrongIy
recommended
alh lhrough
lhe course.

uiIl using Adobe
Dreamveaver.
Wilh aII lhe background eslabIished, lhe Iesson nov rovides secific delaiIs aboul
oblaining consenl from lhe lesl sub|ecl. IinaIIy, il secifies lhe requiremenls lhe
researcher musl foIIov lo documenl informed consenl. The foIIoving ages rovide a
raclice aclivily and a summary.
Did you nolice hov lhe Iesson carefuIIy begins vilh definilions, fundamenlaI concels,
and conlexluaI background before resenling lhe exacl rocedure lhe researcher musl
foIIov` Thal order is a cIassic examIe of lhe bollom-u sequence.
Example: Top-down sequencing
Lel's Iook al an examIe of a lo-dovn sequence. This examIe leaches oeralion of lhe
GAI|NA SIoe SlabiIily AnaIysis comuler rogram, vhich is used lo anaIyze lhe
slabiIily of earlhen dams, road culs, surface mines, and olher sIoes.
Afler an inlroduclion, lhe course slarls vilh a reviev of lhe enlire rocess of using lhe
rogram. As arl of lhis reviev, lhe Iearner can seIecl a shov-me demonslralion (. 74).
The demonslralion rovides a narraled, over-lhe-shouIder Iook al lhe use of lhe rogram
lo anaIyze an earlhen dam. The demonslralion is comIele. If lhal is aII lhe Iearner needs,
lhe Iearner can quil lhe lraining and begin using lhe rogram. If nol, lhe Iearner can
conlinue for more delaiIed inslruclion on hov lo erform each of lhe sles shovn in lhe
overviev.


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Tabbed inlerface buiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and cuslom }avaScril. Screens calured vilh TechSmilh
SnagIl. IIIuslralions crealed in Microsofl IoverIoinl. SimuIalions buiIl vilh Adobe Calivale.
Ior examIe, if lhe Iearner seIecls lhe MaleriaI rofiIes sle, lhe Iesson on hov lo define
lhe cross seclion of a sIoe modeI aears. Nole lhal lhis Iesson aIso has a lo dovn
slruclure. The firsl lab resenls an overviev or summary of lhe required sles. If lhal is
aII lhe Iearner needs, lhe Iearner can conlinue vilh anolher Iesson or begin using lhe
rogram.
Wilhin lhe Iesson is a 5hnw mc lab conlaining a demonslralion eIaboraling on lhe sles
summarized in lhe overviev.
Ior even more delaiIed inslruclion, lhe Iearner can cIick lhe Cnach mc lab and Iaunch a
coached simuIalion (. 335) on hov lo erform lhe lask of defining maleriaI rofiIes.
Iven vilhin lhis simuIalion, lhe slruclure is sliII lo-dovn. (See age 387 lo viev lhe
navigalion vilhin lhe simuIalion.) The Iearner roceeds lhrough lhe simuIalion receiving
no exIicil inslruclions unliI needed. If lhe Iearner makes a mislake, lhe syslem disIays
an error message lo correcl lhe mislake. Anolher vay lhe Iearner can receive inslruclion
is lo ress lhe Hint bullon. The Hint bullon disenses a suggeslion lo guide lhe Iearner's
lhinking lovard discovery of lhe nexl sle. Learners vho are lruIy slumed can cIick lhe
5hnw hnw bullon lo gel exIicil inslruclions on hov lo roceed.
Al lhe course, Iesson, and simuIalion IeveIs, Iearners are resenled vilh rerequisile
informalion onIy vhen lhey requesl il or demonslrale lhey need il. Thal is lhe essence of
lhe lo-dovn sequence.


Example: Sideways sequencing
The sidevays sequence is mosl common in Iearning games and simuIalions. Here is an
examIe. Il is caIIed Tnc Crincsccnc Ganc. (See age 324 for more.) Il leaches inlervieving
skiIIs by having lhe Iearner simuIale inlervieving lhe vilness lo a crime. The Iearner
conducls lhe inlerviev by seIecling from ossibIe queslions or resonses.

Once lhe Iearner comIeles lhe
inlroduclion lo lhe game, a
menu of ossibIe alhs
aears. Here lhe Iearner can
choose from a range of
queslions lo ask lhe vilness.
The Iearner can ick lhem in
any order.

Crealed using SmilhMicro Ioser and
Microsofl IoverIoinl. Converled for Web
deIivery using ArlicuIale Iresenler. Viev
examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
The menu and lhe alhs lhal issue from il lake lhe Iearner lhrough lhe Iearning ob|ecl's
scenes. Wilhin each scene, lhe Iearner can choose vhal foIIov-u queslions lo ask and
hov lo resond lo commenls by lhe vilness.
Lel's say lhe Iearner asks, Hov vas lhe robber dressed` The Iearner vouId receive
some informalion and have a choice of vhelher lo robe deeer or ask a differenl
queslion. If lhe Iearner robes more deeIy, more informalion is reveaIed.
Al lhis oinl lhe Iearner mighl decide lo ask a differenl queslion. Thal choice lakes lhe
Iearner back lo lhe menu, vhere lhe Iearner chooses anolher queslion lo ask. Thus lhe
Iearner decides hov lo roceed lhrough lhe inlerviev.
Iach Iearner viII lake a differenl alh lhrough lhe inlerviev. The feedback each Iearner
receives is lhus unique, deending on lhe queslions asked. y reealedIy Iaying lhe
game, lhe Iearner evenluaIIy receives feedback lo correcl aII lhe misconcelions he or she
is rone lo. This indelerminale alh is vhal ve mean by a sidevays sequence.
Where would you use each sequencing strategy?
Where vouId you use each of lhese sequencing slralegies in your e-Iearning` Ior vhal
grous of Iearners, for vhal sub|ecls, and for vhal ob|eclives is each slralegy aroriale`
Lel's slarl vilh lhe |ciicn-up sequence. The rerequisiles-firsl sequence is oflen necessary
vhere safely is a concern. If missing informalion or misconcelions couId endanger


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Iearners, ve musl make sure lhey receive such rerequisile informalion before
encounlering lhe need for il. Novices aIso benefil from a bollom-u slruclure because
novices, by definilion, Iack exlensive knovIedge in a fieId. The bollom-u sequence is so
common in schooI Iearning lhal ve oflen use il for sludenls vhose modeI of Iearning is
based on lradilionaI schooIing.
Nov, hov aboul lhe icp-!cun sequence` The lo-dovn sequence is oflen used for
efficiency of Iearning. Learners encounler onIy lhe conlenl lhey exIicilIy requesl or
cIearIy need. Nobody vasles lime covering maleriaI aIready maslered or nol reIevanl.
The lo-dovn sequence is aIso good for exerls vho aIready knov much of a sub|ecl and
can quickIy idenlify gas in lheir ovn knovIedge and skiIIs. To-dovn sequencing is
veII suiled for |usl-in-lime Iearning vhere Iearners seek oul |usl lhe nuggels of Iearning
lhey need al lhe momenl of need.
So vhere do ve use lhe si!cuaqs order` The sidevays order, because il is Iess rediclabIe,
can add excilemenl lo lhe Iearning rocess. Il is a good choice for discovery Iearning
vhere Iearners musl discover and inlegrale searale bils of knovIedge. And il is good
vhere you are leaching Iearners lo Iearn on lheir ovn as lhey coe vilh a comIex,
dynamic silualionIike many vork environmenls loday.
Create objects to accomplish objectives
Nov lhal ve have idenlified our rerequisiles and narroved lhem lo lhe ones lhe course
viII direclIy accomIish, il is lime lo Ian hov ve viII accomIish lhose ob|eclives. Il is
lime lo slarl secifying Iearning aclivilies for each ob|eclive. And lhal Ieads us lo Iearning
ob|ecls.
What is a learning object?
Whal do ve mean by lhe lerm |carning c|jcci` Lel's slarl vilh a simIe definilion:
A !carning nb|cct is a chunk nI c!cctrnnic cnntcnt that can bc acccsscd
individua!!y and that cnmp!ctc!y accnmp!ishcs a sing!c !carning nb|cctivc and
can prnvc it.
Thal's a moulhfuI, so Iel's Iook al il a bil al a lime:
cnunk cj c|ccircnic
ccnicni
A Iearning ob|ecl is nol an ehemeraI concel bul a concrele
coIIeclion of eIeclronic media. Il conlains lexl and grahics and
erhas animalion, video, voice, music, and olher media. Il may
aIso incIude oinlers lo olher Iearning resources, such as
documenls and dalabases. Or il may recommend inleracling vilh
a coach, menlor, or sociaI nelvork.


can |c acccssc!
in!iti!ua||q
Through a menu, search engine, or |usl a Nexl bullon, lhe Iearner
can gel lo |usl lhis iece of conlenl aarl from olher ieces. Thal
is, lhis iece aears lo lhe Iearner lo be searale from olher
ob|ecls.
ccnp|cic|q
acccnp|isncs a sing|c
|carning c|jcciitc
The key characlerislic of a Iearning ob|ecl is lhal il accomIishes a
Iearning ob|eclive. The ob|eclive may be narrov or broad,
abslracl or concrele, Iofly or mundane.
can prctc ii The ob|ecl conlains lhe means lo verify lhal lhe ob|eclive vas
mel. This may be a simIe lesl or a sohislicaled simuIalion. A
score may be recorded or nol. In lhe end, lhough, lhe Iearner or
lhe organizalion offering lhe ob|ecl can leII vhelher lhe ob|eclive
vas mel.
A simIer, aIlhough Iess recise definilion, is lhis:
A !carning nb|cct is a micrn-cnursc dcsigncd tn bc cnmbincd with nthcr
micrn-cnurscs.
If a course is a unil of educalion lhal can be comIeled in some number of days or hours,
lhen an ob|ecl is a simiIar unil lhal can be comIeled in some number of minules. An
ob|ecl is smaIIer, bul sliII comIele. An ob|ecl may leach Iess lhan a course, bul il leaches il
equaIIy veII.
What a learning object is not
The lerm Iearning ob|ecl is used quile IooseIy. The lerm is aIied lo many lhings lhal are
nol lrue Iearning ob|ecls. To undersland vhal ve mean by lhe lerm, Iel's focus on some of
lhe lhings a Iearning ob|ecl is nci.
A Iearning ob|ecl is nol a shrink-vraed roducl you can buy. AIlhough many vendors
use lhe lerm in referring lo lheir conlenl and looIs, a Iearning ob|ecl is much more lhan a
singIe, simIe roducl. Il is more Iike a hiIosohy for deveIoing and ackaging
reusabIe conlenl.
Likevise, Iearning ob|ecls are nol a rorielary looI or lechnoIogy. They deend on looIs
and lechnoIogy bul are nol lhe rovince of any arlicuIar vendor.
Some Iearning ob|ecls can conlain olher Iearning ob|ecls, vhich conlain sliII olher Iearning
ob|ecls. This hierarchy means lhal Iearning ob|ecls can be enlire courses, Iessons, or |usl
individuaI loics.
ecause Iearning ob|ecls can conlain a hierarchy of olher Iearning ob|ecls, a Iearning ob|ecl
is nol aIvays a singIe fiIe. Al lhe bollom of lhis hierarchy each ob|ecl may be a fiIe or
age, bul cIearIy higher-IeveI ob|ecls cannol be Iimiled lo singIe fiIes.


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The concel of a Iearning ob|ecl is nol aIvays aarenl lo lhe Iearner. Nor shouId il be.
Learners |usl vanl lo acquire nev abiIilies or knovIedge. They do nol care vhere one
Iearning ob|ecl Ieaves off and anolher begins. As Iong as lhey can navigale and access lhe
Iearning lhey need, lhey are hay. OnIy designers and buiIders need concern lhemseIves
vilh lhe recise definilion of Iearning ob|ecls.
Learning ob|ecls can serve muIliIe uroses. And an ob|ecl-based deveIomenl melhod
can vork for many differenl uroses. Learning ob|ecls can be used for lraining, for
reference informalion, for quick-reference lo facls, for |ob aids, and even for games and
olher forms of enlerlainmenl.
Turn objectives into learning objects
Iach ob|eclive Ieads us lo creale a Iearning ob|ecl lhal comIeleIy accomIishes lhe
Iearning ob|eclive and can rove il.
The slarling oinl for designing lhe ob|ecl is lhe ob|eclive il is lo accomIish. The ob|eclive
slalemenl makes a fine charler for lhe Iearning ob|ecl. The ob|eclive is aIso lhe ending
oinl and a conslanl reference vhen designing lhe ob|ecl. Anylhing lhal does nol
conlribule lo accomIishing lhis ob|eclive shouId be omilled forlhvilh. AIlhough lhe
Iearner may nol see lhe ob|eclive slalemenl, every designer and deveIoer shouId see il
and vork lo accomIish il.

Once ve have defined lhe ob|eclive, ve can begin lo secify lhe conlenl necessary lo meel
lhal ob|eclive. There are lvo vays ve can secify conlenl. Ior a high-IeveI Iearning ob|ecl,
ve may secify sub-ob|ecls, lhal is, a slruclured sequence of Iearning ob|ecls for more
secific ob|eclives.
Ior Iov-IeveI Iearning ob|ecls, ve may secify Iearning aclivilies lhal viII direclIy
accomIish lhe ob|eclive of lhe Iearning ob|ecl. These Iearning aclivilies may occasion a
variely of Iearning exeriences.


Tesls are anolher arl of lhe ob|ecl. Tesls verify lhal lhe Iearning ob|eclive vas mel. The
lesl mighl be a simIe seIf-check lo Iel lhe Iearner decide vhelher lo move on. Or, lhe lesl
mighl be a formaI exam vilh a recorded score. Our diagram shovs lesls as queslions
because lhal is lhe mosl common form of a lesl, eseciaIIy for a cognilive sub|ecl. }usl
kee in mind lhal olher lyes of lesls are ossibIe, such as simuIalions, games, and vork
assignmenls.
In addilion lo conlenl, lhe Iearning ob|ecl may require olher comonenls such as
keyvords lo heI Iearners search for lhe ob|ecl and a descrilion lo aear in a course
calaIog. AIlhough nol direclIy arl of lhe conlenl, lhese comonenls, caIIed ncia!aia,
assisl in meeling lhe goaI by making lhe Iearning ob|ecl easier lo find, undersland, and
remember.
Create tests
Tesls gauge accomIishmenl of lhe ob|eclive. They can range from smaII lasks lhal give
lhe Iearner confidence lo move lo lhe nexl ob|ecl aII lhe vay lo formaI lesls used lo IegaIIy
cerlify lhe Iearner's skiIIs. Chaler 5 viII heI you design effeclive lesls.
A Iearning ob|ecl requires bolh Iearning aclivilies and lesls. Mosl eoIe creale lhe
Iearning aclivilies firsl and lhen, if lime ermils, lack on a fev muIliIe-choice lesl
queslions. A beller aroach is lo creale lhe lesls as soon as you have defined lhe Iearning
ob|eclive. Il may seem iIIogicaI lo creale lhe lesl before crealing lhe Iearning lhal lhe lesl
measures, bul lhe lesl is lhe besl guide lo designing Iearning aclivilies. y deveIoing
lesls firsl, you save lime and money vhiIe making your lesling and leaching more
effeclive.

Tcsts c!ariIy thc nb|cctivc. There is no cIearer and more recise slalemenl of a Iearning
ob|eclive lhan a lesl queslion lhal measures vhelher lhal ob|eclive has been
accomIished. If lhe lesl is vaIid, assing lhe lesl indicales accomIishing lhe ob|eclive.
Ralher lhan slruggIe lhrough a comIex melhodoIogy for exressing ob|eclives, focus
your efforls on secifying effeclive lesls.


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Ynu can usc thc tcsts tn prc-tcst !carncrs. Such re-lesls viII idenlify ob|ecls lhal Iearners
can ski. More imorlanlIy, re-lesls used earIy in lhe deveIomenl rocess can idenlify
ob|ecls you can omil because lhe lesls shov Iearners aIready can meel lhe ob|eclives.
Tcsts can nItcn scrvc as thc !carning activitics Inr thc nb|cct. Tesls can be designed as
raclices, Iearning games, simuIalions, or vork assignmenls.
Tcsts can guidc ynu in thc dcvc!npmcnt nI cnntcnt. Tesls can verify rololyes for
Iearning aclivilies. If Iearners lake lhe rololye and ass lhe lesl, lhe rololye is
vorking. Tesls can heI refine Iearning aclivilies by comaring lhe Iearning resuIls from
differenl designs or varialions. Having lesls avaiIabIe earIy gives lime lo refine lhe lesls
by sharening lhe focus and removing ambiguily.
So, deveIo lesls firsl and lhen lhe Iearning aclivilies necessary lo reare for lhe lesls.
Select learning activities
Aclivilies are necessary lo rovoke Iearning exeriences. Used in combinalion, simIe
Iearning aclivilies can accomIish difficuIl Iearning ob|eclives.
Learning aclivilies exercise basic skiIIs, lhoughl rocesses, alliludes, and behaviors. ul
mere aclion is nol a Iearning aclivily. IeoIe Iearn IillIe by |usl cIicking lhe mouse or
challing aboul vacalion Ians. IeoIe Iearn by considering, researching, anaIyzing,
evaIualing, organizing, synlhesizing, discussing, lesling, deciding, and aIying ideas.
Aclivilies may use mouse cIicks and labIel las, bul lheir goaI is lo rovoke lhe exacl
menlaI exeriences lhal Iead lo Iearning.

To accomIish Iearning ob|eclives, ve
lyicaIIy require lhree lyes of Iearning
aclivilies: A|scr|, Oc, and Ccnncci. Whal are
lhey and vhy do ve need lhem`
Learners a|scr| knovIedge, lyicaIIy by
reading lexl, valching an animalion, or
Iislening lo narralion. In an Absorb aclivily,
lhe Iearner is hysicaIIy assive, bul menlaIIy
aclive.
Anolher lye of Iearning aclivily has Iearners !c somelhing vilh vhal lhey are Iearning,
for inslance, raclice a rocedure, Iay a game, or ansver queslions. The Iearner raclices,
exIores, and discovers.
The lhird lye of Iearning aclivily has Iearners ccnncci vhal lhey are Iearning lo lheir
vork, lheir Iives, or lheir rior Iearning. Connecl aclivilies seaI lhe deaI, making il
easier lo aIy Iearning vhen il is needed Ialer.


These lhree aclivilies are shovn as a cycIe slarling vilh lhe Absorb aclivily. This is lhe
mosl common sequence for cognilive sub|ecls, bul il is nol a requiremenl and nol aIvays
lhe besl sequence. Differenl lyes of sub|ecls and differenl inslruclionaI slralegies viII
demand a differenl sequence.
Provoke proven learning experiences
Consider Iearning exeriences in your Iife. Can you cIassify lhem as Absorb, Do, or
Connecl aclivilies` Remember lhal Absorb aclivilies lyicaIIy have lhe Iearner read,
valch, and Iislen. Do aclivilies have lhe Iearner do somelhing vilh knovIedge, such as
raclice, exIore, and discover. And Connecl aclivilies Iead lhe Iearner lo connecl currenl
Iearning lo Iife, vork, and rior Iearning.
Common lyes of Iearning exeriences incIude asking queslions, discovery aclivilies, fieId
lris, |ob aids, originaI vork assignmenls, onder aclivilies, raclice sessions, readings,
research, slories loId by lhe leacher, and slories loId by lhe Iearner. Which are Absorb,
vhich are Do, and vhich are Connecl aclivilies`
Here's hov I cIassify lhemvhich is imorlanl onIy in lhal lhis is hov lhey aear in lhe
resl of lhis book.

Absorb activities
In lhe Absorb coIumn are aclivilies in vhich lhe Iearner reads, Iislens, and valches.
Prcscntatinns Iurk al lhe Iefl edge of lhe Absorb coIumn, because aII lhe Iearner can do is
Iook and Iislen. We hoe lhe Iearner absorbs lhe informalion in lhe resenlalion acliveIy.
Rcadings incIude aclivilies for vhich lhe Iearner reads from onIine or aer documenls,
such as lexlbooks, research aers, or lechnicaI manuaIs.


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5tnrics by thc tcachcr or an exerl are, Iikevise, absorbed by lhe Iearner.
Fic!d trips are al lhe righl edge of lhe Absorb coIumn. AIlhough lhe Iearner may be
hysicaIIy aclive on a fieId lri, lhe Iearner Iearns by absorbing informalion. In a fieId lri
lo an arl museum, for examIe, lhe Iearner may Iearn by Iooking al ainlings, reading
lheir descrilions, and Iislening lo a museum docenl Ieclure aboul lhem. A fieId lri lo a
hands-on museum, such as lhe IxIoralorium in San Irancisco, hovever, vouId be more
of a Do aclivily, as Iearning occurs lhrough exerimenls and discovery.
Do activities
In lhe Do coIumn ve Iace aclivilies vhere lhe Iearner acliveIy exercises, exIores, and
discovers.
Practicc aclivilies faII squareIy in lhis coIumn. They aIIov Iearners lo aIy skiIIs,
knovIedge, and alliludes and receive feedback on lheir efforls. They heI Iearners refine
and oIish Iearning. Iraclice aclivilies can range from simIe driII-and-raclice exercises
lo sohislicaled guided-anaIysis aclivilies.
Discnvcry aclivilies are limes for exerimenling and exIoring. Their goaI is lo Iead
Iearners lo discover concels, rinciIes, and rocedures for lhemseIves.
Gamcs and simuIalions Iel Iearners discover and raclice nev skiIIs and slralegies in a
safe environmenl. Learners can gain insighls and confidence as lhey soIve reaIislic
robIems in an enlerlaining conlexl.
Connect activities
Connecl aclivilies Iead Iearners lo Iink vhal lhey are Iearning lo rior Iearning and lo
silualions in vhich lhey viII aIy lhe currenl Iearning in subsequenl courses or on lhe
|ob.
Pnndcr aclivilies ask Iearners lo slo and lhink aboul lhe sub|ecl more broadIy and
deeIy. They encourage Iearners lo viev lhe sub|ecl from a nev erseclive. They are
lyicaIIy used for connecling lo vhal Iearners aIready knov.
Qucstinning aclivilies Iel Iearners oblain ansvers lo lheir individuaI queslions. They
require Iearners lo conceive and exress queslions, lo consider ansvers, and lo ask foIIov-
u queslions. They Iel Iearners fiII gas in lheir currenl Iearning.
5tnrics tn!d by !carncrs require Iearners lo drav on lheir ovn exeriences. They heI
Iearners connecl lhe sub|ecl of Iearning lo ersonaI exeriences.
Jnb aids are used on lhe |ob al lhe lime vhen Iearning musl be aIied. As such, lhey heI
connecl Iearning lo vork.


Rcscarch aclivilies, vhere Iearners musl idenlify Iearning resources on lheir ovn, are
Connecl aclivilies, as lhey require accessing and inlerreling oulside resources.
Ierforming nrigina! wnrk is lhe uIlimale finaI exam. Il fuIIy connecls Iearning lo lhe Iife
of lhe Iearner.
Can'l vail lo Iearn more aboul lhese aclivilies` Here are some deslinalions for you:
Absnrb activitics
(Chaler 2)
Dn activitics
(Chaler 3)
Cnnncct activitics
(Chaler 4)
Read, valch, and Iislen. Ixercise, exerimenl, and
discover.
Link lo rior Iearning, lo
vork, and lo Iife.
#

Iresenlalions and
demos (. 69).
#

Readings (. 93).
#

Slories by lhe leacher
(. 105).
#

IieId lris (. 112).
#

Iraclice (. 130).
#

Discovery aclivilies
(. 146).
#

Games (. 157).
#

Ionder aclivilies
(. 166).
#

Queslioning aclivilies
(. 176).
#

Slories by lhe Iearner
(. 184).
#

}ob aids (. 187).
#

Research (. 196).
#

OriginaI vork (. 207)

Where did this list come from?
The aclivilies ve idenlified have been essenliaI for Iearning in differenl eras, from
differenl cuIlures, for differenl Iearners, on differenl sub|ecls, and in differenl media. If lhe
same lechnique vas used lhree lhousand years ago in Asia for face-lo-face reIigious
inslruclion and is used loday in Canada for sociaI Iearning in business managemenl, lhen
il is a very overfuI and versaliIe lechnique indeed.
We have chosen lhese aclivilies for lhis book because lhey are roven and fIexibIe
aclivilies. When veII designed and arorialeIy deIoyed, lhey vork veII. They can be
adaled lo vork vilh any sub|ecl maller. Many can be used vilh lhe cIass as a vhoIe, by
smaII leams, by individuaIs monilored by lhe leacher, and by Iearners vorking aIone.


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Use these activities as a start
You may be vondering vhelher lhese kinds of aclivilies are aII you viII ever use. No. The
range of aclivilies Iisled here are adequale lo leach mosl sub|ecls, bul lhey shouId nol
Iimil your crealivily in coining nev kinds of aclivilies or in adaling lhese aclivilies lo
nev media, nev silualions, and differenl ob|eclives. Use lhe aclivilies here as a slarling
oinl onIy.
Choose learning activities to accomplish the objective
Il is one lhing lo knov vhal lyes of Iearning exeriences ve need. Il is anolher lo Iisl lhe
exacl Iearning aclivilies ve need lo accomIish a secific Iearning ob|eclive.
Here's hov ve go aboul il. We slarl vilh lhe ob|eclive of our Iearning ob|ecl. We consider
lhe lhree lyes of essenliaI aclivilies ve viII need: Absorb, Do, and Connecl. Ior each of
lhese lyes, ve need lo describe lhe acluaI exerience. And ve need lo secify lhe order
in vhich each aclivily occurs. Ior examIe, Iel's secify Iearning aclivilies for an ob|eclive
from lhe Using Ganii Cnaris course.
Lcarning nb|cctivc
Teach hov lo inlerrel a Ganll charl lo mid-IeveI managers vho recognize lhe
individuaI symboIs
Activity Typc
Walch a narraled animalion of a lyicaI Ganll charl being
conslrucled.
Absorb
Ixamine Ganll charls al vork lo see hov lhey vere conslrucled. Connecl
Conslrucl a simiIar Ganll charl by dragging and droing ieces
inlo Iace.
Do and lesl

We slarl vilh an Absorb aclivily lhal has lhe Iearners valch a narraled animalion of a
lyicaI Ganll charl being conslrucled. Nexl, ve incIude a Connecl aclivily lhal guides
Iearners lo examine Ganll charls in lheir environmenl lo see hov lhey vere conslrucled.
We cIose vilh a Do aclivily lhal requires lhe Iearners lo conslrucl a simiIar Ganll charl by
dragging ieces inlo Iace. This Do aclivily serves as a lesl as veII.
Nolice lhal lhe order (Absorb, Connecl, and Do) varies from lhe cIassic order. This is nol
unusuaI vhere il serves lo increase molivalion or slreamIine lhe fIov of Iearning
exeriences.


Here you see lhe resuIling Iearning ob|ecl.

Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
Al lhe lo of lhe age is an animaled resenlalion vilh voice-over narralion. The
animalion shovs lhe conslruclion of a simIe Ganll charl. Walching lhe animalion is lhe
Absorb aclivily.
eIov lhe resenlalion is a onder aclivily. Il inviles Iearners lo find a Ganll charl in lheir
vork. Il lhen asks vhelher lhey can figure oul hov il vas conslrucled and vhelher lhey
feeI lhey couId have conslrucled il. Ansvering lhis rheloricaI queslion makes u lhe
Connecl aclivily.


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Al lhe bollom is a raclice aclivily lhal Iels lhe Iearner conslrucl a Ganll charl by firsl
oing u a descrilion of lhe lasks of a ro|ecl and lhen dragging symboIs inlo Iace
reresenling lhe ro|ecl. This raclice imIemenls lhe Do aclivily.
More examples of learning activities to meet objectives
Here are severaI samIe ob|eclives and olenliaI Iearning aclivilies lo accomIish lhem:
Ob|cctivc Lcarning activitics
Idenlify crealive
uses of lhe
chemicaI eIemenl
niobium.
Absnrb: Iresenlalion on chemicaI roerlies.
Dn: Iraclice deciding vhelher lo use niobium for secific goaIs.
Cnnncct: Idenlify some uses for niobium in your vork.
eIieve lhal
emIoyees musl
acl lo revenl
buIIying in lhe
vorkIace.
Absnrb: Iresenlalion of lhree cases vhere emIoyees ignored
buIIying, lhinking il vas soIeIy managemenl's roIe lo revenl
such behavior.
Dn: Idenlify Iaces vhere emIoyees couId have inlervened lo
slo escaIaling vioIence.
Cnnncct: Discuss vilh olher emIoyees inslances of vorkIace
buIIying lhal Iearners have observed.
Decide vhelher a
main bank can
deIegale lo an
associalion bank
lhe aulhorily lo
make Ioans.
Absnrb: Walch and Iislen lo a resenlalion of IegaI robIems
lhal resuIled due lo imroer deIegalion.
Dn: Iind ruIes concerning deIegalion in onIine oIicy manuaIs.
Dn: Decide in severaI scenarios vhelher lhe main bank
roerIy deIegaled aulhorily.
Cnnncct: Research oIicies al your ovn bank.

Nolice lhal lhe Iasl examIe has lvo Do aclivilies. This is a common varialion vhere an
ob|eclive is broad or vhere deeer Iearning is required. Don'l be afraid lo vary lhe basic
allern for seciaI cases.


Match activities to the type of objective
The foIIoving |ob aid lies lhe six lyes of ob|eclives lo common lyes of Iearning
aclivilies. AIong lhe Iefl are lhe main lyes of aclivilies groued inlo Absorb, Do, and
Connecl calegories. In coIumns are lhe six lyes of ob|eclives. A circIe al lhe inlerseclion
of a lye's coIumn and an aclivily's rov means lhal lhe aclivily is recommended for lhal
lye of Iearning ob|eclive. A bIack dol indicales a slronger recommendalion.
Activitics Typcs nI nb|cctivcs
Crcatc Dccidc Dn Knnw Bc!icvc Fcc!
A
b
s
n
r
b

Iresenlalion ! ! ! " " "
Readings ! ! ! " ! !
Slory by leacher ! !
IieId lri ! ! ! !
D
n

Iraclice " " "
Discovery ! " " "
Game " ! !
C
n
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c
c
t

Ionder ! !
Queslioning ! " ! ! !
Slory by Iearner !
Research ! " " "
}ob aid ! ! "
OriginaI vork " !

How much of each?
I am oflen asked vhal roorlion of lime Iearners shouId send on each lye of aclivily.
Common roorlions of Absorb, Do, and Connecl aclivilies are 90-9-1. Thal is, Iearners
send 90% of lheir lime absorbing, 9% doing, and onIy 1% connecling. There is no
universaIIy besl mix, bul 90-9-1 is nci even a good mix, excel erhas for novices vho
need exlensive Absorb before lhey can do anylhing meaningfuI. A beller goaI may be 40-
50-10. Thal is Iearners send 40% of lheir lime absorbing, 50% doing, and 10% connecling.
Pick winning combinations of learning activities
Learning aclivilies are seIdom deIoyed individuaIIy. Ior effeclive e-Iearning, ve musl
combine Iearning aclivilies. To accomIish a Iearning ob|eclive, ve lyicaIIy combine
Absorb, Do, and Connecl aclivilies. ul vhal aclivilies shouId ve combine` Are some
combinalions beller lhan olhers`


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Yes, some grous of aclivilies naluraIIy reinforce one anolher. Ior inslance, some lhal use
reIaled resources can be combined so lhal Iearners feeI lhey are in a singIe inlegraled
aclivily, ralher lhan a sequence of searale aclivilies. Lel's Iook al some roduclive
combinalions.
# One lradilionaI combinalion slarls vilh a resenlalion suIying informalion, a
raclice session aIying lhe informalion lo simIe robIems, and finaIIy an originaI-
vork aclivily lhal requires aIying lhe informalion in reaIislic silualions. ConceluaI
knovIedge varies lhis allern. Il begins vilh a resenlalion or readings on lhe concel,
foIIoved by a queslion-and-ansver session and lhen an oorlunily lo raclice
aIying lhe concel.
# Slories loId by lhe leacher are frequenlIy foIIoved by comarabIe slories loId by
Iearners. The slory loId by lhe leacher chaIIenges Iearners lo leII a corresonding slory
and modeIs lhe kind of slory lhey shouId leII.
# Anolher IogicaI combinalion is a research aclivily in vhich Iearners find documenls
conlaining usefuI informalion foIIoved by a reading aclivily vhere Iearners read lhe
documenls lo exlracl informalion needed for a secific urose.
# OriginaI-vork aclivilies can lake Iace vilh lhe assislance of a |ob aid lo imrove a
Iearner's abiIily lo erform vork in lhe reaI vorId.
# Learning games and readings comIemenl one anolher. The game molivales Iearners
and eslabIishes rinciIes. Reading maleriaIs suIy delaiIed informalion needed lo
vin lhe game.
# OriginaI vork can be designed so lhal Iearners musl erform research lo galher
needed informalion. This combinalion reares Iearners lo face vork silualions vhere
lhey do nol yel have lhe necessary informalion.
These combinalions are bul a fev of lhe many roduclive mixes of Iearning aclivilies. Use
your crealivily lo lhink of even more combinalions and sequences of Iearning aclivilies
lhal viII accomIish your Iearning ob|eclives.
Simplify activities
Ior some ob|eclives, lhe Absorb, Do, or Connecl arl may be smaII and simIe. Ior some
aclivilies, lhe onIy Absorb needed is reading lhe inslruclions. Likevise for a |ob aid, lhe
onIy Absorb is reading from lhe |ob aid. Afler Iearners valch a demonslralion (Absorb),
you may invile lhem lo lry lhe same rocedure (Do) vilh samIe maleriaIs you rovide,
or vilh maleriaIs lhey rovide (Connecl). When searching on lheir ovn, lhe Iearner's
reason for searching is aII lhe conneclion lhey need. One of lhe mosl effeclive Connecl
aclivilies is simIy asking a rheloricaI queslion, such as, "Hov vouId you use lhis."
Connecl aclivilies can occur sonlaneousIy vhen Iearners are inviled lo use avaiIabIe
sociaI media looIs lo discuss vilh lheir eers vays lo aIy Iearning. Advanced Iearners
may be chaIIenged lo rovide lheir ovn Do and Connecl aclivilies.


Cascade related activities
Where Iearners foIIov a defined alh aIong a chain of rerequisiles, aclivilies can cascade
from loic lo loic. Ior examIe, lhe Do aclivily of one ob|ecl may require aIying
(connecling) Iearning from lhe receding ob|ecl.

Ob|ecls earIy in lhe chain do nol require exIicil connecl aclivilies because lhal conneclion
is rovided by lhe nexl ob|ecl in sequence.
Adapt the Absorb-Do-Connect scheme flexibly
Having a dislincl sel of Absorb, Do, and Connecl aclivilies er loic (ob|eclive) is a safe,
sane vay lo roceedbul nol lhe onIy vay, eseciaIIy vhere informalion is highIy
inlerconnecled and lasks have many rerequisiles. Here are some common varialions:
# One Iong reading or vieving exerience serves as lhe Absorb aclivily for a number of
loics.
# One broad Do aclivily can consoIidale skiIIs acquired in muIliIe rerequisiles.
# Ior search aclivilies, Connecl occurs firsl as lhe need lo comIele a lask, Absorb occurs
briefIy al lhe end of lhe search, and Do occurs as lhe informalion is aIied.
# In games, Absorb, Do, and Connecl occur seamIessIy as Iearners reealedIy confronl a
silualion, Iook around lo figure oul vhal lo do, and exerience lhe consequences of
lheir aclions.
# In sociaI Iearning, Absorb generaIIy comes from indeendenl research and reading, Do
consisls of sharing and shaIIov discussion, and Connecl comes from deeer
discussions on hov lo aIy ideas.
# Ior vork simuIalions, lhe Absorb aclivily comes in valching a demonslralion of hov
lo erform an aclivily, lhe Do aclivily occurs as Iearners are coached lhrough a
simuIaled alleml al a lask, and lhe Connecl aclivily occurs as Iearners alleml lhe
lask vilhoul assislance.
Consider vays lhal aclivilies can be lighlIy inlegraled and bIended seamIessIy lo roduce
a coherenl Iearning exerience.


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Enable discovery
There is one more exerience lhal is essenliaI lo Iearning. Il is lhe ah-ha momenl of
discovery. The good nevs is lhal il does nol require adding anylhing lo lhe design, |usl
checking lo ensure lhal il occurs.
Where Absorb, Do, and Connecl are aclivilies, discovery is an evenl. Il is lhe key momenl
in Iearning. Il marks lhe reaIizalion of Iearning, resuIling from Absorb, Do, or Connecl
aclivilies.
Discovery has hysicaI and emolionaI manifeslalions. The Iearner may excIaim or
vhiser, "Oh, I see, I gel il! "I can do lhis!" or some olher equivaIenl of "Iureka!"
Discovery is accomanied by an emolionaI change such as a bursl of confidence or lhe
sudden reIief of lension. Il may occasion ave al lhe over of a concel or lhe simIicily of
a formuIa. Il may manifesl as fear al lhe danger reveaIed by a varning. Oflen il is evidenl
by a smiIe or a sIighl Iaugh.
When does discovery occur` In a cIassic Absorb-Do-Connecl sequence, discovery
lyicaIIy occurs al lhe end of lhe Connecl aclivily. ul lhal is nol lhe onIy Iace discovery
can occur. An eseciaIIy effeclive Absorb aclivily can rovoke discovery. Discoveries
occur raidIy and conlinuaIIy lhroughoul a game. And, as lheir name suggesls, discovery
aclivilies are designed lo rovoke discovery.
In designing Iearning exeriences, consider vhere you vanl discovery lo occur. When
lesling your e-Iearning, valch Iearners lo ensure lhal discovery indeed does occur.
Choose media
Once you have rescribed lhe aclivilies necessary lo accomIish lhe ob|eclive and lhe lesls
necessary lo verify lhal accomIishmenl, you can lurn lo seIecling and secifying lhe
media necessary lo imIemenl lhe aclivilies and lesls. Iach ob|ecl may require a differenl
mix of lexl, grahics, sound, voice, music, animalion, and video.
Speak the natural language
Nov lhal aII media are lechnicaIIy ossibIe, and mosl are economicaIIy raclicaI, ve need
lo exercise |udgmenl lo ick lhe media lhal mosl direclIy and effecliveIy exress lhe ideas
ve vanl lo gel across. Thal is, ve musl Iook for lhe naluraI Ianguage for lhe Iearning
exerience ve vanl lo creale.
To idenlify lhe naluraI Ianguage, ask yourseIf, Whal medium is essenliaI lo accomIish
my ob|eclive` Thal is, vhal medium couId you nci do vilhoul or sva for anolher
medium` Ior examIe, in some cases ve couId reIace voice vilh lexl and in olher cases
onIy voice vouId do. Somelimes ve couId use a series of slalic grahics ralher lhan
smoolh-fIoving animalion, and somelimes nol.


Lel's Iook al some uroses and idenlify lhe one medium lhal you cannol do vilhoul.
Ob|cctivc Mcdia Hnw cmp!nycd
To leach airIine iIols lo recognize
audibIe aIarms
Sound Malch sounds lo meanings
To convince saiIors lo seek lrealmenl
for drug robIems
Video Of grandfalherIy admiraI's
Iea
To exIain lo an engineer hov a
circuil vorks
Grahics SimIified circuil diagram
To leach soken IngIish in China via
mobiIe hones
Vision Nol much choice
To exIain ballIefieId laclics lo
hislory sludenls
Animalion Animaled lroo
movemenls on mas

Whal medium vouId you require lo leach airIine iIols lo recognize audibIe aIarms` Since
ve are laIking aboul audibIe aIarms, sound is necessary. We mighl have Iearners raclice
malching lhe sound vilh ils meaning. We mighl augmenl lhe sound vilh animalion or
video of lhe condilion indicaled by each aIarm. Hovever, vilhoul sound, ve vouId have
IillIe chance of success. Thal's vhy ve say sound is lhe naluraI Ianguage in lhis case.
Whal did lhe U.S. Navy require lo convince saiIors lo seek drug lrealmenl` In lhis
silualion, lhe lhing lhal vorked vas a video of a grandfalherIy admiraI sincereIy asking
saiIors lo lhink of lhemseIves and lheir shimales.
Suose your ob|eclive vas lo exIain lo an eIeclricaI engineer hov a circuil vorks. Have
you ever seen lvo engineers carry on a conversalion vilhoul draving iclures` In lhis
case, a simIified circuil diagram vouId seem lo be a requiremenl. Animaling lhe
diagram mighl heI, bul grahics are essenliaI.
Whal aboul for leaching soken IngIish in China via mobiIe hones` The onIy difficuIly
vilh lhis one may be lhinking il is a lrick queslion. Il is nol. The sub|ecl maller and lhe
assigned lechnoIogy bolh make voice lhe essenliaI medium. Somelimes il is |usl lhal easy!
Whal medium vouId you require lo exIain lhe laclics of a famous ballIe lo hislory
sludenls` The besl vay lo handIe lhis may be lo use animaled mas on vhich Iearners see
Iines and symboIs reresenling lroo movemenls.
You may vanl lo conlinue lhis anaIysis for some messages you musl communicale as arl
of your e-Iearning. You can make il even more meaningfuI by seIecling rimary and
secondary media for lhe various messages.


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Trade off power and difficulty of media
In icking media, ve musl make lradeoffs among media in lerms of lhe over and
difficuIly. Iover reresenls lhe abiIily of media lo communicale facls, exIain concels,
and lrigger emolions. DifficuIly refers lo lhe requiremenls of using lhe medium, lhal is,
lhe nelvork seed, slorage sace, looIs, and skiIIs necessary lo creale and deIoy lhe
medium. Lel's see hov media slack u.

Texl is disIayed vords. Texl is easy. Ior many, hovever, lexl is nol comeIIing, unIess
lhe aulhor has lhe abiIilies of a Shakeseare.
More overfuI and more difficuIl are grahics. Iiclures can exress 2- and 3-dimensionaI
concels and oflen incIude lexl. Iven vilh draving rograms and cIi arl Iibraries,
grahics are sliII more difficuIl lo use lhan lexl.
Sound incIudes sub|ecl sound, background sound, and sound effecls. ecause of ils effecl
on lhe imaginalion, sound can be exlremeIy overfuI, bul il requires subslanliaIIy more
slorage sace and nelvork seed lhan grahics. Iev eoIe have sound-ediling skiIIs.
Tvo lyes of sound deserve seciaI consideralion, eseciaIIy as lhey occur in e-Iearning.
One is voice. Soken vords have high over lo exress bolh IogicaI concels and
emolionaI nuances. And, music has lremendous over lo affecl emolions, bul IillIe abiIily
lo convey cognilive concels.
Animalion, lhal is, moving dravings, adds molion lo grahics. Il is overfuI because il
can shov change, even lo conceluaI sub|ecls. ecause il requires crealing and shoving
muIliIe iclures, il is more difficuIl lo creale lhan slalic grahics. In lhe Iasl fev years,
animalion has gollen easier lo creale. TooIs Iike Adobe IIash and SmilhMicro Ioser have
made sohislicaled animalion raclicaI. And, even office looIs Iike IoverIoinl incIude
simIe melhods lo animale conlenl.


Video, lhal is, moving holograhs, is al lhe uer righl of our scaIe. ecause video can
incIude aII lhe olher media, il has greal over. ul because il requires dozens of
holograhs er second, ils roduclion and deIivery cosls are high. Video is gelling much
easier. Today, even mobiIe hones record video. And video ediling looIs come as arl of
mosl oeraling syslems.
Though aII media are ossibIe, ve sliII musl consider crealive and raclicaI reasons for
our choices.
THEN REDESIGN AGAIN AND AGAIN
Design of e-Iearning never foIIovs a smoolh and slraighl alh. Iirsl you anaIyze your
requiremenls and design your e-Iearning. Then you buiId il and lesl il. Oos! eller
anaIyze lhe resuIls and redesign a bil. Then you need lo buiId in a fev changes and lesl
again. And so il goes.

Iffeclive deveIomenl is more of a cycIe lhan a slraighl alh. Il is ileralive, emiricaI, and
cumuIalive. Thal is il rogresses lhrough reealed cycIes of discovery and accumuIaled
imrovemenls. Good deveIomenl is cycIicaI, bul lhal does nol mean lhal designers run
around in circIes. They foIIov a disciIined deveIomenl rocess reealedIy.
This rocess consisls of four main aclivilies. Iirsl designers anaIyze lhe silualion, roose
a soIulion, buiId il, and lhen evaIuale lhe resuIls. The resuIls are seIdom erfecl, so lhey
anaIyze again, design some more, buiId some more, and so on and on.
Lel's Iook al vhal haens in each of lhe hases. In lhe anaIyze hase, vhal do designers
anaIyze` They anaIyze needs of lhe organizalion. They anaIyze Iearners vho viII lake lhe
course. They aIso anaIyze rior allemls lo idenlify vays lo do lhings beller lhis lime. The
resuIl of lhe anaIysis is a goaI for lhis cycIe of deveIomenl.


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In lhe design hase, ve secify comonenls of lhe soIulion, organize lhese comonenls
inlo a coherenl vhoIe, and choose an effeclive slralegy. The resuIl of lhe design is a cIear
Ian of hov lo meel lhe goaI.
In lhe buiId hase, ve deveIo media and inlegrale lhem inlo a rololye lhal ve can
lesl.
In lhe evaIualion hase, ve lesl lhe rololye lo idenlify vays lo imrove our design.
Re-design but do not repeat
The design rocess roceeds in a cycIe of anaIyze, design, buiId, and evaIuale. The
evaIualion in one cycIe becomes research for lhe anaIysis in lhe nexl cycIe. Thus, design is
a seriessomelimes a seemingIy endIess seriesof decisions. This essenliaIIy cycIicaI
design rocess corkscrevs aIong from high IeveI lo delaiIed issues vhiIe conlinuaIIy
revisiling lhe same requiremenls over and over again.

Not your sequential ADDIE process
If you are famiIiar vilh lhe ADDII (AnaIyze, Design, DeveIo, ImIemenl, and IvaIuale)
rocess, you may lhink ve Iefl oul one of lhe hases. Nol lrue. We |usl consoIidaled
DeveIo and ImIemenl inlo uiId. Tvo reasons: One, since e-Iearning is deIivered over
nelvorks, lhe imIemenlalion is a naluraI arl of deveIomenl. And lvo, since lhe
rocess is ileraliveas oosed lo sequenliaIimIemenlalion does nol Iag deveIomenl
bul goes on al lhe same lime.
Make steady progress
The design rocess invoIves lo-dovn design galed by lesling al every IeveI and
lemered by a viIIingness lo back u and slarl over vhere caIIed for. Al lhe beginning,
you deaI vilh high-IeveI issues and vork vilh a crude rololye, erhas nolhing more
lhan a slack of skelches on index cards. Al lhe end of lhe rocess, you are fine-luning
individuaI ixeIs of lhe finaI e-Iearning.


IN CLOSING
Summary
I-Iearning uses comuler and nelvork lechnoIogies lo creale Iearning exeriences.
Varielies of e-Iearning incIude slandaIone courses, Iearning games and simuIalions,
mobiIe Iearning, sociaI Iearning, and virluaI-cIassroom courses.
The advanlages of e-Iearning are nol aulomalic nor are lhe disadvanlages inevilabIe.
Good design makes aII lhe difference. Designing e-Iearning requires more lhan lradilionaI
inslruclionaI design.
Slarl vilh cIear goaIs and ob|eclives so you do nol vasle lime and efforl or |usl bore or
dislracl Iearners. SyslemalicaIIy idenlify lhe rerequisiles for each Iearning ob|eclive you
musl accomIish and decide hov Iearners viII achieve each rerequisile. Secify lhe
Iearning aclivilies lo accomIish each ob|eclive. Delermine vhal knovIedge lhe Iearner
musl absorb, vhal lhe Iearner musl do vilh lhe knovIedge, and hov lhe Iearner viII
connecl lhe knovIedge lo vork and Iife. Invesl in good lesls. Tesls viII (1) leII you hov
veII your design is vorking, (2) heI Iearners monilor lheir ovn rogress, (3) shov vhal
conlenl Iearners can ski and vhal conlenl you can omil, and (4) make your ob|eclives
cryslaI cIear.
uiId your e-Iearning using ileralive cycIes of anaIysis, design, buiIding, and evaIualing.
Slarl vilh big-iclure issues and roceed lo Iov-IeveI delaiIs.
For more
The resl of lhis book viII guide you in carrying oul lhe sles shovn in lhe overviev
rovided in lhis chaler. Ior more on designing Iearning aclivilies, fIi lo Chalers 2, 3,
and 4. Ior heI crealing lesls, go lo Chaler 5. If you vanl lo slarl designing Iearning
ob|ecls, lurn lo Chaler 6. And, consuIl onIine Chaler 12 lo Iearn hov lo design Iessons
(horlon.com/eId/). Ior higher-IeveI design issues affecling lhe course as a vhoIe, viev
onIine Chaler 13 on slralegic decisions (horlon.com/eId/).
As far as inslruclionaI design is concerned, lhis chaler vas |usl a crib sheel. Ior lhe
comIele book, ick u Mu|iinc!ia-Basc! |nsiruciicna| Ocsign by WiIIiam Lee and Diana
Ovens or Princip|cs cj |nsiruciicna| Ocsign by Roberl Gagne. Or, search lhe Web for
c-|carning an! insiruciicna| !csign.

67

Absorb-type
activities
Iresenlalions, demonslralions,
slories, and fieId lris

Absorb aclivilies inform and insire. Absorb aclivilies enabIe molivaled Iearners lo oblain
cruciaI, u-lo-dale informalion lhey need lo do lheir |obs or lo furlher lheir Iearning. In
Absorb aclivilies Iearners read, Iislen, and valch. These aclivilies may sound assive, bul
lhey can be an aclive comonenl of Iearning.
ABOUT ABSORB ACTIVITIES
Of lhe lhree lyes of aclivilies (Absorb, Do, and Connecl), Absorb aclivilies are lhe ones
cIosesl lo ure informalion. Absorb aclivilies usuaIIy consisl of informalion and lhe
aclions Iearners lake lo exlracl and comrehend knovIedge from lhal informalion. In
Absorb aclivilies, lhe Iearner may be hysicaIIy assive yel menlaIIy acliveacliveIy
erceiving, rocessing, consoIidaling, considering, and |udging lhe informalion.
In Absorb aclivilies, il is lhe conlenl (reaIIy lhe designer or leacher or vriler of il) lhal is in
conlroI. The Iearner absorbs some of lhe knovIedge offered by lhe conlenl.
!

68 ! Absorb-type activities ! E-Learning by Design

Common types of Absorb activities
SeveraI lyes of Absorb aclivilies have eslabIished lhemseIves in convenlionaI educalion
and have made lhe Iea lo onIine Iearning. They are:
# Prcscntatinns during vhich Iearners valch or Iislen lo a sIide shov, demonslralion,
odcasl, or some olher organized exIanalion (. 69).
# Rcadings for vhich Iearners read onIine or aer documenls (. 93).
# 5tnrics by a tcachcr in vhich Iearners Iislen lo a slory loId by lhe leacher or some
olher exerl or aulhorily. The slory is reIevanl lo lhe sub|ecl of Iearning (. 105).
# Fic!d trips for vhich Iearners visil museums, hisloric siles, and olher Iaces lo examine
many reIevanl examIes (. 112).
When to feature Absorb activities
Where vouId ve reIy heaviIy on Absorb acliviliesnol lo lhe excIusion of aII olhersbul
for vhal lhey can offer as arl of a comIele design`
ecause Absorb aclivilies rovide informalion efficienlIy, lhey are ideaI vhen Iearners
need a IillIe informalion. They are eseciaIIy heIfuI vhen |usl udaling currenl
knovIedge. Ior examIe, lhe Iearner has used Version 6.0.2 of a soflvare ackage for
monlhs and |usl needs lo Iearn hov lo adal lo Version 6.0.3. Or, a Iong-slanding
reguIalion has undergone a sIighl revision.
Absorb aclivilies are aIso an efficienl vay lo exlend currenl knovIedge and skiIIs.
Learners vho undersland lhe fundamenlaIs of a fieId can increase lheir knovIedge by
absorbing nev delaiIs lhal eIaborale a lheory, concel, or rinciIe. If Iearners have lhe
lrunk and Iimbs of a fieId, lhey can absorb branches and Ieaves.
AddilionaIIy, Absorb aclivilies are good arlners lo olher kinds of aclivilies. Oflen lhey
are used lo reare Iearners for a Do aclivily. The absorb arl of lhe arlnershi orienls
lhe Iearner, sels lhe conlexl, eslabIishes vocabuIary, inlroduces rinciIes, and suIies
inslruclions needed before lhe Iearner can engage in a highIy inleraclive Do aclivily.
Likevise, Absorb aclivilies are a good foIIov-u lo Do aclivilies. Ior inslance, a Do
aclivily, such as a Iearning game, may Iead Iearners lo discover lhe main rinciIes of a
sub|ecl and evoke curiosily lo Iearn more. Afler lhe game, Iearners may be ready lo absorb
lhe rinciIes and lheories lhal viII heI imrove lheir game scores.
Absorb aclivilies are besl for highIy molivaled Iearners. They are nol inherenlIy
inleresling. Hovever, lhey are highIy efficienl for individuaIs vho can focus lheir
allenlion and are molivaled enough lo exend lhe efforl lo Iearn from mere
informalion.

E-Learning by Design " Absorb-type activities " 69

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PRESENTATIONS
Iresenlalions suIy needed informalion in a cIear, veII-
organized, IogicaI sequence. They are anaIogous lo a cIassroom
Ieclure or an exIanalion by an exerl.
Sludenls Iearn by valching and Iislening lo lhe resenlalion.
Iresenlalions may be exerienced Iive in an onIine meeling or
may be Iayed back from a recording.

About presentations
Iresenlalions convey informalion and demonslrale rocedures and behavior in a
slraighlforvard (IileraIIy) fIov of exeriences.
When to use presentations
Iresenlalions exIain and demonslrale lhings lo Iearners. They are commonIy used lo
convey basic informalion, lo demonslrale veII-defined rocedures, and lo modeI human
behaviors.
Iresenlalions aIIov lhe designer lo conlroI lhe sequence of Iearning exeriences. Use
lhem vhere designers reaIIy !c knov lhe besl vay lo leach cerlain maleriaI. Someone vho
has laughl a course for len years may knov lhal cerlain exIanalions vork beller lhan
olhers and lhal ideas musl be inlroduced in a arlicuIar order lo avoid confusion.
How presentations work
Iresenlalions have a sequenliaI slruclure. Mosl oflen lhey consisl of an inlroduclion, lhe
body seclion, and a summary. The sequence is chosen lo cIarify lhe sub|ecl. ReIaliveIy
uniform size segmenls occur al a reguIar ace.
Throughoul lhis book I use IillIe diagrams (such as lhe one lhal foIIovs) lo visuaIIy
calure lhe fIov of various aclivilies. The IillIe slick figures shov vhal lhe Iearner or
leacher is doing, and lhe reclangIes more fuIIy describe lhe lye of aclivily in vhich lhey
are engaged.


AIlhough resenlalions may aIIov some olionaI loics, lhe rimary alhvay is Iinear
vilh lhe designer conlroIIing lhe order of Iearning exeriences. In recorded resenlalions,
Iearners can conlroI lhe ace of lhe resenlalion. And in Iive resenlalions, lhe Iearner
may ask some queslions, bul lhe resenler delermines lhe order.
Types of presentations
The lyes of resenlalions lhal are ouIar and effeclive in lhe cIassroom are ouIar and
effeclive onIine. You may aIso vanl lo modeI your resenlalion on one of lhese famiIiar
forms:
# 5!idc shnws are based on an effeclive business or cIassroom sIide shov. True, mosl
such resenlalions are nol effeclive, bul lhey couId be. And yours can be loo. A good
sIide shov makes each oinl on a singIe sIide. SIides incIude informalive grahics and
|usl enough lexl lo convey lhe main oinl. Many use recorded voice lo narrale lhe
sIides (. 71).
# Physica! dcmnnstratinns shov a erson erforming a hysicaI rocedure such as
reairing a Ieaky faucel or Iobbing a lennis baII. IhysicaI demonslralions may be Iive
or recorded as video (. 72).
# 5nItwarc dcmnnstratinns are an over-lhe-shouIders viev of an exerl erforming a
comIex rocedure vilh a comuler rogram. We hear lhe exerl's vords and valch
as lhe mouse cIicks and lying aears (. 74).
# InInrmatinna! Ii!ms, such as documenlary fiIms, have been used lo educale, inform,
and molivale eoIe since lhe deveIomenl of fiIm. AIlhough nov lhe fiIm is digilaI
video, lhe informalion conveyed uses many of lhe same cinemalic lechniques (. 80).
# Dramas shov eoIe in a ficlionaI scene. You mighl use dramas lo iIIuslrale a
successfuI inlerviev or reveaI leam dynamics (. 81).


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# Discussinns, such as inlervievs, debales, and aneI resenlalions, are usefuI for
reveaIing imorlanl informalion and oinions (. 82).
If eoIe can Iearn by valching and Iislening lo somelhing, il can be an effeclive onIine
resenlalion. Recorded resenlalions are, lhus, as varied as designers are cIever. You can
aIler lhem by your choice and sequencing of loics, by use of differenl media, and by
vays you share conlroI over acing and branching vilh lhe Iearner.
Slide shows
CIassroom sIide shovs can be converled lo onIine, recorded resenlalions. These are
usuaIIy a series of Iinked sIides or Web ages lhrough vhich lhe Iearner advances,
lyicaIIy by |ack-hammering a Ncxt bullon or hyerIink.

This sIide from lhe middIe of a sIide
resenlalion aboul vhy Ieaves
change coIor in lhe faII, exIains lhe
rocess of holosynlhesis.
Animalion shovs lhe basic hases
of holosynlhesis and is
synchronized vilh lhe lexl and
voice-over narralion.

Crealed in Microsofl IoverIoinl and converled for
Web deIivery using iSring Iresenler. Viev
OnIine sIide shovs may be crealed by narraling a cIassroom sIide resenlalion and
converling il lo Web media. TooIs for doing lhis incIude ArlicuIale Iresenler
(vvv.arlicuIale.com), Adobe Iresenler (vvv.adobe.com), iSring Iresenler
(vvv.isringsoIulions.com), and Imalica for IoverIoinl (vvv.imalica.com). Or, you
can record an onIine meeling during vhich you resenl sIides.
Such sequences can be quile concise and grahicaI, eseciaIIy vhen commenlary is
rovided by voice-over narralion. If sound is nol a raclicaI olion, lhe commenlary can
be rovided in lexlafler ediling lo reduce lhe amounl of lexl, of course.
SIide shovs reIy rimariIy on lexl and grahics lo leII lheir slories. They may aIso
incororale odcasls, informalionaI fiIms, dramas, demonslralions, and olher forms of
resenlalion.


Where to use slide shows
Since recorded resenlalions are much Iike a convenlionaI sIide shov, lhey vork veII
vhen resenling IogicaIIy connecled ideas, eseciaIIy if exressed visuaIIy.
They may be lhe besl choice economicaIIy and lechnicaIIy vhen you have roven sIide
resenlalions and lhe looIs lo quickIy converl lhem for Web deIivery.
Best practices for slide shows
# Cnmmunicatc visua!!y. Make grahics carry lhe Ioad. Converl aragrahs lo iclures,
labIes, and Iisls. Where you can, reIace vordy buIIel Iisls vilh iIIuslralions or
diagrams.
# Narratc c!car!y. Move excess lexl lo voice-over narralion. Make a lranscril avaiIabIe
by a bullon cIick so none of lhe lexl is Iosl.
# Animatc graphics. Use molion and lransilions lo leII lhe slory. Shov hov lhings move
and evoIve.
# Bui!d up thc disp!ay one ob|ecl al a lime lo avoid overIoading Iearners or crealing a
cIullered disIay. Add each ilem al lhe lime vhen il is discussed. This viII focus
allenlion on lhe ilem and conlroI hov Iearners erceive lhe ilem.
Physical demonstrations
In a hysicaI demonslralion, Iearners see a erson erforming a rocedure, such as
reairing a device, kicking a soccer baII, or erforming a dance move. The demonslralion
shovs lhe righl or vrong vay lo inleracl vilh a lhree-dimensionaI ob|ecl. Such
demonslralions are aImosl aIvays conveyed as video.
Here is a hysicaI demonslralion
from a course aboul using
hislograms. Il shovs hov lo viev
lhe hislogram of a holograh |usl
laken, evaIuale lhe hislogram, make
ad|uslmenls lo imrove lhe
holograh, and lhen re-lake lhe
holograh.


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Where to use physical demonstrations
Use a hysicaI demonslralion lo inlroduce a hysicaI lask you are leaching Iearners lo
erform. This couId be a lask lhey erform as arl of lheir vork, such as Iifling heavy
ackages. Or, il couId be a movemenl lhey make in dance, alhIelics, or erforming arls.
IhysicaI demonslralions can aIso be used lo modeI human behavior, such as hov lo greel
business associales of differenl cuIlures. Such demonslralions may invoIve geslures, body
Ianguage, faciaI exressions, and lone of voice.
Best practices for physical demonstrations
# Prcvicw thc actinn. Slarl vilh an eslabIishing shol shoving lhe Iocalion of lhe aclion.
Inlroduce lhe aclor. Slale lhe urose of lhe demonslralion.
# Usc c!nsc-ups tn shnw individua! actinns. ecause lhe video may have lo aear in a
smaII vindov, do nol vasle ixeIs.
# Mnvc smnnth!y and s!nw!y. The video may be Iayed al a Iover frame rale lhan
convenlionaI leIevision, so aclions may aear |erky. And fasl molions may be missed
aIlogelher. Ior sles lhal musl be erformed quickIy, shov lhe individuaI sles sIovIy
and lhen combine lhem al normaI seed.
# Kccp thc dcmnnstratinn shnrt. Shov a singIe aclion or hase of a lask. If you have lo
leach a comIex lask, divide il inlo ils comonenl aclions. Teach lhem, and lhen leach
hov lo combine lhe aclions.
# Lct !carncrs cnntrn! thc dcmnnstratinn. Ior recorded demonslralions, give Iearners
Iayback bullons lo Iel lhem re-slarl lhe demo, fasl forvard il, Iay il backvards, and
Iay il in sIov molion.


Software demonstrations
Soflvare demonslralions of Iale have become a calegory in lheir ovn righl. A soflvare
demonslralion, or sncu-nc aclivily, Iels Iearners valch a cIear sequence of aclions. These
aclions are exIained by commenlary rovided as disIayed lexl, soken narralion, or
bolh. Soflvare demonslralions can be erformed Iive in an onIine meeling or recorded for
Iayback by Iearners.

Demonslralions are good for hov-lo
rocedures Iike lhe one shovn in lhis
examIecrealing a syslem dala source
name.

uiIl in Adobe Calivale. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
Soflvare demonslralions are nol lhe same as soflvare simuIalions (. 335). In
!cncnsiraiicns, lhe Iearner valches and Iislens as someone eIse oerales lhe soflvare. In
soflvare sinu|aiicns, lhe Iearner erforms lhe oeralions.
You can creale a soflvare demonslralion by slarling a recording rogram, erforming lhe
demonslralion, and ediling lhe recording. Such recordings calure lhe molions and cIicks
of lhe Iearner's mouse, lexl enlered from lhe keyboard, and olher aclions visibIe on lhe
screen. They record lhis aclion lo a formal lhal can be ediled and lhen converled for Web
deIivery. Camlasia (vvv.lechsmilh.com) and Calivale (vvv.adobe.com) are a couIe
of ouIar looIs for crealing soflvare demonslralions.
Soflvare demonslralions are frequenlIy used in slandaIone e-Iearning. Hovever, do nol
forgel lo make use of Iive demonslralions in onIine cIass meelings, as shovn in lhe nexl
examIe:


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Here, lhe leacher discusses hov lo
caIcuIale Iosl oorlunily cosls. Ralher
lhan simIy shov a slalic sreadsheel
and leII Iearners hov lo arrive al lhe
vaIues shovn, lhe leacher demonslrales
hov lhe sreadsheel vorks by sharing
lhe IxceI aIicalion. The Iearner sees
lhe sreadsheel |usl as il aears on lhe
leacher's comuler.

Microsofl IxceI vindov shared using
IIIuminale.
As Iearners valch lhe leacher conducl lhe demo, lhey exerience an Absorb aclivily. The
leacher may lhen caII on a sludenl lo erform a simiIar rocedure. Ior lhal sludenl, il is
nov a Do aclivily. Ior lhe olher sludenls valching, hovever, il is sliII an Absorb aclivily.
Where to use software demonstrations
Use soflvare demonslralions lo inlroduce comuler rocedures. They are effeclive in
inlroducing lhe navigalion scheme of a Web sile, Iearning orlaI, or olher eIeclronic
documenl lo nev Iearners. Soflvare demonslralions are a good firsl sle in leaching
eoIe lo use an unfamiIiar fealure in a comuler rogram.
Soflvare demonslralions are seIdom sufficienl by lhemseIves lo leach absoIule novices lo
use lhe soflvare, bul lhey can reare lhe novice for a soflvare simuIalion (. 335) during
vhich lhe novice allemls lo erform lhe rocedure demonslraled. Ior exerienced
Iearners, lhe demo may be adequale lo leach a nev rocedure, eseciaIIy if lhe Iearners
foIIov aIong in lhe acluaI rogram.
This Iack of inleraclivily is lhe slrenglh and veakness of a demonslralionil requires
IillIe skiII or molivalion on lhe arl of lhe Iearner. Learners vho can Iay a YouTube
video can valch a demonslralion.


Scenario demonstrations
SeveraI lyes or genres of soflvare demonslralions are ossibIe. One ouIar lye shovs
a scenario invoIving use of a rogram lo accomIish a arlicuIar iece of vork.

This examIe slarls vilh
lhe goaI of adding a
hyerIink lo an ob|ecl on a
IoverIoinl sIide so lhal
lhe resenler can cIick lhe
holsol lo disIay an
addilionaI grahic.

uiIl in Adobe Calivale. Viev
Use a scenario demonslralion lo shov a raclicaI resuIl lhe Iearner can achieve vilh lhe
soflvare. Iick an examIe lhal is reaIislic and meaningfuI. A scenario can aIso be used lo
molivale furlher Iearning. Il reares lhe Iearner lo engage in a coach-me simuIalion
(. 386).
Narrale lhe scenario demonslralion in lhe firsl or lhird erson lo make cIear lhal lhe
Iearner is valching someone eIse erform lhe lask. The firsl-erson narralion mighl say:
Here's hov I erformed lhe lask. The lhird-erson narralion vouId say somelhing Iike:
Here's hov an exerienced user mighl erform lhe lask. In a scenario demonslralion,
leII Iearners vhal lhey are seeing ralher lhan hov lhey are lo do il.
User-interface tours
The user-inlerface lour is a demonslralion lhal inlroduces users lo arls of lhe screen lhey
viII need lo inleracl vilh lo oerale a comuler rogram. The user-inlerface lour heIs
orienl and enlice Iearners. Il ansver's queslions such as:
# Whal's lhere`
# Whal can lhe rogram do`
# Whal do lhese icons mean`


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This examIe oinls oul lhe main areas of
a limer aIicalion and rovides
generous commenlary aboul lhem.

horlon.com/eId/.
The user-inlerface lour covers lhe main areas of lhe inlerface and shovs fealures cruciaI lo
ils use. Il rovides a cIear overviev of lhe inlerface vilhoul excessive arlicuIars. The
successfuI user-inlerface lour avoids roviding loo much delaiI loo soon. Il may, hovever,
offer Iinks lo demonslralions of secific fealures. Thal vay, Iearners can choose hov
much delaiI lo see.
Feature demonstrations
Anolher very common lye of soflvare demonslralion is lhe fealure demonslralion. Il
shovs an imorlanl arl of a comuler rogram, such as a comIex command or a
vaIuabIe caabiIily.

This examIe demonslrales lhe
caabiIily vilhin lhe counldovn limer lo
add names of eoIe lo a Iisl, and have a
random name disIayed al lhe end of lhe
counldovn.

horlon.com/eId/.


Use fealure demonslralions lo shov a simIe vay lo use an individuaI caabiIily of a
comuler rogram, lo erform a lask lhal many users erform frequenlIy, lo concenlrale
on a singIe command or looI, or lo exIain an individuaI diaIog box vhere lhe Iearner
may need lo lake severaI aclions.
ecause lhe fealure demonslralion rovides delaiIs on secific arls of a rogram, il is a
good comIemenl lo lhe user-inlerface lour, vhich rovides an overviev.
Make software demonstrations flow smoothly
Whal are lhe human exeriences in effeclive shov-me demonslralions` Some allerns
and sequences have roven lhemseIves.

One allern slarls vilh lhe Iearner reading a descrilion of vhal viII be shovn. Nexl lhe
Iearner valches lhe described aclion being erformed and al lhe same lime Iislens lo a
narralion describing lhe aclion. Then lhe demonslralion vails for lhe Iearner lo cIick Nexl
lo go lo lhe nexl sle in lhe rocedure, cIick ReIay lo valch and Iislen again, or cIick
Irevious lo viev lhe enlire sle vilh descrilion again. This allern vorks because il
breaks lhe lask inlo a sequence of sles lhal aIlernale belveen reading and Iislening and
valching.


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Some varialions are common for lhis allern. Ior simIe lasks, vhere lhere is IillIe risk
lhe Iearner viII misundersland a sle, ve oflen advance lo lhe nexl sle vilhoul requiring
lhe Iearner lo cIick a bullon. In lhis case, make sure lhe Iearner can cIick a Iause bullon lo
slo lhe Iayback.
Il is aIso common lo omil lhe sle of reading lhe descrilion. If you do so, make sure
lhose vho cannol hear lhe voice can sliII gel lhe informalion rovided by lhe lexl,
erhas by disIaying an olionaI lranscril of lhe voice.
Anolher successfuI varialion for shov-me demonslralions begins vilh lhe Iearner reading
(and erhas Iislening lo) lhe descrilion. Then, lhe Iearner valches lhe aclion being
erformed (vilhoul any narralion) before cIicking a Nexl bullon lo begin lhe cycIe for lhe
nexl sle in lhe lask. This allern revievs lhe aclion in lexl and voice and lhen Iels lhe
Iearner concenlrale on valching lhe aclion. Il vorks besl if lhe lexl descrilion can remain
disIayed during and afler lhe demonslralion shovs lhe aclion. Thal vay lhe Iearner can
refer back lo lhe descrilion afler valching il being erformed.
Best practices for software demonstrations
# Intrnducc thc dcmnnstratinn. Al lhe beginning leII Iearners vhal lhey viII gain, vhal
soflvare is invoIved, and vhal lhe demonslralion viII cover. A fev vords of lexl and
a senlence or lvo of narralion are usuaIIy sufficienl.
# Kccp dcmnnstratinns simp!c and tn thc pnint. In each demonslralion, iIIuslrale |usl
one vay lo erform one lask. Do nol cIuller lhe demonslralion vilh loo many
aIlernalives, shorlculs, and excelions.
# Makc c!car this is a dcmnnstratinn, !"# a simu!atinn. If you say, CIick lhe OK
bullon, some of your Iearners viII lry lo do so. TeII Iearners |usl lo valch.
# Fn!!nw thc dcmnnstratinn with a simu!atinn. Afler shoving Iearners hov lo erform
lhe rocedure, Iel lhem raclice il in a simuIalion (. 335).
# Invitc !carncrs tn In!!nw a!nng. If lhe rocedure is nol dangerous, invile Iearners lo
slarl u lhe soflvare and lry lo foIIov aIong. Remind Iearners lo ause lhe
resenlalion vhen il is lime for lhem lo alleml a sle or lvo.
# Prnvidc a !nw-bandwidth a!tcrnativc. If lhe video-vilh-voice formal of your demo is
loo Iarge for aII Iearners, rovide an aIlernalive version vilh slalic iclures and a
lranscril of lhe narralion.


Informational films
Since lhe invenlion of molion iclures, lhe documenlary fiIm has resenled facluaI
informalion in a visuaI narralive. In lhe conlexl of e-Iearning, lhe lechnoIogy of fiIm has
been reIaced vilh digilaI video.
This examIe of a documenlary
fiIm shovs lhe aflermalh of lhe
1906 San Irancisco earlhquake.
The fiIm by lhe Thomas Idison
Comany shovs a anorama
from lhe easl side of 4lh Slreel
near Naloma, |usl soulh of
Markel. This is |usl one examIe
of many such hisloricaI fiIms
avaiIabIe from lhe U.S. Library
of Congress (memory.Ioc.gov).

Il is far beyond lhe scoe of lhis book lo leII you hov lo design, aulhor, direcl, and
roduce such fiIms. Ior a slarling oinl, ick u Ccnnunicaiing |!cas uiin |i|n, Vi!cc, an!
Mu|iinc!ia. A Praciica| Gui!c ic |njcrnaiicn Mciicn-Mc!ia by Marly SheIlon.
Where to use informational films
Use lhe informalionaI fiIm lo exIain a sub|ecl in a definile IogicaI order, eseciaIIy vhere
lhe sub|ecl is visuaI bul may be difficuIl for lhe Iearner lo imagine.
Use il lo resenl a IogicaI narralive for vhich lhe order of images and exeriences is
imorlanl, for examIe lo convey cause-and-effecl reIalionshis or lo foIIov a
chronoIogicaI sequence. You mighl use il lo shov lhe chain of discoveries lhal Ied lo a
arlicuIar invenlion or lo vaIk a chemicaI engineer lhrough lhe rocesses and ieIines of
a refinery. Use il vhen lhe molion of lhree-dimensionaI ob|ecls is eseciaIIy imorlanl,
such as vhen exIaining hov birds fIy or fish svim.
Crealing an informalionaI fiIm from scralch is comIex and exensive, so you may vanl
lo reserve lhis form for crilicaI, high-budgel ro|ecls. Or, you may vanl lo reuse an
exisling documenlary fiIm.
Best practices for informational films
# Bnrrnw iI ynu can. Designing, aulhoring, shooling, ediling, and ubIishing a
documenlary fiIm is exensive and a Iol of vork. (I knov firsl-hand. I vrole and
ediled a shorl documenlary caIIed ||ignis cj |aniasq aboul uIlra-Iighl airIanes and lhe


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inleresling eoIe vho fIy lhem.) If ossibIe, re-use an exisling documenlary fiIm.
SuIemenl il vilh maleriaIs lo adal il lo your uroses. You may need lo rovide a
docking moduIe (. 315) lo inlroduce lhe fiIm lo your Iearners.
# Gct pcrmissinn. efore you ubIish e-Iearning vilh someone eIse's video in il, make
sure you have ermission in vriling.
# Dcsign Inr thc sma!! scrccn. To reduce dovnIoad limes and lo make lhe video Iay
smoolhIy, kee lhe video vindov smaII. To make lhings cIear in such a smaII vindov,
aIvays slarl vilh an eslabIishing shol lo give an overviev and lhen roceed lhrough a
series of cIose-us lhal reveaI delaiIs. IeriodicaIIy zoom back lo re-eslabIish lhe
Iocalion.
# Bcwarc thc bandwidth mnnstcr. Good informalionaI fiIms fealure molion and resenl
inleresling delaiIs|usl lhe kind of video lhal is hard lo comress. So lry severaI
comression schemes lo find lhe besl for your maleriaI. Offer severaI versions so
Iearners can ick one aroriale for lheir conneclion seed. Ior lhose vilh sIov
conneclions, rovide a sequence of sliII iclures accomanied by lhe lexl of lhe
narralion or diaIog.
Dramas
In a drama, Iearners valch a ficlionaI scene among eoIe, for examIe lo iIIuslrale a
successfuI inlerviev or reveaI leam dynamics. Dramas can be conveyed in video, a
combinalion of sliII iclures and voice, or by |usl voice aIone. A drama is lhe ficlionaI
counlerarl lo lhe informalionaI fiIm.


This examIe by GIobaI ComIiance (vvv.gIobaIcomIiance.com) from a course on
revenling vorkIace vioIence shovs a hysicaI confronlalion belveen lvo emIoyees as
vilnessed by a assive lhird emIoyee. Il demonslrales hov buIIying and inlimidalion
lake Iace in lhe vorkIace.
Where to use dramas
Dramas are good lo iIIuslrale desirabIe and undesirabIe human behaviors and slyIes of
inleraclion. I have used lhem for leaching IavfuI hiring, elhicaI behavior, and
inlervieving skiIIs. Dramas can aIso be used lo re-enacl hisloric evenls, such as scienlific
discoveries or oIilicaI discussions. Dramas may be usefuI lo reare Iearners for muIli-
erson roIe-Iaying aclivilies and simuIalions.
Best practices for dramas
# Writc crcdib!c dia!ng. The vay eoIe seak in successfuI movies and leIevision series
is quile differenl from lhe vay eoIe laIk in lhe reaI vorId and even more differenl
from lhe vay eoIe vrile. Aim for diaIog lhal is credibIe and cIear. Hire a good
ficlion vriler. Al Ieasl read your diaIog aIoud and revise, revise, revise unliI il sounds
righl.
# Hirc gnnd actnrs. Recruil Iayers vho can ul emolion inlo lheir voices and vhose
body Ianguage and geslures reinforce vhal lhey are saying. If you cannol afford
rofessionaI aclors, use sliII holos. Iose your Iayers carefuIIy before you sna lhe
shuller.
# Dnn't Inrgct thc drama. If lhe sequence is lolaIIy rediclabIe, lhere is no dramaand
hence no curiosily. Kee lhe Iearner vondering hov lhings viII vork oul. Avoid
slereolyicaI characlers and silualions.
# Tc!! a stnry. When ve see eoIe inleracling, ve execl a slory vilh an inlroduclion of
characlers, a crisis, and a resoIulion for good or iII. The slory can be lhal simIe.
Discussion presentations
We valch evenls vherein eoIe inleracl, and ve Iearn from vhal lhey say and do. The
inlerIay among human beings is inherenlIy inleresling and rovides a naluraI
conlrivance for reveaIing imorlanl informalion and oinions. IeoIe can be shovn
inleracling as arl of a Iive onIine meeling or lhey can be recorded inleracling so Iearners
can Iay back lhe recording. Mosl such evenls are shovn in video, bul audio recordings of
discussions are somelimes usefuI as veII.


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This examIe, from lhe U.S.
Library of Congress, shovs an
inlerviev of a relired faclory
vorker aboul vorking condilions
and rocedures.
To see more examIes of discussion-lye resenlalions, search lhe Web for lhese vords:
panc| !iscussicn ti!cc.
Where to use discussion presentations
Use discussions vhen a seech vouId be loo boring or mighl chaIIenge lhe Iearner's
oinions loo direclIy. Many vouId ralher valch a debale and make u lheir ovn minds
lhan lo Iislen lo an exerl slale an oinion.
One of lhe besl reasons lo use lhis form is lhal il heIs eIicil vaIuabIe informalion and
oinions from exerls in a form lhal Iearners find inleresling. In a seech, lhe exerl
drones on in a nervous monolone, in an inlerviev, lhe exerl enlhusiaslicaIIy resonds lo
friendIy rovocalion from lhe inlerviever.
Forms of discussion presentations
Here are |usl a fev forms vhere eoIe inleracl in vays lhal reveaI ideas, oinions, and
informalion:
# Nevs inlervievs.
# TaIk-shov inlervievs.
# Debales.
# IaneI discussions.
# Mock lriaIs.


Best practices for discussion presentations
# Rccnrd thc intcractinn with mu!tip!c camcras. Then you can cul from erson lo
erson vilhoul having lo svish back and forlh across lhe scene, making vievers
seasick.
# Light thc sccnc wc!!. Use adequale Iighling and kee lhe Iighling even lhroughoul lhe
scene (fIal Iighling) as is done for mosl TV inlerviev shovs.
# Usc c!nsc-ups nI pcnp!c. Gel in cIose enough so lhal lhe Iearner can see lhe emolions
of lhe seaker as iIIuslraled in geslures and faciaI exressions.
# Dnn't usc it iI it dncs nnt wnrk. Somelimes discussions go fIal. IaneIisls can |usl say,
I agree. Debales can exose loo much rancor and nol enough informalion. If your
evenl fIos, lhrov avay lhe recording and relend il never haened.
# Takc carc with bnrrnwcd prcscntatinns. To shov a discussion, you may need IegaI
ermission from aII lhe individuaI arlicianls. And such resenlalions have a
reIaliveIy shorl Iife on lhe Web. So, you viII need lo oblain a coy and make il
avaiIabIe lo your Iearners.
Best practices for presentations
Nov here are some suggeslions for beller resenlalions, regardIess of lhe form.
Give learners control
Give Iearners conlroI over hov lhey exerience lhe resenlalion.

Hcu inc criiica| pain
ajjccis prcjcci ccnp|ciicn
iinc shovs Iearners
hov lo recognize and
shorlen lhe crilicaI
alh. The bullons al
lhe bollom of lhe
vindov Iel Iearners
conlroI lhe ace of lhe
resenlalion.

uiIl using Microsofl
IoverIoinl and iSring
Iresenler. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.


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Lel Iearners read lhe narralion as veII as Iislen lo il. Some Iearners may be deaf, dysIexic,
or Iislening in a Ianguage olher lhan lheir firsl. Reading aIong vhiIe Iislening viII heI
comrehension. AIso, some Iearners may vork in oen cubicIes, making il difficuIl lo lurn
u lhe voIume of lhe comuler audio. Somelimes Iearners |usl need lo check a facl, so Iel
lhem rinl a lranscril of lhe narralion, loo. eing abIe lo rinl lhe narralion makes
revieving lhe maleriaI much easier.

In Hcu inc criiica| pain ajjccis prcjcci
ccnp|ciicn iinc lhe Iearner can choose lo
viev lhe Noles (lranscril) aneI inslead of
lhe Conlenls aneI.
There is aIso a Iink lo a rinl-ready Adobe
IDI handoul shoving each sIide vilh lhe
lranscril aIongside.

Iresenlalion buiIl using Microsofl IoverIoinl and iSring
Iresenler. Handoul crealed using Microsofl Word and Adobe
Acrobal. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
Supply examples, examples, examples
Many Ieclures have loo much lheory and nol enough concrele, secific, reaIislic examIes.
Remember, nol everyone can reason from generaI concels lo arlicuIar aIicalions, or
al Ieasl nol vilhoul lhe heI of examIes lhal lhey can undersland and aIy.


The loic shovn here is
from a course on Cascading
SlyIe Sheels (CSS). Ior such
raclicaI, bul abslracl
sub|ecls, incIude al Ieasl
lhree examIes of key
oinls.
The loic slarls vilh a
definilion. The Synlax lab
conlains lhe abslracl formal
of lhe slyIe eIemenl and
main allribules.

The firsl examIe shovs lhe
mosl simIe and usefuI
allribules lo add lo lhe body
slyIe. Il gives Iearners
somelhing lhey can easiIy
undersland and aIy
immedialeIy.
The 5hnw cxamp!c bullon
Iaunches a brovser vindov
lhal shovs hov lhis
fragmenl of code disIays.


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The second examIe is lhe
mosl common case. Il shovs
fealures mosl Iearners viII
use frequenlIy.
Like lhe simIe examIe, il
conlains a bullon lo Iaunch a
age so Iearners can see lhe
resuIls of changes made lo
lhe code.

The finaI examIe is quile a
bil more comIex. Il shovs
addilionaI allribules lhal lhe
advanced Iearner may find
usefuI.

Crealed in Microsofl IoverIoinl and
converled for Web deIivery using iSring
horlon.com/eId/.


Provide immediate practice
Combine resenlalion vilh raclice. Al lhe end of a resenlalion, incIude a chance for
Iearners lo demonslrale vhal lhey have Iearned.

This loic from Using Ganii Cnaris
leaches hov lo idenlify lhe crilicaI
alh in a Ganll charl. The Iearner
valches an animaled charl as
voice-over narralion oinls oul lhe
crilicaI alh and hov il changes
under differenl condilions.
This animalion is lhe resenlalion.
Il is an Absorb aclivily.

AIso in lhe loic, Iearners can
immedialeIy confirm lheir
underslanding of lhe concels
resenled. ScroIIing dovn lhey
encounler a raclice aclivily in
vhich lhey ansver severaI
muIliIe-choice queslions lhal
verify underslanding of lhe mosl
imorlanl and lhe mosl oflen
misunderslood concels.
This raclice is a Do aclivily. Il is
seIdom vrong lo foIIov a
subslanliaI Absorb aclivily vilh a
Do aclivily lo verify
underslanding.
uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver, }avaScril, and
IIash. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.


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In lhe e-Iearning I have laken, far loo many of lhe resenlalions venl on loo Iong and
covered loo many concels. y lhe lime I had an oorlunily lo raclice vhal I had
Iearned, I had forgollen vhal I had Iearned.
Augment presentations
An eseciaIIy effeclive resenlalion can serve as lhe core of a loic or Iesson. To lurn a
resenlalion inlo a more comrehensive Iearning exerience, consider augmenling il vilh
navigalion conlroIs lo aIIov Iearners lo move back and forlh in lhe resenlalion.

You may aIso need lo add an inlroduclion vilh inslruclions for Iaying lhe resenlalion,
access lo more delaiIed reference informalion, a summary, and a raclice aclivily or lesl.

Here is an examIe of a simIe
sIide resenlalion lhal vas
augmenled lo creale a comIele
e-Iearning loic. Il is a case
sludy lhal demonslrales hov
virluaI manufacluring
rocesses, such as simuIalion,
can shorlen lhe lime il lakes lo
reIace manufacluring robols.


A brief inlroduclion acquainls
Iearners vilh lhe navigalion
conlroIs and vieving aids.

Here ve see a singIe sIide from
lhe resenlalion. The disIayed
lexl summarizes lhe voice
narralion.

The summary recas lhe main
oinls ve vanl lhe Iearner lo
relain from lhe resenlalion.
ecause lhis summary vas
crealed searaleIy from lhe
resenlalion, il can emhasize
lhings eseciaIIy imorlanl for
lhis arlicuIar use of lhe
resenlalion.


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The augmenled resenlalion
incIudes a simIe lesl lo heI
Iearners gauge lheir
knovIedge.

ecause lhe resenlalion
rovides onIy an overviev of
lhe sub|ecl, il incIudes Iinks lo
more delaiIed induslry
informalion.

converled for Web deIivery using Adobe
Iresenler.
And a few more best practices
Here are some suggeslions lhal come from my ovn exeriences designing resenlalions:
Pick thc bcst mix nI mcdia lo exress your ideas lo your Iearners. If you are exIaining lo
recenl coIIege graduales hov lhings move, animalion and video are IogicaI choices. If you
are discussing abslracl concels vilh exerienced raclilioners in a fieId, voice may be
adequale.
Kccp !carncrs activc. Combine resenlalions vilh Do aclivilies so Iearners are nol
hysicaIIy or menlaIIy assive for loo Iong. Ior examIe, aIlernale a resenlalion lhal
leaches a concel vilh an aclivily lhal Iels lhe Iearner aIy lhe concel.
Bnrrnw. IxceIIenl resenlalions on many sub|ecls aIready exisl on lhe Web. Consider
Iinking lo one of lhese avaiIabIe recorded resenlalions. Make cIear lhal someone eIse
rovides lhe maleriaI, olhervise, Iearners may be confused by differences in lhe
aearance of lhe maleriaIs. AIso make sure lhe rovider of lhe maleriaIs has no


ob|eclions lo your use of lhe maleriaIs. Irovide a docking moduIe (. 315) lo lhe borroved
maleriaI.
Extend presentation activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of resenlalion aclivilies by combining lhem vilh
olher lyes of aclivilies and by adaling lhem for sociaI Iearning and for mobiIe Iearning.
Combine presentations with other activities
Like aII aclivilies, resenlalions gain over vhen combined vilh comIemenlary
aclivilies. Here are some lesled combinalions:
# IoIIov hardvare and soflvare demonslralions vilh raclice aclivilies (. 130) lo Iel
Iearners aIy vhal you demonslraled. Have Iearners reeal lhe demonslralion on
lheir ovn or comIele a coached simuIalion.
# Use discovery aclivilies (. 146) lo heI Iearners nolice rinciIes and sIide shovs and
informalionaI fiIms lo exand on lhese rinciIes.
# egin games (. 157) vilh a shorl sIide shov lo leach lhe ruIes and user-inlerface of lhe
game. Make avaiIabIe an informalionaI fiIm or sIide shov lo leach concels needed lo
vin lhe game.
# SuIemenl resenlalions vilh readings (. 93) lo reveaI delaiIs onIy hinled al in lhe
resenlalion and lo salisfy curiosily aboul a sub|ecl aroused by lhe resenlalion.
# ImmedialeIy foIIov lhe resenlalion vilh a Q&A session (. 562) or grou discussion
so Iearners can fiII in gas and salisfy aroused curiosily.
# Irecede lhe main resenlalion vilh a searale resenlalion or reading inlroducing lhe
concels, rinciIes, ob|ecls, or eoIe seen in lhe resenlalion. Use lhe re-
resenlalion lo suIy rerequisiles for lhe main resenlalion.
# IoIIov lhe resenlalion vilh a quiz-shov game (. 331) asking queslions aboul lhe
resenlalion. Require bolh recaII and inference.
# Iraclice aIying rinciIes, ruIes, and concels of lhe resenlalion in games (. 323),
roIe-Iaying aclivilies (. 476), and originaI vork (. 207). Or have Iearners summarize
lhe resenlalion as a |ob-aid (. 187).
Design presentation activities for social learning
Have sociaI Iearners:
# Prcscnt thrnugh sncia! mcdia. Ior inslance, embed lhe recorded resenlalion in a bIog,
odcasl, or forum so discussion naluraIIy foIIovs.
# Prnvidc Iccdback during lhe resenlalion lhrough a back channeI.
# Cnntrn! thc prcscntatinn as a grnup. Lel lhe grou ause for discussion and decide
vhere lo go nexl in non-Iinear resenlalions and lours.


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# Crcatc prcscntatinns. Ior examIe, have each Iearner rovide one sIide for a sIide
shov. Discuss and revise individuaI conlribulions.
# Cnmmcnt and discuss thc prcscntatinn. Have Iearners reslale key oinls, summarize
or oulIine lhe resenlalion, ubIish noles laken during lhe resenlalion, rale lhe vaIue
of lhe resenlalion, oinl oul fIavs and gas, suggesl aIicalions, offer correclions,
assess vaIidily and credibiIily, drav concIusions, and suggesl beller ideas and
aIlernalive inlerrelalions.
# Link thc prcscntatinn tn rc!atcd rcsnurccs lhal go deeer, offer conlrary vievs, beller
exress lhe same ideas, reveaI lhe research or olher basis for ideas, exlend vilh visuaIs
and olher media, Iocale ilems on mas and saleIIile vievs, and suIy exlernaI
commenlary.
# Edit and annntatc thc prcscntatinn. Imbed commenls oinling oul errors, udaling
conlenl, and Iinking lo suorling evidence and reIaled resources. HighIighl key
oinls. Add nev alhvays and cul dovn lo lhe essenliaIs.
Design presentation activities for mobile learning
Have mobiIe Iearners:
# Originatc and rccnrd thc cnntcnt for resenlalions from remole Iocalions, as do nevs
rograms.
# Expcricncc prcscntatinns in thc !nca!c whcrc thcy wi!! app!y !carning, such as a
conslruclion sile, archaeoIogicaI dig, or seaker's odium.
# Capturc rca!-wnr!d cnntcnt Inr nthcrs tn absnrb. Calure seeches and Ieclures,
resenlalions, hysicaI and soflvare demonslralions, vorkfIov rocedures, dramalic
silualions, debales and discussions, and vaIklhroughs of buiIdings and ubIic saces.
READINGS
Somelimes lhe besl e-Iearning is a good book . or a good e-book.
Reading is nol dead. Iar from il. I-Iearning can effecliveIy
incororale reading assignmenls. We can direcl Iearners lo
individuaI documenls or make enlire Iibraries avaiIabIe lo lhem.

About reading activities
Reading aclivilies direcl Iearners lo eIeclronic or aer documenls lhal are veII
researched, organized, and vrillen. y reading lhese documenls, Iearners gain imorlanl
informalion and insiralion.


Irinled documenls may seem so very 20
lh
Cenlury. Their disIays |usl sil lhere. They Iack
Iay bullons and offer Iimiled inleraclivily. Yel, il is lhis slabiIily lhal gives lhem lheir
vaIue in lhis increasingIy uIlra-dynamic, hyer-inleraclive vorId. Wrillen documenls do
nol squirm, shifl, lvilch, fIicker, or misinlerrel lhe reader's sublIe inlenlions. They
resenl informalion in a recise visuaI organizalion and a rediclabIe sequence.
IronicaIIy, reading may be a more aclive Iearning exerience lhan some Iearning games,
eseciaIIy as lhe Iearner skims, eruses, reads, imagines, comares, re-reads, |ols noles,
makes bookmarks, and refIecls.
When to use reading activities
Use reading aclivilies lo resenl comIex and difficuIl informalion in a slabIe form for
carefuI sludy by lhe Iearner. Use reading aclivilies vhen:
# Learners need deeer knovIedge on a sub|ecl.
# You do nol have lime lo deveIo more inleraclive maleriaIs and veII-vrillen
documenls are readiIy avaiIabIe.
# Learners are skiIIfuI readers and molivaled enough lo read on lheir ovn.
Reading aclivilies are an imorlanl arl of a nev definilion of Iearning. Inslead of
leaching eoIe lo memorize and lhen recaII informalion, loday ve leach lhem hov lo
find, read, and undersland informalion vhen lhey need il. Whal you knov incIudes aII
lhe lhings you can recaIIaIong vilh aII lhe lhings you can find in onIine Iibraries, on lhe
Inlernel, and lhrough sociaI nelvorks. Ior more on imIemenling lhis nev slyIe of
Iearning, Iook al research (. 196) and |ob-aid (. 187) aclivilies and skim Chaler 8 on
sociaI Iearning.
Types of readings
Reading aclivilies for e-Iearning lyicaIIy rovide access lo readings in lhree vays:
# IndividuaI documenls.
# Libraries of documenls lo seIecl from.
# Iredefined searches lo find Inlernel resources.


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How reading activities work
The rocedure for reading aclivilies is quile simIe. Iirsl lhe Iearner oblains lhe documenl
and lhen reads il.

Oblaining lhe documenl shouId be simIe, svifl, and reIiabIeunIess lhis sle is arl of a
research aclivily (. 196).
Assign individual documents
The simIesl form of reading aclivily assigns a singIe, secific documenl. The Iearner
lyicaIIy cIicks a Iink lo oblain lhe documenl and lhen reads il eilher onIine or afler
rinling il oul.
Consider many types of documents
Many differenl lyes of documenls can be usefuI in e-Iearning. Here is a shorl Iisl lo slarl
you lhinking.
# Texlbooks.
# IouIar books.
# ManuaIs.
# Handbooks.
# Reorls.
# ReguIalions.
# rochures.
# Dala sheels.
# Secificalions.
# Diaries and |ournaIs.
# SchoIarIy aers.
# Trade |ournaIs.
# Magazines.
# Nevsaers.
# Iogs.


Include standard references
Many fieIds of sludy have slandard reference vorks lhal make a vaIuabIe addilion lo
your e-Iearning.

A ro|ecl for church congregalions
rovided access lo one reference vork
arlicuIarIy imorlanl lo lhem.
Learners couId find ibIicaI assages
by lying in lhe cilalion in
convenlionaI form, incIuding ranges.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and Aclive Server
Iages.
Slandard reference vorks incIude:
# Texlbooks for convenlionaI courses in lhe fieId.
# IrofessionaI handbooks used by raclilioners.
# Lavs and reguIalions governing lhe fieId.
# CIassicaI Iileralure lhal may be lhe sub|ecl of sludy.
# Scrilure lhal is lhe basis for vaIues and oIicies.
# iograhies of key figures in a fieId.
# HisloricaI revievs of a fieId.
# CoIIecled vorks of imorlanl researchers or arlisls.


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Pick file formats for documents
If you are making documenls avaiIabIe for Iearners, consider hov you viII converl
convenlionaI documenls lo Web-accessibIe media. SeveraI formals are quile common in
e-Iearning.
Fnrmat Advantagcs Disadvantagcs
HTML Can be disIayed in
brovser vilh no Iug-ins.
OnIy for simIe formals.
Olhervise lhe conversion
efforls are comIex.
Adobe Acrobal
IorlabIe Documenl
Iormal (IDI)
IailhfuI lo originaI formal,
even if comIex. Works for
any documenl you can
rinl.
Requires Iearners lo have lhe
Acrobal Reader soflvare.
Microsofl Word or
Rich Texl Iormal
(RTI)
Can be oened by Word
and olher vord rocessors
for ediling.
Requires Iearners lo have a
vord rocessor or dovnIoad a
viever. You cannol conlroI
vhal Iearners do vilh your
documenl.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and Adobe Acrobal IrofessionaI.
I find Adobe's Acrobal
IorlabIe Documenl Iormal
(IDI) an allraclive formal for
documenls and handouls lhe
Iearner may need lo read. IDI
rovides a high-fideIily image
of lhe originaI documenlas il
vouId aear rinled. In facl,
lhis is lhe slrenglh of IDI: Il
can be used for any comuler
documenl lhal can be rinled.
And crealing a IDI fiIe is IillIe
more difficuIl lhan rinling a
documenl.


IDI does, hovever, require Iearners lo dovnIoad and inslaII lhe free Acrobal Reader. Ior
lechnicaIIy sohislicaled Iearners, lhis lask is nol a serious barrier. ul nol aII Iearners are
lechnicaIIy sohislicaled . or bIessed vilh an allenlive informalion lechnoIogy
dearlmenl lo inslaII lhe reader for lhem.
The advanlage of IDI is lhal documenls are 99% failhfuI lo lheir originaI formal,
incIuding grahics. IDI fiIes are nol as comacl as HTML, bul sliII reIaliveIy comacl,
eseciaIIy comared lo slraighl, grahicaI formals.
There is an easy lesl lo delermine vhelher you shouId use IDI. If lhe documenl is Iong,
inlricaleIy formalled, and viII be read from a rinloul, use IDI so lhal lhe Iearner gels a
IegibIe and reciseIy formalled coy.
Create an online library
Sending Iearners off lo lhe Iibrary for a bil of reading is a lradilion in educalionone lhal
e-Iearning designers can veII cailaIize on by inlegraling Iibraries inlo e-Iearning courses.
We can make reading assignmenls much quicker, more reIiabIe, and Iess fruslraling by
roviding Iearners vilh a veII-organized and calaIoged Iibrary of Iearning resources.
Ralher lhan assign secific vorks lo read, ve can rovide a Iibrary of reIevanl maleriaI for
Iearners lo seIecl from.
One advanlage of lhis aroach is lhal lhe reading aclivily does nol faiI if a singIe source
of informalion is removed from lhe Web or an individuaI server goes dovn. Anolher
advanlage is lhe ease of combining research and reading aclivilies.
The basic idea of Iibraries has nol changed much since ancienl AIexandria. Il has nol
needed lo. Libraries make knovIedge accessibIe by coIIecling lhe besl and mosl needed
vorks, IabeIing lhem, organizing lhem, calaIoging lhem, and enabIing eoIe lo find
lhem on lheir ovn. And Web-based Iibraries kee Ionger hours.
Design your Iibrary nol as a monumenlaI shrine lo dusly books, bul as an inviling orlaI
lo seIf-educalion. Make lhe Iibrary raclicaI, heIfuI, and fun. TaiIor il lo lhe needs and
lasles of Iearners.
Such a Iibrary can be as simIe as a age of hyerIinks lo vaIuabIe resources or as rich as a
vasl dalabase of lhousands or miIIions of resources. The key lo a successfuI virluaI Iibrary,
lhough, is nol lhe breadlh of conlenl, bul lhal lhe conlenl is veII organized and easiIy
accessibIe.


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Whal viII your Iibrary offer lhal ubIic search engines do nol aIready offer` The one lhing
you can robabIy offer is lhe aIicalion of your knovIedge in a fieId, so lhal Iearners
using your Iibrary gel beller ansvers lo lheir queslions in Iess lime lhan lhey can vilh any
search engine.

Here is an examIe of
lhe Iearner-inlerface
for an onIine Iibrary.

uiIl using Adobe
Dreamveaver and Aclive Server
Iages.
e sure lo verify lhe quaIily of your resources. IncIude lhe |csi resources on a sub|ecl, nol
a|| lhe resources on a sub|ecl. Remember, one of lhe goaIs of lhe Iibrarian is lo reduce
informalion overIoad.
Design your Iibrary lo serve muIliIe uroses. Il can be lhe basis for a variely of research
aclivilies (. 196). One Iibrary can serve lhe needs of muIliIe courses. And, a Iibrary can
be a vaIuabIe informalion source in ils ovn righl.
Rely on Internet resources
In a sense, lhe vhoIe Web is Iike a Iibrary . afler an earlhquake. The Web conlains lhe
equivaIenl of lriIIions of ages of informalion, bul finding lhe one you vanl requires a Iol
of rooling around in disorganized iIes. You vanl lo sare your Iearners lhal efforl. So a
lhird vay lo direcl Iearners lo secific Inlernel readings is lo Iink lo lhem direclIy or
lrigger secific Inlernel searches.
Link to Internet resources
One of lhe simIesl vays lo use lhe Web is lo Iink direclIy lo documenls usefuI lo your
Iearners. To see lhe documenl, Iearners |usl cIick on lhe Iink.


This course on
medicaI elhics and
rocedures Iinks lo
reguIalions and
guideIines defining
correcl behavior for
Iearners of lhis
course.

Designed by WiIIiam Horlon
ConsuIling. uiIl by WiIIiam
Horlon ConsuIling and VA
Research and DeveIomenl.
Trigger a search
Irovide secific search lerms Iearners can enler inlo a search engine. Or, rovide a Iink
lhal lriggers a Web search on a search engine and disIay lhe resuIls lo your Iearners. This
removes lhe lroubIe of lying in lhe search lerms and lhe risk of lying lhem vrong.

This examIe shovs a
GoogIe search age
lriggered from a
Readings enlry in
lhe course labIe of
conlenls.

Course buiIl vilh Adobe
Dreamveaver. Searches are
erformed by GoogIe under
Iicense.


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The advanlage of lhis rocedure is cIear. You do nol have lo mainlain lhe Iisl of reading
maleriaIs. The individuaI roviders do lhal, and lhe search engine finds lhem for you. The
Iisl never goes slaIe.
efore you do lhis, hovever, make sure you have ermission from lhe search engine lo
disIay lheir resuIls in your course.
Sources of useful documents
Iven if 99.999% of lhe conlenl on lhe Web vere lrash, lhere vouId sliII be enough
vaIuabIe reading maleriaI lo suIy miIIions of e-Iearning courses. Here are some Iaces
lo Iook for readings for your aclivilies and courses:
schn!ar.gnng!c.cnm Searches schoIarIy Iileralure such as aers, arlicIes, books,
abslracls, and |ournaIs.
print.gnng!c.cnm GoogIe ook Search searches lhe fuII lexl of books lo find ilems
of inleresl. Il can disIay images of fuII ages and Iinks lo Iaces
vhere you can buy or borrov lhe book.
www.gutcnbcrg.nrg Iro|ecl Gulenberg makes avaiIabIe over 17,000 free eIeclronic
books you can dovnIoad.
bnnks24x7.cnm Ior a fee, SkiIISofl rovides access lo lhe comIele onIine
versions of ouIar scienlific, lechnoIogy, and business books.
Best practices for reading activities
Reading aclivilies can be boring and oinlIess or engaging and enIighlening. Ol for lhe
Ialler.
Grow your library gradually
Grov your Iibrary smoolhIy and sureIy. Slarl vilh a Course Resource age. As il grovs lo
severaI scroIIing zones, ul a menu in fronl of il. As il increases beyond a fev hundred
resources, incororale a dalabase lo hoId lhe individuaI records. As you begin offering
more and more kinds of resources and services, consider migraling lo a lrue knovIedge-
managemenl syslem. Slarl simIe and adol lechnoIogy onIy as you need il.
Publish a usage policy
Make cIear vhal Iearners can do vilh lhe documenls you rovide lhem. Secify vhal
righls Iearners have lo read, share, coy, reuse, and modify lhe documenls. Some ilems
may be ones you ovn, vhiIe olhers are ones you have righls lo disIay onIy. SliII olhers
may be resources you do nol ossess bul rovide Iinks lo.


One raclicaI soIulion is lo incIude a bIankel ruIe lhal is quile reslriclive and lo fIag ilems
for vhich Iearners have addilionaI righls.
Simplify obtaining documents
Ior freeIy avaiIabIe eIeclronic documenls, you can |usl Iink lo lhe documenl. ul hov
shouId you handIe documenls nol avaiIabIe onIine, or, documenls lhal charge a fee`
# Link lo lhe ubIisher's saIes sile vhere Iearners can order a coy or urchase access.
# Link lo Amazon (vvv.amazon.com), arnes & NobIe (bn.com), or some olher onIine
bookslore vhere Iearners can order a coy.
# Sel u your ovn bookslore and seII lhe ilem yourseIf. This is easier lhan il sounds.
Amazon or anolher seIIer viII handIe lhe lechnoIogy and biIIing for you.
# uy Iimiled eIeclronic righls and make lhem avaiIabIe lo |usl your Iearners.
# Irovide lhe documenl in severaI formals so Iearners can ick lhe one lhal vorks besl
for lhem.
Feature active examples
One of lhe mosl vaIuabIe forms of onIine resources is a Iibrary of examIes lhal Iearners
can acluaIIy maniuIale and use.

The coIIeclion shovn
here offers HTML
ingredienls lhal can
be used in Web ages
lo creale labIes,
headings, buIIel Iisls,
and so forlh.

uiIl using Adobe
Dreamveaver and }avaScril.
Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
Here's hov il vorks. The Iearner cIicks a Ieller bullon lo scroII lhrough lhe Iisl of
examIes lo lhe ones vilh names beginning vilh lhal Ieller. The Iearner lhen icks an
examIe in lhe Iisl. The examIe aears formalled al lhe uer righl and as HTML al lhe
Iover righl.


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The Iearner can lhen coy lhe HTML lo an aulhoring rogram. Imbedded commenls
guide Iearners in modifying lhe examIe lo suil lheir uroses. ecause such examIes
can be modified and used by Iearners, ve caII lhem aclive examIes.
Use aclive examIes for:
# Irogramming code.
# HTML, XML, and olher lagging Ianguages.
# TemIales used lo creale sIides, documenls, elc.
# Iorms lo rinl oul and fiII in.
Extend reading activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of reading aclivilies by combining lhem vilh olher
lyes of aclivilies and by adaling lhem for sociaI Iearning and for mobiIe Iearning.
Combine readings with other activities
Merge your library and museum
uiId and manage a Iibrary and a museum (. 119) as one oeralion. They are searale
inslilulions in lhe hysicaI vorId onIy because lhey varehouse differenl kinds of ob|ecls:
ainlings and scuIlure in arl museums, books in Iibraries. OnIine, aII ob|ecls are |usl bils.
The missions of Iibraries and museums are comIemenlary. Museums conlain unique
originaI lvo- and lhree-dimensionaI ob|ecls and rovide liny Iaques of commenlary on
lhem. Libraries rovide exlensive commenlary on everylhing imaginabIe bul onIy Iov-
fideIily reroduclions of ob|ecls of inleresl. Sounds Iike an ideaI merger.
You may sliII vanl lo mainlain searale Iearner inlerfaces for lhe Iibrary and museumal
Ieasl unliI alrons seem ready lo accel a merger. ehind lhe inlerface, lhe lvo
inslilulions can share a common Web server, dalabase, and access mechanisms.
Teach learners to use your library
# Creale a guided lour (. 113) of lhe Iibrary lo shov Iearners around. Iocus on ilems
reIaled lo your course.
# Conducl scavenger hunls (. 198) lo famiIiarize Iearners vilh lhe organizalion and
search mechanisms of lhe Iibrary.
# Assign guided research aclivilies (. 200) lhal gel Iearners in lhe habil of using Iibrary
resources.
Integrate readings into other activities
# SuIemenl resenlalions (. 69) vilh readings lhal rovide more delh and delaiI.


# Allach readings lo games (. 157) lo rovide lhe rinciIes needed lo vin lhe game
and lo heI Iearners vho find lhe high degree of inleraclivily required in comuler
games a bil inlimidaling.
# Use Iibrary-based maleriaIs lhroughoul e-Iearning. Gel in lhe habil of beginning each
Iesson vilh Iinks lo aIlernalive vays of Iearning lhe sub|ecl and ending il vilh Iinks lo
vays of Iearning more on lhe sub|ecl.
Use other activities to motivate reading
Activity Hnw it mntivatcs rcading
Game Tesls recaII of facls, rinciIes, and concels from lhe reading.
Soflvare
simuIalion
Require Iearners lo Iook u delaiIs in lhe manuaI or onIine heI.
Scavenger
hunl
Searching lhe documenl reveaIs conlenl of inleresl lo Iearners.

Use other activities to supplement readings
# Use a resenlalion lo rovide an overviev and rerequisiles needed lo read
roducliveIy.
# Use guided research lo enabIe Iearners lo go deeer inlo lhe sub|ecl of lhe readings.
# Have Iearners conducl research lo idenlify addilionaI reading maleriaIs.
Design reading activities for social learning
# Crcatc and sharc rcadings lo educale olher Iearners. IndividuaI Iearners can, for
examIe, vrile a shorl essay or seclion of a Iarger vork, documenl a sle or hase in a
rocedure, or rofiIe one characler in a noveI or Iay.
# Cnmmcnt nn and discuss rcadings. Invile Iearners lo rale, reviev, summarize, reslale,
generaIize, suggesl aIlernalives, and roose aIicalions of ideas of lhe readings.
# Link rcadings tn rc!atcd rcsnurccs lhal go deeer, offer conlrary vievs, beller exress
lhe same ideas, or ul lhe readings in conlexl.
# Edit and annntatc thc dncumcnt lo highIighl key oinls, embed commenls, udale
facls and figures, fIag errors, and seII oul |argon.
# Engagc in micrn-!carning in vhich lhe teacher, an exerl, or Iearners in rolalion osl a
daiIy nuggel of Iearning in lhe fieId of inquiry, for inslance a surrising facl or figure,
erson of inleresl in lhe fieId, admirabIe iece of vork, or looI. The osling incIudes a
Iink lo a age, video, or odcasl lhal eIaborales on lhe sub|ecl of lhe iniliaI osl.
Learners are inviled lo commenl on lhe osl.


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Design reading activities for mobile learning
# IIay an audio version of lhe readings, eilher by accessing an audiobook version or
by using lexl-lo-seech synlhesis lo generale a soken version.
# Record readings for olhers. Use lhe device's screen as a leIeromler.
# Access readings lo confirm and Iearn aboul reaI-vorId discoveries.
STORIES BY A TEACHER
Can you remember a cIassroom course during vhich lhe
leacher used slories lo heI make lhe oinl` Can you
remember such courses in vhich lhe mosl memorabIe arls
vere lhe slories`
Nov, can you lhink of an onIine course lhal incIudes such
slories` One of lhe ironies is lhal slories are oflen vhal
Iearners remember besl bul vhal designers Ieave oul vhen
converling cIassroom courses lo e-Iearning.

About sharing stories
SloryleIIing aclivilies reIale individuaI human exeriences. They make informalion reaI
and ersonaI.
Types of storytelling activities
There are lvo lyes of sloryleIIing aclivilies. One invoIves slories loId by lhe leacher and
lhe olher invoIves slories loId by lhe Iearner. olh lyes of slories can be loId Iive or
Iayed back from a recording. We oflen combine slories by lhe leacher vilh an invilalion
for Iearners lo share simiIar slories. This combined aclivily is caIIed sicrq-snaring.
When lhe leacher or designer leIIs a slory, il is an Absorb aclivily. When lhe Iearner leIIs a
slory, il is a Connecl aclivily. Slories loId by lhe leacher are covered here, slories by
Iearners are in Chaler 4.


Ior slories by lhe leacher, lhe leacher vho leIIs lhe slory can be any exerl, aulhorily,
guru, or undil vilh a vaIuabIe slory lo share. The sloryleIIer does nol have lo be lhe
designaled leacher, rofessor, or inslruclor. The sloryleIIer can even be anolher Iearner.
The imorlanl lhing is nol vho leIIs lhe slory bul lhal lhe Iearners Iislen and lhe slory
leaches.
How story-sharing works
Afler a brief inlroduclion, lhe Iearner Iislens lo a slory loId by lhe leacher or anolher
aulhorily. Then lhe Iearner may be given lhe oorlunily lo leII a comarabIe slory. The
vhoIe aclivily lhen ends vilh a brief reca of lhe oinls made in lhe slory.

When to tell stories to learners
Use slories by a leacher lo direclIy reIale vhal you are leaching lo lhe exeriences of
Iearners. TeII slories lo:
# Demonslrale lhe aIicabiIily or imorlance of vhal is being laughl.
# Give concrele inslances of lhe sub|ecl maller.
# Humanize a sub|ecl by shoving ils effecls on eoIe lhe Iearner cares aboul.
# Incourage and molivale Iearners lo overcome difficuIlies.


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Tell stories that apply to learners
TeII slories lo Iearners in a vay lhal encourages lhem lo lhink hov lhe slories aIy lo
lheir Iives.
Example of a story by a teacher

The examIe shovn here
comes from a course on
Ieadershi. We see a iclure of
Denise vho leIIs a slory aboul
Ieading by examIe.

converled for Web deIivery using
ArlicuIale Iresenler. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
Here is vhal she says:
About 20 years ago I was living in Boston and I took the subway to work every day.
One Monday, when I went into Park Street station, it was littered with newspaper
newspapers everywhere. I stepped over, around, and through the paper, but I certainly
didn't look at it.
Standing not too far from me, waiting for his train, was a middle-aged man. He was
looking around at the mess and then looked down at his feet. He bent down, picked up
some of the newspaper and took it to the trash. He did this a few times until his train
arrived.
After his train was gone and the station had quieted down a bit, a young woman on the
platform bent down and picked up some newspaper at her feet and took it to the trash.
Then a young man did the same thing. Finally, we were all in the act. By the time my train
arrived, the station looked pretty goodand the trashcans were full.
You know, I wonder if that man had any idea I would be telling this story 20 years later, or
that he had had such an effect on my life? But I think it illustrates something about
leadership that we tend to forget. That is, leadership is not just what prime ministers and
CEOs do, but leadership is how we lead our lives every day and how we affect other
people.
Ivery lime I Iay lhis slory in a cIassroom, sludenls cease fidgeling and vhisering and
give il lheir ral allenlion. Such is lhe over of slories.


Types of stories
}usl aboul any kind of human slory can be used effecliveIy in e-Iearningrovided il is
reIevanl lo lhe sub|ecl and aroriale for lhe Iearners. Here are some lhal have roven
lhemseIves over lhe asl fev miIIennia:
Hero stories
Hero slories, somelimes caIIed var slories, leII hov an ordinary erson vilh vhom lhe
Iearner can idenlify overcame obslacIes Iike lhose facing lhe Iearner. The hero lriumhed
by aIying knovIedge and behaving correclIy. UsuaIIy lhe hero is lhe sloryleIIer. The
slory loId by Denise is a hero slory.
The hero slory is as oId as sloryleIIing. Irom rehisloric camfires lo lhe Ialesl scienlific
conferences, hero slories have been loId. Such hero slories foIIov a famiIiar allern: Iirsl
ve meel lhe hero and Iearn aboul lhe selling. Then lhe hero encounlers a chaIIenge and is
slymied by ils difficuIly. The hero lhen finds or deveIos slrenglh lhal enabIes lhe hero lo
overcome lhe difficuIly. The hero rofils from lhe exerience.
The hero slory is good for giving Iearners courage lo lake on difficuIl lasks and for
suggesling hov lhe sub|ecl lhey are sludying viII heI lhem overcome difficuIlies. Such
slories are ouIar in business, oIilics, reIigion, varfare, and olher comIex human
endeavors for vhich Iearners need encouragemenl lo aIy vhal lhey are Iearning.
The hero slories are aIso good for molivaling Iearning of difficuIl maleriaI. Use lhem lo
iIIuslrale hov aIying lhe sub|ecl of Iearning saved lhe day.
Love stories
Love slories concern lhe vooing and vinning and lhe hay ever afler of lvo eoIe.
Love slories mighl seem an odd lhing lo incIude in e-Iearning. Hovever, Iove slories are
nol |usl lhe rovince of Shakeseare and }ane Auslin. They are nol Iimiled lo HoIIyvood
romanlic comedies. Love slories can leII hov a saIes reresenlalive von lhe affeclions and
urchase orders of a reIuclanl cuslomer. Il can leII hov a scienlific lheory von, Iosl, and
lhen regained favor among lhe scienlific communily.
The slruclure of lhe Iove slory is amazingIy consislenl: A meels . A ursues , bul
resisls. A vins . A and break u because of a siIIy mislake by A or lhe lreachery of a
rivaI. A and gel back logelher and Iive haiIy ever afler.
Use Iove slories lo iIIuslrale lhe imorlance and difficuIly of vinning IoyaIly, lrusl,
resecl, and commilmenl. Use lhem lo oinl oul lhe fragiIily of human reIalionshis.


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Disaster stories
Disasler slories vividIy convey lhe negalive consequences of faiIure lo aIy knovIedge
or lo behave correclIy.
Aboul five limes a year, TV vievers in lhe Uniled Slales are lrealed lo a disasler
miniseries. AIlhough lhe disaslers change from earlhquakes lo lidaI vaves lo meleors lo
hurricanes, lhe Iol is exaclIy lhe same: The hero redicls disasler. Arroganl sueriors
ignore lhe hero. Disasler occurs. The hero saves masses of eoIe. Arroganl sueriors
erish. The hero lhen saves his or her famiIy.
AIlhough lhis allern is loo meIodramalic for our uroses, il does suggesl some
eIemenls lo incIude, such as ignored varnings or bad behavior Ieading lo a disasler. Ior
e-Iearning, ve make cIear lhal aIicalion of lhe knovIedge and skiIIs ve are leaching
couId have revenled lhe disasler.
A Pi|cis Gui!c ic Grcun! |cing, a course for rofessionaI iIols, begins vilh a slory aboul
hov a Iane crashed uon lakeoff, kiIIing five on boardaII because lhe crev ignored lhe
olenliaI adverse effecls of ground icing (aircraflicing.grc.nasa.gov/courses.hlmI). The
GAI|NA S|cpc Sia|i|iiq Ana|qsis course begins vilh slories and slalislics of lhe damage
caused by sIoe faiIures.
Tragedies
Like lhe disasler slory, lhe lragedy is a recaulionary laIe. Il focuses on lhe aclions of an
individuaI, ralher lhan on ubIic consequences.
The allern of lhe lragedy is veII eslabIished. Irom Oedius lo Lear lo lhe hubris of WaII
Slreel egos, ve hear lhe same slory. The allern is lhis: The hero does good vorks, bul a
fIav Ieads lo disasler. The hero regrels lhe fIav. Somelimes lhe hero recovers and
somelimes nol. Ior e-Iearning, lhe fIav lhal affIicls lhe hero is usuaIIy ignorance of lhe
knovIedge ve viII convey or lhe Iack of lhe skiII ve viII leach.
Tragedies are common in saIes lraining. Their gisl is I didn'l Iearn an essenliaI
knovIedge or skiII and Iosl a big saIe as a resuIl. Such slories are very effeclive because
lhe ersonaI confession of an aulhorily figure lhe Iearner resecls reduces resislance from
lhe Iearner's ego. If il couId haen lo you, I guess il couId haen lo me.
Use lragedies in much lhe same vay you vouId use a disasler slory, bul use lhem for
sub|ecls lhal are aIied by lhe individuaI Iearner.
Discovery stories
The discovery slory reIales hov lhe sloryleIIer gained vaIuabIe insighls. Il is simiIar lo lhe
hero slory excel lhal lhe oinl is in lhe sloryleIIer's exeriences and vhal lhey laughl.
Such slories emhasize lhe scienlific breaklhroughs, ersonaI insighls, nev erseclives,
or aIlered alliludes lhal resuIled from unexecled exeriences.


The allern is lhis: The hero slarls oul lo accomIish a lask. The hero encounlers
difficuIlies and is slymied. The hero becomes fruslraled or encouraged. The hero makes a
discovery more imorlanl lhan lhe originaI lask.
Use discovery slories lo leach lhe imorlance of Iearning by discovery and lhe need lo be
oen lo nev exeriences. They are a good vay lo inlroduce a rinciIe or concel lhal lhe
Iearner mighl nol immedialeIy accel. The discovery slory uls lhe idea inlo conlexl and
immedialeIy demonslrales ils vaIue. Il makes lhe idea reaI and arouses curiosily aboul il.
And many, many more
As you read noveIs and shorl slories, as you valch movies and TV, lake nole of lhe slories
you exerience. Nole lheir Iols and consider vhelher you can use lhem as a basis for a
slory in your e-Iearning.
Oh, by lhe vay, lhese same lyes of slories vork for slories loId by Iearners.
Best practices for stories by a teacher
The effecliveness of a slory-sharing aclivily deends on lhe slory and hov il is loId. Here
are some guideIines lo imrove slories loId by leachers and lhose by Iearners loo.
Tell effective stories
Whal makes a good slory for e-Iearning` There is no magic formuIa, bul effeclive slories
do seem lo share some characlerislics.
# Thc stnry is crcdib!c. Il may be a comosile of severaI exeriences or even a arabIe,
bul il sounds and feeIs lrue lo Iearners.
# Thc stnry is impnrtant. Il makes a vaIuabIe oinl and is al lo lhe sub|ecl al hand. Il
direclIy heIs accomIish lhe Iearning ob|eclive.
# Thc stnry is shnrt and Incuscd. Iverylhing in lhe slory conlribules lo ils ob|eclive. In
e-Iearning, slories shouId be aboul one-lhird or one-haIf lhe Ienglh of a slory loId in lhe
cIassroom.
# Thc stnry is dramatic. The resuIl is nol cIear unliI lhe end. And Iearners vanl lo knov
hov lhe slory ends.
# Wc carc abnut thc charactcrs. We have a hero ve can idenlify vilh, a viclim ve can
symalhize vilh, a viIIain ve can desise, and olhers vho make us feeI |oy, fear, or
anger. The vorsl reaclion lo a slory is Who cares`
# Thc stnrytc!!cr carcs. The slory is loId vilh emolion. The sloryleIIer's feeIings for
evenls and characlers are nol hidden. The voice is veII moduIaled and rhylhmicaI.
# Thc mnra! is c!car. The Iearner does nol have lo ask, Whal vas lhe oinl` The oinl
of lhe slory is abundanlIy cIear. Or lhe sloryleIIer slales il exIicilIy. Somelimes bolh.
You can record muIliIe moraIs and lhen reuse lhe same slory for differenl uroses.


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Polish the telling
TeII lhe slory veII. Ierfeclion is nol lhe goaI, bul credibiIily and cIarily are.
# Cnach stnrytc!!crs lo ul enlhusiasm and emolion inlo lheir voices. Rehearse lhe
leIIing. Remember, lhe goaI is lo sound credibIe, nol rofessionaI.
# Aim Inr sinccrity. A rofessionaI narralor can sound loo erfecl. eller a fev uns and
ans in a credibIe voice lhan a erfeclIy oIished enuncialion.
# Rcquirc gnnd vnicc qua!ity. Record and edil lhe voice carefuIIy. If emolion is an
imorlanl comonenl of lhe slory, you viII require higher audio quaIily lhan if you
vere |usl reIaling facls.
# Dn nnt sctt!c Inr thc Iirst takc. To gel a good recording from a hesilanl sloryleIIer,
have lhe sloryleIIer reealedIy leII lhe slory. Use vhalever ruse vorks, such as Sorry,
I forgol lo ush lhe Record bullon. Wilh each leIIing lhe slory gels shorler and more
lo lhe oinl. UsuaIIy lhe lhird version is lhe besl one.
Develop the story
Go beyond a bare-bones leIIing of a simIe slory.
# 5hnw thc Iacc nI thc stnrytc!!cr. Video is nol necessary, bul a good quaIily holo
viII heI lhe Iislener imagine lhe erson. You mighl even shov a series of lhree
reealing holograhs, each dissoIving inlo lhe nexl. Many vievers viII
remember il as video.
# I!!ustratc thc stnry. Add nevsaer cIiings and olher maleriaIs lo fIesh oul lhe
slory. The slory can lhus become arl of a Iarger case sludy.
# 5prcad a sing!c cnmp!cx stnry thrnughnut a !cssnn. TeII lhe slory in eisodes,
arousing curiosily and buiIding susense.
Extend stories by a teacher
We can increase lhe reach and over of slories by combining lhem vilh olher lyes of
aclivilies and by adaling lhem for sociaI Iearning and for mobiIe Iearning.
Combine stories by a teacher with other activities
SloryleIIing by ilseIf is seIdom sufficienl lo accomIish an ambilious Iearning ob|eclive.
Consider some combinalions lhal aIIy lhe slory vilh olher aclivilies.
# IoIIov lhe exerience of Iislening lo a slory vilh an invilalion lo leII a comarabIe
slory (. 184).
# InlerIeave slories vilh resenlalions (. 69) and readings (. 93) on an abslracl sub|ecl.
The slories remind Iearners of lhe raclicaI aIicalion and vaIue of lhe abslracl
informalion.


# Irecede any difficuIl aclivily vilh a slory lhal iIIuslrales lhe vaIue of overcoming
obslacIes and lhe vaIue of vhal viII be Iearned.
# Use a slory lo Iaunch a research aclivily (. 196), vherein lhe Iearner galhers
background informalion aboul lhe leIIer of lhe slory or lhe reIaled evenl.
# Give Iearners oorlunilies lo aIy lhe moraI of lhe slory in a game or simuIalion.
# Incororale slories (. 105) inlo case sludies (. 152) and roIe-Iaying aclivilies (. 476).
The sloryleIIer can be a key figure in lhe case under sludy or an imaginary characler in
lhe roIe-Iaying scenario. Slory-leIIing aclivilies can fIesh oul a roIe-Iaying aclivily
vhen you do nol have enough Iearners lo fiII aII lhe roIes.
Design stories-by-a-teacher activities for social learning
# Calure and share slories by exerls and aulhorilies vilhin lheir rofessionaI
nelvorks.
# Commenl on slories as lhey are being loId via a back channeI (. 469).
# Discuss lhe slory: Whal did lhe main characler do righl or vrong` Whal vas lhe
moraI` Hov can ve aIy lhe moraI`
# Conlribule reIaled slories: Reminds me of lhe lime ..
Design stories-by-a-teacher activities for mobile learning
# Lislen lo slories loId by exerls in lhe fieId. The exerl can leII lhe slory in a conlexl
reIevanl lo lhe slory, erhas even lhe one vhere lhe slory occurred.
# Calure and share slories by exerls in lhe fieId.
FIELD TRIPS
OnIine fieId lris lake Iearners on educalionaI excursions lo Iaces
vhere lhey can observe concrele examIes of vhal lhey are
Iearning. In convenlionaI educalion, a geoIogy sludenl mighl lake
a hike lhrough a canyon lo examine various rock Iayers, or an arl
sludenl mighl visil a museum lo see lhe ainlings. In e-Iearning,
lhe same sludenls mighl lour an onIine reresenlalion of lhe
canyon or search exhibils in a virluaI museum.


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About field trips
IieId lris lake us lo educalionaI examIes and inlriguing disIays. The essenliaI asecl of
lhe fieId lri is nol vaIking from examIe lo examIe, bul in examining lhe examIes and
seeing reIalionshis among lhem. IieId lris Iel us visil museums, arks, ballIefieIds,
hisloric neighborhoods, zoos and greenhouses, archaeoIogicaI digs, manufacluring Ianls,
and ancienl ruins.
When to use field trips
Gel Iearners oul of lhe virluaI cIassroom. Send lhem on a virluaI fieId lri. Use lhem
vhenever you vouId recommend a reaI fieId lri, bul scheduIe and budgel say no. Use
fieId lris lo:
# Shov hov concels laughl in lhe course are aIied (or misaIied) in lhe reaI vorId.
# Irovide access lo many concrele examIes.
# ReveaI examIes in conlexl.
# Orienl Iearners in a nev environmenl or syslem.
# Incourage discovery of lrends and allerns.
Types of field trips
There are lvo main lyes of onIine fieId lris:
# Guidcd tnurs, vhich are erused in a redelermined order. Guided lours lake us lo
hysicaIIy searaled examIes. Guided lours can be seIf-direcled or inslruclor-Ied and
can be conducled Iive or Iayed back from a recording.
# Muscums (. 119), in vhich lhe Iearner decides vhere lo go nexl. Museums coIIecl
examIes in one Iace. In museums, Iearners can comare examIes and discover
reIalionshis.
Guided tours
The guided lour orienls lhe Iearner in a virluaI or reaI environmenl. The guided lour can
be used lo Iead Iearners lhrough an onIine reresenlalion of a reaI environmenl, such as
leaching lhe Iayoul of equimenl in lhe bay of an ambuIance, lhe lvisls and lurns of a
river channeI, or lhe sequence of rock slrala in a mounlain range.
Anolher ouIar guided lour inlroduces an inleraclive comuler syslem, such as a
comuler aIicalion, a Web sile, or an e-Iearning course. Il does nol leach hov lo oerale
lhe soflvare, bul does give an overviev of ils slruclure and a reviev of ils caabiIilies.


Example of a guided tour
The foIIoving guided lour inlroduces a reosilory of Iearning resources. The Iearner can
embark on lhe lour from any age by cIicking a Tnur bullon (al lhe bollom of lhe main
vindov). CIicking lhe Tnur bullon disIays lhe firsl slo on lhe lour and oens a
searale lour vindov lhal guides lhe Iearner lhrough lhe lour. The Iearner cIicks on lhe
Ncxt bullon lo advance lo lhe nexl slo. Here are lhe second, lhird, and forlh slos:


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uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and Aclive Server Iages. Grahics
crealed vilh Adobe Iholosho.

Nolice lhal lhe lour describes lhe slo and suggesls exIoring ilIike going ashore from a
cruise shi. The Iearner can aIvays re|oin lhe lour by cIicking on lhe Rcp!ay bullon, vhich
resels lhe underIying vindov lo lhe currenl slo in lhe lour. Olher bullons aIso give lhe
Iearner choices. Prcvinus Iels lhe Iearner relurn lo lhe revious slo, and First reslarls lhe
vhoIe lour from lhe beginning.
Al lhe end of lhe lour, Iearners are relurned lo lhe oinl vhere lhe lour slarled and are
given a brief summary of vhal lhey sav.
How guided tours work
TyicaIIy, lhe Iearner slarls lhe lour by cIicking on a bullon or Iink in a Web sile,
comuler rogram, or e-Iearning course. This aclion os u lhe lour vindov.
The Iearner begins lhe lour in earnesl afler a brief inlroduclion, vhich slales lhe urose
and sub|ecl of lhe lour.
Al each slo on lhe lour, erlinenl fealures of an exhibil, ob|ecl, or Iocalion are oinled
oul. In some lours, advancing lo lhe nexl slo aulomalicaIIy disIays lhe ilem discussed
al lhal slo of lhe lour. In olhers, lhe Iearner receives inslruclions on hov lo navigale lo
find lhe nexl slo.


Al lhe end of lhe lour, lhe Iearner sees a summary of lhe highIighls of lhe lour.
When to use a guided tour
Use guided lours lo orienl Iearners in an environmenl, buiIding, Web sile, comuler
rogram, or e-Iearning course. Irovide a quick guided lour for lhose vho:
# Nccd tn scc thc big picturc bcInrc gctting !nst in thc dctai!s. Use lhe guided lour lo
vaIk Iearners lhrough a comIex rocedure before asking lhem lo erform il on lheir
ovn.
# Just want an nvcrvicw. Ior examIe, saIes reresenlalives need lo knov enough lo
demonslrale a roducl and ils advanlages, bul do nol have lime lo Iearn lo oerale il.
# Wi!! bc invn!vcd with a prnduct but wi!! nnt bc npcrating it. These mighl incIude
managers of lhe oeralors, roseclive buyers of a roducl, and roducl revievers loo
Iazy lo acluaIIy use lhe roducl.
Use guided lours lo heI eoIe exIore a Iace lhey cannol visil in erson. The Iace
visiled can be a reaI IocaIe or an imaginary one. Use guided lours vhen lhe IocaIe is:
# Tnn Iar away. To lraveI lo lhe reaI IocaIe vouId be exensive and lime consuming.
# Tnn sprcad nut. A fieId lri can incIude slos in MobiIe, Moscov, MonlreaI, Mumbai,
Monle CarIo, and MelrooIis. The onIy airfare is a mouse cIick.
# Tnn dangcrnus. NucIear radialion, fragmenlalion grenades, and cosmic rays cannol
enelrale lhe comuler screen.
# Imaginary. Hov aboul laking Iearners lo a Iace vhere imossibIe lheories are reaI
and aIlernale reaIilies redominale`


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Variations of guided tours
Adal guided lours lo your slyIe of e-Iearning and your lechnoIogy.
Personal travel diaries
A simIer form of a guided lour resembIes a ersonaI lraveI diary iIIuslraled vilh
snashols. Such lours can resenl an individuaI's exerience of a sub|ecl in a direcl and
inleresling vay.

This examIe inlroduces
Iearners lo lhe geoIogy of lhe
Rocky Mounlain region. Il
recounls an aulomobiIe lri
norlhvard aIong lhe Ieak-lo-
Ieak highvay in CoIorado.
Iach slo consisls of an
annolaled holograh of a
visla or road cul.

If a lour invoIves movemenl lhrough hysicaI
Iocalions, you may vanl lo design lhe guided lour so
Iearners can lake il aIong. Thal vay, Iearners can
recreale lhe lour and exerience il for lhemseIves.
This version of lhe Ieak-lo-Ieak lour vas designed lo
Iay on a mobiIe device. And Iearners couId choose lo
Iislen lo a recording of lhe disIayed lexl.

olh examIes buiIl vilh Adobe Dreamveaver.
Viev examIes al horlon.com/eId/.


Web tours in an online meeting
In onIine meelings, you can conducl guided lours of Web siles and olher eIeclronic media
using Web lours or aIicalion sharing (. 438). On such lours, Iearners valch lhe
Iocalions visiled by lhe leacher. In olhers, lhe leacher lakes Iearners lo a Iocalion vhere
lhey can exIore on lheir ovn.
Tours of imaginary worlds
Lel Iearners exIore virluaI IocaIes. Irovide lours of imaginary vorIds and of hysicaI
ob|ecls lhey couId nol lour in reaIily. Here are some examIes of imaginary lours.
# Thc human bndy. Svim lhrough arleries. Use lhe diahragm for a lramoIine. TickIe
lhe funny bone.
# An imaginary tnwn vilh exaclIy one examIe of every archilecluraI slyIe, kind of Iike
GreenfieId ViIIage (vvv.hfmgv.org/viIIage), bul more so.
# A cavc lhrough aII lhe ma|or kinds of rocks found on earlh.
# Thc atnm. Scuba dive lhorough eIeclron cIouds and louch dovn on lhe nucIeus.
Ior a menu, creale a schemalic ma or scene conlaining aII lhe fealures you need lo
disIay.
Best practices for guided tours
A good lour Ieaves Iearners exciled, salisfied, and confidenl lo navigale on lheir ovn.
Lct !carncrs cxp!nrc nb|ccts nI intcrcst. Lel Iearners cIick on an ob|ecl lo enIarge il or lo
disIay commenlary aboul il. Lel Iearners seIecl among various vievoinls al a slo.
CIearIy fIag aclivilies, lhal is, Iaces vhere lhe lourisl can do more lhan |usl Iook and
read.
Narratc stnps wc!!. TeII Iearners vhal lhey shouId nolice on lhe lour. Olhervise, lhey
may fIaiI or become dislracled by aII lhe relly iclures. Ior each slo, exIain vhal lhe
scene shovs. Whal are lhe names of lhe ob|ecls shovn` Irom vhal direclion is lhe scene
vieved` Whal in arlicuIar is significanl aboul lhe ob|ecls shovn in lhis slo` If lechnicaI
condilions ermil, consider roviding lhe narralion by an aulhorilalive voice as veII as in
lexl.
5hnw spatia! rc!atinnships. If lhe saliaI reIalionshis among ob|ecls on lhe lour are
imorlanl, heI Iearners see lhe reIalionshis. OverIa lhe slos so lhal lhe nexl slo is
visibIe al lhe edge of lhe currenl slo. Shov bolh slos on a you-are-here ma. And be
sure lo incIude an overviev ma shoving aII lhe slos in lhe guided lour.
Encnuragc !carncrs tn cxp!nrc nn thcir nwn. Have Iearners exIore lhe sighls al each
slo. Suggesl lhings lo cIick on. Ma oul a side lri or lvo. Lel Iearners ick or design
lheir ovn lours. Irovide an overviev ma and gaIIery from vhich Iearners can ick
deslinalions in any order lhey choose.


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Makc sidc cxcursinns saIc. If lhere is any danger lhal Iearners viII vander loo far afieId,
incIude a Rc|nin tnur bullon lo rescue lhem. Or, slarl digressions avay from lhe lour in a
searale vindov so lhal lhe main lour vindov remains on lhe screen.
Anchnr cach stnp with a visua!. Ior each slo, disIay a comeIIing visuaI image. Il
shouId be allraclive, bul il is more imorlanl lhal il cIearIy communicale lhe main idea of
lhe slo.
Kccp thc tnur Incuscd. A lour is nol a luloriaI, a HeI faciIily, or an inslruclion manuaI. A
lour rovides a broad overviev of hov lhe ieces fil logelher.
Virtual museums
A museum is an organized coIIeclion of exhibils galhered in one Iace. Ixhibils consisl of
informalive ob|ecls, such as ainlings by van Gogh or lhe skeIelon of a T-Rex, annolaled
vilh reIevanl facls. A virluaI museum is much lhe same, excel lhal lhe Iace vhere
ob|ecls are galhered is nol a buiIding made of granile and marbIe bul an onIine sace
vieved lhrough a brovser.
A virluaI museum is much Iike a guided lour excel lhal lhe Iearner decides hov lo
navigale lhe museum. VirluaI museums are aIso caIIed Wc|-|asc! nuscuns, c-nuscuns,
tiriua| ga||crics, cn|inc nuscuns, and cn|inc ga||crics. VirluaI museums have been used lo
shovcase ob|ecls as diverse as human organs, ainlings by a second-grade cIass, and
airsickness bags.
Example of a museum

Here you see a smaII museum of
mineraIs. Il conlains iclures of
mineraIs and informalion aboul
lhem. A Iearner can ick a mineraI
by aearance or by name lo |um
lo lhe exhibil of lhal mineraI.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and Aclive
Server Iages.


The individuaI exhibil shovs a
singIe mineraI. Il aIso rovides
lechnicaI delaiIs aboul lhe
mineraI, aIong vilh a brief
descrilion of il.
The Ncxt and Prcvinus bullons lake lhe visilor forvard and backvard lhrough aII lhe
mineraIs in lhe museum. The Fast Fnrward bullon slarls advancing lhrough lhe exhibils
al a rale of aboul six seconds er exhibil. This is caIIed auicscanning (See onIine Chaler 15
for more aboul navigalion.). The 5tnp bullon slos on lhe currenl exhibil. Iaging lhrough
lhe exhibils is usefuI if lhe visilor can recognize a mineraI, bul does nol knov vhal il is
caIIed.

CIicking on lhe 5carch bullon Iels
lhe visilor search for mineraIs
lhal meel secified characlerislics.


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How virtual museums work
VirluaI museums Iel Iearners creale lheir ovn lours and disIays. The Iearner secifies
vhal kinds of exhibils are desired, and lhe museum makes lhem avaiIabIe.

Afler examining lhe galhered examIes, lhe Iearner may quil or conlinue vilh anolher
search.
When to create a virtual museum
Museums organize Iarge numbers of searale ob|ecls inlo meaningfuI coIIeclions.
Museums are usefuI lo:
# Prnvidc access lo many concrele inslances of ob|ecls from a fieId being sludied.
# Enab!c Iearners lo discover allerns and lrends among searale ob|ecls and inslances.
# Makc avai!ab!c lhe arlifacls of a fieId of endeavoror of an organizalion engaged in
lhal endeavor.
On universily camuses, Iearned rofessors Ieclure aboul sub|ecls lhal lheir Iisleners
cannol visuaIize. Abslraclions remain cIouds, genlIy bIoving avay. A museum of
concrele inslances of vhal lhe rofessor is laIking aboul vouId bring lhe abslraclions
back lo earlh.
Ivery day busy comanies vilh crovded offices and cramed disk drives archive lheir
hislory vilh lhe DeIele key. Years Ialer, lheir Ieaders vonder vhy emIoyees have no
sense of lhe lradilion or herilage of lhe greal comany lhey vork for. A museum is a greal
vay lo reserve and organize lhe arlifacls of an organizalion's formalive years and eic
slruggIes. I am nol suggesling you exhibil lhe hairdos vorn in 1983 by lhe currenl CIO or
video cIis of embarrassing incidenls al Iasl year's Chrislmas arly. No, lhe besl use of lhe
virluaI museum viII be lo disIay hov lhe organizalion gol vhere il is loday and vhy
cerlain lradilions exisl.


Best practices for virtual museums
Think aboul your Iasl visil lo an arl museum. CIose your eyes and imagine yourseIf
vaIking lhrough one of lhe gaIIeries. Whal do you see` Iine arl, for sure, bul vhal aboul
lhe eoIe you see` Do you see a shushing leacher herding a gaggIe of giggIing lhird-
graders` Do arl sludenls from lhe IocaI universily IanguidIy skelch lhe exhibils belveen
lris lo lhe esresso bar` Do arenls vilh chiIdren in lov sidesle around lhe erimeler
of lhe room, dulifuIIy reading lhe Iaques of every ainling` Museums are Iaces vhere
many differenl kinds of eoIe can Iearn many differenl lhings in many differenl vays.
Here are a fev suggeslions lo enabIe |usl as many kinds of Iearning in your virluaI
museums.
Put !carncrs in cnntrn!. Lel Iearners choose lhe exhibils lhey vanl lo see. Guide lhem
lhrough lhe coIIeclion, bul Iel lhem decide vhich exhibils lo viev and vhich ob|ecls lo
sludy in delaiI.
Givc privatc tnurs. A virluaI museum has no fixed fIoor Ian, no ermanenl arrangemenl
of exhibils, no Iimilalions on avaiIabIe sace. The use of search engines and dalabases
makes il ossibIe for Iearners lo have an exerience cuslom-laiIored lo lheir individuaI
needs. Here are some vays lo cuslom-laiIor lhe disIay.
# DisIay |usl lhe subsel of inleresl lo lhe individuaI Iearner.
# Arrange lhe exhibils lo reveaI lrends and allerns of inleresl lo lhe Iearner.
# Generale cuslom mas and menus lhal reveaI vhal lhe Iearner is inleresled in
Iearning.
Lct !carncrs makc thcir nwn tnurs. Lel Iearners search lhe museum for exaclIy vhal lhey
vanl lo see righl nov. Do nol force lhem lo Iod lhrough lhe vhoIe Louvre if aII lhey
vanl lo see is lhe Mona Lisa. Here are some vays lo make il easier for visilors lo find lhe
exhibils lhey vanl lo see:
# Cata!ng. Index lhe vhoIe museum. Irovide a convenlionaI aIhabelicaI index Iisling
each ob|ecl in lhe museum by ils name and by vhal il iIIuslrales.
# Mcnus. Irovide severaI menus lhal Iel Iearners search by vhalever characlerislics are
imorlanl lo lhem. Ior examIe, a cororale hislory museum mighl conlain menus
organized by lime eriod, by currenl roducl Iine, by underIying lechnoIogy or
markel, and by lhe erson in charge.
# Visua! ga!!cry. Lel Iearners ick ob|ecls by scanning lhumbnaiI images of aII ob|ecls on
exhibil. AIso Iel lhem graze lhe disIay by having il aulomalicaIIy advance from ilem
lo ilem al a rale of aboul one er second unliI lhe Iearner says, Slo, lhal's lhe one I
vanl.
# Linkcd kcywnrds. Assign keyvords lo each exhibiled ilem lo describe il. Lel Iearners
search for ilems indexed vilh a arlicuIar keyvord. AIso disIay lhe keyvords on


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each exhibil. Make lhem Iinks so lhal cIicking on one disIays a Iisl of olher ilems
indexed vilh lhal same keyvord.
# 5carch by charactcristics. IncIude a search engine lhal Iels Iearners find exhibils by
secifying delaiIed characlerislics of lhe ilem soughl.
If many alhs lhrough lhe museum are ossibIe, suggesl a simIe one. Or, rovide a lour
(. 113) conducled by a docenl.
Integrate museums into e-learning
Wandering a virluaI museum on your ovn may be a Ieasanl vay lo vhiIe avay an
aflernoon, bul il is nol aulomalicaIIy a Iearning exerience. Here are some lis lo increase
lhe Iearning lhal lakes Iace in lhe gaIIeries of your museum and lo make lhe museum a
arl of your overaII e-Iearning efforls.
# Crcatc a !carncr's tnur nI thc muscum, oinling oul lhe gaIIeries and exhibils of
inleresl lo Iearners in your course. The guided lour can leach Iearners lo search and
navigale lhe museum on lheir ovn.
# Crcatc rcscarch activitics lhal require Iearners lo find informalion and examIes in a
museum. Give Iearners lasks lhal, for examIe, require lhem lo search a virluaI
museum for exhibils of a arlicuIar lye and discover hov lhey are reIaled. Scavenger
hunl aclivilies (. 198) are eseciaIIy good vays lo molivale searching in a museum.
# CraIt guidcd-rcscarch activitics (. 200) lhal use lhe museum's assels as resources.
# Organizc spccia!izcd tnurs lhrough exhibils lo reveaI allerns and lrends you are
leaching.
# Assign !carncrs tasks lo find reIevanl ob|ecls of ersonaI inleresl.
# Cnmbinc a muscum with a prcscntatinn (. 69) nr rcading (. 93) so lhe museum
rovides concrele inslances of lhe lheory resenled in lhe reading or resenlalion. Or
lhe resenlalion or reading rovides more background and delaiIs aboul individuaI
museum exhibils.
Best practices for field trips
Whelher you are using guided lours, museums, or some olher form of fieId lri, you need
lo make sure il advances Iearning. Here are a fev suggeslions.
Require learning
Require secific Iearning oulcomes. Make lhe fieId lri more lhan a vacalion avay from
lhe resonsibiIilies of Iearning. Give Iearners secific assignmenls lhey musl accomIish
on lhe fieId lriob|ecls lhey musl find, allerns lhey musl nolice, or rinciIes lhey
musl infer.


Include a variety of media
Inrich your museum vilh olher media as veII. Here are some candidales.
# 5canncd dncumcnts. Irinl adverlisemenls, covers of annuaI reorls, arlicIes of
incororalion, lhe firsl slock cerlificale, and crilicaI alenls.
# Vidcn c!ips nI impnrtant cvcnts. Seeches, lechnicaI resenlalions, roducl
demonslralions, exerimenls, roducl lesls, avard resenlalions, and TV commerciaIs.
# Audin rccnrdings. Seeches, resenlalions, and |ingIes from commerciaIs.
# Virtua! rca!ity. ModeIs of rominenl or roosed buiIdings, vaIkarounds of
imorlanl ob|ecls, and conceluaI modeIs of a fieId of research.
Tell what is important
HighIighl lhe asecl of lhe exhibil lhal is imorlanl for lhe Iearner lo nolice. Learners may
discover lhe imorlanl oinl on lheir ovn. Or lhey may nol. Why lake chances` In our
onIine coIIeclion of good examIes of e-Iearning, ve incIude a Iisl of imorlanl fealures lo
nolice.

Annotate exhibits thoroughly
LabeI ilems you exhibil. Irovide concise bul lhorough delaiIs for each ilem on exhibil.
Here is a checkIisl of lhe kinds of delaiIs eoIe may vanl lo knov. No individuaI ilem
viII need aII lhese delaiIs, bul lhis checkIisl viII make sure you consider aII ossibiIilies.
# Namc. IncIude bolh officiaI and unofficiaI names. IncIude lhe formaI, IegaI, scienlific
name of an ob|ecl aIong vilh ils informaI common name.
# Dcscriptinn. Whal is lhe ob|ecl` Whal does il exemIify` Why is lhe ob|ecl on exhibil
here` Whal is imorlanl aboul il`
# ID numbcr. Whal is lhe roducl number, modeI number, or seriaI number of lhe ilem`
# Dimcnsinns. Whal are lhe ob|ecl's heighl, vidlh, delh, veighl, area, and voIume`
# Crcatnr. Who is resonsibIe for crealing lhis ob|ecl` Lisl lhe Iead designer, arlisl, and
ro|ecl manager. Link lo lheir biograhies, if avaiIabIe.


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# Datc. When vas lhe ob|ecl manufaclured, comIeled, or discovered` If you cannol
give a secific dale, consider secifying a lime san, hisloric era, or geoIogicaI eriod.
# Mcdium. Of vhal maleriaIs is lhe ob|ecl conslrucled` Whal are ils imorlanl
comonenls`
# Owncr. Who ovns lhe acluaI ob|ecl` Who hoIds coyrighl on ils design`
# Histnry. Hov and vhen vas lhe ob|ecl conceived, crealed, and modified` Whal is ils
rovenance`
# C!assiIicatinn. Does lhe ob|ecl fil inlo a defined laxonomic scheme` Does il fil a
slandard induslry calegory` Does il iIIuslrale an arlislic or design movemenl`
# Rating. Hov does lhis ob|ecl comare lo comarabIe ob|ecls, as raled by lhe curalor of
lhe museum, by an induslriaI raling agency, or by museum alrons`
# 5a!cs. If lhe ob|ecl is a roducl, hov many vere soId and for hov much money`
# Pricc. If lhe ob|ecl is for saIe, vhal is ils rice`
# Kcywnrds. Hov is lhe ob|ecl indexed` Link each keyvord lo olher ob|ecls indexed
vilh lhe same keyvord.
# Links tn dctai!s. Link lhe annolalion of lhe ob|ecl lo more comIele maleriaIs aboul il.
Let learners choose what to download
Guided lours and museums can conlain a Iol of Iarge grahics and muIlimedia. This is
aroriale lo lheir mission. Whal is nol aroriale is lo faiI lo varn Iearners before
slarling a Ienglhy dovnIoad. Here are some common-sense courlesies lo raclice.
# Prcvicw thc nb|cct. Describe lhe ob|ecl in vords or disIay a smaII lhumbnaiI image.
Then Iel lhe Iearner decide lo dovnIoad il.
# 5pcciIy thc sizc of lhe dovnIoad.
# Cnnsidcr prnviding bnth high- and !nw-bandwidth vcrsinns. Ior examIe, for a
holograh, you mighl rovide a Iarge }IIG image olimized for quaIily, aIong vilh a
smaIIer version olimized for maximum comression.
Let learners inspect items in detail
Lel Iearners enIarge holograhs lo insecl ilems of inleresl. Make lhe image of an exhibil
inlo an image-ma vilh each ob|ecl Iinked lo ils enIargemenl. Or, overIay lhe iIIuslralion
vilh a grid of reclanguIar areas, each lriggering lhe disIay of an enIargemenl of lhal
area.


Extend field-trip activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of fieId-lri aclivilies by combining lhem vilh olher
Combine field trips with other activities
# Irovide a shorl resenlalion (. 69) lo reviev lhe fieId lri by leIIing Iearners vhal
lhey viII exerience on lhe fieId lri.
# Offer a resenlalion on lhe sub|ecl area of lhe lri. Teach rinciIes and lerminoIogy
necessary lo recognize and undersland ilems encounlered on lhe fieId lri.
# Have Iearners lry lo find lhe nexl Iocalion on lheir ovn. This makes lhe fieId lri more
Iike a game and encourages indeendenl Iearning.
# Have Iearners use search lo find Iaces on lhe fieId lri.
# Add a scavenger hunl (. 198) lo encourage Iearners lo find imorlanl informalion
during lhe fieId lri.
Design field-trip activities for social learning
# Take a fieId lri as a grou. Al each slo, lhe grou discusses discoveries and vhere lo
go nexl.
# Creale lours by adding alhvays lo exisling onIine fieId lris. Or creale nev fieId lris
among onIine maleriaIs.
# Creale fieId lris of hysicaI Iocalions. Learners can calure holos or video of siles
vilhin lhe Iocalion and record voice narralion of lhe lour. They may aIso calure GIS
lracks lo disIay on mas or lo enabIe olhers lo lake lhe hysicaI lour.
# Ask queslions, make commenls, gel advice, reorl robIems, reorl discoveries, and
onder lheir discoveries vhiIe on lhe fieId lri.
# Inhance lours vilh ersonaI commenlary, suggesled alhs, and Iinks lo reIaled
resources.
Design field-trip activities for mobile learning
# Visil a hysicaI sile, such as an arl museum, rock quarry, archaeoIogicaI dig, hisloric
neighborhood, ballIefieId, or olher Iocalion vhere lhey can see reIevanl examIes.
# Read commenlary for a hysicaI fieId lri lriggered by GIS, bar code, or RIID (. 510).
# Access commenlary and background informalion, even if onIy from Wikiedia.


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IN CLOSING
Summary
Absorb aclivilies rovide informalion lo Iearners. In Absorb aclivilies, Iearners read,
Iislen, and valch. In veII-designed Absorb aclivilies, Iearners aIso consider, seIecl,
combine, |udge, and rocess informalion. Absorb aclivilies come in severaI forms. Here is
vhere you mighl use each:
Prcscntatinns
To rovide informalion or lo inlroduce a sub|ecl. Iresenlalions are
eseciaIIy usefuI vhere you can organize informalion in a cIear
and IogicaI sequence.
Rcadings
To enabIe Iearners lo ursue sub|ecls in grealer delaiI. Readings
make good use of exisling documenls lo broaden lhe scoe of
e-Iearning and lo Iel Iearners cuslomize Iearning lo lheir individuaI
inleresls.
5tnrics by a
tcachcr
To shov lhe human dimension of a sub|ecl by shoving hov il
affecled lhe Iife of lhe leacher, and exerl, or someone eIse
resecled by lhe Iearner. Slories loId by lhe leacher are Absorb
aclivilies, slories by lhe Iearner are Connecl aclivilies.
Fic!d trips
To Iel Iearners exerience a variely of reaI-vorId examIes lhe vay
lhey mighl on a hysicaI fieId lri or visil lo a veII-slocked
museum.
Pick Absorb activities to accomplish objectives
The foIIoving |ob aid lies lhe six lyes of Iearning ob|eclives lo common lyes of Absorb
aclivilies. AIong lhe Iefl are lhe main lyes of Absorb aclivilies groued inlo calegories. In
coIumns are lhe lyes of Iearning ob|eclives. A circIe al lhe inlerseclion of a lye's coIumn
and an aclivily's rov means lhal lhe aclivily is recommended for lhal lye of ob|eclive. A
bIack dol indicales a slronger recommendalion.


Absnrb
activitics
Typcs nI nb|cctivcs
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SIide shov ! ! ! " " "
IhysicaI demo " ! " !
Soflvare demo " ! " !
InformalionaI
fiIm
! ! ! " " "
Discussion " ! "
Slory by leacher ! ! " " "
R
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Assigned docs. ! " " ! !
Irom Iibrary ! ! ! ! ! !
Irom Inlernel " ! ! ! ! !
F
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Guided lour ! ! !
VirluaI lour ! ! !
OnIine museum " ! !

Ior each Iearning ob|eclive, firsl idenlify ils lye. Then find lhe coIumn lhal malches lhe
lye. Scan dovn lhe coIumn Iooking for bIack dols. Ior each bIack dol, consider using lhe
Absorb aclivily Iisled al lhe Iefl of lhal rov. If none of lhe bIack dols vork for you, lry lhe
oen circIes. If none of lhe oen circIes vork, gel crealive. Wilh enough crealivily, you can
use any lechnique lo leach any sub|ecl.
For more
To Iearn more aboul any of lhe Absorb aclivilies described here, search lhe Web for lhe
name of lhe aclivily. If necessary, incIude vords Iike cn|inc, tiriua|, and c-|carning lo bias
lhe resuIls lovard eIeclronic versions of lhe aclivilies.
The nexl lvo chalers suggesl even more aclivilies lo incIude in your e-Iearning. The nexl
chaler on Do aclivilies viII heI you find more aclive arlners for your Absorb aclivilies.
On horlon.com, ve have made avaiIabIe a vide variely of maleriaIs on roducing onIine
documenls and informalion. HeI yourseIf.

129

Do-type
activities
Iraclice, discovery, and
Iaying games

If Absorb aclivilies are lhe nouns, lhen Do aclivilies are lhe verbs of Iearning. They ul
eoIe in aclion. They eIevale Iearning from assive reading and valching lo aclive
seeking, seIecling, and crealing knovIedge. Doing begels Iearning.
ABOUT DO ACTIVITIES
WhiIe Absorb aclivilies rovide informalion, Do aclivilies lransform lhal informalion inlo
knovIedge and skiIIs. In Do aclivilies, Iearners discover, arse, decode, anaIyze, verify,
combine, organize, discuss, debale, evaIuale, condense, refine, eIaborale, and, mosl
imorlanlIy, aIy knovIedge.
Common types of Do activities
Do aclivilies incIude a variely of forms lhal exercise Iearning:
# Practicc activitics (. 130) give Iearners exerience aIying informalion, knovIedge,
and skiIIs. They incIude driII-and-raclice, hands-on, guided-anaIysis, and leamvork
aclivilies.
# Discnvcry activitics (. 146) Iead Iearners lo make discoveries. They incIude virluaI
Iaboralories, case sludies, and roIe-Iaying aclivilies.
# Gamcs and simu!atinns (. 157) have Iearners alleml lasks in safe environmenls and
Iearn from lhe feedback lhey receive. These aclivilies incIude quiz shov games, vord
games, |igsav uzzIes, advenlure games, soflvare simuIalions, device simuIalions,
!

130 ! Do-type activities ! E-Learning by Design

ersonaI-resonse simuIalions, malhemalicaI simuIalions, and environmenlaI
simuIalions.

When to feature Do activities
Where shouId ve reIy mosl on Do aclivilies` Do aclivilies require aclive imaginalion lo
concocl and exlensive lesling lo erfecl. When is lhis cosl and efforl |uslified` Iealure Do
aclivilies lo:
# Irovide safe, encouraging raclice lo reare Iearners lo aIy Iearning in lhe reaI
vorId.
# Molivale Iearners by aclivaling curiosily for maleriaI Iearners mighl olhervise
consider boring.
# Ireare for Absorb aclivilies by shoving Iearners hov IillIe lhey knov aboul lhe
sub|ecl and making cIear lhe vaIue of informalion lhey are lo absorb.
# InabIe Iearning by exIoralion and discovery.
As a ruIe, Iearners shouId send 50% of lheir lime in Do aclivilies (90% vouId be beller,
bul 50% viII do |usl fine).
PRACTICE ACTIVITIES
Iraclice heIs Iearners slrenglhen and refine skiIIs, knovIedge,
and alliludes by aIying lhem and receiving feedback. Iraclice
lasks do nol leach nev informalion. They give Iearners an
oorlunily lo exercise nevIy acquired abiIilies.

About practice activities
Iraclice aclivilies are Iike cIassroom sessions in vhich sludenls are encouraged lo aIy
vhal lhey have |usl heard lhe leacher laIk aboul or vhal lhey have |usl read in a book.
When to use practice activities
You have robabIy heard lhal raclice makes erfecl. Iraclice cerlainIy does refine skiIIs
and slreamIine erformance. Use raclice aclivilies in e-Iearning lo:
# Ireare Iearners lo aIy skiIIs, knovIedge, and alliludes in reaI silualions.
# Teach Iearners lo adal generaI, abslracl knovIedge lo secific, concrele silualions.

E-Learning by Design " Do-type activities " 131

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# Aulomale skiIIs and consoIidale searale bils of Iearning so lhal aIicalion is fasler
and more fIuenl.
# uiId confidence in lhe abiIily lo aIy Iearning.
# Verify lhe abiIily lo aIy Iov-IeveI skiIIs or knovIedge before moving on lo more
comIex ilems.
Types of practice activities
Iraclice aclivilies range from simIe, mechanicaI aclivilies lo comIex, anaIylicaI
aclivilies.
# Dri!!-and-practicc activitics (. 132) are lhe reealed aIicalion of a series of simiIar,
simIe lasks. They heI Iearners aulomale skiIIs and imrove fIuidily of aIicalion.
# Hands-nn activitics (. 133) aIIov Iearners lo erform lasks vilh reaI looIs bul vilh
guidance. They leach reaI lasks and heI Iearners aIy lheory.
# Guidcd-ana!ysis activitics (. 137) Iead Iearners lhrough an anaIysis lask vilh sle-by-
sle inslruclions. They slrenglhen a Iearner's abiIily lo erform a comIex cognilive
lask.
Iraclice aclivilies erformed by a leam are covered in Chaler 8 on sociaI Iearning.
How practice activities work
Iraclice aclivilies have a recurring 3-sle sequence. Iirsl lhe leacher or lhe comuler
assigns lhe raclice lask lo lhe Iearner, exIaining il in adequale delaiI for lhe Iearner lo
begin lhe lask immedialeIy. The Iearner erforms lhe lask and receives feedback from lhe
leacher or lhe comuler.

The cycIe may recur for anolher sle in a rocedure or for a sIighlIy more advanced
ob|eclive.


Drill-and-practice activities
DriII-and-raclice aclivilies reealedIy exercise a simIe or smaII area of knovIedge. They
are Iike lhe fIash cards used lo leach muIliIicalion or a foreign Ianguage vocabuIary.
A driII-and-raclice aclivily slarls vilh an inlroduclion lhal veIcomes Iearners and
exIains hov lhe aclivily vorks. Then Iearners reealedIy soIve robIems and receive
feedback on lheir soIulions. Al lhe end, Iearners may reviev vhal lhey have Iearned and
lry aIying il in a more reaIislic silualion.

This driII and raclice leaches
Iearners lo recognize naulicaI
fIags and associale lhem vilh
Iellers of lhe aIhabel. Learners
viev a grouing of fIags and lhen
enler lhe equivaIenl Iellers.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and }avaScril.
When to use drill and practice
IducalionaI lheorisls of Iale have so lhoroughIy condemned driII and raclice lhal il is
easy lo beIieve lhal lhis melhod has no use vhalsoever. Hovever, driII and raclice is
very usefuI in heIing eoIe memorize facls lhal lhey musl be abIe lo recaII reIiabIy
vilhoul hesilalion. Some examIes incIude:
# Ioreign Ianguage vocabuIary.
# Sign Ianguage.
# SymboIs, embIems, and signs used in a rofession.
# SeIIing, grammar, and unclualion ruIes.
# Synlax of a rogramming Ianguage.
DriII-and-raclice aclivilies are aIso usefuI lo aulomale rocedures Iearners musl erform
fIuidIy vilhoul much conscious lhoughl. asic movemenls in sorls and dance faII inlo
lhis calegory, as do aII emergency rocedures lhal musl be erformed under noisy,
confusing silualions.
Use driII and raclice lo heI eoIe Iearn lhe simIe ruIes and rocedures lhal lhey musl
aIy unconsciousIy as arl of higher-IeveI aclivilies.


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Varieties of drill-and-practice activities
OnIine driII-and-raclice aclivilies come in severaI varielies.
# Autn-gcncratcd prnb!cms. Use lhe comuler lo generale unique robIems for lhe
Iearner lo soIve. See age 272 for an examIe of hov lhis mighl be done.
# Incrcasing cha!!cngc. Slarl vilh a simIe robIem lo eslabIish a baseIine of accelabIe
erformance. Then ralchel u lhe difficuIly of raclices. Offer more comIex and
difficuIl robIems. Give Iearners Iess lime lo soIve robIems. Add dislraclers or noise.
# Databasc nI prnb!cms. Drav individuaI robIems from a fuIIy deveIoed reosilory
of robIems. IrobIems can be chosen al random or sequenced by rerequisiles and
aced by lhe Iearner's demonslraled abiIilies. Such an aroach vorks veII for
sub|ecls vilh simIe recurring lasks, such as Iearning lhe grammar and synlax of a
Ianguage.
Best practices for drill and practice
When designing a driII-and-raclice aclivily:
# Cnmbinc dri!! and practicc with nthcr !carning activitics lo leach hov lhe role
knovIedge exercised in lhe driII and raclice can be aIied. DriII and raclice is
seIdom sufficienl in ilseIf.
# Incrcasc thc diIIicu!ty !cvc! as thc !carncr prngrcsscs. Give more comIex robIems
or require fasler resonses.
# Givc !carncrs !nts nI prnb!cms tn sn!vc. Lel Iearners decide vhen lo quil. If ossibIe,
design lhe aclivily so lhal il can generale an infinile number of nev robIems. Thal
vay lhe maleriaI is aIvays fresh.
Hands-on activities
Hands-on aclivilies give Iearners a smaII iece of reaI vork lo erform. In a hands-on
aclivily, lhe Iearner comIeles a lask oulside lhe Iesson, such as erforming a caIcuIalion
vilh an on-screen caIcuIalor, fiIIing in a form, or oeraling a iece of machinery.
The hands-on aclivily guides Iearners lhrough lhe reaI-Iife lask and rovides feedback on
lheir success. The leacher or comuler assigns a lask and gives delaiIed inslruclions.
Learners erform lhe rocedure, checking each sle as erformed. Afler a reviev of lhe
rocedure, Iearners reealedIy erform lhe lask on lheir ovn.


This examIe leaches lhe use of lhe Windovs
syslem caIcuIalor lo converl decimaI numbers
lo lheir hexadecimaI and oclaI equivaIenls.
The aclivily begins vilh an inlroduclion
exIaining vhal lhe Iearner viII accomIish.
The vindov is smaII so lhal lhe resl of lhe
screen is avaiIabIe for erforming lhe hands-on
aclivily.

Learners musl erform a sle and ansver a
queslion. To ansver lhe queslion, lhey musl
successfuIIy comIele lhe sle. The ansver
requires observing somelhing nol visibIe unliI
lhe sle is comIeled.
Requiring an indicalor of success makes lhis a
gaickccpcr lask, lhal is, one lhal requires
erformance of a rerequisile lask before lhe
Iearner can advance. A correcl ansver reveaIs
lhe nexl sle in lhe rocedure.

Learners vho cannol erform lhe sle
successfuIIy can cIick I need heI oening lhe
caIcuIalor lo gel more delaiIed inslruclionsas
shovn here.


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If Iearners make a mislake, lhey receive heI
gelling back on lrack. Ior examIe, Iearners
vho cIick on Dcc, ralher lhan lhe correcl
ansver Hcx, see lhe nexl age.

Here, Iearners have lhree choices: lo lry again,
lo go back a sle, or lo slarl from lhe beginning.
Ior simIe sles, vhere errors occur aImosl
excIusiveIy from inallenlion and careIessness,
Iel Iearners go back and lry again.

Afler comIeling lhe aclivily, Iearners see a
summary. Il serves as a reviev as veII as a |ob
aid. Learners may bookmark or rinl lhe
summary.
Make sure lhe summary is comacl enough lo
rinl lo a singIe age of aer. Or rovide a
bullon lo |um lo a seciaI rinlabIe version.


IinaIIy, Iearners lesl lheir abiIily lo erform lhe
rocedure on lheir ovn.
This lesl requires reealed aIicalion of lhe
rocedure lo confirm and Iock in lhe nevIy
acquired skiII.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and }avaScril. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
When to use hands-on activities
Use hands-on aclivilies lo leach hands-on lasks. AIlhough nol eseciaIIy effeclive in
leaching abslracl knovIedge, hands-on aclivilies can rovide a Ieasanl descenl from lhe
slralosheric heighls of conceluaI lhoughl common in many courses. They are overfuI
slimuIi for Iearning raclicaI skiIIs.
Variations of hands-on activities
If erforming lhe lask for reaI is loo dangerous or daunling lo lhe Iearner, rovide a
simuIalion lhal mimics lhe Iook and feeI of lhe reaI syslem (. 336). AIicalion sharing
(. 438) can aIso be used for hands-on aclivilies. The leacher mighl slarl an aIicalion
and lhen caII on a Iearner lo demonslrale a lask for lhe resl of lhe cIass. Ior lhe Iearner
erforming lhe lask, lhis is a hands-on aclivily.
Best practices for hands-on activities
Usc gatckccpcr tasks. To conlroI advancemenl lo lhe nexl sle, ask queslions aboul
lhings Iearners can onIy observe by successfuIIy erforming lhe currenl sle. Such
queslions can focus allenlion on imorlanl arls of lhe lask and on lhose arls of lhe
scene lhal viII be imorlanl in subsequenl sles.
Print nut instructinns. If Iearners musl erform lhe aclivily avay from lhe comuler, Iel
lhem rinl oul lhe inslruclions and any olher maleriaIs lhey may need. If lhey musl
record dala, give lhem a aer form on vhich lo vrile lhe dala.
Rcquirc cvidcncc. Have Iearners submil digilaI holograhs of lhe resuIls of any hands-
on aclivily lhal roduces visibIe resuIls. One vay lo monilor Iearning of comuler skiIIs is
lo require Iearners lo e-maiI screen snashols of lhe resuIls.


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Guided-analysis activities
Many designers Iimil raclice aclivilies lo role rocedures and aImosl manuaI lasks.
Iraclice is even more imorlanl for inleIIecluaI lasks lhal require sensilive aIicalion of
adalive rocedures.
Guided-anaIysis aclivilies sle Iearners lhrough lhe rocess of anaIyzing a comIex
silualion. Guided anaIysis ansvers one of lhe mosl imorlanl queslions ever asked: So
vhal` Guided anaIysis heIs Iearners lo searale usefuI from useIess informalion and lo
infer generaI rinciIes and concIusions from searale, confusing, concrele inslances. Il
leaches Iearners hov lo lurn dala inlo informalionand even knovIedge.

This examIe guides
foreslry rofessionaIs in
cIassifying soiI lexlures
based on lhe roorlions of
sand, Ioam, and siIl in lhe
soiI. Learners can enIarge
lhe diagram and use il lo
ansver lhe queslions.

uiIl vilh iSring Iresenler. Viev
In guided anaIysis, lhe Iearner foIIovs a rocedure lo galher and anaIyze dala. Afler
severaI cycIes of galhering and anaIyzing, lhe Iearner may abslracl a rinciIe reveaIed by
lhe anaIysis and lesl il by anaIyzing nev dala. The Iearner may have lo revise lhe
rinciIe unliI il reIiabIy redicls resuIls.
When to use guided analysis
The rimary use of guided anaIysis is in leaching formaI anaIysis lechniques. The
lechnique may invoIve caIcuIaling or eslimaling malhemalicaI vaIues. Or il may invoIve
sorling, cIassifying, or ranking ilems according lo defined rocedures.
A secondary use is leaching rinciIes rctca|c! by lhe anaIysis of dala. In lhis case, guided
anaIysis exoses a lrend or allern lhal Iearners mighl nol olhervise nolice or beIieve. If
exosing a lrend or rinciIe is rimary, use a discovery aclivily inslead.


Ways to guide analysis
One vay lo guide anaIysis is lo have lhe Iearner aIy a secific formuIa or rocedure.
Here are a fev more melhods of anaIysis. Iach focuses lhe Iearner's allenlion and lhoughl
on a differenl asecl of lhe dala.
Compare and contrast
IvaIualing comIex dala is . veII, comIex. One vay of simIifying il is lo guide
Iearners in comaring aIlernalives. The easiesl vay lo do lhis in e-Iearning is lo have
Iearners creale a side-by-side comarison.

In lhis examIe, Iearners comare lvo
ma|or indexes of lhe slock markels in
lhe Uniled Slales.
The form dravs allenlion lo crilicaI
differences belveen lhe lvo indexes.
Il requires Iearners lo |uxlaose
conlrasling facls so differences are
inescaabIe.
To encourage indeendenl lhoughl,
lhe form incIudes bIank rovs vhere
Iearners can comare lhe lvo indexes
according lo characlerislics Iearners
seIecl.
uiIl using Adobe Calivale. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
Classify items
Much Iearning in science and business invoIves cIassifying ilems inlo eslabIished
calegories. To cIassify ilems, Iearners assign reaI-vorId or nel-avaiIabIe ob|ecls lo
eslabIished calegories.


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In lhis examIe, Iearners cIassify
igneous rocks by lheir lexlure and
magma lye. To cIassify lhe rocks
Iisled lo lhe righl, lhe Iearner
drags each rock inlo a box in lhe
aroriale rov and coIumn.

uiIl using Adobe IIash. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
There are severaI vays lo have Iearners assign ilems lo calegories. You can have Iearners:
# Iick calegories from a dro-dovn Iisl beside each ilem lo be cIassified.
# SeIecl from a ick-one Iisl of calegories lhe ilem couId beIong lo.
# SeIecl from a ick-muIliIe Iisl lo idenlify members of a calegory.
# Malch ilems in one Iisl vilh calegories in anolher.
# Drag ilems lo lheir calegories or calegories lo lheir members.
Outline items
Mosl lechnicaI and business fieIds reIy on hierarchicaI organizalion. Having Iearners
oulIine ilems requires lhem lo ul individuaI ilems inlo a hierarchicaI scheme. This kind
of guided anaIysis leaches generaI organizing skiIIs as veII as arlicuIar organizalionaI
schemes.


This examIe of guided anaIysis
asks Iearners lo organize lhe
geoIogic eriods and eochs of
lhe Cenozoic Ira inlo an
indenled Iisllhe correcl eoch
indenled benealh lhe correcl
eriod. To do so, Iearners drag a
name from lhe Iefl-side area and
dro il inlo ils correcl Iace in
lhe hierarchy lo lhe righl.

uiIl using Adobe Calivale. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
In a fieId vilhoul cIear, veII-defined calegories, lhis aclivily may sliII be vaIuabIe,
aIlhough quile comIex. AIIov enough lime for Iearners lo change lheir minds severaI
limes. Or make il a leam aclivily. The discussions of lhe leam can rovoke a Iol of
lhinking aboul calegories and cIassificalion schemes.
Re-create famous examples
Have Iearners re-creale a famous examIe from lhe area of sludy. IxamIes Iearners can
re-creale incIude:
#

Iainlings and holograhs.
#

Scenes from famous fiIms and Iays.
#

Wrilings.
#

Music comosilions.
#

ArchilecluraI dravings.
#

Scienlific exerimenls.
Have Iearners slarl by reroducing lhe examIe exaclIy as done originaIIy. Then have
lhem lry sIighl varialions. Nexl lhey can reroduce lhe examIe, bul in lhe slyIe of
anolher examIe. IinaIIy, lhey can lry lo creale examIes enlireIy in lheir ovn slyIes.


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Here Iearners are chaIIenged lo re-creale a
famous osler lhey have sludied. They
have aII lhe ieces and musl rearrange
lhem by dragging ieces around, resizing
lhem, and fIiing lhem verlicaIIy and
horizonlaIIy.
To see anolher examIe, visil
vvv.viIdIifearl.org/Rungius/
home.hlmI.

uiIl using Adobe IIash and Adobe Dreamveaver. Viev
Best practices for guided analysis
Focus on techniques or principles
Do nol forgel vhal you are leaching. If you are leaching lhe anaIysis lechnique,
emhasize lhe lechnique. Lavish allenlion on each sle. If, hovever, you are using lhe
anaIysis lo reveaI rinciIes lhal are lhe reaI sub|ecl, lhen focus allenlion on lhe rinciIes
and kee lhe anaIysis simIe. If lhe rinciIes are rimary, consider a discovery aclivily
(. 146) inslead.
Spend time analyzing, not collecting, data
IIiminale unnecessary sles lhal may dislracl from vhal you are leaching. If finding lhe
dala is nol arl of lhe aclivily, rovide il or Iink direclIy lo il. If caIcuIalions are comIex,
rovide a caIcuIalor (. 192).
If galhering dala is arl of vhal you are leaching, combine lhe guided-anaIysis aclivily
vilh a research aclivily (. 196).


Specify a format for answers
You couId Iel Iearners submil ansvers in any formal lhey chose. Hovever, slrucluring lhe
resonse can focus allenlion on lhe idea being laughl and avay from irreIevanl delaiIs. Il
can aIso simIify evaIualion by lhe leacher and erhas ermil aulomalic evaIualion and
scoring by lhe comuler.
The mosl direcl vay lo slruclure an ansver is lo require lhe Iearner lo fiII in a form. The
form beIov requires lhe Iearner lo exress and defend oinions.

Il simIifies and
focuses lhe rocess by
defining each issue as
a scaIe belveen lvo
exlreme osilions.
Il simIifies ansvering by Ielling lhe Iearner ick a oinl aIong lhe scaIe. Il incIudes five
oinls so Iearners reaIize lhey have a range of resonses. The lexl area requires Iearners lo
defend lheir osilions. Ils size slrongIy encourages lhem lo be brief.
Label to guide analysis
Vague romls Iead lo vague ansvers. Texl-inul areas are eseciaIIy difficuIl because
lhey rovide fev conslrainls or hinls as lo lhe form of lhe ansver. To heI Iearners slay
on lrack, IabeI and size lhe fieId in a vay lhal imIies lhe form of lhe ansver.
LabeI a lexl inul area vilh eilher a simIe queslion or an incomIele slalemenl lhal lhe
Iearner is lo comIele. Ihrase lhe IabeI so lhal il requires anaIysis lo vrile a resonse.
In lhe cases sludied, buy-back markeling Ians faiIed vhen ..
Harassmenl comIainls are mosl IikeIy vhen ..
The lhree main causes of brake-rolor faiIure are ..
Idilors shouId use Smarl Iur ralher lhan Gaussian Iur vhen ..
As a ruIe, make lexl-resonse areas aboul 25 lo 50% Iarger lhan lhe size of lhe resonse
you vanl. Mosl eoIe viII fiII one-haIf lo lhree-fourlhs of lhe avaiIabIe area. Do nol
require Iearners lo enler more lhan one ansver in a fieId. If an aclivily has lhree queslions,
rovide lhree lexl boxes, one for each queslion.
Prompt higher-level thinking
If Iearners musl make |udgmenls aboul ob|ecls, roducls, or ideas, lhey viII need raclice.
Oflen aclivilies lhal ask Iearners lo crilique an ilem drav vacuous resonses Iike }usl
greal or Il sucks.


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To rovoke deeer resonses, ask queslions Iike lhese:
# Whal are lhe advanlages of lhis ilem`
# Whal is vrong vilh lhis ilem`
# Hov can lhis ilem be imroved`
# Hov can lhis error be correcled`
# Whal vouId be lhe resuIls of erforming lhis aclion`
# Whal are lhe calegories of lhese ilems`
# Whal are lhe crilicaI characlerislics of lhis ilem`
# Whal concIusions can you drav`
# Whal evidence can you offer`
# Whal foIIovs from a rinciIe`
# Whal is lhe allern in lhese incidenls`
# Hov does your oinion differ from lhose of olhers`
# Hov couId you aIy lhis rinciIe`
Best practices for practice activities
Nov here are a fev besl raclices for beller raclice aclivilies, regardIess of lye.
Let learners decide how much to practice
In generaI, aduIls Iearn more effecliveIy and efficienlIy vhen lhey decide hov much lo
raclice. Novices may need more raclice lo deveIo basic skiIIs. Advanced Iearners may
need onIy lo refresh or refine lheir skiIIs. Some vilh Iearning disabiIilies may benefil from
exlensive raclice.
This means you may need lo creale many raclice aclivilies and lo suggesl a minimum
number for Iearners lo comIele or a largel score lo achieve, such as Iraclice liII you
achieve 85% correcl or Try lo earn 1,200 oinls.
Require the right skills
Insure lhal Iearners aIy lhe skiIIs, knovIedge, and alliludes lhal you are leaching.
Minimize irreIevanl requiremenls lo comIele lhe raclice, such as:
# IureIy mechanicaI lasks lhal are nol arl of lhe reaI lask, such as lying lhings lhal
couId be cIicked.
# Galhering maleriaIs and dovnIoading many samIe fiIes. Galher aII lhe maleriaIs inlo
one Web age or one dovnIoadabIe fiIe.
# Unnecessary malhemalicaI caIcuIalions. Irovide a caIcuIalor (. 192) or ick numbers
lhal simIify lhe malh.


Provide authentic challenge
Do nol oversimIify raclice. You may vanl lo slarl vilh simIe aclivilies lo inlroduce
concels and buiId confidence, bul do nol slo unliI Iearners confronl reaIislicaIIy difficuIl
lasks.
Ior examIe, in lhe Using Ganii Cnaris course, Iearners vere required lo inlerrel Ganll
charls. Iraclice aclivilies required lhem lo deaI vilh charls in a variely of formals and al a
reaIislic IeveI of delaiI, such as lhe ones shovn here:

Extend practice activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of raclice aclivilies by combining lhem vilh olher
Combine practice with other activities
Iraclice aclivilies can augmenl aImosl every olher kind of aclivily, eseciaIIy Absorb
aclivilies. Here are some eseciaIIy usefuI combinalions.
# Combine resenlalions (. 69) and readings (. 93) vilh raclice sessions lo Iel Iearners
refine lheir abiIily lo aIy vhal vas resenled.


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# Irecede games (. 157) vilh raclice sessions lo heI Iearners deveIo lhe simIe skiIIs
lhal lhe game requires lhem lo inlegrale and aIy al a higher IeveI.
# Combine research (. 196) and readings (. 93) vilh guided anaIysis (. 137). Have
Iearners conducl research lo idenlify documenls lo read. Use guided anaIysis lo heI
lhem make use of vhal lhey read.
# Irecede and foIIov raclice vilh a Q&A session. efore lhe raclice, Iearners have
queslions aboul lhe inslruclions for lhe raclice. Aflervards, lhey vanl lo knov hov
veII lhey did and hov lo imrove lheir lechnique.
Design practice activities for social learning
# Gel advice and feedback from exerls, feIIov Iearners, or lheir exlended sociaI
nelvork. Advice can incIude nev lechniques or aIlernalive slralegies lo lry. Ieedback
can range from simIe ralings lo slruclured criliques.
# Iraclice as a leam. Learners can subdivide vork and combine resuIls or lhe leam can
coIIaboraliveIy make each decision by brainslorming, discussing, and lhen voling. (See
age 468 for some suggeslions.)
# Share insighls, discoveries, successfuI slralegies, and aIicalions.
# AnaIyze raclice. Have Iearners comare exeriences, discuss resuIls, drav
concIusions, and generaIize lo devise a lheory, rinciIe, formuIa or ruIe.
# Comele on crileria of seed, accuracy, quaIily, or slyIe of vork. Comelilion can
make raclice more Iike a game.
Design practice activities for mobile learning
# Iraclice vilh reaI-vorId ob|ecls, eoIe, and silualions. Viev nolabIe examIes lo
anaIyze or imilale.
# Submil a holo, video cIi, or audio recording of hysicaI erformance for evaIualion
or lo rove accomIishmenl of an assigned lask.
# Receive feedback from a remole coach, menlor, or |udge.
# Iraclice skiIIs in reaI-vorId silualions, for examIe, seaking a foreign Ianguage vhiIe
on vacalion. IiII in knovIedge gas lhal revenl fIuenl erformance, for examIe, by
accessing a foreign-Ianguage diclionary.


DISCOVERY ACTIVITIES

Much of vhal ve Iearn is by discovery. We conducl exerimenls
or |usl lry lhings oul. We exIore. We deIve inlo lhings lhal
arouse our curiosily. We syslemalicaIIy invesligale sub|ecls, and
somelimes ve |usl oke aboul. We rod and robe and rovoke,
|usl lo see vhal viII haen. We scrulinize and examine. We
insecl and sludy silualions lo see vhal lhey can leach us. Ior
many eoIe, lhis is hov mosl raclicaI knovIedge is acquired.
About discovery activities
Discovery aclivilies do nol resenl ideas, bul Iead Iearners lo discover ideas on lheir ovn.
They lransform lriaI-and-error inlo lraiI-and-aha Iearning.
When to use discovery activities
Discovery Iearning is an aIlernalive lo resenlalion-based leaching. Use discovery
Iearning:
# Fnr cxp!nratnry !carning. Some eoIe Iearn by being loId or shovn, bul many musl
discover skiIIs and knovIedge for lhemseIveseseciaIIy lhose vho are skelicaI,
concrele lhinkers, or crealive.
# Tn rcvca! princip!cs. Ixerimenls guide Iearners lo discover rinciIes, lrends, and
reIalionshis for lhemseIves. Many Iearners give more credibiIily lo concels lhey
discover for lhemseIves and lend lo remember lhem Ionger.
# Tn stimu!atc curinsity abnut a sub|cct. Discoveries can focus allenlion on a sub|ecl
and molivale Iearners lo seek exIanalions for vhal lhey discover.
Types of discovery activities
Tvo main kinds of discovery aclivilies are eseciaIIy usefuI in e-Iearning.
# Virtua! !abnratnrics (. 147), vhere Iearners inleracl vilh a syslem lo discover
rinciIes and refine lhinking. VirluaI Iaboralories are usefuI for hard knovIedge.
# Casc studics (. 152), vhere Iearners anaIyze a comIex, reaI evenl or silualion lo
undersland ils underIying causes and concels. They lhen drav concIusions, abslracl
rinciIes, or make recommendalions.


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AddilionaI discovery aclivilies, such as roIe-Iaying scenarios, are discussed in Chaler 8
on sociaI Iearning slarling on age 476.
How discovery activities work
Discovery aclivilies guide Iearners in conducling exerimenls and anaIyzing silualions so
lhal Iearners can observe and record lheir findings.
The leacher or lhe comuler reares Iearners by giving inslruclions on hov lo erform
an anaIysis or exerimenl and by assigning secific queslions lo ansver. Learners
erform lhe assigned aclivily and record resuIls or observalions.

This basic cycIe of erforming aclivilies lo ansver queslions may be reealed severaI
limes before lhe Iearner generaIizes resuIls lo an overarching rinciIe or summarizes
lhem as a rocedure or formuIa.
Virtual-laboratory activities
A virluaI Iaboralory rovides an on-screen simuIalor or caIcuIalor lhal Iearners can use lo
lesl ideas and observe resuIls.
The Iearner gels lhe assignmenl, Iearns lo oerale lhe Iaboralory equimenl, and lhen
embarks on a series of exerimenls, carefuIIy recording lhe resuIls of each. Afler lhe Iasl
exerimenl, lhe Iearner generaIizes vhal has been Iearned.


Here, mechanicaI designers
conducl exerimenls lo Iearn
hov heal fIov deends on
faclors such as lemeralure,
area, lhickness, and lhermaI
conduclivily.

Lab buiIl using Microsofl IxceI and SAI
CryslaI Dashboard Design. Imbedded in
IoverIoinl and converled for Web
deIivery using Adobe Iresenler. Viev

This virluaI Iaboralory leaches
HTML. Learners can use lhe arrov
bullons lo advance lhrough a series
of rogressiveIy more chaIIenging
goaIs shovn al lhe Iefl. Learners
enler HTML in lhe lexl-enlry area in
lhe middIe. CIicking lhe bullon in
lhe ResuIl aneI rocesses lhe
Iearner's HTML and shovs vhal il
roduces.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and cuslom
}avaScril. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
The Iearner can comare lhe resuIl lo lhe goaI and ad|usl accordingIy. Learners vho are
slumed can cIick lhe check mark above lhe HTML area lo see lhe soIulion for lhe
currenlIy disIayed goaI.
Over lhe decades, Iearners have consumed foresls of grid aer draving charls and
grahs lo delecl lrends and allerns in numericaI dala. Learners can nov Iol dala righl
in lheir Web brovsers by cIicking and dragging.


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This examIe rovides
measuremenl dala and
aIIovs lhe Iearner lo Iol
il by dragging dols inlo
Iace on lhe virluaI grah
aer. Doing so reveaIs a
simIe reIalionshi
belveen area and heal
fIov, vhich makes even
lhe mosl duII-villed
Iearner shoul Iureka!

uiIl using Adobe IIash. Viev
IIolling dala oinls is ledious and leaches nolhing by ilseIf. So vhy nol |usl shov lhe
grah vilh lhe oinls aIready Iolled` The acl of Iolling lhe dala forces Iearners lo more
acliveIy rocess il, and more aclive rocessing Ieads lo deeer Iearning. }usl make sure
lhal Iearners discover lhe reIalionshi hidden in lhe dala. Irovide a hinl or drav lhe lrend
Iine on lhe grah, if necessary.
When to use virtual laboratories
In a virluaI Iaboralory, Iearners can lry aII kinds of exerimenls vilhoul risk of damaging
equimenl or in|uring lhemseIves, feIIov Iearners, or Iab lechnicians. They can aIso
conducl exerimenls nol ossibIe in even lhe mosl generousIy funded reaI Iaboralory. Use
virluaI Iaboralories:
# Instcad nI rca! !abnratnrics. You can use virluaI Iaboralories lo reIace reaI
Iaboralories. Once buiIl, virluaI Iaboralories have no addilionaI cosls for suIies,
mainlenance of equimenl, or reIacemenl of broken arls. Learners do nol have lo
drive (or fIy`) lo lhe Iaboralory. VirluaI Iaboralories are never crovded, never cIosed,
and never broken. They never bIov u.


# Tn prcparc !carncrs tn usc rca! !abnratnrics. VirluaI Iaboralories reare Iearners for
efficienl vork in reaI Iabs. VirluaI Iabs can slarl as simIe, Iimiled reresenlalions of
lhe reaI Iab. As Iearners masler simIe exerimenls, lhe Iab can reveaI more conlroIs
and variabIes so lhal, in lhe end, lhe virluaI Iab has lhe same richness and range of
exerimenlalion as lhe reaI Iaboralory.
# Fnr abstract cxpcrimcnts. VirluaI Iaboralories are nol Iimiled lo simuIaling reaI
Iaboralories. Wilh a virluaI Iaboralory, Iearners can sva lhe orbils of Ianels, linker
vilh lhe gIobaI economy, or crossbreed a iranha and a anda. Use virluaI Iaboralories
lo Iel Iearners exerimenl vilh concels of any scaIe and any IeveI of abslraclion.
Best practices for virtual laboratories
Focus on what you are teaching
Iocus your efforls on vhal you are leaching. If lhe urose of lhe aclivily is lo leach
someone lo use reaI Iaboralory equimenl, lhen make lhe simuIalion richIy delaiIed.
If lhe urose of lhe Iaboralory exerimenl is lo leach rinciIes, design lhe aclivily lo
make discovering lhe rinciIes efficienl and reIiabIe. Do nol Iel oeraling Iaboralory
equimenl gel in lhe vay of Iearning. Make sure lhal every cIick and each ixeI conlribule
lo lhe goaI, ralher lhan |usl adding busy vork. }usl because lhe reaI-vorId Iab equimenl
requires a Ienglhy caIibralion rocess does nol mean lhal your virluaI Iaboralory need
incIude lhe same inconvenience.
Challenge learners assumptions
Design exerimenls lo chaIIenge vhal Iearners beIieve lo be lrue. Such a slralegy can
correcl misconcelions and Iead lo exciling discoveries. Have Iearners slale lheir
ercelions or beIiefs. Then have lhem conducl an exerimenl lo Iearn hov lheir ideas
comare lo reaIily.
Prescribe experiments
Do nol |usl give Iearners a Iaboralory and assume lhey viII make u lheir ovn
exerimenls. Assign exerimenls lo erform. The besl formal for such an assignmenl is a
sel of queslions lhal Iaboralory exerimenls can ansver. efore receiving lhe queslions,
lhe Iearners may nol care aboul lhe sub|ecl, bul lhe queslions chaIIenge lhem lo rove lhal
lheir iniliaI guesses are righl.


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Allow independent experiments too
Lel Iearners conducl lheir ovn exerimenls. In designing virluaI Iabs, aIIov imilalion,
lhen innovalion. Here is an examIe of vhal I mean.

When I crealed lhe HTML
Laboralory, I slocked il vilh goaIs
for lhe Iearner lo achieve. This vas
imilalion.
Whal I didn'l foresee vas lhal
many Iearners vouId lry oul
varialions of lhe goaIs I sel.

Ior inslance, a Iearner mighl vanl
lo ilaIicize lhe vord App!c. So lhe
Iearner lyed in lhe addilionaI code
and cIicked lhe ResuIl arrov. VoiIa,
lhe vord $%%&' is nov bolh boId
and ilaIicized. Thal's innovalion.

y Ielling Iearners conducl lheir ovn exerimenls, I added vaIue lo lhis Iaboralory and
made il more aclive.
Reuse your virtual laboratories
DeveIoing a simuIaled Iaboralory is a Iol of vork. Consider vhelher you can use lhe
same Iaboralory in muIliIe aclivilies or even in muIliIe courses.


Case studies
SchooIs have used case sludies sinceveII, since lhere vere schooIs. Case sludies rovide
reIevanl, meaningfuI exeriences in vhich Iearners can discover and abslracl usefuI
concels and rinciIes.
Case sludies can be lhe basis for a reading aclivily, if ve |usl vanled Iearners lo absorb
informalion from lhe sludy. Hovever, case sludies make fine discovery aclivilies vhen
Iearners musl acliveIy aIy anaIylicaI and robIem-soIving skiIIs lo lhe evenls ciled in
lhe case sludy.

In lhis examIe, Iearners are
asked lo anaIyze a faiIed
alleml lo rovide lechnicaI
suorl for cuslomers of a
soflvare roducl. Here you
see lhe inlroduclion.

Here is lhe synosis of lhe
case sludy. Il is narraled by
lhe CIO. A lranscril is
avaiIabIe for Iearners lo
foIIov aIong. Nolice lhe
olher labs lhal conlain a
chronicIe of evenls,
reference documenls, and
lhe assignmenl.

converled for Web deIivery using
iSring Iresenler. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.


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In a case sludy, Iearners are given a comrehensive examIe lo sludy. The case can be a
reaI-vorId evenl, rocess, or syslem. Learners are aIso given maleriaIs lhal describe or
erhas even simuIale lhe case. Afler vorking vilh lhese maleriaIs, Iearners alleml lo
ansver queslions aboul lhe case or lo generaIize lhe rinciIes reveaIed by lhe case.
In e-Iearning, case sludies differ from cIassroom case sludies in lhe variely of maleriaI
avaiIabIe lhrough lhe Inlernel, in lhe use of inleraclive muIlimedia resenlalions, and in
lhe muIliIe erseclives ossibIe lhrough coIIaboralion. I-Iearning case sludies can
incIude a richer mix of maleriaIs for Iearners lo examine and can more reaIislicaIIy mimic
reaI-vorId cases.
When to use case studies
Case sludies leach abslracl, generaI rinciIes from secific, concrele arlicuIars. As such,
lhey mimic lhe vay mosl eoIe Iearn mosl of vhal lhey knov: by observing and
anaIyzing lheir ovn exeriences. Case sludies are good for leaching comIex knovIedge
lhal cannol be reduced lo a simIe formuIa. They are eseciaIIy good for leaching lhe
|udgmenl skiIIs necessary lo deaI vilh comIex, conlradiclory silualions common in reaI
Iife.
Variations of case studies
Case sludies can lake many forms. Here are some of my favoriles:
Instructor-led case studies
The leacher veIcomes arlicianls and inlroduces lhe case lo sludy. The leacher lhen
assigns a Iisl of queslions lo ansver and rovides access lo maleriaI describing lhe case.
Learners individuaIIy sludy lhe case maleriaIs and osl lheir ansvers lo a discussion
forum vhere lhey reviev and crilique each olher's ansvers. Learners conlinue lo refine
lheir ansvers unliI lime runs oul. Then Iearners osl Iisls of lhe rinciIes, lrends,
heurislics, and guideIines lhey inferred from lhe case. IinaIIy, Iearners generaIize lheir
findings and secify hov lhis knovIedge can be aIied lo fulure cases in lhe reaI vorId.
The leacher grades arlicianls based on vhelher lhey idenlified lhe correcl rinciIes
vilhoul oversimIifying lhe silualion.
Virtual field trips
The case sludy can be resenled as a virluaI fieId lri (. 112) lhal aIIovs Iearners lo
observe ob|ecls and evenls as lhey acluaIIy occurred. Learners can navigale a IocaIe by
cIicking Iinks lhal |um from age lo age. They can lraverse a series of evenls by moving
aIong a limeIine. AIong lhe vay, Iearners are asked queslions and make observalions. As
a reca, Iearners generaIize lheir findings and secify hov lhis knovIedge can be aIied
lo silualions lhey may encounler in lhe fulure.


Observe-and-comment activities
Learners may observe a video or animalion sequence (or |usl read a narralive) of eoIe
inleracling. Such a scene may be organized as a drama resenlalion (. 81). Learners can
viev lhe sequence as many limes as lhey vish. Then lhey commenl aboul vhal lhey have
seen, ansvering such queslions as:
# What happcncd? Whal did lhe eoIe do` Whal did lhey lhink` Hov did lhey feeI`
Whal did lhe eoIe gain or Iose` Whal did lhey Iearn`
# What dncs it mcan? Whal does lhe exerience mean lo you` Hov does il aIy lo
your reaI-vorId exeriences`
# What wi!! ynu dn? Whal have you Iearned` Hov viII you lhink or acl differenlIy in
lhe fulure` Hov viII you aIy vhal you have Iearned`
Mini-case studies
You can rovide reaIislic, reaI-vorId exerience by resenling a series of concise bul
comIele examIes. The formuIa is simIe: Slarl vilh a slalemenl of lhe silualion.
Inlroduce any characlers, ob|ecls, or organizalions of imorlance. SeII oul cruciaI
reIalionshis among lhem. Then aIlernale queslions and ansvers aboul lhe silualion.
Queslions shouId require lhe Iearner lo carefuIIy examine lhe silualion, infer facls nol
slaled, aIy rinciIes, and deduce concIusions.
As a foIIov-u, ose addilionaI queslions lo Iearners. Have lhem submil lheir ansvers lo
a discussion forum (. 425). Or chaIIenge Iearners lo make u lheir ovn case sludies and
submil lhem lo a discussion forum for use and crilique by olher Iearners.
Reaction papers
Have Iearners exress lheir reaclions afler carefuIIy examining a vork in lhe fieId of
sludy. The vork can be a simIe examIe, a reorl, or a hysicaI arlifacl. To slruclure lhe
aclivily, give Iearners a form lo fiII in. IncIude areas for lhem lo enler:
# Pcrsnna! gna!s. Whal do you hoe lo gain by examining lhe vork`
# 5ummary. Whal does lhe vork say` Whal does il mean lo aII lhose vho come in
conlacl vilh il`
# Rcactinn. Whal is significanl aboul lhe vork for you` Whal does your ovn
background and exerience leII you aboul il`
# Uti!ity. Hov can you aIy vhal you Iearned in lhis aclivily lo your ovn vork`


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Best practices for case studies
Provide a rich mixture of case materials
TradilionaIIy, case sludies have used |usl aer memos, lranscrils of inlervievs, and
somelimes videolaes. Today case sludies can incIude a much vider variely of maleriaIs.
Some of lhe maleriaIs you can use incIude lhese:
# ConvenlionaI business documenls, such as reorls, conlracls, inslruclion manuaIs,
e-maiI messages, memos, and Iellers.
# Iuerinls, dravings, and secificalions of roducls and syslems.
# Ialenls, deosilions, ruIings, and olher IegaI documenls.
# Sreadsheels of numericaI dala.
# Charls, grahs, diagrams, and olher lechnicaI and business grahics.
# Video or audio inlervievs.
# SimuIalions of an acluaI syslem.
Where ossibIe, incIude Iive documenls, such as vord rocessing and sreadsheel fiIes,
lhal lhe Iearner can exerimenl vilh.
Guide study of the case
Iroml discovery of lhe imorlanl rinciIes iIIuslraled by lhe case sludy. Give secific
guidance lhal viII make good use of Iearners' lime. TeII Iearners:
# What thc casc study shnws. Do nol be loo secific. }usl exIain hov lhe case reIales lo
lhe sub|ecl under discussion.
# What tn nnticc. Whal are lhe imorlanl fealures` Where shouId Iearners focus
allenlion` Again, do nol be loo secific. }usl give some cIues as lo vhere lo slarl lheir
examinalion of lhe case.
# Qucstinns tn answcr. The ansvers form lhe deIiverabIe for lhe aclivily. They direcl
Iearners' searches and conlroI vhal discoveries lhey are IikeIy lo make on lheir ovn.
# What tn think abnut. Ask queslions lhal guide Iearners lo lhink aboul hov lhis case
reIales lo olhers or lo lhe sub|ecl of lhe Iesson or course.
Best practices for discovery activities
Resist the urge to lecture
Nol lhal you vouId, bul many designers find il difficuIl lo Iel go of conlroI. In discovery
aclivilies, ve have lo lrusl lhal Iearners viII discover lhe lrends, rinciIes, and concels
ve are leaching. And, ve have lo design lhe aclivilies so lhal Iearners acluaIIy !c make
lhe inlended discoveries. IIus, ve have lo lesl and refine and lesl and refine even more.
Designing discovery aclivilies is Iike leaching by remole conlroI.


Provoke experiments and interaction
In leam aclivilies, il is nol unusuaI lo vail for minules or hours for aclion lo begin because
everyone is vailing for someone eIse lo lake lhe Iead. In a nev environmenl Iike a
comuler-medialed scenario, eoIe may hesilale lo lake aclion. To overcome lhis
reIuclance, slarl vilh a secific lrigger evenl lhal requires a resonse from aII Iearners.
Include a synthesizing activity
}usl erforming exerimenls or reading case sludies can Ieave Iearners vilh a Iol of
informalion bul IillIe knovIedge. IncIude a synlhesizing aclivily lhal requires Iearners lo
consoIidale observalions inlo a coherenl lheory. One simIe vay is lo ask Iearners lo
summarize vhal lhey Iearned inlo a formuIa or a concise sel of besl raclices.
Balance realism and complexity
Make lhe aclivily reaIislic enough lhal Iearners recognize il and can see simiIarilies lo
lheir ovn silualions. ul do nol become so obsessed vilh reaIism lhal you Ieave oul lhe
Iearning exeriences or make lhe silualion so secific lhal Iearners cannol ma il lo lheir
silualions.
Extend discovery activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of discovery aclivilies by combining lhem vilh
Combine discovery with other activities
Discovery aclivilies combine roducliveIy vilh olher lyes of e-Iearning aclivilies.
# Slarl vilh a brief resenlalion (. 69) inlroducing an area of sludy, raising issues lo
exIore, or roviding exIicil inslruclions. Have Iearners conducl exerimenls (. 147)
lo discover key rinciIes and arouse curiosily. IoIIov u vilh a discussion aclivily
(. 484) lo exlend lhe rinciIes, salisfy curiosily, and consoIidale searale discoveries
inlo a coherenl lheory.
# IncIude olionaI virluaI-Iaboralory aclivilies (. 147) vhen leaching any sub|ecl vhere
Iearners may doubl vhal you are leaching unIess lhey discover il for lhemseIves.
# Incororale slories (. 105) inlo case sludies (. 152). The sloryleIIer can be a key figure
in lhe case under sludy.
# Have Iearners aIy discoveries in raclice aclivilies (. 130) or simuIalions (. 323).


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Design discovery activities for social learning
# CoIIaboraliveIy form hyolheses, Ian an exerimenl, inlerrel resuIls, and drav
concIusions.
# IndividuaIIy ursue differenl exerimenls and lhen consoIidale resuIls.
# Share and discuss individuaI discoveries.
Design discovery activities for mobile learning
# Discover by conducling hysicaI exerimenls, galhering reaI-vorId dala, or exIoring
hysicaI environmenls.
# Use mobiIe devices lo record dala, for examIe, sensor readings, Ialilude-Iongilude
coordinales, fieId noles, holos, audio cIis, and video sequences.
# Access onIine resources lo idenlify ob|ecls and characlerislics, such as rocks and
mineraIs, animaI and Ianl secies, archilecluraI slyIes, scuIlures, ainlings, and
eoIe.
# Use GIS coordinales lo Iocale vaIuabIe reaI-vorId examIes, lo deveIo navigalion
skiIIs, and lo enabIe Iearners lo converge on olhers' discoveries.
GAMES AND SIMULATIONS
Games and simuIalions lurn Iearning inlo IaymeaningfuI,
roduclive Iay.
Games and simuIalions can be suerb Do aclivilies. They can aIso
be lesls, Iessons, and enlire courses. The design of Iearning games
and simuIalions is lhe sub|ecl of Chaler 7.
This chaler discusses hov lo use games secificaIIy for individuaI
Do aclivilies.

Use games as single activities
Games for individuaI Iearning aclivilies differ from lhose used for enlerlainmenl and
from lhose used for Iarger unils of Iearning. These differences slem from differences of
goaI, scaIe, and economics.


Base the game on a single objective
Iach loic accomIishes a singIe ob|eclive, and each aclivily conlribules lo
accomIishmenl of lhal ob|eclive. Design lhe game aclivily lo conlribule direclIy lo lhe
singIe ob|eclive of ils loic. Use lhe lye of ob|eclive as a guide in seIecling lhe lye of
game. Ior examIe:
Typc nb|cctivc Typc gamc Inr a Dn activity
Crcatc SimuIalion lhal requires crealing a simIe inslance, for examIe, by
assembIing comonenl ieces.
Dccidc SimuIalion vhere Iearners make a decision and immedialeIy
exerience lhe consequences of lhal decision.
Dn SimuIalion vhere Iearners raclice a reaIislic lask, erhas vilh
coaching.
Knnw Quiz-shov or olher queslion-based game.
Bc!icvc Game roviding evidence in exerience so lhal Iearners discover
ruIes, rinciIes, and concels for lhemseIves.
Fcc! Game or simuIalion vilh emolion-rovoking silualions.

Clarify the purpose
Games serve lvo uroses: lo rovide raclice of a skiII or lo rovoke discovery of
knovIedge. efore deveIoing lhe game, decide vhich urose is rimary and
communicale lhal urose cIearIy lo everyone invoIved in deveIomenl of lhe game.
Make learning to play the game easy and quick
To Iearn from a game, Iearners musl firsl Iearn lo Iay lhe game. Time senl Iearning lo
Iay lhe game is lime nol senl Iearning from lhe game. If Iearning lo Iay lhe game lakes
loo Iong, Iearning is inefficienl and fruslraling. To minimize lime vasled in Iearning lo
Iay lhe game:
# Basc thc gamc nn |ust a Icw, simp!c ru!cs. SeII oul lhe ruIes cIearIy. Make lhem
accessibIe so Iearners can begin Iay before memorizing lhe ruIes.
# Usc a Iami!iar mndc!. ase lhe Iearning aclivily on a game Iearners aIready knov hov
lo Iay or on a silualion Iearners have exerienced reealedIy.
# Usc thc samc typc gamc thrnughnut thc cntirc cnursc. Or for each Do aclivily, use
differenl segmenls of an ongoing game. Require Iearners lo acquire game-Iaying skiIIs
onIy once.


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Scale the game to work as an activity
Many Iearning games are |usl loo comIex and exlensive lo vork as a singIe aclivily. Iick
a simIe game and Iimil lhe scoe of lhe game so il exercises or lesls accomIishmenl of a
singIe ob|eclive. Here are some suggesled size Iimils:
# ranching simuIalion of u lo five |ums.
# Quiz-shov game vilh u lo 25 queslions.
# Word uzzIe vilh 30-40 cIues.
# }igsav uzzIe vilh 25-50 ieces.
# IersonaI-resonse simuIalion for lhree lo five decisions.
# Malh or financiaI simuIalion for a singIe caIcuIalion invoIving five lo len variabIes.
Or use segments of a larger game
Anolher soIulion for scaIing games lo vork as aclivilies is lo use individuaI segmenls of
an ongoing game. Ior examIe, a vhoIe course couId use a vork simuIalion covering lhe
vhoIe |ob. Iach Iesson couId consisl of lhe simuIalion of a singIe comIex lask or |ob duly.
The simuIalion of each sle of lhe rocedure or hase of lhe lask couId be a searale
aclivily.
Likevise, a vhoIe-roducl simuIalion couId be divided inlo simuIalions highIighling each
caabiIily or dislincl use of lhe roducl.
Ior anolher examIe, consider an exlensive inlerersonaI simuIalion. Iach grou of
reIaled decisions reresenls a searale Do aclivily lhal conlribules lo Iearning a arl of lhe
sub|ecl and, al lhe same lime, gales rogress lhrough lhe overaII simuIalion. Iach eisode
or mission vilhin lhe game serves as a searale aclivily.
Keep game activities consistent
If you use games lhroughoul an enlire course, kee lhe games consislenl from aclivily lo
aclivily. You do nol have lo Iimil a course lo |usl one lye of game, bul using loo many
lyes of games can confuse Iearners and deIele your budgel. Games are oflen loo
comIex and exensive lo deveIo for |usl one aclivily.
Consider using lyes of games lhal can be Iayed over and over again vilhoul gelling
slaIe, for examIe quiz-shov games, vord games, and lask simuIalions vhere differenl
queslions, cIues, and |ob goaIs make each game or simuIalion a fresh chaIIenge.
Where ossibIe, buiId individuaI game aclivilies from a common lemIale lhal ensures
consislency in lhe disIay, ruIes, and oeralion of lhe individuaI games. TemIales for
common lyes of games are reIaliveIy inexensive. And, even if you are deveIoing your
ovn games, crealing lemIales firsl can sliII save lime and money.


Use the same type game for testing
ecause games can serve as Do aclivilies and as lesls, il makes sense lo use lhe same basic
game for lhe leslvilh some differences.
Gamc Inr thc Dn activity Gamc Inr thc tcst
Purpnsc
To rovide raclice or lo rovoke
discovery.
To measure accomIishmenl of
lhe ob|eclive.
Task
Ior iniliaI Iearning, lhe robIem or
lask assigned lhe Iearner may be
simIer and easier lhan ones faced
in reaI Iife. Ior more advanced
Iearning, lhe robIems are
aulhenlicaIIy difficuIl.
As difficuIl as lhose faced in reaI
Iife.
Cnaching?
Yes. No.
Rcsnurccs
Any lhal viII heI lo Iearn in lhe
game.
OnIy lhose avaiIabIe in reaI Iife.
Timc
!imit
No. Yes, if seed of erformance is
crilicaI in reaI silualions.
Rctrics
UnIimiled. Limiled, deending on lhe cosls
of reaI-vorId faiIure.
5cnrcd?
No. Yes, if olher lesl aclivilies are
scored.

Extend game activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of games and simuIalions by combining lhem vilh
Combine games with other activities
# Have Iearners viev a resenlalion on concels before Iaying lhe game and read
maleriaIs aflervards lo exIore issues more deeIy.
# Irovide a resenlalion, readings, or |ob-aids as a source of ansvers in quiz-shov
games and vord games.
# IncIude raclice aclivilies lhal require lhe Iearners lo do for reaI vhal vas simuIaled in
a game.
# Have Iearners hyolhesize underIying formuIas, ruIes, rinciIes, or rocesses. Then
require Iearners lo Ian fulure aclions based on findings.


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Design game activities for social learning
# Ingage in muIli-Iayer games lhal require communicalion, coordinalion, and
leamvork. Ior examIe, conducl a roIe-Iaying aclivily as a game.
# rainslorm, discuss, and vole on moves.
# Creale and share simIe games and uzzIes. Irovide lemIales lo simIify crealing lhe
game.
# Share successfuI and unsuccessfuI slralegies, discoveries, and insighls.
# Conlribule queslions lo a ooI used in quiz-shov games.
# IIay lhe game as an individuaI bul gel advice from feIIov Iearners, exerls, or an
exlended sociaI nelvork.
Design game activities for mobile learning
# IIay hysicaI games and board gameseducalionaI ones, lhal is.
# SoIve uzzIes lhal require galhering informalion al differenl Iocalions.
# Visil reaI Iocalions lo see vhal lhe finished uzzIe shouId Iook Iike, for examIe, a
|igsav uzzIe on archileclure.
# Ierform inslrucled aclions on an acluaI device vilh feedback rovided by lhe mobiIe
device.
# Discuss game Iay lo lry lo idenlify underIying ruIes, rocesses, or rinciIes.
IN CLOSING
Summary
Do aclivilies are lhe alh belveen informalion and knovIedge, belveen exIanalions and
skiIIs. They ul brains inlo aclion, exIoring, discovering, raclicing, refining, and
erfecling knovIedge and skiIIs. Learners shouId send al Ieasl haIf lheir lime in
meaningfuI Do aclivilies. Do aclivilies incIude:
# Practicc activitics lhal exercise and refine a vide range of skiIIs from simIe
mechanicaI skiIIs lo comIex anaIylicaI or inlerersonaI skiIIs.
# Discnvcry activitics lhal use exIoralion and exerimenlalion lo Iead Iearners lo
discover nev concels, rinciIes, and facls for lhemseIves.
# Gamcs and simu!atinns lhal Iel Iearners discover nev knovIedge, lry oul lheir
groving skiIIs, and monilor lheir rogressaII vhiIe having fun.


Pick Do activities to accomplish learning objectives
The foIIoving |ob aid lies lhe six lyes of ob|eclives lo common lyes of Do aclivilies.
AIong lhe Iefl are lhe main lyes of aclivilies groued inlo Iraclice, Discovery, and
Games and simuIalions. In coIumns are lhe six lyes of ob|eclives. A circIe al lhe
inlerseclion of a lye's coIumn and an aclivily's rov means lhal lhe aclivily is
recommended for lhal lye ob|eclive. A bIack dol indicales a slronger recommendalion.
Dn
activitics
Typcs nI nb|cctivcs
P
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DriII-and-raclice "
Hands-on "
Guided anaIysis " !
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VirluaI Iab ! ! !
Case sludy ! ! " " !
G
a
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s

a
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s
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u
!
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Quiz shov " "
Word uzzIe " ! !
}igsav uzzIe " " "
ranching scenario

" ! ! " !
Task simuIalion

" "

IersonaI resonse sim

" !

" "
InvironmenlaI sim ! "

" "
RoIe-Iaying sim ! ! ! ! " "

For more
Do aclivilies are oflen scored. Thal lurns lhem inlo lesls. Check oul Chaler 5 for more
ideas on lesls. Some Connecl aclivilies require doing lhings. Ierhas some of lhem couId
serve as Do aclivilies as veII. Look al Chaler 4 for some ideas.
To find more on Do aclivilies, search lhe Web for combinalions of lhese lerms: c-|carning,
inicraciitiiq, ganc, sinu|aiicn, praciicc, casc siu!q.

163

Connect-
type
activities
Linking Iearning lo Iife, vork,
and fulure Iearning

Connecl aclivilies heI Iearners cIose lhe ga belveen Iearning and lhe resl of lheir Iives.
They reare Iearners lo aIy Iearning in silualions lhey encounler al vork, in Ialer
Iearning efforls, and in lheir ersonaI Iives. If Absorb aclivilies are lhe nouns and Do
aclivilies lhe verbs, lhen Connecl aclivilies are lhe con|unclions of Iearning.
ABOUT CONNECT ACTIVITIES
Connecl aclivilies inlegrale vhal ve are Iearning vilh vhal ve knov. Oflen simIe and
sublIe, Connecl aclivilies are reguIarIy negIecled by designers vho Ieave Iearners lo make
conneclions on lheir ovn.
Connecl aclivilies bridge gas. They do nol so much add nev knovIedge and skiIIs as lie
logelher reviousIy Iearned skiIIs and knovIedge. In doing so, lhey add higher-IeveI
knovIedge and skiIIs. To knov vhelher an aclivily is a Connecl aclivily, ve have lo ask
lhe urose of lhe aclivily. If lhe urose is rimariIy lo leach somelhing nev, il is a Do
or an Absorb aclivily. If lhe urose is lo Iink lo somelhing aIready knovn or roml
aIicalion of Iearning, il is a Connecl aclivily.
!

164 ! Connect-type activities ! E-Learning by Design

Common types of Connect activities
Connecl aclivilies range from simIe slo-and-lhink queslions lo comIex reaI-vorId
vork assignmenls. Here are lyes of Connecl aclivilies lhal have roven lhemseIves in
cIassroom and onIine Iearning:
# Pnndcr activitics (. 166) require Iearners lo lhink deeIy and broadIy aboul a sub|ecl.
They require Iearners lo ansver rheloricaI queslions, medilale aboul lhe sub|ecl,
idenlify examIes, evaIuale examIes, summarize Iearning, and brainslorm ideas.
# Qucstinning activitics (. 176) Iel Iearners fiII in gas and resoIved confusion by
asking queslions of leachers, exerls, and feIIov Iearners.
# 5tnrics by !carncrs (. 184) require Iearners lo recaII evenls from lheir ovn Iives.
# Jnb aids (. 187) are looIs lhal heI Iearners aIy Iearning lo reaI-vorId lasks. They
incIude gIossaries, caIcuIalors, and e-consuIlanls.
# Rcscarch activitics (. 196) require Iearners lo discover and use lheir ovn sources of
informalion. These incIude scavenger hunls and guided research.
# Origina! wnrk (. 207) requires Iearners lo erform genuine vork and submil il for
crilique.
When to feature Connect activities
Learners oflen faiI lo aIy vhal lhey Iearn. Ior examIe, a manager asses a course on
hov lo inlerviev eoIe of differenl cuIlures. Six monlhs Ialer she bolches an
emIoymenl inlerviev of a shy Iranian voman vearing a lradilionaI head scarf. A malh
sludenl may gel an A in inlroduclory caIcuIus bul Ialer a D in advanced caIcuIus. Why`
He did nol aIy lhe concels from lhe inlroduclory course lo lhe advanced course,
vhich assumes lhe inlroduclory maleriaI as a rerequisile.
If you are famiIiar vilh DonaId Kirkalrick's four-IeveI evaIualion modeI, you knov lhe
imorlance of aIicalion. AIicalion is righl lhere on IeveI 3, caIIed |cnaticr. Il asks
vhelher Iearners aIy vhal lhey acluaIIy Iearned (IeveI 2) lo lheir subsequenl behavior.
UnIess aIicalion occurs, inlended organizalionaI resuIls (IeveI 4) never occur.
y lhe vay, if you are nol famiIiar vilh DonaId's modeI, you shouId be. Add |ta|uaiing
Training Prcgrans by DonaId and his son lo your Amazon shoing carl. And be sure lo
read Chaler 11 (vink, vink).

E-Learning by Design " Connect-type activities " 165

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Connecl aclivilies aim squareIy al increasing aIicalion of Iearning. So use Connecl
aclivilies vhen:
# App!icatinn is crucia!. The success of individuaIs, organizalions, or socielies deends
on Iearners aIying skiIIs and knovIedge. Ivery day eoIe die because safely
inslruclions are ignored. Iconomies sag because lheir vorkers are nol comelilive in a
gIobaI economy.
# App!icatinn is nnt adcquatc. Ierhas Iearning is aIied bul nol in enough delh or
by enough eoIe. Ior examIe, many comanies hire exensive managemenl
consuIlanls lo leach lheir emIoyees sub|ecls Iike Six Sigma or TQM. Six monlhs Ialer
lhe oslers are eeIing off lhe vaIIs and lhe sIogan-embossed enciIs have been
ground dovn lo lhe nibs, and lhe onIy Iasling resuIl is a fev addilionaI coffee mugs in
lhe break room. The leaching may have been greal, bul lhere vas scanl aIicalion.
# Ynu tcach a gcncra! sub|cct. road rinciIes and concels can be aIied in varied
silualions. You cannol incIude enough examIes and cuslom aclivilies lo reare
Iearners lo aIy lhe Iearning in every ossibIe silualion lhey may encounler. Ior
examIe, a course on business vriling mighl be aIied by an engineer lo vrile a
lechnicaI secificalion or by a markeling manager lo vrile a saIes roosaI.
# Lcarncrs dnubt app!icabi!ity nI matcria!. CoIIege sludenls aIy binge Iearning lo
ass courses lhey are required lo lake bul for vhich lhey see no raclicaI vaIue. Tvo
veeks afler lhe end of lhe lerm, lhey have forgollen mosl of vhal lhey Iearned. Much
comIiance lraining in induslry fares no beller. Learners gel lheir lickels unched and
go on |usl as if nolhing haened. Why` They never sav hov vhal lhey vere Iearning
aIied lo lheir Iives.
# Lcarncrs cannnt makc cnnncctinns by thcmsc!vcs. Somelimes il lakes exlraordinary
efforls lo see lhe conneclion belveen abslracl sub|ecls and daiIy Iife. This in lhe
cIouds sligma Iagues malhemalics, science, hiIosohy, and dozens of olher
sub|ecls. Many Iearners Iack lhe exerience, molivalion, or crealivily lo make
conneclions on lheir ovn.
Connecl aclivilies can soIve lhese robIems vilhoul a Iol of exlra efforl. As a ruIe, lhey
require onIy aboul 10% of Iearners' lime. Somelimes a rheloricaI queslion may be aII you
need.


PONDER ACTIVITIES

Ionder aclivilies require Iearners lo lhink deeIy and broadIy aboul
vhal lhey are Iearning. They focus allenlion on lhe sub|ecl and invile
Iearners lo adol a nev erseclive regarding lhe sub|ecl.
About ponder activities
Ionder aclivilies are simIe Iearning exeriences lhal roml lhe Iearner lo examine ideas
from a nev erseclive. They say:
Stop and think about it!
Zoom back and see the big picture.
Look at it from a different angle.
Ionder aclivilies are Iike cIassroom aclivilies during vhich lhe leacher erforms an oul-
of-lhe-ordinary aclivily lo break lhe rouline and lo gel Iearners lo Iook al lhe sub|ecl
afresh.
When to use ponder activities
Use onder aclivilies vhen you need Iearners lo lhink aboul a sub|ecl in a nev vay. Use
lhem lo:
# Incourage broader and deeer lhoughl aboul a sub|ecl.
# Make Iearners avare of hov ideas and vaIues aIy in lheir Iives.
# Reduce lunneI vision resuIling from slress or anxiely.
# Trigger conceluaI breaklhroughs by gelling Iearners lo inlegrale searale ideas in
nev vays.
Types of ponder activities
Ionder aclivilies come in severaI fIavors. Here's a Iisl of lyes and vhal lhey do.
# Rhctnrica! qucstinns (. 167) ask lhoughl-rovoking queslions lo direcl allenlion lo an
asecl of lhe sub|ecl.
# Mcditatinns (. 168) romole a reIaxed, oen consideralion of lhe sub|ecl.
# Citc-cxamp!c activitics (. 171) require Iearners lo idenlify reaI-vorId inslances of a
concel or calegory.


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# Eva!uatinns (. 172) ask Iearners lo |udge lhe imorlance or vaIue of an ilem under
sludy.
# 5ummary activitics (. 174) require Iearners lo idenlify and reca imorlanl
rinciIes, concels, facls, lis, and olher ilems of Iearning.
In sociaI Iearning, brainslorming (. 472) aIso rovides a Connecl aclivily vhere Iearners
coIIecl suggeslions from a grou of Iearners.
How ponder activities work
Ionder aclivilies are usuaIIy simIe one-shol exeriences vilhoul any sequence. If lhey
invoIve more lhan a couIe of sles, lhey are robabIy arl of anolher lye of aclivily. The
uller simIicily of onder aclivilies makes il easy lo inlegrale lhem inlo olher more
comIex aclivilies. We oflen inlerIeave onder aclivilies vilh Do and Absorb aclivilies
vilhoul lhe Iearner nolicing lhe Connecl aclivily as a searale evenleseciaIIy if il is a
simIe form such as a rheloricaI queslion.
Rhetorical questions
RheloricaI queslions rovoke lhoughl. They may nol require a visibIe resonse from
Iearners, bul lhey do require Iearners lo lhink deeIy in order lo ansver lhe queslion for
lhemseIves. We somelimes caII lhem sicp-an!-inink queslions.
In lhe Using Ganii Cnaris course, I incIuded lhese queslions in one loic:

There vere no checkboxes for Iearners lo cIick and no lexl boxes for Iearners lo lye in
lheir ansvers. Thinking aboul lhe ansvers vas enough.
When to use rhetorical questions
Use a rheloricaI queslion as a simIe vay lo gel Iearners lo lhink aboul a sub|ecl. Ior
examIe, vhen:
# ReaI-vorId examIes abound and you onIy need lo direcl Iearners' allenlion lo lhem.
# AII you need lo do is lo gel lhe Iearners lo lhink aboul an asecl of lhe sub|ecl.
# You Iack lime, sace, or energy lo do more.


Best practices for rhetorical questions
You can ask rheloricaI queslions aboul any loic you leach, such as a oIicy, rocedure,
rinciIe, concel, allilude, or vaIue. So hov do you ask good rheloricaI queslions`
Ask stnp-and-think qucstinns. Teachers since Socrales have eered sludenls vilh
rheloricaI queslions designed lo direcl lheir lhoughls lo asecls of a sub|ecl. Here are
some roven lhoughl-slarlers:
# Why do you lhink lhis is so` Why did lhis haen`
# Whal olher resuIls couId you execl`
# Where viII lhis idea aIy` Where viII il nol aIy`
# Hov can you aIy lhis idea`
# Hov imorlanl is lhis idea lo you`
# Hov consislenl is lhis idea vilh olher lhings you knov`
Makc qucstinns pcrsnna!. Iealure lhe second erson singuIar: Hov viII ynu .` Why
do ynu .` Gel Iearners lo lhink aboul lheir ovn exeriences, knovIedge, alliludes, and
vaIues.
Rcquirc thnught abnut thc sub|cct and thc !carncr's wnr!d. }usl asking queslions aboul
lhe sub|ecl makes lhe queslion seem Iike a lesl. So ul lhe queslion in lhe Iearner's
conlexl. In lhe vork lhal you do, vhal is lhe besl vay lo .`
Rcquirc snmc actinn iI ncccssary. Iind an examIe of lhis idea and lhen ansver lhese
queslions aboul il ...
Triggcr thnught abnut whcn, whcrc, hnw, and why tn app!y !carning. Ask queslions
Iearners vouId have lo ansver before aIying Iearning for reaI. Hov oflen viII you
aIy lhis idea`
Meditation activities
The vord medilalion may con|ure lhe image of someone silling cross-Iegged, reealedIy
chanling om. AIlhough such forms of medilalion mighl rovoke a reIaxed slale
aroriale for Iearning or Iead lo myslicaI insighlslhal is nol vhal I have in mind by a
medilalion aclivily. Medilalion invoIves a reIaxed consideralion of a sub|ecl vilh a mind
oen lo insighls lhal may occur.
Medilalion aclivilies are nol lighlIy focused. The big iclure and conlenl are more
imorlanl lhan inlerior delaiIs. Medilalion aclivilies may invoIve more lhan cognilive
asecls of a sub|ecl. They may deIve inlo emolionaI meanings and imIicalions for lhe
Iearner's vaIues and alliludes. Medilalions may use non-verbaI and non-exIicil media
such as music and abslracl grahics.


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Example of a meditation activity
On one ro|ecl, I needed lo broaden lhe concel of vision from |usl a vision slalemenl lo
somelhing invoIving lhe feeIings of lhe grou and hov lhose feeIings guide lhe grou's
aclions.
A secondary urose vas lo heI lhe Iearnerslhe vision commillee for a Chrislian
church congregalion, vho have olher |obs, demanding famiIies, and busy Iiveslo Iel go
of lheir daiIy concerns Iong enough lo vork logelher in lhis course.

To accomIish lhese
ob|eclives, I began each Iesson
vilh medilalion aclivilies. The
Iesson slarled vilh a age
fealuring a slained-gIass
vindov. On each vindov
vas a differenl fIover from
lhe Chrislian ibIe. The
urose vas lo drav Iearners
oul of lheir noisy vorId by
Ielling lhem Iook al a beaulifuI
image.
The choice of a vindov vas nol accidenlaI. The vindov reinforced lhe message lhal
vision Iooks oulvard and coIors hov lhe organizalion sees lhe Iarger communily of
vhich il is a arl.
To furlher heI Iearners disengage from daiIy concerns, lhe age incIuded a bullon lo
Iay music associaled vilh siriluaI vaIues.

The second age of lhe Iesson
incIuded medilalive aclivilies
designed lo furlher lhe
conlemIalive mood
necessary lo vork as a leam lo
discover a common vision.
The main aclivily on lhis age
resenled differenl slyIes of
music and chaIIenged
arlicianls lo ick one lhal
refIecled lheir vision.
uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and Aclive Server Iages


This aclivily rovoked IiveIy discussion as Iearners asked each olher, Why do you feeI
lhal vay`
Rounding oul lhe medilalion vere quolalions from sources sacred and commonagain
reinforcing lhe oinl lhal an organizalion's vision connecls il lo lhe surrounding vorId
ralher lhan isoIaling il.
When to use meditation activities
Medilalion aclivilies are eseciaIIy vaIuabIe for sub|ecls lhal may lrigger emolionaI
resislance, for examIe, Ieadershi slyIe, negolialion, elhicaI behavior, oIilics, and
deaIing vilh angry eoIe. They are aIso good vhen discussing basic human vaIues or
leaching asecls of siriluaIily.
Use medilalion aclivilies lo:
# Rc!ax tcnsc !carncrs. HeI lhem disengage from oulside concerns lhal couId inlerfere
vilh lheir Iearning.
# Brnadcn thc Incus and cmphasizc cnntcxt. Gel Iearners lo sle back and see hov a
sub|ecl fils inlo a broader scheme.
# Invn!vc nthcr scnsnry mnda!itics and "intc!!igcnccs"for variely, sure, bul in a
urosefuI vay lhal Iearners viII find naluraI and sonsors viII ay for.
# Prcparc Inr wnrk rcquiring npcnncss and crcativity. Medilalive aclivilies can
disengage crilicaI and anaIylicaI modes of lhinking vhen lhey mighl inlerfere.
# Encnuragc hn!istic thinking. HeI Iearners resoIve confIicls and inconsislencies
belveen vhal lhey are Iearning and vhal lhey beIieve.
I have aIso used medilalion aclivilies lo reduce lension in hard sub|ecls such as Iav and
comuler rogramming by reminding Iearners hov lhese sub|ecls fil inlo lhe Iarger
universe of human endeavors.
More kinds of meditation activities
Here are some more simIe medilalion aclivilies:
# Cn!nring. Learners musl ick coIors for a symboI and |uslify lhe imIicalions of lheir
choices.
# 5ymbn!izing. Search a cIi-arl Iibrary for aII lhe differenl vays lo reresenl a grou,
concel, vaIue, or rinciIe. }uslify lhe choice.
# Chanting. ReealedIy say lhe name of a concel or organizalion lo sense ils hidden
associalions.
# Dccp watching. Ixerience a video segmenl normaIIy, lhen vilh lhe sound lurned off,
lhen vilh onIy lhe sound, lhen in sIov molion, and finaIIy seeded u.
# Mcaning qucst. Search lhe Web lo coIIecl or comare quolalions on a sub|ecl or
definilions of a lerm.


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# Dc|a vicwing. Idenlify ancienl anaIogies lo modern lechnoIogies and recenl hisloricaI
evenls.
Best practices for meditation activities
Medilalion aclivilies are sublIe and benefil from sensilive design.
# Havc a gnnd rcasnn Inr thc activity. Many designers lhrov in coIorfuI arlvork or
music for no good reason. Your reason for a medilalion aclivily may be inleIIecluaI,
emolionaI, or siriluaIbul nol |usl decoralive.
# C!ariIy ynur purpnsc. Whal do you vanl lhe aclivily lo achieve` Ixcilemenl or a caIm,
recelive mind` Are you lrying lo make a sublIe oinl` Or is your goaI lo gel Iearners
lo ul aside a bias or re|udice`
# Exp!ain thc rcasnn Inr thc activity Iesl Iearners lhink you are being veird for veird's
sake.
# Vary thc typc nI mcditatinn activity. Differenl Iearners viII resond lo differenl lyes
of aclivilies. Use differenl media. Consider music, symboIic grahics, animalion, and
video.
Cite-example activities
ChaIIenge Iearners lo idenlify inslances of a concel or calegory you have described and
iIIuslraled. Such an aclivily connecls lhe concel or calegory vilh lhings lhe Iearner is
aIready famiIiar vilh or can easiIy find in lhe vorId.

This aclivily requires Iearners lo
idenlify exisling examIes, nol lo
creale originaI examIes. Crealing
originaI examIes is arl of lhe
OriginaI vork aclivily (. 207).
A course on informalion
archileclure chaIIenged Iearners lo
find examIes of Web siles
organized according lo differenl
rinciIes.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and Aclive Server
Iages.


In lhe Using Ganii Cnaris course, I inlroduced deendency markers and lhen chaIIenged
Iearners lo cile examIes.

Thal's righl. Somelimes a rheloricaI queslion is aII you need.
When to have learners identify examples
Requiring Iearners lo idenlify examIes achieves severaI educalionaI goaIs, such as:
# Rounding oul lhe definilion of a lerm or calegory.
# Making a concel more concrele and secific.
# Verifying lhal sludenls can correclIy aIy lerms and calegories.
# Iroving lhe aIicabiIily of Iearning.
The resonse of one sludenl lo such an aclivily shovs ils vaIue: Wov. This sluff reaIIy
exisls. I never knev.
Best practices for cite-example activities
# Rcquirc scarching tn Iind cxamp!cs. Require Iearners lo do more lhan ick from Iisls
you rovide. To simIify lhe search, give Iearners a slarling oinl. If exlensive
searching is required, combine lhe cile-examIe aclivily vilh a research aclivily
(. 196).
# 5imp!iIy submitting cxamp!cs. Lel Iearners submil by enlering Web addresses of lhe
examIes, by uIoading or e-maiIing a holograh, sound recording, or video cIi, or
by giving direclions on hov lo find lhe examIe, such as roviding ils GIS
coordinales. In an onIine meeling, have Iearners idenlify examIes by enlering lhem in
chal (. 418) or describing lhem oraIIy by audio-conferencing (. 420).
# 5pcciIy thc typc nI cxamp!cs snught. CIearIy define lhe calegory or concel for vhich
examIes are soughl. Shov a fev examIes as modeIs of lhe lye examIes Iearners
shouId idenlify. AIso secify any quaIily slandards (IegibIy formalled), required
characlerislics (al Ieasl lhree IeveIs dee), or lechnicaI Iimilalions (1 M max).
# Encnuragc pcrsnna! cxamp!cs. Ask Iearners lo Iook for examIes in lheir ovn
exeriences, vork, ersonaI Iife, and rior educalion.
Evaluation activities
Require Iearners lo rale lhe imorlance of ilems of Iearning. Learners musl |udge from
lheir ersonaI erseclive, such as in lhe conlexl of a ro|ecl in vhich lhe ilems of
Iearning mighl be aIied.


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This examIe required Iearners
lo rale lhe uliIily of various
access melhods for an onIine
documenl or Web sile lhey
vere crealing.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and Aclive
Server Iages.
An evaIualion aclivily can be used as a vhoIe-cIass aclivily as veII. In an onIine meeling
you can have lhe cIass vole on lhe vaIue for each ilem. Lel lhem re-vole afler considering
lhe oinions of olhers.
When to use evaluation activities
Asking Iearners lo rale lhe imorlance of ideas lhey have been laughl chaIIenges lhem lo
crilicaIIy examine lhose ideas from a ersonaI erseclive. Such re-examinalion is
vaIuabIe lo:
# Gel Iearners lo slarl vinnoving lhe ideas lhey viII acluaIIy aIy.
# Iorce reconsideralion of individuaI ilems and lheir raclicaI advanlages and
disadvanlages.
# ReIace role ruIe-foIIoving vilh sensilive |udgmenls.
Best practices for evaluation activities
# Pcrsnna!izc ratings. Remind Iearners lo evaIuale ilems from lheir unique individuaI
erseclive. Ask lhem Hov imorlanl or vaIuabIe is lhis idea ic qcu`
# 5ct a cnntcxt Inr cva!uatinn. Slale lhe area for vhich imorlance is raled. Use hrases
Iike in lhe vork you do and in your malh courses.
# Rcquirc critcria. Have Iearners slale lhe crileria lhey used lo |udge lhe idea. Rale lhe
imorlance from 1 lo 10 and exIain hov you arrived al lhal number.
# Rcquirc prccisinn. Avoid vague ralings Iike good and bad. Require a numeric raling
aIong a scaIe or require Iearners lo rale lhe reIalive imorlance of a grou of ideas.


Summary activities
Summary aclivilies ask Iearners lo reca vhal lhey have Iearned. Learners musl reviev a
sub|ecl area, seIecl vhal is imorlanl, organize lhe seIeclion IogicaIIy, and exress il
cIearIy in lheir ovn vords.

This examIe chaIIenges Iearners
lo summarize a documenl and
hov lhe ideas of lhe documenl
aIy lo lheir vork.

uiIl using MoodIe.
When to use summary activities
Summarizing rior Iearning has severaI effecls on Iearning. Il:
# Ireares Iearners lo aIy Iearning by having lhem rehearse recaIIing needed
informalion.
# Ireares Iearners lo leach or inform olhers, such as members of lheir leam or sludy
grou.
# Triggers a syslemalic, ersonaI reviev of an area of Iearning.
These aclivilies Iel you monilor Iearners' IeveI of underslanding. Do Iearners recaII lhe
main oinls` Are lhe oinls IogicaIIy inlegraled and riorilized` Have Iearners lransIaled
Iearning inlo lheir ovn vocabuIary`
Best practices for summary activities
5imp!iIy crcating thc summary. A bIank lexl area is nol aIvays lhe besl vay for Iearners
lo exress a summary. Ior some sub|ecls, you may vanl lo have Iearners drav a iclure
and submil il by e-maiI or osl il lo a discussion forum. Ior olher sub|ecls, you may vanl


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lo slruclure lhe form of lhe summary. You couId, for examIe, Iel Iearners conslrucl a
summary by seIecling and sequencing slalemenls from a Iisl.
C!ariIy what tn summarizc. Have Iearners summarize a secific Iesson, loic, or aclivily.
Have Iearners summarize secific Iearning exeriencesbooks, arlicIes, resenlalions,
reguIalions, or olher documenls.
Assign summary activitics tn a grnup. Have Iearners comare searale summaries and
lhen consoIidale lhem. Iirsl, each Iearner individuaIIy creales a summary and osls il lo a
discussion forum (. 425). Then, as a grou, lhe cIass discusses lhe summaries eilher in an
onIine meeling or on lhe forum. Togelher lhey idenlify oinls lo incIude in lhe masler
summary and hov lhese oinls shouId be organized.
5ct a cnntcxt Inr thc summary. Ralher lhan have Iearners vrile a convenlionaI academic
summary, consider requiring a formal lhal lhey mighl need lo roduce in lhe reaI vorId
or in an ongoing scenario, such as one of lhese:
# Iress reIease.
# Adverlisemenl.
# Iosler.
# Iock diagram or organizalion charl.
# ook |ackel and bIurb.
# HeadIine and firsl fev aragrahs of a nevsaer slory.
# Sloryboard for a 60-second TV nevs sol.
# 20-second sound bile.
# Reviev or synosis.
Extend ponder activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of onder aclivilies by combining lhem vilh olher
Combine ponder activities with other activities
Ionder aclivilies are simIe Connecl aclivilies lhal bond veII vilh olher aclivilies.
# Combine onder aclivilies vilh research aclivilies (. 196) so Iearners can exIore lhe
significance of vhal lheir research reveaIed.
# Afler a resenlalion (. 69), have Iearners summarize lhe resenlalion, evaIuale ils
imorlance, and cile examIes lo iIIuslrale ils rinciIes.
# SrinkIe rheloricaI queslions lhroughoul olher aclivilies, eseciaIIy Absorb aclivilies.
# IoIIov Absorb and Do aclivilies vilh a onder aclivily lhal requires Iearners lo
idenlify and refIecl uon vhal lhey Iearned.


Design ponder activities for social learning
# Irovoke olhers lo onder, by asking slo-and-lhink queslions, allemling lo slum
lhe grou, and by conlinuaIIy asking Why`
# Share ciled examIes, summaries, |ob-aids, aIicalion lechniques, and olher resuIls of
onder aclivilies. Learners can use bIogs, odcasls, lveels, or sociaI bookmarking lo
share resuIls of ondering.
# Ionder as a grou, for examIe, by brainslorming vays lo aIy Iearning.
# Comare, evaIuale, and consoIidale lhe vork of olher Iearners.
Design ponder activities for mobile learning
# Navigale lo ob|ecls and environmenls lhal cause Iearners lo onder. SeIecl ones lhal
evoke feeIings of ave or grandeur, for examIe, monumenls, ubIic saces, vorks of
arl, and conslruclion ro|ecls.
# TraveI lo a eacefuI environmenl in vhich lo medilale.
# Use lhe caIendar funclion lo lrigger rheloricaI queslions or olher onder aclivilies.
# Use audio lo Iead medilalion, free associalion, and imaginalion.
# Iind examIes and aIicalions of Iearning in lhe reaI vorId.
# IvaIuale reaI-vorId vork, such as lhe quaIily of a conslruclion |ob.
QUESTIONING ACTIVITIES
Asking and ansvering queslions is fundamenlaI lo educalion and
lrainingand lo any endeavor invoIving more lhan one erson. Asking
and ansvering queslions is inherenlIy a Connecl aclivily. Il emerges
from lhe individuaI's recenl Iearning and background exeriences.
IersonaI curiosily is lhe sark lhal iniliales lhe queslion. Asking and
ansvering queslions is aImosl aIvays sociaI as il oflen invoIves
inleracling vilh feIIov Iearners, leachers, exerls, co-vorkers, and
friends.

Though a simIe aclivily, queslioning lriggers overfuI Iearning rocesses. Queslioning
requires Iearners lo conceive and exress a queslion and lhen allend lo and refIecl on lhe
ansver. Queslioning aclivilies may aIso resenl Iearners lhe chance lo ansver queslions,
lhus exercising lheir abiIily lo inlegrale and aIy Iearning.


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As a formaI aclivily, asking and ansvering queslions is nev lo lhis edilion. In lhe firsl
edilion, I considered il a naluraI sidecar exerience in aclivilies Iike resenlalions,
readings, and research. Afler aII, I reasoned, queslioning is a human exerience, nol an
exIicil aclivily. Thal vas a mislake. We e-Iearning designers are a IileraI-minded Iol.
Some readers, assuming il vas nol imorlanl, omilled lhe queslioning arl of olher
aclivilies. This seclion shouId correcl my mislake.
Queslioning aclivilies can range from simIe, sonlaneous aclions by Iearners lo carefuIIy
choreograhed onIine meelings. As a designer, you musl decide vhich form besl
accomIishes your Iearning ob|eclives.
Why use questioning activities?
Queslioning aclivilies heI individuaIs inlegrale nev Iearning. IncIude such aclivilies
vhere Iearners need lo:
# Fi!! in gaps, eilher in lhe overaII iclure or belveen lheory and aIicalion.
# Gct unstuck. y asking queslions, Iearners can gel suggeslions of nev lechniques lo
lry or even acquire a nev vievoinl for inlerreling facls.
# Cnnncct !carning tn a pcrsnna! situatinn. Learners can ansver lhe aII-imorlanl
queslion: Whal's in il for me`
# Lcarn tn !carn by asking queslions. SkiIIfuI queslioning is nol |usl a Iearning skiII, il is
a survivaI skiII. Iraclice asking and ansvering queslions can leach vhal, vhen, vhom,
and hov lo ask.
# VcriIy truth. A quick queslion can reIieve doubl or remove a misconcelion. Il can
quickIy vaIidale (or nol) a beIief, susicion, or cIaim.
Kee in mind lhal queslioning aclivilies deaI rimariIy vilh knovIedge. Such aclivilies
may, lherefore, be a core arl of kncu and |c|ictc ob|eclives and a secondary arl of olhers.
As designers, ve can aIso emIoy queslioning aclivilies lo assess Iearners and Iearning.
The IeveI of Iearning is oflen reveaIed by lhe sohislicalion of queslions asked by Iearners.
Encourage learners to ask the right people
The quaIily of an ansver usuaIIy deends uon lhe exerlise of lhe ansverer. Design
queslioning aclivilies and rocesses so lhal queslions naluraIIy go lo lhose vho can besl
ansver lhem. Lel's consider lhe candidales:
# Fc!!nw !carncrs. Cohorls of lhe Iearner are besl al ansvering simIe, rouline queslions,
bul nol advanced queslions. Queslions direcled lo feIIov Iearners shouId faII vilhin
lhe ob|eclives of lhe course and vilhin lhe exerlise of feIIov Iearners. In a generaI
educalion course, aduIl Iearners can drav on a Iife of exerience as a Iearner and
erhas some exerience as a leacher lo ansver queslions. Hovever, in a course on
comIex nev financiaI reguIalions, queslions mighl beller be ansvered by an exerl.


IeIIov Iearners can ansver queslions lhal lhe leacher ansvered before or queslions on
maleriaI aIready covered in cIass. Ior everyday queslions, asking feIIov Iearners is a
IogicaI firsl sle.
# Tcachcrs. Teachers and inslruclors shouId be reared lo handIe ordinary sub|ecl-
maller queslions vilhin lhe scoe of course ob|eclives. They shouId aIso handIe
adminislralive queslions. Hovever, do nol Iel ready access lo lhe leacher encourage
Iearners lo forego lhe hard vork of conducling research and discussing issues vilh
feIIov Iearners. Iul in Iace oIicies lhal revard seIf-reIiance and rolecl lhe leacher
from an overvheIming vorkIoad.
# 5ub|cct-mattcr cxpcrts. Use SMIs lo ansver advanced sub|ecl-secific queslions,
eseciaIIy ones lhal go beyond lhe formaI ob|eclives of lhe course. Use SMIs for
queslions beyond lhe exerlise or rofessionaI credibiIily of lhe leacher. Take care nol
lo overvheIm SMIs vilh lriviaI queslions lhal couId be ansvered by lhe leacher, by
feIIov Iearners, or by a veII-hrased Inlernel search.
# Panc! nI cxpcrts. ScheduIe a aneI or symosium (. 413) lo discuss very advanced
queslions, eseciaIIy conlroversiaI and comIex ones lhal need discussion ralher lhan a
one-shol ansver. Resecl lhe lime and exerlise of lhe exerls. Have Iearners reare
and refine queslions in advance.
# Hc!p dcsk. Refer lechnicaI queslions lo a smaII grou of oulside exerls on caII lo
ansver such queslions. If lhis lye service exisls for your fieId, gain access for your
Iearners. Olhervise, creale a service, modeIing il on a cuslomer-suorl holIine or a
Iibrary's reference desk.
# Fans, Iricnds, and In!!nwcrs. Ior generaI queslions, or |usl lo gel anolher oinion,
Iearners may lurn lo lheir rofessionaI or ersonaI sociaI nelvorks. Avoid lhis olion
for advanced queslions or issues of safely. Incourage Iearners, if using ubIic sociaI
nelvorks, lo largel secific grous vilh lhe needed exerlise ralher lhan broadcasling
queslions lo anyone and everyone.
# 5carch scrvicc. GoogIe and olher search engines are, in-effecl, queslion-ansvering
machines. They lry lo malch a search query lo conlenl lhal malches lhal query. They
are a good vay lo ansver queslions aboul secific roducls, eoIe, Iaces, and
organizalions. A search service is eseciaIIy good lo verify facls and figures and lo
galher oinions.
To conlroI vho ansvers vhich queslions, ul in Iace mechanisms lhal naluraIIy roule
queslions lo lhe righl erson. Give cIear inslruclions lo Iearners on hov lo gel ansvers lo
lheir queslions. Design secific aclivilies, such as queslion-and-ansver sessions or onIine
aneIs, vhere leachers and exerls are avaiIabIe lo ansver and discuss queslions. Sel u
onIine office hours for leachers. Irovide direclories of e-maiI addresses and olher conlacl
oinls for designaled exerls. uiId incenlives inlo grading crileria.


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Encourage good questions
Incourage Iearners lo ask good queslions by using oIicies, rocedures, romls, and
grading crileria. ul vhal is a good queslion` Lel's consider some common-sense crileria.
A good queslion is:
# Origina! and nnn-trivia!. The ansver cannol be found in lhe course maleriaIs or a
IAQ fiIe. The queslion has nol aIready been asked. And lhe ansver is nol easiIy found
vilh a simIe Inlernel search.
# 5imp!y structurcd. Many queslioners are so eager lo ask queslions lhal lhey |am
severaI queslions logelher, making lhe queslion hard lo undersland and requiring lhe
ansverer lo unlangIe lhem. In my exerience, vhen Iearners |am muIliIe queslions
logelher, onIy lhe Iasl queslion in lhe bundIe gels ansvered.
# C!car!y cxprcsscd. Good queslions are easy lo undersland. They lake lhe grammalicaI
form of a queslion, use roer lerminoIogy from lhe fieId, and foIIov convenlions of
slandard business Ianguage. If lhe queslion is soken, lhe vords are underslandabIe. If
oor audio quaIily or a seaker's lhick accenl renders queslions (or ansvers)
incomrehensibIe, rovide a lexl channeI for asking queslions.
# 5inccrc. Ralher lhan asking a genuine queslion, some Iearners may use lhe occasion lo
make a slalemenl. Walch oul for lhese non-queslions:
! 5pam qucstinns. The Iearner recedes lhe queslion vilh a recilaI of credenliaIs and
accomIishmenls. The urose is oflen seIf-romolion. Or, erhas lhe Iearner feeIs
lhe exerl is alronizing lhe cIass and nol laking queslions seriousIy.
! Arcn't-I-smart qucstinns. These are queslions asked lo imress lhe leacher, exerl,
or feIIov Iearners. They usuaIIy invoIve esoleric mallers exressed in |argon of lhe
fieId.
! Putting wnrds in thc mnuth nI thc cxpcrt. Somelimes Iearners viII ask queslions in
a vay designed lo eIicil a secific ansver. Don'l you beIieve lhal .` Oflen lhis is
a sign lhal lhe Iearner is lrying lo use lhe exerl lo convince someone eIse.
# Just cnntcxtua! cnnugh. A good queslion rovides |usl enough delaiIs lo enabIe a
secific, aIicabIe ansver. Learners musl slrike a baIance belveen suIying every
ossibIe delaiI and requiring lhe ansverer lo inlerrogale lhe queslioner before
ansvering. This is a difficuIl crilerion because lhe Iearner may nol knov vhal is
reIevanl. Give novices more Ieevay lhan exerienced raclilioners.
# Hc!pIu! tn thc !carning cIInrt. Good queslions buiId on currenl Iearning. They heI
olher Iearners by suIying imorlanl knovIedge and by lriggering even more
advanced queslions.
# Opcn-cndcd. Ixcel for quick queslions lo verify underslanding, queslions shouId nol
have simIe yes/no ansvers. They shouId eIicil more lhan a simIe facl or figure.


# Answcrab!c by thc targct. A good queslion faIIs squareIy in lhe area of exerlise of lhe
erson caIIed on lo ansver il. Mislakes incIude asking a Iov-IeveI funclionary aboul
organizalionaI oIicy or asking a highIy lechnicaI queslion of a saIes reresenlalive.
IubIish credenliaIs of exerls avaiIabIe lo ansver queslions. Incourage Iearners lo
malch lheir queslion lo lhe erson besl abIe lo ansver il. Remember, you do nol vanl
lo embarrass exerls by requiring lhem lo say, I don'l knov.
Insist on good answers
AImosl as imorlanl as good queslions are good ansvers. Incourage lhe kind of
queslion-ansvering behaviors lhal fuIIy ansver queslions and lhal sel a modeI for
Iearners vhen lhey ansver queslions. A good ansver:
# Rcsn!vcs unccrtainty. Il direclIy ansvers lhe queslion, or il rovides a vay lhe Iearner
can do so. InabIing Iearners lo ansver lheir ovn queslions may be a beller goaI lhan a
quick reIy.
# Avnids ambiguity. efore ansvering a queslion, an exerl shouId resoIve any
ambiguily, for examIe by asking, Do you mean ____ or ____` One good aroach is
lo arahrase lhe queslion and require confirmalion, for examIe, OK. As I
undersland il, you vanl lo knov _____, righl` This lechnique is necessary if lhe
queslion is nol exressed in correcl, slandard lerminoIogy or if lhe queslioner seaks
vilh a lhick accenl. The ansverer mighl aIso ask some olher Iearner lo rehrase lhe
queslion.
# Is undcrstandab!c. The ansver shouId use lerminoIogy aIready underslood by
Iearners. Il shouId foIIov ruIes of grammar and synlax. If soken, lhe ansver shouId
be ronounced cIearIy.
# Is pn!itc. A siIIy queslion is no excuse lo embarrass or humiIiale lhe queslioner. The
ansverer shouId never resond by giving a sarcaslic or snide reIy, by crilicizing lhe
queslion as unvorlhy, or by ignoring lhe queslion (Nexl queslion!). Whal seems lo
be a siIIy queslion can reveaI vaIuabIe informalion aboul lhe currenl slale of Iearning,
such as simIe bul rofound misunderslandings, Iearners vho Iack rerequisiles, or
crealive inlerrelalions of facls lhal lhe exerl did nol anliciale.
# VcriIics undcrstanding. A good ansver viII rovide a vay for Iearners lo confirm
salisfaclion: Does lhal ansver your queslion` Anylhing eIse` Or lhe exerl may
ose a queslion or lesl lo verify dee underslanding: So, vhal vouId haen if
_____`
# Encnuragcs Iurthcr !carning. A good ansver may menlion resources for addilionaI
Iearning: If you vanl lo go deeer inlo lhis issue, search lhrough lhe bIog oslings by
_____.


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Best practices in questioning activities
In addilion lo good queslions and good ansvers, queslioning aclivilies can benefil from
rocedures honed by raclicaI exerience.
# P!an and cxp!ain thc activity wc!!. Ior a formaI queslion-and-ansver session, sel a
cIear goaI and communicale lhe goaI and rocedures lo Iearners. Slale lhe urose and
lhe lye queslions aroriale. Ior any exerls invoIved, Iisl lheir credenliaIs and
areas of exerlise. ReveaI any Iimils, such as lime eriod, reslriclions on quolalions,
and laboo loics.
# Havc !carncrs try tn Iind answcrs nn thcir nwn. Incourage Iearners lo conducl
research before asking queslions. Make sure lhey Iearn common lerminoIogy of lhe
fieId and vhal is commonIy knovn in lhe fieId. efore asking exlernaI exerls, require
Iearners lo ask feIIov Iearners.
# Fnrmu!atc qucstinns dc!ibcratc!y. Incourage Iearners lo conceive and exress
queslions carefuIIy. AIIov lime lo lhink, exress, and revise queslions. Incourage
Iearners lo vrile and edil lheir queslions firsl. Have Iearners submil queslions by
e-maiI before a meeling. Wilhin a meeling, ause Iong enough for allendees lo edil
queslions before asling lhem inlo lhe chal vindov.
# Mndcratc qucstinns in an nn!inc mccting. Have lhe meeling moderalor consoIidale
duIicale queslions, generaIize simiIar queslions, and fiIler oul imroer queslions
before submilling lhem lo lhe exerl or leacher.
# Answcr privatc qucstinns privatc!y. Require Iearners lo ask rivale queslions oulside
lhe generaI discussion. Candidales for rivale queslions are ones lhal invoIve
reslricled informalion, lhal are of inleresl lo no one eIse, or lhal olenliaIIy couId
embarrass lhe queslioner or anyone eIse.
# 5ummarizc in a FAQ Ii!c. IeriodicaIIy, svee common and imorlanl queslions and
lheir ansvers lo a frequenlIy-asked queslions fiIe and make il avaiIabIe lo aII Iearners.
Mechanism for asking questions
I-Iearning looIs and lechnoIogies offer rich ossibiIilies for asking and ansvering
queslions. Here is a Iisl of common mechanisms:
# E-mai! messages lo lhe leacher or an exerl.
# Phnnc caIIs lo lhe leacher, a designaled exerl, or feIIov Iearnersduring agreed
uon hours.
# Tcxt mcssagcs lo lhe hones of lhe leacher, exerls, or feIIov Iearners.
# Chat scssinn during an onIine meeling. The onIine meeling looI lhal hosls lhe meeling
may rovide lhe chal caabiIily.
# Audin- nr vidcn-cnnIcrcnccs as arl of an onIine meeling. The onIine meeling looI lhal
hosls lhe meeling may rovide lhese caabiIilies. These caabiIilies are vaIuabIe vhere


queslions and ansvers reIy on lone of voice, geslure, body Ianguage, or faciaI
exressions.
# Cnmmcnts lo a discussion forum, bIog, or micro-bIog. These can be usefuI for
conlacling exerls and rofessionaI grous.
See SociaI caabiIilies of soflvare in Chaler 8 for delaiIs on lhese lechnicaI caabiIilies.
Enable questioning at the right time
Lel Iearners ask queslions al lhe besl lime lo romole Iearning. Oflen lhe besl lime is righl
vhen lhe queslion occurs. Some queslions, hovever, may besl be asked as arl of a
scheduIed evenl or al secific limes vhen an exerl viII be avaiIabIe.
Spontaneous questioning
Learners can ask sonlaneous queslions al any lime, such as vhen lhe queslion occurs,
vhiIe erforming a raclice aclivily, or vhiIe Iislening lo a resenlalion. The vaIue of an
immediale ansver is obvious. ul, lhe cosl may be high if leachers are execled lo check
e-maiI and lexl messages every fifleen minules lhroughoul lhe nighl.
IuIIy suorling sonlaneous queslioning may require rouling queslions lo a discussion
forum and selling reaIislic execlalions aboul lhe liming of reIies.
As a formal part of an event
SeveraI kinds of Iearning evenls incIude a formaI queslion-and-ansver session.
Oorlunilies lo ask queslions may occur immedialeIy afler a resenlalion or as arl of a
symosium or cIass meeling. Consider hov you can use chal or lhe conferencing
caabiIilies in an onIine meeling looI lo add Q&A sessions lo your curricuIum.
During specific times
Queslioning may occur al fixed limes, such as during office hours kel by a leacher.
Reslricling queslioning lo secific lime eriods is aIso common vhere oulside exerls
agree lo lake queslions. Such sessions lyicaIIy use hone, chal, or lhe conferencing
caabiIilies in an onIine meeling looI.
Assess learners and learning
Like aII olher lyes of aclivilies, queslioning aclivilies rovide evidence of Iearning lhal
can be used lo assess Iearners and lo evaIuale Iearning efforls. Ior inslance, you can assess
Iearners by hov veII lhey find lheir ovn ansvers, heI ansver olhers' queslions, and
exhibil good queslioning lechnique.


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In assessing Iearners, be carefuI nol lo discourage asking good queslions. If Iearners feeI
lhey couId Iose grade oinls by asking bad queslions, lhey viII refrain from doing so. On
lhe olher hand, if lhey knov lhey can gain oinls, Iearners viII ask queslions. }usl be on
lhe Iookoul for queslions conlrived lo vin oinlsshaIIov queslions or queslions lhal are
nol on loic.
One successfuI aroach is lo offer bonus oinls for queslions and ansvers deemed
eseciaIIy vaIuabIe. The bonus oinls may be given based on ralings by feIIov Iearners,
exerls, and leachers on such crileria as insighlfuIness, exression, and comIeleness.
Extend questioning activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of queslion-and-ansver aclivilies by combining
lhem vilh olher lyes of aclivilies and by adaling lhem for sociaI Iearning and for
mobiIe Iearning.
Combine questioning activities with other activities
# ImmedialeIy foIIov resenlalions (. 69) or readings (. 93) vilh a Q&A (. 562)
session so Iearners can fiII in gas and avoid misunderslandings.
# InabIe queslioning afler a Do aclivily lo salisfy curiosily aroused by lhe aclivily and lo
resoIve issues il may raise.
# IubIish a lranscril of lhe Q&A session as a IAQ fiIe or olher reading.
# InabIe Iearners lo ask queslions al decision oinls vilhin olher aclivilies, eseciaIIy
vilhin research aclivilies (. 196), games and simuIalions (Chaler 7), and raclice
aclivilies (. 130).
Design questioning activities for social learning
# Nominale, discuss, refine, and lhen ask queslions.
# As a grou, ask queslions of an exerl or lhe leacher. Iirsl, lhe grou researches lhe
exerl and lhe exerl's area of exerlise. The grou aIso nominales, discusses,
consoIidales, and refines a Iisl of queslions. The grou exlends lhe Iisl by adding
olenliaI foIIov-u queslions.
# Ansver queslions osed by feIIov Iearners or exerls.
# Iose queslions in lheir bIog, odcasl, or micro-bIog feed vhich olhers can ansver by
commenls or reIies. Likevise, ansver queslions osed by olhers.


Design questioning activities for mobile learning
# Ask queslions vhen and vhere lhey occur. This viII require making ansvers avaiIabIe
24x7 lhrough access lo a heI desk, cIassmales on a sociaI nelvork, or discussion
forums.
# Ask queslions lriggered by reaI-vorId exeriences.
# Use hone, lexling, video-chal and olher device caabiIilies lo ask and ansver
queslions.
STORIES BY LEARNERS

Learners can Iislen lo slories as an Absorb aclivilyor lhey can leII
lheir ovn slories as a Connecl aclivily. ecause sloryleIIing emanales
from lhe ersonaI exeriences of lhe sloryleIIer, il is suerb for
connecling Iearning lo lhose exeriences.
In sloryleIIing aclivilies, Iearners leII slories reIevanl lo lhe sub|ecl lhey are sludying. This
aclivily is lhe mirror image of Iislening lo slories. ecause lhe rocess of leIIing slories is
simiIar, regardIess of vho leIIs lhe slory, lhe advice for slories by leachers (. 105) viII
aIy lo slories by Iearners, loo.
Have learners tell stories
Incourage Iearners lo share lheir ovn slories lhal connecl lhe sub|ecl lhey are Iearning
vilh lheir ovn exeriences.

In lhis aclivily from a course on Ieadershi, Iearners
are inviled lo share a slory aboul an evenl lhal
laughl lhem lhe imorlance of Ieadershi in daiIy
Iife.
Nol onIy are Iearners abIe lo conlribule lexl slories,
lhey can aIso incIude iclures and video. They can
even Iink lo an audio recording.

This examIe vas hosled on TumbIr.com


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In an onIine meeling vhere Iearners can seak, invile lhem lo leII lheir ovn slories. The
invilalion lo leII a slory adds lhe eIemenl of refIeclion and encourages Iearners lo lhink
aboul vhal has been said and hov il aIies lo lheir ovn silualions. The rocess of
comosing an anaIogous slory connecls lhe evenls lo lhe Iearners' Iives. Il aIso verifies
Iearning. If Iearners leII aroriale slories, you knov lhey gol lhe oinl of lhe slory you
loId. And Ielling Iearners leII slories is a greal vay lo galher nev slories.
Good stories are hard to tell
Learners may find il hard lo come u vilh reIevanl slories if lhey are young, have Ied a
sheIlered Iife, or have Iimiled rofessionaI exerience. Someone vho has Iived on lhree
conlinenls and is nearing reliremenl from lheir sevenlh career viII have more slories lo
leII lhan someone |usl enlering coIIege in lhe lovn in vhich lhey vere raised. In addilion,
Iearners from a differenl sociely, sludying in a second Ianguage, may find lhey need lo
lransIale lheir slory bolh cuIluraIIy an! IinguislicaIIy.
Ior many Iearners, lheir besl slories may be uncomforlabIe lo leII. The slories may recounl
evenls lhal caused lhem shame, anger, sadness, or olher ainfuI emolions. Good slories
oflen reveaI lhe sloryleIIer as vuInerabIe or fooIish. Though Iearners may find il hard lo
leII effeclive slories, vilh enough lime and encouragemenl, |usl aboul everybody can leII
meaningfuI slories.
Evaluate storytelling fairly
Slories by Iearners are ersonaI and unique. Hov lhen can ve leII if lhe sloryleIIing
aclivily conlribules lo Iearning` Lel's Iook al some simIe crileria for slories by Iearners.
Is thc stnry rc!cvant tn thc tnpic? Does lhe slory make a oinl lhal conlribules lo ongoing
Iearning` Thal is, does lhe slory offer an examIe of a rinciIe or concel being laughl`
Or does il resenl a counler examIe lo sharen dislinclions` Lisleners shouId
immedialeIy and cIearIy see hov lhe slory aIies lo vhal lhey are Iearning.
Is thc stnry cnmp!ctc? Does lhe Iearner's slory resenl everylhing needed lo gel lhe oinl
of lhe slory. Iffeclive slories rovide comIele informalion, nameIy lhe selling,
characlers, confIicl, resoIulion, and moraI.
Dncs thc mnra! In!!nw Irnm thc cvcnts? Does lhe oinl of lhe slory emerge naluraIIy and
IogicaIIy from lhe sequence of evenls reIaled in lhe slory` Does lhe slory make roughIy
lhe same oinl lo aII Iisleners`
Dn nnt pcna!izc awkwardncss. Do nol enaIize Iearners for moderale avkvardness in
leIIing lhe slory. UnIess you are leaching lhe sub|ecl of sloryleIIing or acling, lhe slyIe of
deIivery is secondary lo lhe conlenl and oinl of lhe slory. Do nol crilicize Iearners for a
lhick accenl, minor grammalicaI sIis, misronuncialions, sIighl slullers, or an occasionaI
uh or ah.


Best practices for storytelling activities
ecause leIIing slories is hard, mosl of lhe foIIoving besl raclices aim lo heI and
encourage Iearners lo leII meaningfuI slories.
Makc stnrytc!!ing nptinna!. IIicil and encourage, bul do nol demand, slories.
Makc tc!!ing stnrics casicr Inr !carncrs. Give Iearners lime lo lhink of a slory. Announce
sloryleIIing aclivilies veII in advance. Lel Iearners submil slories vhen lhey are ready, for
examIe by osling a lexl message or voice-recording lo lhe course discussion forum. Lel
Iearners vrile lheir slories ralher lhan seak lhem aIoud. Some Iearners may be seIf-
conscious aboul lheir seaking voice bul comforlabIe vriling and ediling lexl. Lel Iearners
leII someone eIse's slory if lhey cannol lhink of one of lheir ovn slories. Require lhem lo
idenlify lhe source of any borroved slory.
5uggcst a simp!c structurc for lheir slories. Ior examIe, suggesl lhal slories have lhese
five eIemenls:
# Selling: When and vhere does lhe slory occur`
# Characlers: Who is invoIved`
# ConfIicl: Whal difficuIly had lo be overcome`
# ResoIulion: Hov did lhings vork oul`
# MoraI: Whal is lhe oinl of lhe slory`
Mndc! gnnd stnrytc!!ing. Lel lhe besl sloryleIIers go firsl so olhers have an examIe lo
emuIale and lime lo recaII a slory.
5imp!iIy submitting stnrics. If Iearners cannol communicale by audio in a meeling, do
nol ask lhem lo lye lheir slories inlo chal. UnIess lhey are suer lyisls, lhe rocess is so
ainfuI il viII become ils ovn disasler slory. Inslead, invile lhem lo conlribule lheir
slories lo a discussion forum (. 425).
Extend storytelling activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of slories by Iearners by combining lhem vilh olher
Combine storytelling with other activities
Have Iearners:
# TeII slories lhal echo lhe oinl made in case sludies (. 152), dramas (. 81), games
(. 323), roIe-Iaying aclivilies (. 476), or slories loId by lhe leacher or an exerl
(. 105).
# TeII slories lhal conlradicl lhe oinl made by olher aclivilies.
# Research (. 196) lo find a slory lhal makes a secific oinl.


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Design storytelling activities for social learning
# Iresenl a slory lo lhe grou, discuss il vilh lhe grou, and refine il.
# IubIish slories as bIog or odcasl enlries.
# Slring logelher lveels or olher shorl messages lo leII a coherenl slory.
# Iick lhe besl Iearner-loId slory lo become arl of lhe officiaI course.
# Grou olhers' slories by lhe oinl lhey make, by simiIarily of characlers, or by slyIe of
Ianguage.
# Have Iearners suggesl aIlernalive moraIs for a slory.
Design storytelling activities for mobile learning
# Record lheir slory in an environmenl vhere lhey feeI comforlabIe or lhe environmenl
lhal besl iIIuslrales lhe slory.
# Shov vhere lhe slory look Iace and inlroduce some of lhe characlers.
# Reenacl lhe slory as a drama.
JOB AIDS
}ob aids heI Iearners aIy knovIedge and skiIIs lo reaI-vorId lasks
lhey encounler on lhe |obor anyvhere eIse in Iife. }ob aids are nol
formaI educalion, bul lhey can shae lhe need for Iearning and in some
cases can subslilule for formaI Iearning. We Ium lhem vilh Connecl
aclivilies because lhey reare and encourage Iearners lo aIy Iearning
on lhe |ob.

About job aids
}ob aids are as much a calegory of looI as a secific Iearning aclivily. The lerm jc| ai!
covers a Iol of ground, from a recie on an index card lo an eIaborale eIeclronic
erformance suorl syslem. The idea of a |ob aid is lo rovide heI lo someone
erforming a lask righl vhen and vhere lhey need il.
When to use job aids
Use |ob aids as arl of your e-Iearning efforls vhen:
# The sub|ecl is loo comIex for Iearners lo recaII aII lhe imorlanl delaiIs.
# Tasks are crilicaI or have negalive side effecls if nol erformed exaclIy as secified.


# Role memorizalion vouId dislracl from Iearning more imorlanl rinciIes and
concels.
# A |ob aid can reIace unnecessary lraining and educalion.
Ior a Iol of erformance robIems, a |ob aid is lhe erfecl soIulion. Yel many lraining
dearlmenls have deveIoed vhoIe courses vhen a |ob aid vouId have soIved lhe
robIem for 1% of lhe cosl. Why` They are lraining dearlmenls, nol |ob-aid dearlmenls.
efore you deveIo a course, consider vhelher a |ob aid is a beller idea.
Types of job aids
}ob aids are as varied as lhe |obs lhey aid. Here are some |ob aids lhal have made lhe
lransilion lo e-Iearning. ecause lhe Iasl lhree make seciaI use of eIeclronic media, lhey
are described in more delaiI Ialer.
# Chcck!ists record lhe essenliaI sles in a rocedure or comonenls of a syslem. Iormal
lhe checkIisl for rinling. Ior onIine checkIisls, use checkboxes so Iearners can kee
lrack of ilems comIeled.
# RcIcrcncc summarics reca cruciaI informalion in a fieId. They are somelimes caIIed a
cri| sncci or cncai sncci. One common form is lhe ockel-sized card Iisling commands in
a comuler rogram or lheir keyboard shorlculs.
# G!nssarics (. 188) define lhe key lerms, abbrevialions, and symboIs of a fieId.
# Ca!cu!atnrs (. 192) erform malhemalicaI caIcuIalions for Iearners, lhus eIiminaling
lhe need lo memorize formuIas or consuIl comIex labIes.
# E-cnnsu!tants (. 193) disense advice on comIex silualions. They can range from
simIe if-lhen labIes lo fuII exerl syslems.
How job aids work
There is no reaI fIov, as |ob aids are used by lhemseIves or as a arl of a Do aclivily.
When lhe need arises, lhe Iearner oblains lhe |ob aid and foIIovs ils advice. Oblaining lhe
|ob aid may invoIve dovnIoading il from a Web sile or |usl reaching in a ockel for a
creased and slained age rinled oul six monlhs ago.
Glossaries
Learning a nev sub|ecl oflen requires acquiring a nev vocabuIary. A gIossary Iels us Iook
u lhe meaning of lerms as ve encounler lhem. A good gIossary can define lerms, seII
oul abbrevialions, and save us lhe embarrassmenl of misronouncing lhe shibboIelhs of
our chosen rofessions.


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In lhis examIe from a course on
surface deformalion in mining, lhe
definilion for iri|uiarq arca ccnccpi
incIudes nol onIy lexl, bul aIso a
grahic (lhal can be enIarged), vhich
iIIuslrales lhe concel.

uiIl using ArlicuIale Ingage.
In addilion lo lhe definilions, a gIossary can incIude:
# IIIuslralions or Iinks lo o-u iIIuslralions.
# Synonyms and olher reIaled vords, each Iinked lo ils definilion.
# Ironuncialion, bolh seIIed oul in lexl and Iinked lo an audio fiIe.
# Iarl of seech of lhis vord, for examIe, noun or ad|eclive.
# Usage noles lo heI Iearners use lhe lerm arorialeIy.
When to create a glossary
GIossaries are aImosl mandalory in e-Iearning lhal conlains lerminoIogy unfamiIiar lo
Iearners or lhal aims lo leach correcl use of lerminoIogy. A gIossary makes slrange vords
famiIiar and guides Iearners in lheir use. Consider crealing a gIossary for sub|ecls vhen:
# Iraclilioners use many seciaIized lerms and abbrevialions. Ivery comIex endeavor
is sub|ecl lo lhe Tover-of-abeI effecl.
# Correcl use of lerminoIogy is cruciaI lo success. Misusing lerms can cause IegaI
enaIlies or |usl severe embarrassmenl.
# IeoIe of differenl seciaIlies (and hence differenl vocabuIaries) musl coIIaborale. An
archilecl may use a lechnicaI lerm for somelhing lhal a generaI conlraclor refers lo by
ils common name and lhe conslruclion vorker caIIs by yel anolher lerm.
# SeciaIisls and non-seciaIisls musl vork logelher. Oflen reorls vrillen by a
seciaIisl musl be lyed and ediled by lhose nol versed in lhe esoleric lerminoIogy of
lhe seciaIisl's fieId.
efore you creale e-Iearning on lhe concels and rinciIes of a fieId, consider vhelher a
gIossary vouId meel your requiremenls.


Best practices for glossaries
GIossaries are reIaliveIy easy lo creale. Iffeclive gIossaries, lhough, require cIose allenlion
lo Iinguislic and lechnicaI issues.
Use the classic formula for definitions
The cIassic form for a definilion has lvo arls. The firsl arl (caIIed lhe gcnus) leIIs lhe
generaI calegory lo vhich lhe lerm beIongs, and lhe second arl (caIIed lhe !ijjcrcniia) leIIs
hov il differs from olher ilems in lhe calegory. Ior examIe, in lhis definilion:
chrnmnstcrcnpsis iIIusion of delh caused by lhe facl lhal ob|ecls of differenl
coIors come inlo focus al differenl dislances.
The genus is iIIusion of delh, and lhe differenlia is lhe resl of lhe definilion. OK, il's an
oId-fashioned vay of vriling definilions and lhe lerms are from a dead Ianguage, bul lhe
formuIa is easy lo foIIov and Ieads lo definilions lhal are easy for Iearners lo undersland.
Clarify when the term applies
Irovide generaI definilions before secific ones. Ior each secific definilion, begin vilh
lhe area in vhich lhis definilion aIies.
Ii!tcr a device or rocess lo Iimil vhal is incIuded. In camera-vork, a sheel of
maleriaI in fronl of lhe Iens lhal reslricls vhich coIors of Iighl reach lhe fiIm or sensor.
In holo-ediling, any rocess lhal syslemalicaIIy aIlers lhe recorded image, such as
bIurring, sharening, or linling.
Nolice hov lhis gIossary enlry incIudes a generaI definilion and lvo seciaIized
definilions differenlialed by lhe conlexl in vhich lhey aIy.
Phrase definitions for clarity
If lhe definilion refers lo somelhing besides lhe lerm, make lhe definilion a comIele
senlence. Ior examIe:
!inkcd !ist a dala slruclure in vhich each member slores an ilem of dala and a
oinler lo lhe nexl member in lhe Iisl. In doubIe-Iinked Iisls, each member conlains
oinlers lo bolh lhe revious and nexl member in lhe Iisl.
Do nol use lhe lerm vilhin ils ovn definilion.
"
Nn
#
Ycs

disp!ay cnntrn! panc! a conlroI aneI
vhere you can conlroI lhe disIay of
your comuler's monilor.
disp!ay cnntrn! panc! a uliIily for
changing lhe size, number of coIors, and
olher characlerislics of lhe image shovn
on your comuler's monilor.


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Separate the term and its definition
Iormal lhe lerm and definilion so lhey are cIearIy searale. This is cruciaI for muIli-vord
lerms.
"
Nn
#
Ycs

ee-hoIe effecl misinlerrelalions
caused by receiving informalion vilhoul
being avare of lhe conlexl in vhich il
aIies.
pccp-hn!c cIIcct
misinlerrelalions caused by receiving
informalion vilhoul being avare of lhe
conlexl in vhich il aIies.
Cover a particular field
Design your gIossary so il covers an enlire fieId of sludy, nol |usl lhe lerms needed for a
singIe course. Thal vay you can offer your gIossary as a searale roducl and your
gIossary can suorl muIliIe courses. Do focus on a secific area of knovIedge. A
gIossary is nol a reIacemenl for a generaI-urose diclionary. There are aIready Ienly of
generaI-urose diclionaries on lhe Web. And don'l forgel lo cIearIy IabeI lhe fieId your
gIossary covers.
Evolve your glossary
Slarl simIy and make your gIossary more sohislicaled as you increase ils size and
funclions.
1. Slarl vilh a simIe, singIe-age Iisl of lerms and definilions. Or |usl Iink lerms in your
lexl lo lheir definilions in a searale vindov.
2. If lhe Iisl of lerms gels Ionger lhan 5 or 6 scroIIing zones, add Ieller bullons al lhe lo
of lhe age lo scroII direclIy lo lhe firsl lerm beginning vilh each Ieller.
3. As lhe Iisl grovs beyond a size lhal viII Ioad quickIy, break il inlo searale ages, one
for each Ieller or grou of Iellers.
4. If your gIossary grovs beyond a couIe of hundred lerms, or if il needs frequenl
revision, consider sloring lhe lerms, definilions, and olher dala in a dalabase and
generaling each definilion in resonse lo a requesl from lhe Iearner.
5. Add advanced search fealures. Ior examIe, Iel Iearners search for lerms vhose
definilions conlain secific vords. Or Iel Iearners Iook u lerms by hov lhey are
ronounced.
Borrow a glossary
efore you slarl your gIossary ro|ecl, check lo see vhelher someone eIse aIready
ubIishes a gIossary for your fieId. GIossaries exisl for mosl lechnicaI and business
sub|ecls, and mosl are free. If a gIossary is on lhe Web, Iink lo il.


Link related definitions
If lhe definilion of one lerm incIudes vords defined eIsevhere in lhe gIossary, consider
Iinking each of lhese lerms lo ils definilion. This is eseciaIIy imorlanl in a fieId in vhich
novices vouId have lroubIe underslanding definilions olhervise.
Calculators
One ouIar |ob aid is a |ob-secific numericaI caIcuIalor. Such a |ob aid Iels vorkers
comule numbers direclIy, ralher lhan having lo recaII formuIas, erform caIcuIalions, or
Iook u ansvers in comIex labIes. On-screen caIcuIalors may aIso eIiminale lhe need lo
leach comIex formuIas.
Case study of an online calculator
Lel's consider a case sludy of |usl such a caIcuIalor. Iholograhers frequenlIy need lo
caIcuIale camera sellings for a arlicuIar shol. Such caIcuIalions invoIve reIalionshis
among aerlure or f-slo, shuller seed, fiIm seed or ISO, and exosure vaIue.

A beller aroach mighl be lo make lhe
caIcuIalor run on a mobiIe device so
holograhers couId sIi il inlo a ockel or
camera bag.

uiId in Adobe Dreamveaver. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
Iholograhers couId caIcuIale lhe desired
vaIues from formuIas lhey have memorized.

On-screen caIcuIalors remove unnecessary barriers lo successfuIIy aIying vhal lhe
Iearners knov aboul a sub|ecl.


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Best practices for calculators
Incororale such caIcuIalors inlo your e-Iearning lo reIieve Iearners of lhe ledium of
manuaI caIcuIalions.
# Link tn pub!ic!y avai!ab!c ca!cu!atnrs. Do nol vasle lime reIicaling exisling
caIcuIalors. If caIcuIalions in your sub|ecl are simIe, |usl leII Iearners hov lo use a
slandard caIcuIalor.
# Makc cntcring numbcrs casy. Lel Iearners inul numbers by mouse or keyboard.
# Usc ca!cu!atnrs tn prnmntc ynur c-!carning. Iul lhe course embIem or dearlmenl
Iogo on lhe caIcuIalor. IncIude a Iink lo Iaunch an e-Iearning course on lhe concels
and rinciIes suorled by lhe caIcuIalor. Give avay caIcuIalors freeIy. Demonslrale
lhem in cIassroom courses.
# Tcst and rcIinc ynur ca!cu!atnrs. Make sure lhey cover lhe reaI-vorId silualions your
Iearners encounler. Survey raclilioners lo Iearn lhe range of vaIues lhe caIcuIalor
shouId handIe.
E-consultants
I-consuIlanls give advice. An e-consuIlanl is a form lhal lhe Iearner fiIIs in lo describe a
robIema virluaI inlerviev. When lhe Iearner cIicks lhe OK or 5ubmit bullon, lhe form
anaIyzes lhe Iearner's ansvers and recommends aclions lo lake.

This e-consuIlanl heIs emIoyees
delermine vhelher lhey can elhicaIIy
accel gifls, favors, and enlerlainmenl.
Iirsl, lhe emIoyee is asked vhal kind
of gifl is being considered. In lhis
inslance, lhe emIoyee lhinks il may
be cIassified as cash or an equivaIenl.
Nol sure, lhe emIoyee reads an
exIanalion and delermines il is cash.
So, lhe emIoyee chooses Yes. The
e-consuIlanl advises lhe emIoyee lhal
acceling cash is unelhicaI and vhal
sles lhe emIoyee shouId lake.
uiIl in IoverIoinl and converled lo IIash vilh
iSring Iresenler.
The e-consuIlanl is used al lhe lime a robIem arises. Il asks a series of queslions, as if
conducling an inlerviev. Then il disenses advice based on an organizalion's oIicies and
rocedures.


I-consuIlanls are somelimes caIIed sofl-skiIIs caIcuIalors because lhey deaI vilh silualions
loo comIex lo be reduced lo a singIe, simIe malhemalicaI formuIa. Use lhem vhen a
silualion has a Iol of condilions mixed vilh irreguIarilies and excelions.
When to use e-consultants
I-consuIlanls vork veII for any comIex decision lhal can be divided inlo searale
decisions and governed by a moderaleIy comIex sel of ruIes. These incIude managemenl
decisions, such as go/no-go decisions on a ro|ecl or seIecling among aIlernalive
suIiers, lechnicaI decisions, such as seIecling among design slralegies, or, any kind of
robIem-soIving aclivily, such as diagnosing robIems or recommending furlher lesls.
Best practices for e-consultants
# Dn nnt try tn hand!c cvcry situatinn. Cover lhe mosl common and mosl crilicaI ones.
Il is beller lo creale a |ob aid lhal Iels 90% of eoIe soIve 90% of lhe robIems lhan lo
creale one lhal soIves 95% of lhe robIems bul onIy 50% can use.
# RcIcr !carncrs tn human advisnrs and olher sources of informalion. Link lo e-maiI
addresses and give hone numbers of eoIe vho can heI anaIyze lhe robIem and
recommend soIulions.
# Phrasc qucstinns simp!y so someone under lhe slress of making a crilicaI decision can
undersland lhem. The eoIe mosl in need of advice may be lhe ones Ieasl abIe lo
undersland comIex queslions.
Best practices for job aids
Designing |ob aids is nol difficuIl so Iong as you kee in mind lhal lhey are firsl and
foremosl looIs for use in lhe vork environmenl.
Dcsign Inr hnw thc |nb aid wi!! bc uscd. If a |ob aid viII be used lo guide a Iearner in
erforming a rocedure on lhe comuler screen, kee il comacl so il does nol cover u
loo much of lhe Iearner's vork area. If lhe |ob aid guides a rocedure done avay from lhe
comuler, design il for rinling oul.
Kccp |nb aids cnmpact and cnncisc. As a ruIe, design lhe |ob aid so il fils in a singIe
scroIIing zone of lhe brovser al ils defauIl size, or on a singIe iece of aer, if il viII be
rinled oul.
II printing nut, Inrmat Inr papcr. If a |ob aid viII be rinled oul, make sure il rinls on a
singIe sheel of aer. Consider formalling lhe rinlabIe version in Adobe Acrobal IDI
formal so lhal you can conlroI lhe Iayoul more reciseIy lhan vilh HTML. And remember
lo aIIov for differences belveen A4 and U.S. aer sizes.
Makc |nb aids stand a!nnc. A |ob aid shouId vork oulside lhe conlexl of your e-Iearning
and shouId nol require exlensive lraining lo use.


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Dn nnt makc |nb aids intn tutnria!s. A |ob aid is nol a lraining looI. Making il inlo one
deslroys lhe unique vaIue il has as a |ob aid. Use |ob aids lo suIemenl and comIemenl
lraining, bul nol as lraining.
Usc |nb aids tn simp!iIy c-!carning. }usl as |ob aids simIify vork, so loo can lhey
simIify laking e-Iearning. Use caIcuIalors lo reIieve Iearners of having lo make ledious
caIcuIalions. Use reference summaries and lask-secific inslruclions lo guide lhem in
using looIs vilhin your e-Iearning.
Rcp!acc cnurscs with |nb aids. Do nol deveIo a course if aII eoIe need is a |ob aid. Do
nol leach formuIas if a caIcuIalor eIiminales lhe need lo Iearn lhe formuIas. Do nol leach
concels and lerms if a gIossary is vhal eoIe reaIIy need. Inslead, leach hov lo use lhe
|ob aid and you may nol need lo leach lhe lheory, concels, rocedures, rinciIes, and
olher delaiIs encasuIaled by lhe |ob aid.
Dn nnt shnrt-circuit !carning. If you reaIIy need lo leach a concel or rocedure, do nol
give Iearners a |ob aid lhal obviales Iearning lhe concel or rocedure. Al Ieasl leach lhe
concel or rocedure firsl, and lhen Iel Iearners have lhe |ob aid.
Usc |nb aids as mcmcntns. Give Iearners |ob aids lhal lhey can conlinue using afler your
e-Iearning. These memenlos viII remind lhem of vhal lhey Iearned and vhere lhey
Iearned il. Iul your Iogo onlo lhe |ob aid. Link il lo your Web sile.
Extend job aids
We can increase lhe reach and over of |ob aids by combining lhem vilh olher lyes of
aclivilies and by adaling lhem for sociaI Iearning and for mobiIe Iearning.
Combine job aids with other activities
# IncIude |ob aids vhere lhey viII simIify olher aclivilies. Design aclivilies lo
encourage Iearners lo begin using |ob aids. Use reference summaries lo summarize key
oinls from a resenlalion (. 69) or reading aclivily (. 93). IncIude caIcuIalors in
raclice (. 130) and guided-anaIysis aclivilies (. 137) lhal require erforming
caIcuIalions as arl of lhe aclivily. Combine raclice aclivilies vilh reference
summaries and checkIisls.
# Salisfy lhe curiosily aroused by a |ob aid. Link lhe |ob aid lo inslruclion manuaIs lhal
cover more silualions and lo resenlalions (. 69) or readings (. 93) lhal seII oul
underIying concels and deaI vilh excelions lo lhe ruIe.
# Look for more oorlunilies lo use |ob aids in raclice aclivilies (. 130), originaI-vork
aclivilies (. 207), games (. 323), or guided anaIysis (. 137).


Design job-aid activities for social learning
# CoIIecliveIy brainslorm, rololye, and refine a nev |ob aid.
# Ireare a gIossary, reference summary, or olher |ob aid as a viki, in vhich lhe grou
revievs, discusses, and refines enlries.
# As a grou, use a |ob aid lo erform a comIex lask. Al each decision oinl, lhe grou
discusses roer aIicalion of lhe |ob aid.
# Access a human |ob aid: coach, menlor, friend, or an enlire sociaI nelvork.
Design job-aid activities for mobile learning
# Access |ob aids from a mobiIe device. Insure lhal lhe |ob aid disIays quickIy and
IegibIy.
# Locale and Ioad |ob-aid as onlo lhe mobiIe device. AvaiIabIe |ob aids incIude
sub|ecl-secific handbooks, manuaIs, caIcuIalors, dala recorders, and augmenled-
reaIily disIays.
# Use ubIicaIIy avaiIabIe informalion sources, such as GoogIe and Wikiedia, as |ob
aids.
# Calure vaII oslers, Iosl-il noles, varning IabeIs, and olher |ob-aids buiIl inlo
machines and environmenls.
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
Research connecls Iearners lo lhe vhoIe vorId of knovIedge by
leaching lhem lo Iearn on lheir ovn. In our comIex vorId, research is a
basic skiII. Role memorizalion of facls viII nol do. There is loo much lo
Iearn, and vhal is accurale and aIicabIe loday is erroneous and
inaroriale lomorrov.

About research activities
Research aclivilies leach Iearners lo galher, anaIyze, and reorl on informalion. ecause
lhey invoIve informalion, research couId quaIify as an Absorb aclivily. ecause lhey
require erforming aclions lo galher informalion, lhey couId be considered Do aclivilies. I
have cIassified lhem as Connecl aclivilies because lhe mosl vaIuabIe effecl of research is lo
connecl Iearners vilh lhe universe of knovIedge on vhich lhey musl drav lo Iead
successfuI Iives.


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TechnoIogies lhal Iel us inslanlIy access Iarge bodies of informalion have caIIed inlo
queslion lhe very definilion of vhal il means lo knov somelhing.
The verb lo knov used lo mean, having informalion slored in one's memory. Il nov
means lhe rocess of having access lo informalion and knoving hov lo use il.
Herberl Simon, NobeI Laureale
This viev shifls lhe mission of educalion from ulling facls in eoIe's heads lo giving
eoIe lhe looIs lhey need lo Iearn vhal lhey need vhen lhey need il, lhal is, conducl
research. The edilor of lhe Hartar! Busincss |cticu ul il even more bIunlIy:
Il's nol vhal you knov, il's hov fasl you can access aII lhe lhings you don'l knov.
And if you gel lhal lime dovn lo a fev seconds, lhen you effecliveIy knov
everylhing. Thomas Slevarl, Tnc Wca|in cj Kncu|c!gc
The abiIily lo find informalion vhen needed is nov basic educalion.
Types of research activities
Research is oflen a naluraI arl of olher lyes of aclivilies, such as readings or discovery
aclivilies. Tvo main lyes of research are Iearning aclivilies in lheir ovn righl.
# 5cavcngcr hunts (. 198) chaIIenge Iearners lo idenlify reIiabIe sources of informalion
lo ansver queslions and enabIe lasks.
# Guidcd rcscarch (. 200) requires Iearners lo consuIl various sources of informalion
and oinions on a loic and lhen summarize lheir findings.
AIlhough simiIar, lhese lvo forms differ in lheir uroses. Scavenger hunls leach Iearners
lo find reIiabIe sources of informalion, vhereas guided research leaches Iearners lo drav
concIusions from informalion.
How research activities work
In research aclivilies, lhe Iearner considers a queslion or assignmenl, galhers dala, and
lhen uses lhe dala lo ansver queslions or soIve a robIem.


Scavenger hunts
Scavenger hunls send Iearners oul on a quesl for ansvers and sources of reIiabIe
informalion on lhe Web or cororale and camus inlranels.
The scavenger-hunl aclivily secifies lhe queslions lo be ansvered. Il may secify
addilionaI informalion lhe Iearner musl submil, such as lhe Iocalion vhere lhe ansver
vas found, lhe melhod used lo find il, lhe reason vhy il is lhe correcl ansver, concIusions
dravn from lhe ansver, and lhe calegory inlo vhich il fils.
The aclivily may recommend sources of informalion, or Iearners may be on lheir ovn lo
Iocale sources. Using lhese sources, Iearners ansver lhe secific queslions osed by lhe
aclivily. ReIying on lhe ansver lo lhe secific queslions and on sources idenlified earIier,
Iearners may ansver a more generaI or abslracl queslion. Submissions may be
aulomalicaIIy scored or graded by a leacher.

This examIe, designed lo run on a mobiIe device,
asks Iearners vhen lhe Iasl recorded earlhquake
occurred in CoIorado and ils magnilude. Learners
are aIso romled lo enler lhe URL of lhe age
vhere lhe ansver can be found.

To simIify search, lhe aclivily incIudes a Iink lo lhe U.S.
GeoIogicaI Survey Web sile, lhe officiaI source for such
informalion.
Afler Iocaling lhe ansver on lhe Web sile, Iearners
relurn lo lhe Qucstinns age lo enler lhe ansver and
vhere il vas found.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver.


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uiIl using Adobe IIash. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
Here, a Iearner raclices resoIving
elhicaI concerns by ansvering a
queslion on hov lo behave elhicaIIy
in a common silualion. The Iearner
consuIls onIine informalion, in lhis
case, a code of conducl, and lhen
seIecls lhe ansver from a dro-dovn
Iisl. In addilion, lhe Iearner musl
secify vhere in lhe reference
documenl lhe ansver vas found.
Ieedback guides lhe Iearner in more
effeclive searches.

Learning a raidIy advancing body of knovIedge requires Iearning hov lo kee currenl
vilh changes in lhe fieId. Ior inslance, rogrammers musl have access lo lhe Ialesl
informalion on a rogramming Ianguage, dalabase lechnoIogies, and lhe various code
Iibraries lhey use daiIy in lheir ro|ecls. Such informalion is quile voIaliIe because
roducers are frequenlIy reIeasing nev versions of lheir looIs as veII as lhe inevilabIe
alches, bug fixes, and vork-arounds. Wilh such voIaliIily, rinled documenlalion and
cIassroom lraining cannol kee u. The rogrammer vho reIies on lhe looIs and
documenlalion lhal came in lhe box is Iefl behind.
When to use scavenger hunts
Use scavenger hunls lo leach Iearners lo find lheir ovn sources of reIiabIe informalion.
This is eseciaIIy vaIuabIe in fieIds in vhich lhe besl, mosl u-lo-dale, mosl accurale
informalion is found onIy onIine. In such fieIds, knoving vhere lo find informalion is an
essenliaI skiII in ils ovn righl. Use scavenger hunls lo leach Iearners lo:
# Iind informalion on lhe Inlernel or inlranel.
# Navigale a Iarge reference documenl, such as a secificalion or lechnicaI manuaI.
# Relrieve informalion from a dalabase.
Best practices for scavenger hunts
Kccp thc activity simp!c. Scavenger hunls do nol have lo be comIex. They can be as
simIe as a Iisl of five lo len shorl queslions lhal Iearners can ansver by consuIling Web
resources.
5hnw thc va!uc nI inInrmatinn. To emhasize lhe imorlance of dala galhered in lhe
scavenger hunl, have Iearners use lhal dala in caIcuIalions or in making decisions.


Fncus nn thc gna! nI thc activity. Imhasize lhal mereIy ansvering lhe queslion is nol
enough. The goaI of lhe scavenger hunl is lo idenlify reIiabIe sources of informalion for
use in lhe fulure. Require Iearners lo idenlify lhe sources of lheir ansvers and lo |udge lhe
accuracy of informalion rovided by lhose sources.
5imp!iIy scnring. To aulomale scoring, Iel Iearners ick from Iisls of re-idenlified
Iocalions. If Iearners musl lye in Iocalions, malch lhem lo a Iisl of accelabIe Iocalions.
Submissions vilh unmalched Iocalions are rouled lo a human evaIualor. If lhe Iocalion is
OK, il is added lo lhe Iisl.
Cha!!cngc !carncrs. To give lhe scavenger hunl more of a game fIavor, add a counldovn
limer lhal imoses a visibIe lime Iimil on searches.
Guided research
As ils name suggesls, guided-research aclivilies coach Iearners on hov lo erform
research in lheir sub|ecl-area. Learners are assigned a research loic. The loic may be a
comIex queslion or a series of simIe queslions. Learners, individuaIIy or in leams,
galher lhe informalion necessary lo ansver lhe queslions. Learners evaIuale lhe
informalion lhey have galhered, seIecl reIevanl facls, and organize lhem. A leacher or
faciIilalor may lhen grade reorls reared by Iearners based on lhe exlensiveness of lhe
research, accuracy of lhe facls, and Iogic of lhe organizalion.

In lhis course for viIderness
managers, Iearners slarl vilh
lhe decision lhal needs lo be
made. If lhey undersland lhe
imIicalions, lhey can make lhe
decision righl avay. If nol,
Iearners can choose lo reviev
and exIore suorling
maleriaIs lo heI lhem make
lheir decision.


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One of lhe labs Iearners can
choose is lhe Rcsnurccs lab. Il
rovides Iinks lo usefuI
documenls, |ob aids, and
generaI informalion.

horlon.com/eId/.
When to use guided research
ecause guided research vorks veII vilh individuaIs, leams, and enlire cIasses, make il a
slaIe of inslruclor-Ied e-Iearning. Use il lo leach Iearners hov lo conducl informaI
research on a sub|ecl, eseciaIIy if Iearners viII frequenlIy need lo reare reorls
summarizing lheir research efforls.
AIlhough Iocaling informalion and anaIyzing il are a arl of guided research, lhese lasks
are nol lhe rimary focus. Use guided research vhen you vanl lo leach Iearners lo
evaIuale, seIecl, and organize informalion. To leach |usl informalion-galhering, use a
scavenger hunl (. 198). To leach anaIysis, use a guided-anaIysis aclivily (. 137).
Variations of guided research
You can adal guided-research aclivilies for many differenl kinds of e-Iearning and for
differenl cIass sizeseven cIasses of one. Here are some ideas on hov lo adal guided
research lo your needs:
Personal perspectives
Ralher lhan have each Iearner erform lhe same research lask, ick a comIex sub|ecl and
assign each Iearner a differenl erseclive lo research. Ior examIe, a course on ro|ecl
managemenl couId research lhe case of lhe Svedish shi, Vasa, vhich sank on ils vay oul
of SlockhoIm Harbor on ils maiden voyage in 1628. Ierseclives lo research vouId be:
# Enginccring. Whal design fIavs caused lhe shi lo casize and sink` Was navaI
engineering advanced enough al lhe lime lo have revenled lhe faiIure`
# Managcria!. Hov did lhe managemenl rocess of designing and buiIding lhe shi
conlribule lo ils faiIure`


# 5ncia!. Whal sociaI ressures conlribuled lo lhe bad design`
# Lcga!. Whal vere lhe civiI and criminaI roceedings lhal foIIoved`
# Histnrica!. Hov did Svedish hislory infIuence lhe design of lhe shi` Hov did lhe
faiIure affecl evenls aflervard`
# Acsthctic. Whal fealures of lhe shi vere symboIic or decoralive` Whal vas lhe roIe of
aeslhelics in design al lhal lime` Did aeslhelics conlribule lo lhe faiIure`
# 5cicntiIic. Why vere lhe remains found virluaIIy inlacl` Hov vas lhe shi recovered
and reserved` Whal did scienlisls Iearn by resloring il`
Learners can consider lhe research of aII lhe differenl erseclives lo augmenl lheir ovn.
Scrapbook
One ouIar form of guided research is lhe scrabook. Here Iearners galher and organize
knovIedge on a sub|ecl. They creale a scrabook by culling and asling (nol Iinking)
resources. Learners can Ialer osl lheir scrabooks lo a forum for olhers lo commenl on.
Give Iearners inslruclions such as lhese:
Visit the resources listed below. Collect text, pictures, statistics, bits of multimedia, and
quotations important to your role and assignment. Assemble the pieces into a scrapbook,
annotated with brief explanations of what they mean and why you selected them.
Prepare a table of contents showing the logical organization of the materials you have
collected.
Day in the life
Have Iearners research a currenl, hisloricaI, or ficlionaI characler and lhen vrile aboul
vhal lhis erson exeriences on a lyicaI day. Iick a erson vho has conlribuled lo lhe
sub|ecl maller of lhe course or vho is an exemIary raclilioner in lhe fieId. Or ick an
ordinary erson lyicaI of a sociaI cIass or rofession.
Self-derived best practices
One form of research for raclicaI sub|ecls is lo requesl Iearners lo sol, anaIyze, and
exress besl raclices in examIes of exceIIenl vork in lhe fieId of sludy. Here is hov lhis
aclivily mighl vork:
# Slarl by resenling sources of dozens, or even hundreds, of examIes of exceIIenl vork
for Iearners lo eruse. You can ick lhem yourseIf or seIecl museum exhibils, avard
vinners, or ilems frequenlIy ciled by exerls.
# Nexl, direcl Iearners lo secific asecls of lhe examIes. You may Iisl characlerislics lo
nolice or ask secific queslions aboul lhe examIes. Or you mighl give Iearners secific
calegories in vhich lo comare lhe examIes.
# Then, ask Iearners lo ick lhe besl examIe in lhe calegory and slale vhy il is lhe besl.
Inslrucl Iearners lo reeal lhe rocess in anolher calegory.
# IinaIIy, ask Iearners lo generaIize vhal lhe besl examIes have in common.


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Crileria for comarison shouId ask queslions an exerl vouId ask bul nol be veighled lo
suggesl an ansver. You may vanl lo incIude a vorksheel lo guide anaIysis and slruclure
lhe aclivily.
Ongoing research
Ior a research ro|ecl, require Iearners lo kee and eriodicaIIy submil Iogs of lheir
research aclivilies. The leacher can idenlify addilionaI sources, suggesl more efficienl
lechniques, and chaIIenge queslionabIe resources. Once a veek, require Iearners vorking
as a leam lo submil a brief summary of lheir findings.
Best practices for guided research
Assist !carncrs in !ncating rc!iab!c snurccs nI inInrmatinn. Irovide Iinks or search lerms
lhal viII reveaI ansvers lo some queslions, bul nol aII. Require Iearners lo find anaIogous
resources. Guide lhe research.
Emphasizc thc impnrtancc nI cva!uating, sc!ccting, and nrganizing Iacts. Make guided
research more lhan simIy recording informalion found al lhe end of a Web search.
Require Iearners lo |udge lhe accuracy of vhal lhey find, seIecl lhe besl evidence, and
combine il inlo a coherenl argumenl or exIanalion.
Usc prnbing qucstinns tn guidc rcscarch. Ask queslions lhal require combining
informalion from muIliIe sources. Require Iearners lo sorl oul conlradiclory informalion
or lo searale facl from oinion. Ask vhy and hov, nol |usl vhen and vhal.
Best practices for research activities
Design to connect
Insure lhal research aclivilies connecl Iearners lo Iife and rior Iearning.
# Imhasize Iocaling sources of informalion and lhe rocess of anaIyzing dala, nol |usl
lhe resuIls lhal ansver individuaI queslions.
# Offer Iearners a seIeclion of informalion sources lo choose from and require lhem lo
consuIl muIliIe sources.
# Require anaIysis and synlhesis lo leach Iearners lo aIy vhal lhey galhered lhrough
research.
Use the Web as a source of material
olh kinds of research aclivilies benefil from lhe vasl Iibrary of resources avaiIabIe on lhe
Web. Amidsl lhe sex shos, bigol-bIogs, and valch-me Webcams are a lreasure of case
sludies, reorls, books, manuaIs, hisloricaI documenls, dalabases, diclionaries, nevs,
music, images, and calaIoged dala on every sub|ecl imaginabIe. Much of il is free. efore


you slarl shoving maleriaI onIine for use in research aclivilies, consider vhelher your
lime mighl be beller senl designing an aclivily lhal reIies on avaiIabIe Web resources.
5tarting pnints Inr rcscarch. There are lhousands of Web siles lhal can direcl you lo
usefuI sources of informalion. Some of lhese Web siles are mainlained by search engines,
some by governmenl agencies, some by universilies, and some by communilies of
assionale amaleurs. Here are some of lhese sources lo consider as a slarling oinl. Don'l
recognize lhe URLs` WeII, check lhem oul.
# wikipcdia.cnm for arlicIes on a vasl variely of sub|ecls.
# dictinnary.rcIcrcncc.cnm for definilions of vords.
# urbandictinnary.cnm for lhe meaning of lhe Ialesl sIang and |argon.
# ctymnn!inc.cnm for lhe hislory of vords and hrases ve use.
# carth.gnng!c.cnm for 3D vievs of everyvhere in lhe vorId (no kidding).
# schn!ar.gnng!c.cnm for schoIarIy aers and books.
# imagcs.gnng!c.cnm for iclures of |usl aboul anylhing you can imagine.
# bnnks.gnng!c.cnm for access lo lhe lexl of miIIions of books.
# usptn.gnv for lhousands of alenls describing a myriad of devices and melhods.
# scc.gnv for informalion on comanies ubIicIy lraded in lhe USA.
Prnduct !itcraturc and dncumcntatinn. Today lhe Web siles for mosl comanies rovide
delaiIed oeraling inslruclions, markeling Iileralure, reair rocedures, reference
manuaIs, lechnicaI secificalions, and documenlalion for lheir roducls and services. Use
lhese maleriaIs in e-Iearning lhal invoIves seIecling, oeraling, designing, evaIualing,
manufacluring, or recycIing such roducls. Go lo lhe comany's Web sile and cIick on
Prnducts or 5uppnrt lo slarl finding such resources.
Magazincs and |nurna!s. Iven aer-based magazines, lrade |ournaIs, and schoIarIy
|ournaIs nov make arlicIes, abslracls, and back issues avaiIabIe over lhe Web. Some
charge for access lo comIele arlicIes or back issues, bul mosl rovide free access lo
summaries of currenl arlicIes.
PrnIcssinna! assnciatinns. If more lhan a fev eoIe erform a |ob aclivily, lhere is
robabIy a rofessionaI organizalion vilh a Web sile from vhich Iearners can gel usefuI
informalion regarding lhe rinciIes, elhics, slandards, |ob calegories, skiII requiremenls,
and olher asecls of lhe |ob. Of seciaI inleresl lo us designers of Iearning viII be Web
siles of user-grous for lhe roducls ve roulineIy use. One slerIing examIe of lhe
vaIuabIe resources avaiIabIe on such siles is lhe NalionaI Associalion of Iholosho
IrofessionaIs (vvv.holoshouser.com).
Mosl rofessionaI associalion siles reveaI lheir fuII riches onIy lo members of lhe
associalion. You may vanl lo encourage Iearners lo |oin. Or, you may need lo reslricl
yourseIf lo lhe freeIy avaiIabIe resources.


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Gnvcrnmcnt agcncics. IncreasingIy, governmenl agencies are making lheir coIIeclions of
reguIalions, arlvork, and scienlific dala avaiIabIe over lhe Inlernel. Ior examIe, NASA
makes avaiIabIe 3D Landsal and ShullIe Radar imagery for lhe vhoIe Ianel
(vorIdvind.arc.nasa.gov). The U.S. Library of Congress (vvv.Ioc.gov) offers free access
lo mas, holograhs, video cIis, and Iibrarians. The Iuroean Union On-Line
(euroa.eu) rovides informalion on governance of lhe Iuroean Union. The Uniled
Nalions rovides simiIar informalion (vvv.un.org).
Ncws nctwnrks and ncwspapcrs. AImosl aII ma|or nevs-reorling organizalions have
Web siles lhal rovide u-lo-lhe-momenl and archived arlicIes and video cIis on oIilics,
lechnoIogy, business, science, nalure, enlerlainmenl, educalion, sorls, medicine, lraveI,
and Iav. Here are |usl a fev lo gel you slarled:
# nevs.bbc.co.uk
# vvv.cnn.com
# vvv.vs|.com
# vvv.msnbc.com
# nylimes.com
# fl.com
Kee in mind lhal each of lhese organizalions has ils ovn erseclive. SeveraI have
muIliIe divisions. Ior examIe, lhe |inancia| Tincs has searale Web siles for lhe UK, lhe
U.S., Iuroe, and Asia.
Discussinn Inrums and ncwsgrnups. If more lhan a lhousand eoIe vorIdvide are
inleresled in a sub|ecl, you can bel lhere is a discussion forum or nevsgrou on lhe
sub|ecl. Such onIine discussions rovide a greal resource lo inlroduce Iearners lo sub|ecls
as lhey are racliced in lheir fieId of sludy. They can aIso be a vay lo inlroduce Iearners lo
lhe elly bickering, narcissislic seIf-romolion, bombaslic onlificaling, and ersonaI
inveclive common oul in lhe reaI vorId.
Have Iearners access a forum or nevsgrou, Iurk for a vhiIe, lhen |oin in lhe
conversalion, and finaIIy reorl on vhal lhey have Iearned. Suggesl lhal Iearners reorl
on vhal lhe reaI funclion of lhe grou aears lo be. Ior vhal kinds of queslions is il a
good source` Ior vhich kinds is il nol an effeclive source` Is ils funclion rimariIy
schoIarIy, |ob-reIaled, or sociaI`
Dircct nbscrvatinn sitcs. Live Webinars have shovn babies being born, hearls being
byassed, and sex being had. ul nol aII sighls on lhe Web are so seclacuIar. Some have
soIid educalionaI vaIue. NASA has a Web sile caIIed SkyViev, vhere rofessionaIs and
amaleurs aIike can viev any aslronomicaI body or henomenon (skyviev.gsfc.nasa.gov).
Webcams Iel us viev Iive images of lhe Ocean Tank al lhe Nev IngIand Aquarium
(vvv.neaq.org), various vievs of lhe USS Inlreid Museum (vvv.earlhcam.com), or a
voIcano smoIdering (vvv.fs.fed.us/gnf/voIcanocams/msh/). If you vanl Iearners lo see


il, |usl lye lhe sub|ecl and lhe vord Wc|can inlo a search engine and see vhal's oul
lhere.
Extend research activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of research aclivilies by combining lhem vilh olher
Combine research with other activities
# Combine guided anaIysis (. 137) and guided research lo leach Iearners lo idenlify
sources of informalion, lo exlracl facls from lhem, and lo anaIyze lhe facls in delaiI.
# IoIIov resenlalions (. 69) or readings (. 93) vilh research aclivilies lo leach Iearners
hov lo Iearn more on lheir ovn.
# Have Iearners conducl research lo Iocale maleriaIs for reading aclivilies (. 93).
# Recommend resenlalions or readings lo verify research findings or lo round oul
discoveries.
Design research activities for social learning
# Conducl research as a grou. The grou Ians lhe efforl, subdivides lhe lask, conducls
research searaleIy, discusses findings, and dravs concIusions.
# Share lis on research lechnique, sources of informalion, and resuIls, eseciaIIy if
unexecled or hard lo exIain.
# Conslrucl a scrabook or viki summarizing a broad research efforl. Iach Iearner
originales one or more enlries, and lhe grou discusses and refines lhe enlries.
# Invesligale mylhs, urban Iegends, and consiracy lheories in lheir fieId of sludy. As a
grou, idenlify a queslionabIe cIaim, decide hov lo rove or disrove il, conducl lhe
lesl, discuss resuIls, and ubIish concIusions and evidence.
Design research activities for mobile learning
# Use mobiIe-devices lo guide Iearners in accessing hysicaI research sources, such as a
reference Iibrary, museum, or nevsaer morgue.
# InabIe Iearners lo conducl onIine research al lhe lime and Iace al vhich lhey viII
aIy knovIedge.
# Galher informalion in a hysicaI environmenl vilh commenlary and cIues Iocaled by
GIS, bar-codes, or RIID chis (. 510).
# Use holograhy, audio-recording, and video-recording lo calure reaI-vorId
evidence.


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ORIGINAL-WORK ACTIVITIES

OriginaI-vork aclivilies are lhe uIlimale finaI examlhey
require Iearners lo aIy Iearning lo lheir ovn vork.
Learners musl soIve a reaI-vorId robIem and submil lheir
soIulions for crilique by a leacher or by feIIov Iearners.
About original-work activities
OriginaI-vork aclivilies encourage Iearners lo begin aIying Iearning lo currenl ro|ecls.
When to use original-work activities
OriginaI-vork aclivilies Iel you and your Iearners verify lhal lhey can aIy Iearning lo
reaI vork or fulure sludies. Use originaI-vork aclivilies lo:
# Verify lhal Iearners can aIy vhal you are leaching.
# Insure inlegralion and synlhesis of searale areas of Iearning.
# To serve as a finaI exam or raclicum.
Types of original-work activities
There are severaI vays Iearners can erform originaI-vork aclivilies. The ones Iisled here
reresenl differenl aroaches you can lake lo conducl an originaI-vork aclivily. You can
combine some of lhese aroaches quile roducliveIy.
# Dccisinn activitics (. 208) require Iearners lo submil decisions made al crilicaI
|unclures in a reaI ro|ecl.
# Wnrk-dncumcnt activitics (. 208) require Iearners lo creale a documenl lhal vouId be
a arl of acluaI vork, such as fiIIing in a form, crealing a sIide resenlalion, or vriling
a secificalion.
# Jnurna! activitics (. 210) rovide a vay for Iearners lo coIIecl decisions inlo an
ongoing documenl lhal lhey can reviev and lake avay al lhe end of lhe e-Iearning.
In sociaI Iearning, comarison aclivilies (. 480) and grou-crilique aclivilies (. 481)
rovide addilionaI originaI-vork aclivilies.


How original-work activities work
OriginaI-vork aclivilies are a lvo-sle rocess: Iirsl lhe Iearner creales originaI vork and
lhen lhe leacher or feIIov Iearners crilique il.

Decision activities
Invile Iearners lo make decisions for reaI ro|ecls and lo submil lheir decisions for
crilique. The decision may lake lhe form of a smaII comonenl of vork.

This examIe asks Iearners lo make
decisions on Iayering informalion for a
ro|ecl. Learners can choose a sub|ecl from
lheir ovn vork or sludies. And lhal's vhal
makes il originaI vork.
Such a decision aclivily is simIe and
easier lo evaIuale for a leacher vho may
nol knov aII lhe arlicuIars of lhe Iearner's
fieId of vork.

Work-document activities
Much vork and sludy requires roducing officiaI documenls or giving resenlalions. One
form of originaI-vork aclivily requires Iearners lo submil a reaI documenl from lheir
vork.


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This examIe requires
Iearners lo secify coIors for a
Web sile lhey are designing.
They creale lheir secificalion
using a form dovnIoaded as
arl of lhe aclivily.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and
Microsofl Word.
Think aboul lhe vork aclivilies lhe Iearner engages in. Whal are lhe roducls of lhose
aclivilies` Any of lhese vork roducls couId be lhe basis of an originaI-vork aclivily. Ior
examIe, consider lhe vork of a sociaI vorker and resuIling documenls.
Intcrvicwing pcnp!c Recording, lranscril, or reorl of lhe inlerviev.
Rccnrding data Iorm fiIIed in lo record lhe dala.
Rccnmmcnding actinns Reorl vilh suorling documenls.
Consider lhe vide variely of vork roducls you can have Iearners submil:
# Wrilings.
# IIans.
# Irocedures.
# IoIicies.
# Sreadsheels.
# Iholograhs.
# Reorls.
# Designs.
# Skelches.
# SIide resenlalions.
# 3D modeIs.
# Sloryboard.
# Adverlisemenls.
# MusicaI comosilions.
# Video cIis.
# Animalion sequences.
# Audilion laes.
# usiness Ieller.


Journal activities
OriginaI vork is ongoing. A |ournaI aclivily can coIIecl lhe ieces of vork in a vorkbook,
dalabase, or discussion forum, vhere il can be revieved and udaled.

This examIe shovs a
|ournaI aclivily. Iach
individuaI aclivily Iike
lhis is vrillen lo a
dalabase. Once enlered,
lhe Iearner can revise il
by making changes and
cIicking lhe Updatc
bullon.
CIicking lhe 5cc a!!
bullon reveaIs lhe enlire
|ournaI.

Here is lhe enlire |ournaI,
disIaying aII lhe
Iearner's enlries so far.
Iach enlry has an Edit
bullon lhe Iearner can
cIick lo make changes lo
lhe enlry.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver
and Aclive Server Iages
}ournaI aclivilies are good afler a Iearner has comIeled a significanl iece of vork. The
}ournaI lhen conlains lhe comIeled vork, aIong vilh a cIear lraiI of ils crealion and
refinemenl. The |ournaI aclivily is Iike lhe decision aclivily reealed over and over again
for aII lhe key decisions of an enlire ro|ecl.


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Best practices for original-work activities
Specify criteria for critiques
Irovide ob|eclive crileria for crilics lo use. Iocus lhe crilique on lhe vork, nol lhe erson
vho crealed il. Make cIear lhal ersonaI crilicisms are nol heIfuI. Have Iearners suggesl
crileria for evaIualion of lheir vork. You may vanl lo go so far as lo rovide a form lo
slruclure lhe crilique.

Here is a form eIiciling a
crilique of a business Ian.

Offer helpful comments
The leacher can romole heIfuI commenls by offering some as an examIe. If Iearners
seem reIuclanl lo crilicize lhe vork of olhers, lhe leacher can slarl lhe rocess and
eslabIish a allern of heIfuI commenls. Tvo kinds of heIfuI commenls incIude
queslions lhal require lhe Iearners lo relhink lheir vork and suggeslions for
imrovemenl. Neilher direclIy crilicizes lhe vork or lhe Iearner vho submilled il.
Use revision features of word processors
If lhe vhoIe cIass uses lhe same vord rocessing rogram, you can have Iearners reare
a delaiIed, reciseIy formalled documenl in lhe vord rocessor. Learners can use lhe
revision fealures of lhe vord rocessor lo inserl lheir commenls inlo lhe body of lhe
documenl.
Clarify what learners must submit
# Give Iearners a form lo fiII in or a lemIale. Ior examIe, if Iearners musl reare
resenlalions, give lhem a sIide fiIe vilh necessary sIides conlaining IacehoIders for
lhe kind of informalion you require.
# Remind Iearners lo remove ersonaI, rorielary, or secrel informalion before
submilling lheir vork.


# Require Iearners lo rovide lhe conlexl againsl vhich lheir vork is lo be evaIualed, for
examIe, lhe goaIs il is lo accomIish.
Extend original-work activities
We can increase lhe reach and over of originaI-vork aclivilies by combining lhem vilh
Combine original work with other activities
# Have Iearners conducl research (. 196) so lhey can erform originaI vork u lo
rofessionaI slandards, so lhey can comare lheir vork lo lhal of exerls, and so lhey
knov crileria lo use in criliquing lhe vork of olhers.
# Assign originaI-vork aclivilies lhal require Iearners lo assembIe lheir ovn Iibraries of
reference maleriaIs (. 98) and creale lheir ovn |ob aids (. 187).
# Have Iearners inlegrale resenlalions (. 69) or readings (. 93) inlo lhe originaI vork.
# Ireare Iearners for originaI vork by having lhem erform an anaIogous lask in a
simuIalion (. 323).
# SuIy a |ob aid for use in originaI vork.
Design original-work activities for social learning
# Iroduce a singIe iece of originaI vork as a grou. The grou viII need lo discuss lhe
vork, anaIyze lasks required, subdivide lhe lasks, vork searaleIy on lheir assigned
lasks, and lhen inlegrale lheir individuaI resuIls inlo one vork roducl.
# Work on individuaI originaI-vork aclivilies, bul, eriodicaIIy discuss lheir vork vilh
olhers in lheir grou, receive advice from grou members, and comare lheir vork lo
lhal of olhers in lhe grou.
# CaII on lhe grou for advice, crilique, and insiralion lhroughoul lhe vork rocess.
Design original-work activities for mobile learning
# Creale reaI-vorId arlifacls lhal are lhen evaIualed by on-sile exerls.
# Record and communicale lheir decisions using media on a mobiIe device.
# Submil a holo, video cIi, or audio recording of resuIls.
# Use lhe mobiIe device lo access inslruclions, Ians, slandards, |ob aids, or olher
documenls needed in originaI vork.


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IN CLOSING
Summary
Connecl aclivilies ensure lhal eoIe can aIy vhal lhey Iearned. They do nol usuaIIy
leach knovIedge and skiIIs, bul make exisling knovIedge and skiIIs more usefuI. Connecl
aclivilies range from a simIe slo-and-lhink queslion lo a fuII-scaIe vork ro|ecl. To
design effeclive Connecl aclivilies, slarl vilh a cIear idea of vhal you vanl lo connecl.
Tn cnnncct this Tn this Usc this typc Cnnncct
activity
IndividuaI rinciIes,
concels, and olher bils
of Iearning.
The Iearner's vork or
sludies.
Ionder aclivilies, such as
idenlifying examIes.
CrilicaI bils of
informalion.
Gas in lhe Iearner's
currenl underslanding.
Queslioning aclivilies.
Ma|or lhemes in your
e-Iearning.
The Iearner's Iife. Slories loId by lhe Iearner.
Irocedures and oIicies. The Iearner's rofessionaI
vork.
}ob aids and originaI-
vork aclivilies.
Limiled informalion in
your course.
The Iarger body of
knovIedge in a fieId.
Research aclivilies.
Currenl informalion. Nev informalion lhal lhe
Iearner viII encounler.
Research aclivilies.

Pick Connect activities to accomplish learning objectives
This |ob aid lies lhe six lyes of Iearning ob|eclives lo common lyes of Connecl aclivilies.
AIong lhe Iefl are lhe main lyes of aclivilies. In coIumns are lhe six lyes of ob|eclives. A
circIe al lhe inlerseclion of a lye's coIumn and an aclivily's rov means lhal lhe aclivily is
recommended for lhal lye ob|eclive. A bIack dol indicales a slronger recommendalion.


Cnnncct
activitics
Typcs nI nb|cctivcs
P
n
n
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c
r

RheloricaI queslion ! ! !
Medilalion ! ! "
Cile-examIe ! ! "
IvaIualion ! !
Summary ! !
Queslioning

! ! " !

Slories by Iearners

" "
J
n
b

a
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d
s

GIossaries

!
CaIcuIalors

!

I-consuIlanl ! "

R
c
-

s
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a
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c
h

Scavenger hunl " ! " "
Guided research ! " ! "
O
r
i
g
i
n
a
!

w
n
r
k

Decision

" !

Work documenl " ! " !
}ournaI ! " ! ! !

For more
ecause lhe rimary urose of Connecl aclivilies is lo ensure lhal Iearners aIy vhal
lhey Iearn, search lhe Web for combinalions of lhese vords: c!ucaiicn, iraining, |carning,
iransjcr, pcrjcrnancc, and app|icaiicn.
Connecl aclivilies seIdom vork aIone. e sure lo consider Do aclivilies (Chaler 3) and
Absorb aclivilies (Chaler 2) as arlners.
SociaI Iearning aclivilies easiIy serve lo connecl Iearners lo co-vorkers, lo vork, and lo
exerls. See Chaler 8 for ideas on hov lo use sociaI Iearning for Connecl aclivilies.

215

Tests

Assessing Iearning

IducalionaI exerls underrale lhem. InslruclionaI designers disregard lhem. Course
aulhors overIook lhem. Learners fear lhem. We may cIoak lhem as games or uzzIes. We
may ul off vriling lhem unliI lhere is nol lime enough lo do lhem veII. Whelher ve caII
lhem icsis, asscssncnis, quizzcs, !ri||s, cxaninaiicns, ccnpcicncc ncniicrs, or !cncnsiraiicns cj
nasicrq, lhey, nonelheIess, remain essenliaI for gauging a Iearner's rogress. And lhey
reresenl an oorlunily for cIever designers lo engage Iearners and rovide ob|eclive
feedback.
In my nol-so-humbIe oinion, crealing effeclive lesls does more lo imrove effecliveness
of e-Iearning lhan anylhing olher lhan defining cIear ob|eclivesvhich crealing lesls aIso
does.
Whal exaclIy is a lesl` Any aclivily lhal indicales hov veII Iearners meel Iearning
ob|eclives is a lesl. Any aclivily lhal rovides feedback on erformance of an ob|eclive can
serve as a lesl.
DECIDE WHY YOU ARE TESTING
efore you begin vriling lesl queslions, make sure a lesl is varranled. UnIess your
reasons for lesling are cIear, your lesls viII faiI.
!

216 ! Tests ! E-Learning by Design

When are formal tests needed?
Tesls are difficuIl lo creale and adminisler. Oflen informaI raclice aclivilies may be
sufficienl lo leach a sub|ecl. In Tcsis Tnai Wcrk, Odin Weslgaard Iisls lhree condilions for
using formaI lesls vilh recorded scores:
# Learners require secific skiIIs, knovIedge, and alliludes.
# You do nol knov vhelher Iearners ossess lhose skiIIs, knovIedge, or alliludes.
# A lesl is lhe besl vay lo rovide lhal assessmenl.
Olhervise, use some olher kind of aclivily, such as an unscored raclice aclivily or a
survey.
Why are you testing?
efore deciding lo lesl, Iisl your goaIs. Here are some reasons for lesling. Some are good,
and some are nol.
#
Gnnd rcasnns

"
Bad rcasnns

#

Lel Iearners gauge rogress lovard
lheir goaIs.
#

Imhasize vhal is imorlanl and
lhereby molivale Iearners lo focus
on il.
#

Lel Iearners aIy vhal lhey have
been Iearningand lhereby Iearn il
more deeIy.
#

Monilor success of arls of lhe
e-Iearning so lhal lhe leacher and
designers can imrove il.
#

Cerlify lhal Iearners have maslered
cerlain knovIedge or skiIIs as arl
of a IegaI or Iicensing requiremenl.
#

Diagnose Iearners' skiIIs and
knovIedge so lhey can ski
unnecessary Iearning.

#

IuIfiII lhe slereolye lhal aII
e-Iearning courses have lesls and
aII lesls are unIeasanl.
#

Reinforce lhe leacher's over over
Iearners. Iay allenlion or eIse.
#

Torlure Iearners. Training is
suosed lo be ainfuI. Tesls can
ensure lhal il is.
#

ArlificiaIIy boIsler Iearners' seIf-
esleem by giving lhem easy lesls
vilh gushingIy osilive feedback.
#

Use a lesling looI you aid a Iol of
money for.
#

You can'l lhink of any olher vay lo
add inleraclivily.

E-Learning by Design " Tests " 217

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Consider lesling carefuIIy. Conlradiclions Iurk vilhin lhese Iisls. Whal Iearners vanl lo
Iearn may nol square vilh vhal leachers vanl lo leach. KnovIedge required for
cerlificalion may nol be sufficienl lo acluaIIy do a |ob.
If sorling lhrough lhis Iong Iisl is loo comIex, Iel me simIify il. The reasons for lesling
usuaIIy boiI dovn lo a choice belveen leaching and measuring erformance. Ask
yourseIf, Am I more inleresled in using lesls lo enhance Iearning or lo accuraleIy
measure Iearners' abiIilies` AIlhough lhese lvo goaIs are nol oosiles, achieving each
requires comromises in lhe olher.
There is aIso a vaIuabIe side effecl of crealing lesls. A lesl queslion is a concrele, secific
slalemenl of vhal lhe Iearner musl do lo meel lhe Iearning ob|eclive. Crealing lesl
queslions reciseIy defines and cIarifies Iearning ob|eclives.
What do you hope to accomplish?
Consider your urose for lesling vhen you decide hov lo lesl, vhelher lo record scores,
and vhal feedback lo give Iearners.
Purpnsc Inr
tcsting
Hnw tn tcst Rccnrd
scnrcs?
Fccdback
Measure lhe
rogress of
Iearners.
Al lhe end of each loic,
Iesson, and course.
Yes. Numeric, al end of lesl.
HeI Iearners
measure lheir
ovn rogress.
Irequenl shorl lesls. No. Descrilive and numeric.
Cerlify Iearners'
knovIedge.
Iroclored, IegaIIy
defensibIe lesls.
Yes. Iass-faiI or overaII score.
May aIso rovide scores for
sub-comonenls so
Iearners can sludy and lry
again.
Cerlify Iearners'
skiIIs.
Observed
accomIishmenl of
rescribed lasks.
Yes. Iass-faiI or overaII score.
May aIso rovide scores for
sub-comonenls so
Iearners can sludy and lry
again.
Molivale
Iearning.
InformaI re-lesls. No. Recommended areas of
sludy.


Purpnsc Inr
tcsting
Hnw tn tcst Rccnrd
scnrcs?
Fccdback
Ixercise
indeendenl-
Iearning skiIIs
Oen-book lesl
vhere Iearners can find
ansvers in avaiIabIe
resources.
No. Recommended search
largels and slralegies.
Teach nev
knovIedge and
skiIIs.
InformaI, frequenl,
before resenlalion of
conlenl.
No. Iresenlalion of |usl lhe
conlenl lhal lesling
indicales lhe Iearner needs.
Diagnose
Iearners' skiIIs
and knovIedge.
Comrehensive lesl. Yes. ComIele rofiIe of vhal
Iearners aIready knov and
need lo Iearn.
Measure lhe
effecliveness of
Iearning
moduIes.
Comarison of lesl
scores belveen
differenl moduIes and
belveen moduIes
before and afler
revisions of re- and
osl-lesls.
Yes. --

What do you want to measure?
To design a lesl, you musl knov exaclIy vhal you vanl lo measure. This is nol a robIem
if you foIIoved lhe rocedure in Chaler 1, because you aIready knov lhe secific
Iearning ob|eclives for your course, Iessons, and loics. Reviev lhe Iearning ob|eclive for
lhe unil of conlenl covered by lhe lesl. Chaler 6 on loics conlains some advice on lesls
aroriale for secific lyes of Iearning ob|eclives (. 299).
Walch oul for lhe as-shovn-above syndrome (. 314). Learners do nol aIvays slarl al
lhe beginning of lhe e-Iearning and roceed slraighl lhrough lo lhe end. Learners may
|um inlo lhe middIe of a loic in lhe middIe of a Iesson in lhe middIe of lhe e-Iearning.
Many consider lhis lheir righl. They viII consider you unfair if you lesl lhem on maleriaI
nol found in lhe seclion suosedIy covered by lhe leslor in a cIearIy idenlified
rerequisile seclion.
Once you have decided vhy you are lesling and vhal you hoe lo measure, you can
make laclicaI decisions on vhal kind of lesl lo use. Lel's Iook cIoser al lhe decisions you
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MEASURE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF OBJECTIVES
To design a lesl, ve musl decide hov lo lesl for a secific Iearning ob|eclive. We slarl vilh
lhe Iearning ob|eclive. In lhis examIe lhe ob|eclive vas: Tn intcrprct dcpcndcncy
markcrs in a Gantt chart.
Ob|cctivc: Tn intcrprct dcpcndcncy markcrs in a Gantt chart.
Discriminating task
(Whal can lhose vho
meel lhe ob|eclive do lhal
lhose vho do nol meel
lhe ob|eclive cannol do`)
Idenlify deendency reIalionshis among lhe lasks of a
ro|ecl shovn in a Ganll charl and inlerrel
deendency markers lo delermine vhich lasks affecl or
deend on anolher lask.
Tcst activity
(Hov Iearners rove lhey
meel lhe ob|eclive.)
Ixamine a reaI-vorId Ganll charl and ansver five ick-
one queslions, such as vhal lask deends on a
arlicuIar lask or vhal lasks musl be comIeled before
a lask can begin.
Rcsnurccs
(Media and lechnoIogy.)
#

Grahic shoving a reaI Ganll charl.
#

Iick-one lesl.

The firsl sle is lo ick vhal is caIIed a discriminaling lask. To do so, ve ask, Whal can
lhose vho meel lhe ob|eclive do lhal lhose vho do nol meel lhe ob|eclive cannol do` In
our case, lhe discriminaling lask vas:
IdcntiIy dcpcndcncy rc!atinnships amnng thc tasks nI a prn|cct shnwn in a
Gantt chart and intcrprct dcpcndcncy markcrs tn dctcrminc which tasks aIIcct
nr dcpcnd nn annthcr task.
The nexl sle is lo lransIale lhis discriminaling lask inlo a lesl aclivily. The lesl aclivily is
hov Iearners rove lhal lhey meel lhe ob|eclive. The lesl aclivily secifies hov in
e-Iearning ve are going lo simuIale lhe reaI-vorId discriminaling lask. Ior our case, lhe
lesl aclivily vas:
Examinc a rca!-wnr!d Gantt chart and answcr Iivc pick-nnc qucstinns, such as
what task dcpcnds nn a particu!ar task nr what tasks must bc cnmp!ctcd bcInrc
a task can bcgin.
IinaIIy, ve Iisl lhe resources ve viII need lo creale lhe lesl aclivily. These requiremenls
are lhe media ve musl creale and lhe lechnoIogy ve musl deIoy. In lhis case lhe Iisl vas
shorl and simIe. We needed a grahic shoving a reaI Ganll charl and a lesling looI lo
creale a ick-one lesl.


y deciding hov lo lesl, ve exlend and cIarify lhe Iearning ob|eclive. Our secified lesl
aclivily nov serves as our slandard of erformance lo evaIuale lhe Iearning ob|eclive.
SELECT THE RIGHT TYPE OF QUESTION
Any aclivily lhal can be scored by a comuler or human can be a lesl queslion. Ior lhal
reason, lhere are an unIimiled number of lesl queslions ossibIe. In lhis seclion, ve
reslricl ourseIves lo lhe lyes lhal are eseciaIIy common in e-Iearning.
Throughoul lhis chaler, I use lhe lerm icsi qucsiicn ralher lhan icsi iicn, even lhough
some lesl ilems are nol IileraIIy queslions. Good lesl ilems al Ieasl imIy a queslion.
Anyvay, il heIs lo lhink of lesl ilems as queslions ul lo lhe Iearner.
Consider the type question you need
efore you decide lo use a muIliIe-choice or malching-Iisl queslion, lake a momenl lo
consider vhal kind of informalion you are lrying lo galher and vhal you are viIIing lo do
in order lo gel lhis informalion.
Subjective or objective?
Queslions can be sub|eclive or ob|eclive. Su|jcciitc lesl queslions require human |udgmenl
lo evaIuale. They are somelimes caIIed cpcn-rcspcnsc queslions because lhe exacl form of
lhe resonse is u lo lhe Iearner. A comosilion queslion is an examIe of a sub|eclive lesl
queslion. Sub|eclive queslions are good for sub|ecls vilhoul cIear calegories and ones lhal
require finesse and |udgmenl. Sub|eclive queslions usuaIIy require a human being lo
evaIuale lhe ansver and rovide feedback.
O|jcciitc queslions are ones vilh cIear slandards for correclness. They are somelimes
caIIed c|csc!-rcspcnsc queslions because lhe Iearner musl seIecl an ansver from choices
rovided by lhe designer. Ior inslance, muIliIe-choice queslions are ob|eclive. Ob|eclive
queslions are good for malure sub|ecls vilh eslabIished calegories and veII-acceled
raclices and rinciIes. Ob|eclive queslions can require sublIe and sohislicaled
|udgmenl, bul lhey vork besl for queslions vilh righl-vrong ansvers. A comuler easiIy
scores ob|eclive queslions.
Scored by computer or human?
Some lyes of lesl queslions are easiIy scored by lhe comuler. Ior examIe, muIliIe-
choice, sequence, and malching ilem queslions can be comIeleIy scored by lhe
comuleras can simIe fiII-in-lhe-bIank queslions. Comuler-scored queslions make u
in immediacy of feedback vhal lhey may Iack in sublIely of evaIualion.


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More comIex queslions, such as lexl-enlry queslions lhal lake more lhan a vord or lvo,
may require human evaIualion. Human evaIualion can beller handIe queslions asking for
sublIe |udgmenls, comIex reasoning, and exressions of allilude. They do, hovever,
require a human evaIualor vilh lhe lime, skiIIs, and sensilivily lo evaIuale ansvers.
Ieedback comes onIy afler a deIay for scoring.
Common types of test questions
You can use a variely of lesl queslions. This seclion inlroduces lhe mosl ouIar lyes. Il
is veighled heaviIy lovard simIe ones lhal can be crealed by a variely of simIe looIs
and lhal can be scored by lhe comuler.

Typc qucstinn Examp!c Usc tn mcasurc thc !carncr's abi!ity
tn:
True/faIse
(. 222)

Make calegoricaI, eilher-or |udgmenls.
Iick-one
(. 225)

Recognize lhe one correcl ansver in a
Iisl. To idenlify a member of a
calegory or assign an ilem lo a
calegory.
Iick-muIliIe
(. 228)

Recognize muIliIe correcl ansvers in
a Iisl. To recognize characlerislics lhal
aIy lo an ob|ecl or concel.
IiII-in-lhe-
bIanks (. 231)

RecaII names, numbers, and olher
secific facls.
Malching-Iisl
(. 234)

Idenlifying associalions belveen ilems
in lvo Iisls, as belveen evenls and
lheir causes or lerms and lheir
definilions.
Sequence
(. 235)

Idenlify lhe order of ilems in a
sequence, such as chronoIogicaI order
or a ranking scheme.


Typc qucstinn Examp!c Usc tn mcasurc thc !carncr's abi!ity
tn:
Comosilion
(. 237)

Creale an originaI exIanalion, slory,
skelch, or olher iece of vork.
Ierformance
(. 240)

Ierform a sle of a rocedure,
lyicaIIy in a simuIalion.

True/false questions
True/faIse queslions require Iearners lo decide belveen lvo aIlernalives, lyicaIIy saying
vhelher a slalemenl is lrue or faIse.

Here are examIes of
lrue/faIse queslions from
a course on informalion
archileclure.

When to use true/false questions
Use lrue/faIse queslions lo lesl Iearners' abiIilies lo make definile |udgmenls. True/faIse
queslions require Iearners lo make a binary decision:
# Is a slalemenl righl or vrong`
# WiII a rocedure vork or nol`
# Is a rocedure safe or unsafe`
# Does an examIe comIy vilh slandards`


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# ShouId you arove or re|ecl a roosaI`
# Which of lvo aIlernalives shouId I ick`
efore using a lrue/faIse queslion, consider olher lyes of queslions as veII. True/faIse
queslions are reslricled lo simIe cases and may encourage guessing. Hovever, a veII-
designed lrue/faIse queslion lhal requires lhe same lhoughl rocesses as lhe reaI-vorId
aclivily is more accurale and vaIuabIe lhan a lhree-dimensionaI, immersive simuIalion
lhal invokes onIy lhe decision-making skiIIs of a lvilch-and-sIal videogame. And
lrue/faIse queslions are simIe enough lhal Iearners can ansver lhem quickIy.
Queslions need nol have yes/no or lrue/faIse ansvers. Any muluaIIy excIusive
aIlernalives viII do. Ihrase lhe ansver as a binary choice if lhal is more naluraI.

Walch oul for cases in vhich lhe choices are nol muluaIIy excIusive or lhere reaIIy are
more lhan lvo choices ossibIe. Here is such a case:

The almoshere of earlh conlains more gases lhan lhe lvo Iisled here. AIlhough lhe
ercenlage of nilrogen is more lhan lhal of olher gases, lhe almoshere does conlain lrace
amounls of carbon dioxide.
Nntc: If your lesling looI does nol rovide an exIicil lrue/faIse lesl or if il does nol Iel
you change lhe IabeIs for ansvers, use a ick-one queslion vilh |usl lvo ansvers. Or use
a ick-muIliIe queslion lhal requires a series of reIaled lrue/faIse |udgmenls by asking,
Which of lhe foIIoving slalemenls are lrue` and lhen making each slalemenl a choice.
Require thought
To make lrue/faIse lesls effeclive, design lhem so lhey require lhoughl ralher lhan
guessing.
# Ask more lhan one lrue/faIse queslion on a sub|ecl. The odds of gelling lhem aII righl
by guessing diminish vilh each addilionaI queslion.
# Ior each sub|ecl, hrase lrue/faIse queslions in differenl vays so lhal somelimes lhe
righl ansver is faIse and olher limes il is lrue.
# AnaIyze your lrue/faIse queslions lo ensure aboul lhe same number are lrue as faIse.
# Ihrase lhe queslion in neulraI lerms so you do nol imIy an ansver.


Phrase the question to fit the answers
Make lhe queslion simIe and slraighlforvard. Do nol ask vhal lhe Iearner ininks or
|c|ictcs unIess lhal is vhal you are lesling.

"
Nn
#
Ycs

Oflen a slalemenl foIIoved by lrue/faIse radio bullons rovides sufficienl inslruclions.

In lrue/faIse queslions, hrase lhe queslion and ansvers so lhal lhe ansvers malch lhe
form of lhe queslion. Do nol ask a yes/no queslion and lhen IabeI lhe ansvers lrue/faIse.

"
Nn
#
Ycs

Discourage guessing
Many Iearners guess on a lrue/faIse queslion, figuring lhey have a 50-50 chance of being
righl. UnIess you are leaching a course in robabiIily or gambIing, you shouId discourage
such behavior. You can discourage guessing in severaI vays:
# Pcna!izc gucssing. In scoring lrue/faIse queslions, give 1 oinl for righl ansvers, 0
oinls for unansvered queslions, and 1 oinl for vrong ansvers. Thus guessing is no
beller or vorse lhan nol ansvering.
# Rcquirc highcr scnrcs. Slalislics lo lhe rescue! The odds of gelling 5 of 10 lrue/faIse
queslions righl by guessing are 50%. ul lhe odds of gelling 80% correcl are onIy aboul
5%.
# Ask mnrc qucstinns. Increase lhe number of lrue/faIse queslions lo 20 and lhe odds of
gelling 80% righl by guessing dro lo Iess lhan 1%.


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Consider alternative forms for true/false questions
Mosl lrue/faIse queslions are formalled as a air of radio bullons, bul any form lhal
cIearIy imIies a choice belveen oosiles or belveen |usl lvo aIlernalives viII do.
Graphical alternatives
Here are some grahicaI aIlernalives lhal have been used, vilh aroriale IabeIs, in
lrue/faIse queslions:

Pick-multiple test

A series of reIaled lrue/faIse
queslions can be converled lo a
singIe ick-muIliIe queslion, such
as in lhis examIe.
Pick-one questions
MuIliIe-choice queslions disIay a Iisl of ansvers for Iearners lo choose from. There are
lvo main lyes of muIliIe-choice queslions: pick-cnc and pick-nu|iip|c. Iick-one queslions
ask lhe Iearner lo ick |usl one ansver from lhe Iisl. OnIy one ansver is correcl.

In lhis examIe from a course on
viIderness managemenl, Iearners are
resenled a scenario and asked lhe
correcl aclion lo lake in order lo
remedy lhe robIem vhiIe comIying
vilh secific reguIalions.

Crealed in Microsofl IoverIoinl. Tesl added using
Adobe Iresenler. Toic converled for Web deIivery
using Adobe Iresenler. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.


When to use pick-one questions
Use lhe ick-one formal for queslions lhal have one righl ansver. They vork veII for
aclivilies lhal require eoIe lo assign ilems lo veII-defined calegories, for inslance:
# Rating a!nng a sca!c. Ranking Ioan aIicalions by degree of risk.
# Rccngnizing a mcmbcr nI a spcciIic catcgnry. Iicking lhe Ianl lhal is a member of a
arlicuIar secies.
# Rccngnizing thc main causc nI a prnb!cm. Diagnosing lhe mosl common cause of a
fIal lire.
# Picking supcr!ativcs: Iicking lhe besl, vorsl, grealesl, Ieasl, highesl, or Iovesl member
of a grou.
# 5c!ccting thc bcst cnursc nI actinn. Learners musl veigh lradeoffs lo choose among
IausibIe aclions.
Consider alternative forms for pick-one questions
TradilionaIIy, ick-one queslions resenl lheir ansvers as radio bullons and ick-muIliIe
queslions as checkboxes. Iven if you need variely, do nol reverse lhese forms. Thal vouId
confuse Iearners. Inslead, consider an aIlernalive form.
Selection lists for multiple pick-one questions
If you vanl lo ask severaI ick-one queslions aboul a sub|ecl or if sace is lighl on lhe
age, consider using a series of seIeclion Iisls.

In lhis examIe, lhe
seIeclion-Iisl formal vorks
eseciaIIy veII since aII lhe
queslions have lhe same
sel of ossibIe ansvers.

uiIl using HTML and cuslom
}avaScril. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
Il does, hovever, mean lhal Iearners musl knov hov lo make a choice in a seIeclion Iisl.
Mosl eoIe figure oul checkboxes and radio bullons on lheir ovn. Oeraling a seIeclion
Iisl shouId be a robIem onIy for lhe novices al fiIIing in Web forms.


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Click-in-picture questions for visual choices
If you vanl lo Iel Iearners seIecl among visuaI aIlernalives, you can resenl lhe choices as
iclures and have Iearners indicale lheir choices by oinling and cIicking. ecause such
queslions are used rimariIy for visuaI sub|ecls, lhey are lrealed as a searale lye of
queslion caIIed a cIick-in-iclure queslion.
CIick-in-iclure queslions ask lhe Iearner lo seIecl an ob|ecl or area in a iclure by
oinling lo il vilh lhe mouse and cIicking lhe mouse bullon. They are a visuaI equivaIenl
of lhe ick-one queslion.

Here, Iearners are asked lo
idenlify a cIass of chemicaI
eIemenls by cIicking an area
in lhe eriodic labIe.

uiIl using HTML and cuslom
horlon.com/eId/.
Use cIick-in-iclure lesls lo measure visuaI recognilion of ob|ecls or areas. Use lhem lo ask
queslions such as lhese:
What button would you press to trigger an emergency shutdown?
Who in this picture is not wearing required safety gear?
What country is home to our companys largest factory?
Click on the flag of the province where Mandarin Chinese is the official language.
Use cIick-in-iclure queslions inslead of lexl ick-one queslions vhen il is more
imorlanl lhal Iearners knov vhere somelhing is or vhal il Iooks Iike lhan vhal il is
caIIed.
Ior cIick-in-iclure queslions, use cIear images and vrile cIear inslruclions.
# Exp!ain what !carncrs arc tn sc!cct. An area` An ob|ecl` A oinl on a scaIe`
# Makc targcts visua!!y distinct. Make lhem visuaIIy searale ob|ecls or areas vilh
dislincl borders.
# Makc targcts !argc cnnugh so lhal Iearners vilh onIy average eye-hand coordinalion
can quickIy seIecl lhem. The exacl size deends on lhe device and lhe melhod of
seIeclion. A 20-by-20-ixeI largel may be fine vhen seIecling vilh a mouse on a


desklo comuler vilh a Iov-cosl monilor. ul, such a largel is vay loo smaII vhen
vieved on an uIlra-high-resoIulion screen of a smarl hone vhere lhe Iearner seIecls
by laing lhings vilh a slubby finger. IoIIov lhe user-inlerface guideIines for lhe
device Iearners viII use lo lake lesls.
# 5hnw thc sccnc thc way it wnu!d appcar in thc rca! wnr!d, if simuIaling reaI-vorId
aclivilies, such as ushing bullons on a conlroI aneI.
Select along a scale for value judgments
To ask Iearners lo exress a reIalive vaIue, you can requesl lhal Iearners seIecl aIong a
veII-underslood scaIe. Ior examIe, in a chemislry Iesson you mighl ask:

The Iearner can seIecl a osilion aIong lhe scaIe by:
# CIicking on lhe scaIe.
# Moving a sIiding icon lo a osilion aIong lhe scaIe.
# Inlering a number corresonding lo a osilion aIong lhe scaIe.
# SeIecling from defined osilions aIong lhe scaIe (as in lhis examIe).
Ior scaIes vhere lhe Iearner musl ick a osilion, incIude an odd-number of choices. This
rovides a neulraI osilion so Iearners are nol forced inlo a osilion. The neulraI osilion
removes lhe imIicalion lhal lhe Iearner musl make an eilher-or choice. And lhe neulraI
choice makes lhe queslion aear more ob|eclive.
Kee scaIe inlervaIs equaI and meaningfuI. Il is usuaIIy OK lo round numbers if lhal is
hov Iearners are accuslomed lo seeing lhe scaIe.
Pick-multiple questions
Iick-muIliIe queslions Iel lhe Iearner ick one or more ansvers from a Iisl of ossibIe
ansvers.

In lhis examIe, lhe Iearner can
ick aII ansvers lhal are correcl.


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When to use pick-multiple questions
Iick-muIliIe queslions can be more sohislicaled lhan ick-one or lrue/faIse queslions.
Use ick-muIliIe queslions for asking queslions vilh more lhan one righl ansver. AIso
use lhem for queslions lhal require making a series of reIaled |udgmenls. Ior inslance:
# Iicking ilems lhal meel a crilerion.
# Deciding vhen a ruIe aIies.
# Making a quick series of yes-no decisions.
# Iicking examIes or non-examIes of a rinciIe.
Use a ick-muIliIe queslion lo discourage guessing. The odds of guessing correclIy are
much Iess vhen lhe Iearner musl seIecl a secific combinalion of ilems.

Typc qucstinn Odds nI gucssing cnrrcct!y
True/faIse 1:2
Iick 1 of 4 1:4
Iick 1 of 5 1:5
Iick muIliIe of 4 1:16
Iick muIliIe of 5 1:32
Iach addilionaI ansver in lhe ick-muIliIe Iisl reduces lhe odds of guessing lhe correcl
combinalion by haIf.
Iick-muIliIe queslions are a comacl vay lo ask severaI reIaled lrue/faIse queslions.

This examIe asks five lrue/faIse
queslions. The oinl vaIue of lhis
queslion vouId of course be higher
lhan five individuaI lrue/faIse
queslions lo refIecl lhe difficuIly of
gelling aII of lhem righl.


Consider alternative forms for pick-multiple questions
Here are some aIlernalives lhal you may vanl lo lry:
Graphical pick-multiple questions
Lel Iearners seIecl ilems by cIicking on lhem in a iclure.

This examIe has Iearners
seIecl muIliIe bars on a charl
lo ansver lhe queslion.
SeIecled bars are highIighled.

converled for Web deIivery using iSring
Iresenler. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
Use cIick-in-iclure lesls lo measure visuaI recognilion of ob|ecls or areas. Use lhem lo ask
queslions such as lhese:
In what countries on this map does our company have sales offices?
What items are allowed in carry-on luggage?
What elements in the periodic table were discovered by Marie Curie?
Use grahicaI ick-muIliIe queslions vhen il is more imorlanl lhal Iearners knov
vhere ob|ecls and areas are or vhal lhey Iook Iike.
Use cIear images and vrile cIear inslruclions.
# Exp!ain cxact!y what !carncrs arc tn sc!cct. Areas, ob|ecls, a range aIong a scaIe` Refer
lo lhe grahic (on lhe ma).
# Makc targcts visua!!y distinct. Make lhem visuaIIy searale ob|ecls or areas vilh
dislincl borders.
# Makc targcts !argc cnnugh so lhal Iearners vilh onIy average eye-hand coordinalion
can quickIy seIecl lhem. Make largels al Ieasl 20-by-20 ixeIs as a minimum size.
If your tool does not offer a pick-multiple question
If your lesling looI does nol incIude a ick-muIliIe lesl queslion, you may be abIe lo ask
lhe same lye queslion as a series of lrue/faIse queslions. Iach choice of lhe ick-muIliIe
queslion becomes a lrue/faIse queslion.


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Fill-in-the-blanks questions
IiII-in-lhe-bIanks queslions require Iearners lo lye in lhe ansver lo a queslion. TyicaIIy,
lhese are shorl ansvers lo very secific queslions.

In lhis examIe, Iearners lye
in lhe number of days.
IiII-in-lhe-bIanks queslions require Iearners lo suIy missing vords or numbers. The
bIank can occur vilhin a senlence or al lhe end of a queslion. MuIliIe bIanks can be
srinkIed lhrough a aragrah of lexl or across a labIe.
When to use fill-in-the-blanks questions
Use fiII-in-lhe-bIanks queslions lo verify lhal Iearners have lruIy Iearned lhe names of
lhings. Use lhem lo lesl recaII of:
# TechnicaI or business lerms.
# Iarl numbers.
# Abbrevialions.
# Commands and slalemenls in a rogramming Ianguage.
# VocabuIary in a foreign Ianguage.
How to design a fill-in-the-blanks question
The mosl difficuIl asecl of designing fiII-in-lhe-bIanks queslions is hrasing lhe queslion
so lhal lhe comuler can evaIuale lhe ansver.
# Make sure lhe conlexl rovides enough cIues so lhal lhe Iearner can fiII in lhe bIank.
Insure lhal lhe inlroduclion and conlexl make cIear exaclIy vhal is requesled. One
vay lo do lhis is lo ul lhe bIank afler a cIearIy hrased queslion ralher lhan vilhin a
vague slalemenl. Tesl your queslions.
# Ihrase lhe queslion lo Iimil lhe number of correcl ansvers. If ossibIe, vrile lhe
queslion so onIy one ansver is correcl.
# Ihrase lhe queslion so lhal lhe ansver can be evaIualed based on lhe resence or
absence of secific vords or hrases, bul nol on lhe exacl order or synlax of lhe
ansver.
# Accel synonyms (olher vords vilh lhe same meaning), grammalicaI varianls, and
common misseIIings. Walch oul for differences belveen rilish and American and
Canadian and AuslraIian IngIish.


# TeII Iearners hov lo hrase lheir ansvers. Give an examIe of a roerIy hrased
ansver. Make cIear vhelher lhe ansver is lo be lexl or numbers or mixed.
# If lhe queslion is comIex, break il inlo searale queslions, each vilh a simIe ansver.
Do nol ask lvo queslions lo be ansvered in one inul box.
# TeII lhe Iearner lhe Ienglh, formal, required arls, and olher conslrainls on a free-form
inul. If you do nol slale a Ienglh, mosl Iearners viII assume lhey can fiII lhe inul box.
AIlhough aulomalic scoring of free-form lexl is nol raclicaI in mosl cases, you can vrile
your queslion so lhal lhe comIeleness can be evaIualed. Ior examIe, if you ask Iearners
lo comare various gemslones, lhe syslem couId scan lhe Iearner's ansver for lhe names
of gemslones (ruby, diamond, oaI, and so forlh) and for characlerislics (coIor,
hardness, and so forlh).
Where ossibIe, vaIidale lhe form of lhe inul righl on lhe age before evaIualing
vhelher il is lhe correcl ansver or nol. y vaIidale I mean check for smaII mislakes lhal
do nol indicale sub|ecl-maller knovIedge. Ior examIe, suose you ask for a number.
An engineer vouId robabIy nol enler One hundred len, bul you cannol be sure. A
vaIidalion check examines lhe inul lo delermine vhelher il is a number or lexl. If lhe
inul is nol a number, lhe vaIidalion check lhrovs u a caulion and inviles lhe Iearner lo
correcl lhe form of lhe inul.
Cloze questions
Queslions vilh muIliIe bIanks are somelimes caIIed c|czc queslions. Such queslions have
been used for hundreds of years and are a slaIe of educalion.

Here is a cIassic examIe used lo
lesl knovIedge of Irench
grammar, synlax, and seIIing.
CIoze queslions vork |usl Iike lhe aer vorkbooks in vhich sludenls have lo vrile lheir
ansvers. Wilh lhe e-Iearning version, Iearners fiII in lheir ansvers by lying or by icking
from seIeclion Iisls.
As you can see, a cIoze queslion is reaIIy |usl a lighlIy inlegraled series of fiII-in-lhe-bIanks
or muIliIe-choice queslions.


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This examIe uses seIeclion Iisls
from vhich Iearners ick vords
in a rogramming Ianguage lo
comIele a funclion.

uiIl in HTML and cuslom }avaScril. Viev
When to use cloze questions
Use cIoze queslions lo measure Iearners' abiIily lo aIy knovIedge vilhin lhe conlexl of
a secific robIem. Learners use a arliaI ansver lo figure oul lhe comIele ansver. Use
cIoze queslions:
# Tn tcst incrcmcnta! knnw!cdgc. Learners knov arl of a sub|ecl and aIy vhal lhey
knov lo infer ansvers.
# Whcrc cnntcxt mattcrs. Learners infer lhe correcl ansver from surrounding lexl or
code.
# Tn mcasurc abi!ity tn app!y vcrba! knnw!cdgc in cnntcxt. Learners guess lhe righl
vords from lhe vords lhal come before il and lhe vords lhal foIIov il.
# Tn ask cnmp!cx qucstinns. Learners ansver queslions vilh muIliIe inlerreIaled arls.
# Tn prnvidc scaIIn!ding. The conlexl rovides lhe suorl Iearners need earIy in
Iearning a sub|ecl. Learners need nol have maslered lhe knovIedge suIied by lhe
conlexl.
How to design cloze questions
Make fiIIing in lhe bIanks simIe and rediclabIe so Iearners focus on ansvering lhe
queslion.
# Intrnducc thc cnntcxt. IxIain vhere lhe incomIele samIe comes from and vhal il
allemls lo accomIish. Ior examIe, Here is a aragrah from a Russian lour guide
suggesling sighls lo see on your firsl day in Sl. Ielersburg.


# Exp!ain thc gna!. TeII Iearners vhal crileria lhey shouId use lo fiII in lhe bIanks. Ior
examIe, Iick vords lhal lurn lhe aragrah inlo a concise summary of ..
# Usc a sc!cctinn !ist lo Iel Iearners ick among severaI IausibIe aIlernalives if lhere are
loo many ossibIe righl ansvers.
Matching-list questions
Malching-Iisl queslions require Iearners lo secify vhich ilems in one Iisl corresond lo
ilems in anolher.

In lhis examIe, lhe Iearner chooses chemicaIs
resonsibIe for lhe reseclive coIors of aulumn
Ieaves.

Crealed in Microsofl IoverIoinl and converled for Web deIivery vilh
iSring Iresenler. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
The Iisls need nol be formalled as slacked Iisls of vords. You can require Iearners lo move
icons or images lo corresonding Iocalions on lhe screen.

In lhis examIe, Iearners musl drag
eIemenls of a Ganll charl inlo Iace
lo reresenl reIalionshis among
lasks of a ro|ecl. Such drag-and-
dro queslions lesl lhe abiIily lo
assign ilems lo lhe correcl calegory
or lo arrange lhe arls of a syslem
inlo a vhoIe.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.


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When to use matching-list questions
Use malching-Iisl queslions lo measure knovIedge of lhe reIalionshis among concels,
ob|ecls, and comonenls.
Usc thcm tn match: With:
Queslions Ansvers
Terms Definilions
Iiclures Calions
IeoIe TilIes or accomIishmenls
TooIs Their uses
Diseases Symloms or cures
Iarls of one vhoIe Localions vilhin lhe vhoIe
Ilems Their calegories, lheir rankings aIong a scaIe, or
lheir oosiles
How to design matching-list questions
Make malching easy so lhal Iearners can focus lheir allenlion on lhe reIalionshis
belveen ilems in lhe lvo Iisls.
# Writc !ist itcms c!car!y. Use famiIiar lerms or rovide a gIossary for lhe Iearner lo Iook
u lerms.
# Kccp thc !ists shnrt sn that thcy bnth Iit in thc samc disp!ay. If lhey do nol fil, give
lhe Iearner a bullon lo |um back and forlh. GeneraIIy seven ilems are Ienly.
# Dn nnt mix catcgnrics within a !ist. IncIude onIy comarabIe ilems in each Iisl.
# Lct !carncrs indicatc matchcs simp!y. Ralher lhan having lhem lye lhe Ieller or
number of lhe malching ilem, Iel lhem seIecl il from a Iisl of choices, drag il from one
Iisl lo anolher, or drav Iines belveen ilems.
# E!iminatc thc "prnccss-nI-c!iminatinn" cIIcct by incIuding more ilems in one Iisl lhan
lhe olher, by Ielling one ilem malch more lhan one ilem in lhe olher Iisl, or by Ielling
Iearners choose None if an ilem has no malch in lhe oosile Iisl. In inslruclions, leII
Iearners of lhese ossibiIilies.
Sequence-type questions
Sequence-lye queslions ask Iearners lo ul ilems inlo a sequence from beginning lo end
by some ruIe or according lo some rinciIe. Learners are resenled vilh a Iisl of ilems in
an incorrecl order. They musl move lhe ilems lo ul lhe ilems inlo lhe righl reIalive
osilions vilhin lhe Iisl.


This examIe asks Iearners aboul lhe
reIalive hardness of five mineraIs.
Learners drag iclures of lhe mineraIs
inlo lhe aroriale sIol before cIicking
lhe 5ubmit bullon lo see vhich ilems are
in lheir correcl osilions.

uiIl using Adobe Calivale. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
When to use sequence-type questions
Use sequence-lye queslions lo measure Iearners' abiIily lo ul ilems inlo a meaningfuI
order. They ask Iearners lo make |udgmenls aboul lhe reIalionshis among ilems in lhe
Iisl. Use sequence-lye queslions lo lesl a Iearners' abiIily lo sequence:
# HisloricaI evenls by dale.
# Sles of a rocedure by order erformed.
# Ihases of a rocess by lhe order in vhich lhey occur.
# LogicaI argumenls in induclive or deduclive order.
# Innovalions by a chain of deendencies.
# Rankings of vaIue.
# Iroerlies of ob|ecls, such as size, veighl, or imorlance.
# Remedies by robabiIily of success.
# Diagnoses of symloms by robabiIily.
Sequence-lye queslions are aIso vaIuabIe in oIIing, eseciaIIy for sub|eclive queslions,
such as vaIue.
Communicate the desired sequence clearly
Make lhe sequence aclivily cIear, simIe, and fair.
# Dn nnt usc scqucncc-typc qucstinns iI thcrc is mnrc than nnc right scqucncc. Iven if
your scoring rocedure vouId accel aII correcl ansvers, Iearners may sliII feeI lhe
queslion is unfair. In generaI, avoid sequence-lye queslions vhen lhe sequence is
sub|eclive.
# Usc nn!y distinct itcms Iami!iar tn !carncrs. Do nol require Iearners lo guess vhal
ilems mean or conducl research during lhe lesl.


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# 5pcciIy thc critcrinn Inr thc scqucncc. Ior inslance, secify (in chronoIogicaI order).
AIso secify lhe direclion of lhe sequence (from earIiesl lo Ialesl dales).
# 5pcciIy nn!y nnc critcrinn Inr thc scqucncc. Avoid comIex crileria, such as by
rimary and secondary consliluenls or by lechnoIogy and lhen by year deveIoed.
Score fairly
Insure fair scoring of sequence-lye queslions. SimIe scoring can be a robIem. The
nalure of lhe sequencing lask means lhal one ilem oul of Iace can render lhe ansver
incorrecl, even lhough lhe Iearner knev lhe reIalive osilions of aII olher ilems.
Such slricl scoring may be aroriale if lhe queslion is aboul sles in an emergency
rocedure. In olher cases, il may unfairIy enaIize lhe aImosl-righl ansver. Some
soIulions:
# Give arliaI scores for ilems near lheir correcl Iocalion.
# Score each ilem individuaIIy so lhe ones in correcl finaI osilion vin some oinls.
# Use sequence-lye lesl queslions for raclice vhen scores are nol recorded.
Consider alternative forms for sequence-type questions
If your lesling looI does nol rovide a sequence-lye queslion (and many don'l), consider
asking lhe queslion in some olher form:
# Use a malching-Iisl queslion lo malch ilems vilh lheir osilions in lhe sequence.
# Number lhe ilems in a Iisl and have Iearners enler lhe numbers of lhe ilems inlo a fiII-
in-lhe-bIanks queslion.
Composition questions
Comosilion queslions ask Iearners lo vrile an essay, drav a iclure, or vrile a song.
They ask for an originaI anaIysis, oinion, or olher iece of vork. Comosilion queslions
are |usl scored originaI-vork aclivilies (. 207). y far, lhe mosl common form is lhe essay
queslion, bul olher media can be submilled as veII.

This examIe asks for a free-form ansver lhal
Iearners can reare in a lexl-edilor and lhen asle
inlo lhe lexl box.

uiIl using Iain oId HTML.


Comosilion queslions are mosl commonIy used in inslruclor-Ied e-Iearning. They ask
sub|eclive or oen-resonse queslions. They require human evaIualion.
When to use composition questions
Use comosilion queslions lo evaIuale comIex knovIedge, higher-order skiIIs, and
crealivily. TyicaI uses incIude queslions lhal require Iearners lo:
# Synlhesize an originaI soIulion lo a robIem.
# Recognize and exress comIex or sublIe reIalionshis.
# AnaIyze a comIex ob|ecl or silualion.
# Iorm and |uslify an oinion by veighing evidence.
# ResoIve confIicling oinions and conlrary evidence.
Do nol use comosilion queslions vhen ansvering lhem vouId Iace loo much of a
hysicaI burden on Iearners. Ior examIe, enlering Iong amounls of lexl on a mobiIe
device vilhoul a keyboard vouId roml Iearners lo be unnaluraIIy brief, lo use exlreme
abbrevialions, or |usl lo ski lhe queslion aIlogelher. eller lo subslilule anolher lye of
queslion lhal can be ansvered more easiIy.
"
Nn
#
Ycs

Designing composition questions
# Rcquirc brcadth and dcpth in answcrs. Ask queslions lhal require considering more
lhan one asecl of lhe sub|ecl and going beyond surface delaiIs.
# Rcquirc nrigina! thinking. Do nol revard arroling maleriaI from lhe course,
leacher, lexlbook, or olher sources.
# Disa!!nw cnpy-and-pastc rcspnnscs. Do nol Iel Iearners incIude lhe vords or vorks of
olhers as ansvers, excel as cIearIy idenlified quolalions or examIes. And require an


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originaI exIanalion of vhy lhe ilem vas incIuded and hov il suorls lhe Iearner's
originaI ansver.
# Lct !carncrs rcspnnd in thc mcdium nI thcir chnicc. If lhe sub|ecl is vriling, il makes
sense lo require a vrillen resonse. Hovever, if lhe sub|ecl is business, Iel Iearners
submil lheir ansvers as a voice recording, a IoverIoinl sIide, or a video cIi.
# Bc spcciIic. Do nol say Lisl a soIulion vhen you mean IxIain lhe Ieasl-exensive
soIulion. Irecise queslions fiIler oul lriviaI or obscure ansvers. Menlion any
conslrainls on lhe ansver. TeII Iearners lhe requiremenls for a good ansver.
# Guidc rcspnnscs. Give Iearners a modeI or lemIale for slrucluring lheir resonse. The
robIem vilh many oen-resonse queslions is lhal lhey are loo oen.
# Limit thc numbcr nI cnmpnsitinn qucstinns. They are liring. Afler aboul a haIf-dozen
such queslions, aII you are measuring is slamina.
Scoring composition questions
Wrile secific scoring guideIines (commonIy caIIed ru|rics) lo guide leachers in scoring
ansvers and roviding feedback. In such scoring guideIines, secify ob|eclive
requiremenls for an accelabIe ansver:
# Characlerislics of lhe ansver. Lenglh. Iormal.
# Ilems il musl incIude. Iacls il musl menlion. Media il musl use.
# ReIalionshis among ilems.
# ConcIusions lhe Iearner shouId drav.
# Recommendalions lhe Iearner shouId make.
Here is arl of a rubric for an assignmenl in a managemenl course. Il heIs lhe faciIilalor
evaIuale Iearners' resonses.


Lisl examIes of vays lhe Iearner may ansver lhe queslion. IncIude bolh righl and vrong
ansvers, aIong vilh lhe feedback each shouId lrigger. Lisl signs of common mislakes,
such as incorrecl slalemenls or ilems oflen omilled.
Wriling such rubrics is basic inslruclionaI designand il is hard vork. Il is essenliaI if
someone olher lhan lhe aulhor of lhe course viII score lhe comosilion. This is lrue
vhelher lhe course is offered in a cIassroom, onIine, or by some olher melhod. Such
ob|eclive guideIines are eseciaIIy imorlanl in e-Iearning because anxious Iearners may
be hyersensilive lo lesl scores and lhey may execl comuler-Iike ob|eclivily in every
asecl of lhe course.
Alternative forms for composition questions
Issay queslions are nol lhe onIy ossibIe form of a comosilion queslion. Consider
incIuding a bullon lo Iel Iearners record a voice ansver or uIoad a recorded audio fiIe.
Or, incIude a simiIar bullon lo uIoad an ansver from a video camera. Anolher olion is
lo require Iearners lo creale lheir comosilions using a lemIale you suIy. You mighl
have lhem dovnIoad, fiII in, and submil a IoverIoinl or Word lemIale vilh
IacehoIders for required eIemenls of lhe comosilion.

In lhis examIe, lhe Iearner musl drag and dro and
fIi and fIo shaes lo creale an abslracl visuaI
comosilion lhal meels a design goaI.
To see anolher examIe, visil
vvv.viIdIifearl.org/Rungius/
home.hlmI.

uiIl using Adobe IIash and Dreamveaver. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
Performance questions
Ierformance queslions require lhe Iearner lo erform acluaI vork. Iach sle of lhe vork
lhal can be scored individuaIIy serves as a searale lesl queslion.


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In lhis lesl, lhe Iearner erforms lhe sles lo
creale a syslem dala source name in a simuIalion.
Iach sle of lhe simuIalion is scored. ecause lhe
Iearner did nol erform lhis sle correclIy, a
message is disIayed leIIing lhe Iearner lhal no
oinls vere scored for lhal sle and leIIing lhe
Iearner hov lo roceed lo lhe nexl sle.

uiIl using Adobe Calivale. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
Ierformance queslions measure Iearners' abiIilies lo erform comIex aclivilies. If
Iearners accomIish lhe assigned lask in lhe erformance lesl, lhey ass and can
resumabIy erform lhe reaI aclivily.
When to use performance questions
Ierformance queslions heI us lesl vhelher someone can erform a lask. When shouId
you use lhem`
# You are lesling lhe abiIily lo erform a rocedure ralher lhan abslracl knovIedge
aboul a sub|ecl.
# The rocedure is comIex, requiring Iearners lo make decisions, nol mereIy foIIov a
sequence of sles.
# The seed of erforming lhe lask is imorlanl lo ils success.
# You are quaIifying eoIe lo erform a lask in lhe reaI vorId.
Ierformance queslions are nol Iimiled lo lasks lhal are erformed on lhe comuler. You
can use galekeeer lasks (. 136) as erformance queslions lo verify lhal Iearners have
successfuIIy erformed a sle in a non-comuler lask.
Ierformance lesl queslions lhal require simuIalion can be exensive and lime-consuming
lo deveIolyicaIIy 100 limes lhe cosl of a simIe muIliIe-choice lesl queslion. Oflen
lhey are vorlh lhe exense, bul nol aIvays. Use simuIalions for erformance queslions
vhen:
# Olher lyes of lesl queslions cannol adequaleIy measure erformance.
# Having Iearners erform lhe lask on a reaI syslem couId be dangerous.
# Using a simuIalion simIifies scoring lhe aclivily and inlegraling il vilh olher lyes of
lesl queslions.


How to design performance questions
5imp!iIy thc tcst. A erformance lesl shouId measure abiIily lo erform a lask, bul nol
leach lhal lask. Do nol exose lhe Iearners lo more choices and olions lhan necessary lo
lesl for lhe largel ob|eclive.
5tatc thc gna! c!car!y. TeII Iearners exaclIy vhal lhey musl accomIish lo ass lhe lesl.
SeII oul any reslriclions. Musl lhey accomIish lhe goaI using a arlicuIar melhod or
fealure` Hov Iong can lhey lake`
Exp!ain thc qucstinn. Make sure Iearners knov hov lo ansver erformance queslions. If
lhey musl oerale a simuIalion, leII lhem vhal bullons lhey can ress, vhal knobs lhey
can lurn, and vhal svilches lhey can fIi.
Rcvca! thc !imits. No erformance queslion or lesl is a erfecl coy of lhe reaI-vorId lask.
Hov does lhe lesl differ from lhe reaI vorId` Whal are lhe Iimils on aclions Iearners can
lake` If using a simuIalor, leII Iearners vhal dangerous asecls of lhe reaI syslem are
harmIess in lhe simuIalor and vhal fealures and caabiIilies are lurned off.
5pc!! nut scnring ru!cs. If lhe lesl is nol graded ass/faiI, seII oul lhe crileria for
avarding oinls. Are Iearners revarded for lhe quanlily of vork accomIished` Are lhey
enaIized for lhe amounl of lime lhey look, lhe number of aclions used, or minor
mislakes made aIong lhe vay`
Pick type question by type objective
The foIIoving |ob aid viII heI you ick lhe lye of queslion lo use in lesling for each lye
of Iearning ob|eclive. AIong lhe Iefl are Iisled lhe lyes of Iearning ob|eclives. Across lhe
lo are lhe lyes of lesl queslions. CircIes indicale recommended lyes of queslions lo use
for each lye of Iearning ob|eclive. Iack dols reresenl slronger recommendalions.
Typcs nI
!carning
nb|cctivcs
Typcs nI qucstinns
T
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u
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P
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F
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!

i
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b
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Crcatc an X lhal does Y. " !
Dccidc Y. ! " ! ! !

"
Dn rocedure X lo
accomIish Y.
! "
Knnw X aboul Y. ! " ! !
Bc!icvc X. ! ! ! "
Fcc! X aboul Y. !

! ! !


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WRITE EFFECTIVE QUESTIONS
To lesl Iearning, you musl lransIale your Iearning ob|eclives inlo lesl queslions. Novhere
is recise, cIear Ianguage more necessary. Queslions are effeclive onIy if aII Iearners
undersland lhem and can ansver lhem lhe vay you inlended.
Follow the standard question format
AIlhough many differenl lyes of lesl queslions are ossibIe, lhey share a common
analomy. Here is a lyicaI lesl queslion vilh ils arls IabeIed.

Lel's Iook al lhe arls of a lyicaI queslion and hov lo design lhem.
Part Dcscriptinn
Itcm
numbcr
Indicales lhe Iace of lhis queslion in sequence. Ior Iong lesls and
limed lesls, lhe number heIs Iearners budgel lheir lime. Il gives lhem
a sense of rogress as lhey move lhrough lhe lesl.
Lcad-in Irovides background informalion or conlexl for lhe acluaI queslion.
Use a Iead-in lo kee lhe acluaI queslion simIe. A Iead-in can be
necessary if queslions aear in random order or are chosen from a
ooI. The Iead-in makes lhe queslion more indeendenl of olher
queslions.


Part Dcscriptinn
Qucstinn The queslion is lhe secific senlence lhe Iearner musl resond lo.
UsuaIIy il is hrased simIy as a queslion. Ior more on queslions, Iook
lhrough lhe resl of lhis chaler, eseciaIIy lhe segmenl slarling on
age 244.
Instructinns Inslruclions leII lhe Iearner lhe rocedure for ansvering lhe queslion
and any Iimils on hov lhe queslion may be ansvered, for examIe,
hov many ilems shouId be seIecled or hov many vords can be
enlered. Learn more aboul inslruclions slarling on age 246.
Chniccs True/faIse, ick-one, and ick-muIliIe queslions have Iearners seIecl
lheir ansver from a Iisl of choices. See lhe segmenl slarling on
age 255 for advice on designing choices for lesl queslions.
Actinn
buttnns
Learners musl signaI lhal lhey are ready for lheir ansvers lo be
evaIualed. Mosl oflen cIicking a bullon such as 5ubmit, Eva!uatc, or
Ncxt qucstinn does lhis. The Iearner may have olher bullons lo erase
lhe currenl ansver, relurn lo lhe revious queslion, or exil lhe lesl.
The exacl IabeIs are nol as imorlanl as icking vords lhal
communicale cIearIy lo lhe Iearners vhal viII haen vhen lhey cIick
lhe bullon.
Cnnstraints Time remaining or any olher Iimilalions on hov lhe Iearner can
ansver lhe queslion.
Fccdback Ieedback may be resenled afler each queslion or al lhe end of lhe
lesl. If feedback is resenled vilh each queslion, il may aear in an
area beIov lhe queslion or in a o-u vindov. The feedback can
range from Correcl or Incorrecl lo comIele exIanalions of lhe
ansver and Iinks back lo reIaled conlenl. Ior aiding Iearning,
meaningfuI feedback is cruciaI. See lhe seclion slarling on age 263 for
advice on giving feedback.

Ask questions simply and directly
SimIe queslions are easier lo undersland, lo ansver, and lo score. Direcl queslions seem
more ob|eclive and fair lo Iearners.
Phrase questions precisely and clearly
UnIess Iearners can undersland lhe queslion, lhey cannol ansver il. The difference
belveen a cIear and an uncIear queslion may be |usl a singIe vord or unclualion mark.


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Take a IillIe exlra lime lo make sure your queslions ask vhal you vanl lhem lo.
Use lhe simIesl Ianguage ossibIe. Tesls ul Iearners under slress. Those Iearners may
have varying Ianguage skiIIs. Some may be laking lhe lesl in a second Ianguage or may
suffer from reading difficuIlies such as dysIexia. Use of Ianguage nol underslood by aII
can even ose a IegaI robIem if il enaIizes cerlain grous reIalive lo olhers.
Phrase questions as questions
If ossibIe, hrase lhe lesl queslion as a simIe, slandard queslion. Use lhe canonicaI
queslion formal:

This is lhe form famiIiar lo young chiIdren and nev seakers of IngIish. (If you are
vriling queslions in anolher Ianguage, |usl use lhe slandard formal for queslions in lhal
Ianguage.)
The roml vord aIerls lhe Iearner immedialeIy lhal lhis is a queslion, and lhe queslion
mark confirms il. No queslion aboul il: lhis is a queslion.
The roml vord announces lhal lhis is a queslion and secifies lhe lye of ansver
requesled. We are aII famiIiar vilh Rudyard KiIing's six honesl serving men: vhal, vho,
vhen, vhere, vhy, and hov. Use lhem Iike lhis:
Usc Tn ask Inr
Whal An ob|ecl, rocess, or evenl.
Who A erson or a grou.
When A lime, dale, or Iace in sequence.
Where A Iocalion.
Why A reason, cause, or |uslificalion.
Hov A rocedure or rocess.
These are sufficienl for 90% of lhe queslions ve ask. And no, I didn'l forgel unicn ..
Wnicn is usuaIIy inferior lo unai in asking lesl queslions. Do nol ask Which of lhe
foIIoving is .` vhen you couId ask Whal is .`
Put background information before the question
Do nol suIy nev informalion in a queslion. Ior comIex queslions, suIy background
informalion in a Iead-in lo lhe queslion. Ihrase lhe Iead-in as simIe decIaralive
senlences.
Who discovered Radium?
Prompt
word
Verb
phrase
Direct
object
Question
mark


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Somelimes afler moving lhe background informalion lo lhe Iead-in, you discover il is nol
necessary. Then deIele il. Many limes, hovever, background informalion is necessary lo
cIarify lhe conlexl of lhe queslion or fuIIy idenlify a lerm in lhe queslion.
Include instructions on how to answer
If Iearners mighl nol knov hov lo indicale lheir ansvers, ul inslruclions immedialeIy
afler lhe queslion roer. Ior examIe:
What chemicals are responsible for leaf colors? (Drag each chemical over the color it
produces.)
Where mighl such inslruclions be necessary`
# In ick-muIliIe queslions lo leII Iearners lhey can ick more lhan one ansver.
# If nol icking any ansver is an olion.
# In a drag-and-dro aclivily vherein Iearners mighl nol knov lhal ob|ecls are movabIe.
# In fiII-in-lhe-bIanks or essay queslions vhen seIIing, unclualion, and cailaIizalion
maller.
Ask yourseIf vhelher 95% of your Iearners viII figure oul hov lo ansver lhe queslion
vilhoul any inslruclions. If nol, add inslruclions.
Inslruclions are cruciaI for erformance queslions because lhey leII Iearners reciseIy
vhal lhey musl do lo ansver lhe queslion.
Phrase questions and answers simply
To ask queslions lhal aII Iearners viII inlerrel exaclIy as you inlended, |usl use Ianguage
as simIy and direclIy as ossibIe.
KISSKeep It Simple for Students
The chaIIenge in a lesl shouId be ansvering lhe queslions, nol inlerreling lhem. Tricky
vording is a seciaI robIem for anxious and imalienl readerseseciaIIy ones reading
in a second Ianguage.


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Here are some recommendalions for keeing il simIe:
# Slick lo simIe senlences. Avoid comIex senlences vilh embedded cIauses.
# Use slandard seIIing and unclualion. egin each choice vilh a cailaI Ieller and end
il vilh a eriod.
# Use common lerms famiIiar lo lhe Iearner. Irovide a gIossary for any lechnicaI lerms
you musl use.
# Use bIank sace lo dislinguish queslions, inslruclions, choices, and aclion bullons.
# Kee queslions shorl, say no more lhan 10 or 12 vords. IncIude onIy necessary vords.
# Ihrase choices so lhey malch ansvers lhe Iearner may recaII vhen reading lhe
queslion.
# Kee choices shorla singIe Iine if ossibIe.
# In negalive lesl queslions, emhasize lhe vord NOT or ils equivaIenl.
Remove ambiguity
Take seciaI care lo avoid ambiguous Ianguage in queslions and ansvers. Some common
robIems incIude lhese:
# Ambigunus tcrms, such as can nol, vhich couId mean ossibIy nol or nol
ossibIe.
# Fancy wnrds lhal nol aII Iearners viII recognize. If a simIer vord vorks, use il. Do
nol lry lo shov off your vocabuIary.
# Dnub!c ncgativcs, such as When shouId you nol re|ecl .` If ossibIe, ask lhe
queslion in lhe osilive sense, such as When shouId you accel .` Al Ieasl unlangIe
lhe Iogic. If you can ask a queslion in a osilive form, do so. If you cannol, kee lhe
form simIe and emhasize lhe negalive vord.
# IndcIinitc qucstinns, such as Do you lhink lhal 3 + 5 is 7` Is lhe queslion aboul
malhemalics or oinion` Take seciaI care vilh hrases Iike Does il seem lhal .` or
Does il aear lhal .`
# Unrccngnizcd humnr. Learners may lake a humorous commenl IileraIIy or be annoyed
by your casuaI allilude lo vhal lo lhem is a nerve-vracking exerience.
# Mctaphnrs, irnny, nr nthcr Iigurcs nI spccch lhal are unfamiIiar lo Iearners. Many
such exressions are secific lo a arlicuIar cuIlure or Ianguage. Consider lhis
queslion: Whal miIilary commander uIIed a haiI Mary on lhe day afler Chrislmas
1776` Ansvering deends on knovIedge of a sorls melahor based on lhe name of a
rayer.


Ask just one question at a time
Ihrase queslions so lhal onIy one ansver is required. Do nol ask or imIy a second
queslion, as does lhis shamefuI examIe:

This examIe asks lvo queslions. The
firsl asks hov lo cul healing cosls and
lhe second asks vhal comonenl
vasles energy.
Rehrase lhe queslion lo somelhing Iike lhis:

Nov lhe examIe asks a singIe
queslion.
One form of comound queslion is usefuI, bul il musl be designed vilh care. This is lhe
vhal-and-vhy queslion. Il asks Iearners lo ick an ansver and lhe reason vhy il is lhe
besl ansver.

This examIe asks nol onIy for
lhe correcl choice bul for lhe
correcl reason as veII.
Use lhis form for sub|ecls vhere lhe reaI-vorId ansver lo queslions oflen is Il deends.
Ihrase lhe queslion cIearIy, and make sure every choice has bolh lhe vhal and vhy arls.
Sel u a allern among choices and slick lo lhe allern.


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Emphasize important words
In hrasing queslions, emhasize smaII cruciaI vords on vhich lhe meaning of lhe
queslion deendsvords lhal couId cause lhe Iearner lo misinlerrel lhe queslion if nol
read correclIy. Here is an examIe:
What item is not an example of romdibulation?
UsuaIIy lhe mosl crilicaI vords are reversing or conslraining vords: nci, cn|q, jusi, cnc,
jirsi, |asi, and so forlh. Imhasize lhe vord, bul nol by underIining il, as Iearners are
IikeIy lo inlerrel underIined vords as hyerlexl Iinks.
Ask application-related questions
Ihrase your queslions so lhal lhey resembIe lhe kinds of decisions Iearners viII have lo
make vhen aIying lhe knovIedge and skiIIs you are leaching. Ihrase queslions so lhey
re-creale vhal vouId acluaIIy occur on a |ob. Here are some suggeslions:
Set the scene
Sel lhe scene using queslions lhal mighl come from a cuslomer, lhe boss, a subordinale,
an angry co-vorker, or a friend.
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If you cannol imagine lhe queslion being asked in lhe reaI vorId, lhen vhy are you asking
il in a lesl`
To ensure you are asking more aIicalion-reIaled queslions:
# ase your queslions on erformance ob|eclives ralher lhan enabIing ob|eclives (. 19).
# Iul lhe Iearner inlo lhe queslion. Iresenl a silualion and ask, Whal vouId you do`
# Ask queslions lhal are more Iife-Iike in vhal lhey require lhe Iearner lo decide or do,
even if lhis means asking fever queslions.
# IslabIish a reaIislic scenario, inlroduce a robIem, and lhen ask severaI queslions
aboul lhal robIem.


Ask in the mode of application
Tesl-vrilers lend lo ask queslions verbaIIy. This may be OK for Iearners vho are verbaI,
bul il is nol fair for lhose vilh Iimiled Ianguage skiIIs. Nor is il accurale for lasks
erformed visuaIIy or hysicaIIy.
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The ick-one queslion above uses vords lo ask for knovIedge aboul a lask erformed
visuaIIy and kinelicaIIy. The simuIalion mimics lhe reaI silualion and requires exaclIy lhe
same abiIilies, as does lhe reaI lask.


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Malch lhe lye of lesl queslion lo lhe vay knovIedge and skiIIs viII be aIied afler
Iearning:
Hnw app!icd Typc tcst qucstinn
VerbaIIy Texl queslions, such as ick-muIliIe, ick-one, or fiII-in-
lhe-bIank. (. 225 lo 234)
y Iocaling somelhing CIick-in-iclure queslion (. 227).
Soflvare lask SimuIalion of erforming lhe lask. (. 335)
IhysicaI lask Ierforming lhe lask and lhen ansvering a gaickccpcr
queslion aboul lhe resuIls (. 136).
Making yes-no
decisions
True/faIse queslion based on informalion used lo make lhe
decision. (. 222)

Base questions on a scenario
To make lesling more engaging and more rediclive of reaI-vorId erformance, base
queslions on a scenario. Make lhe scenario a silualion lhal Iearners execl lo face and lhal
requires vhal you are leaching. This examIe, from a food-safely course, requires lhe
Iearner lo decide vhal lo do vilh a cooked lurkey lhal vas Iefl cooIing on a kilchen labIe.

The Iearner can gel informalion from lhe scene, for examIe, by cIicking on lhe chef. Nol
aII informalion viII be heIfuI|usl Iike in lhe reaI vorId. The Iearner can examine a nole
Iefl by a revious chef. Such a nole may reveaI crilicaI delaiIs nol immedialeIy obvious.
The Iearner can aIso examine vaII oslers. These reresenl |ob-aids commonIy avaiIabIe


in commerciaI kilchens. The Iearner can aIso examine lhe cIock lo gel lhe lime or lhe
lhermomeler lo gel lhe currenl lemeralure of lhe lurkey.
y examining lhe scene, lhe Iearner gels enough informalion lo make a choice. Wrong
choices give correclive feedback. Correcl choices confirm lhe Iearner's decision.
Whal does il lake lo make a scenario-based queslion` Iirsl, lhe scenario musl require
Iearners soIve a raclicaI robIem. The robIem is based on a secific silualion ralher lhan
a generaI or abslracl condilion. The scenario may incIude human characlers vho may
advise lhe Iearner. These characlers may aIso add chaIIenge by misIeading or dislracling
lhe Iearner. The Iearner may have access lo generaI reference maleriaIs lhal vouId be
avaiIabIe in lhe reaI scenario.
The oinl is lhal lhe Iearner musl invesligale scenario-secific delaiIs because lhe correcl
choice deends on lhese delaiIs. As a resuIl, lhe Iearner cannol simIy ansver based on
generaI rinciIes bul musl aIy lhe rinciIes lo lhe secific delaiIs of lhe scenario.
Crealing a scenario-based queslion is more vork, bul Iearners areciale lhe aulhenlic
chaIIenge and sonsors areciale lhe accurale rediclion of fulure |ob erformance.
Avoid common mistakes
Inexerienced lesl-vrilers oflen vrile queslions lhey Ialer regrel. Lel's reviev some
common mislakes and see hov lo avoid lhem.
Prevent obsolescence
Avoid queslions vhose ansvers may change over lime. In raidIy changing fieIds, nev
deveIomenls or a nev version of soflvare can change lhe ansver lo such queslions.
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Be careful when asking absolute questions
AbsoIule queslions assume rigid calegories vilh razor-shar boundaries. evare
queslions Iike lhese:
Are ___________ ever _________?
Is __________ always __________?
Are all ______ ______?


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A singIe excelion changes lhe ansver. Learners can be quile cIever in lracking dovn lhal
one obscure, minor, nearIy unknovn excelion you forgol aboul.
Avoid absoIule vords in queslions and ansvers. AbsoIule vords incIude a||, ctcrq,
cniirc|q, ctcrq|c!q, ccnp|cic|q, a|icgcincr, a|uaqs, cxaci|q, nc, ncnc, nctcr, and nc|c!q. AIso
lake care vilh exlreme vords such as ncsi, a|ncsi, ncar|q, |arc|q, and nar!|q.
Avoid all of the above and none of the above
Take seciaI care vilh ansvers of lhe form aII of lhe above or none of lhe above.

Do you see lhe Ischeresque Iogic in lhis queslion` Righl. Ior AII of lhe above lo be lrue,
None of lhe above musl aIso be lrue. ul if None of lhe above is lrue, lhen AII of lhe
above cannol be lrue. No combinalion of ansvers is IogicaIIy ossibIe.
In ick-one queslions, an aII of lhe above choice vioIales lhe form of lhe queslion,
suddenIy shifling from ick-one lo ick-muIliIe. AII of lhe above is aIso grammalicaIIy
inconsislenl vilh lhe form of lhe queslion. Inslead of incIuding an aII of lhe above
choice, simIy change lhe slyIe of lhe queslion lo a ick-muIliIe.
In generaI, forego none of lhe above and aII of lhe above as choices. ul if you do use
none of lhe above and aII of lhe above ansvers:
# AIvays make None of lhe above lhe Iasl choice.
# Do nol use lhese choices |usl lo fiII oul a Iisl of choices. Try lo lhink of more IausibIe
ansvers.
# Remember lo lurn off lhe randomize-ansvers fealure of your lesl looI as il couId ul
lhese choices anyvhere in lhe Iisl.
Do not repeat phrases from the text
In hrasing queslions, arahrase ralher lhan reeal exacl hrases from lhe course
maleriaIs, lexlbook, or reference maleriaIs. Savvy Iearners, laking an onIine lesl, can |usl
lye dislincl hrases from lhe queslion inlo a search engine and vail for lhe resuIls lo o
u. There are lvo excelions, bul lhey are rare: You are leaching use of a search service or
you vanl lo search ralher lhan memorize.


How to cheat on an online test (or how to prevent cheating)
Many onIine lesls require no sub|ecl-maller knovIedge, onIy a doIIo of lechnicaI savvy
and a dab of curiosily. Here is our guide on hov lo cheal on an onIine leslor lhings lo
revenl in onIine lesls you creale.
# Pick thc chnicc that diIIcrs Irnm nthcrs in Ienglh, lone, secificily, or grammar.
UnskiIIed lesl vrilers have lroubIe designing incorrecl choices lhal resembIe lhe
correcl choice.
# Mnusc arnund lo see vhal aears in slalus messages and looI-lis. DeveIoers find
lhese fealures heIfuI in debugging lesls, bul lhey somelimes forgel lo disabIe lhe
fealures in lhe finaI version of lhe lesl.
# 5can thc whn!c disp!ay, incIuding vindov lilIes and aII smaII rinl. If lhe lexl does
nol give avay lhe ansver, il may make lhe queslion ambiguous, vhich Iearners can
use lo rolesl lheir grade.
# Usc thc brnwscr cnmmand "Vicw 5nurcc" lo examine lhe underIying HTML code.
Oflen lhe code may conlain commenls lhal indicale vhich choice is correcl or vhal
ansver is execled.
# Lnnk Inr absn!utc wnrds Iike a||, a|uaqs, ctcrq, anq, and nctcr. ComIex silualions are
seIdom as absoIule as lesl designers lhink.
# If queslions are scored equaIIy, answcr casy qucstinns Iirst, for examIe, lrue-faIse
and ick-one queslions. Scoring shouId refIecl lhe difficuIly of ansvering, bul
inexerienced designers oflen Iack lhe confidence or knovIedge lo assign aroriale
veighls lo lesl queslions.
# II in dnubt, pick "A!! nI thc abnvc." UnskiIIed designers lend lo incIude lhis choice
vhere il aIies and omil il vhere il does nol.
# Wilh A--C-D choices pick C. Wilh A--C-D-I choices, pick C nr D. Why` ecause
lhal's vhere amaleur lesl-designers ul lhe ansvers.
Think back on lesls you have laken. Can you Iisl some more vays lo gel a beller grade on
a lesl vilhoul sludying` }usl make sure lhese lechniques do nol vork for lhe lesls you
design.
To create many questions, specify patterns first
If you musl creale many lesl queslions, consider secifying allerns lo guide vriling
individuaI queslions. Here is an examIe of allerns for lesl queslions in a suile of courses
on saIes skiIIs. Iach aragrah secifies lhe allern for a famiIy of queslions.


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How do you respond to {repeat customer, new customer,
product reviewer, educator} who requests {customary pricing,
discount pricing, free sample, loaner unit, technical information,
etc.}?
What products [pick from list] are most/least appropriate for
[purposes, customers, situations]?
What are acceptable/unacceptable ways to {install, set up, start
up, operate, shut down, transport} [product]?
What is the {profit, revenue, sales commission, etc.} for the sale
of [number] units of [product] at [percent] discount?

The boId, bIack lexl aears as is in lhe queslion. The olher ieces of lexl are
IacehoIders for lexl lhal varies from queslion lo queslion.
The ilaIic vords in curIy braces are choices. One viII be used for each queslion.
The Iighl gray ilems searaled by forvard sIashes are aIlernalives. One queslion uses lhe
firsl aIlernalive and anolher queslion uses lhe second one.
The boId gray vords in square brackels are inslruclions on hov lo ick vords for lhe
acluaI queslion. TyicaIIy vords in square brackels name a calegory, such as roducls,
from vhich individuaI ilems can be icked for each varialion on lhe queslion.
A simIe secificalion Iike lhis one can rescribe hundreds of consislenlIy hrased bul
unique queslions. Use such allerns vhen you have lo creale many differenl queslions or
vhen lesl queslions are vrillen by sub|ecl-maller exerls or olhers vilhoul secific
lraining in vriling lesl queslions.
Make answering meaningful
Some lesls encourage Iearners lo guess ralher lhan lhink aboul lhe ansver. y Iisling
incorrecl ansvers, muIliIe-choice lesls may cause Iearners lo remember lhe vrong
ansvers ralher lhan lhe righl ones. To avoid lhese robIems, encourage Iearners lo lhink
carefuIIy aboul lheir ansvers. Make sure Iearners undersland aII lheir choices in ick-
muIliIe, ick-one, and lrue/faIse queslions.


Make all choices plausible
Make aII ansvers equaIIy IausibIe lo someone vho has nol yel Iearned lhe sub|ecl. Make
each choice a naluraI resonse lo lhe queslion. To lesl lhe IausibiIily of each choice, read
aIoud lhe queslion, immedialeIy foIIoved by lhe ansver. To be IausibIe, aII choices
shouId be equivaIenl in Ienglh, grammar and synlax, comIexily, secificily, and scoe.
Keep all answers about the same length
Make aII ansvers aroximaleIy lhe same Ienglh. Or al Ieasl make sure lhal lhe Iongesl
ansver is nol aIvays lhe righl one. Guess vhich of lhese ansvers is righl:

Make all choices grammatically equivalent
Make aII choices grammalicaIIy simiIar. DoubIe-check lhal each ansver is comalibIe
vilh lhe queslion, eseciaIIy if lhe ansvers are offered as olenliaI comIelions of a Iead-
in hrase.

Can you sol lhe nol-loo-sublIe hinl in lhis examIe`
Yes, ArmadiIIo is lhe onIy grammalicaIIy correcl ansver. To
correcl lhis robIem, simIy rehrase lhe queslion somelhing
Iike lhis: Whal is a Cabassou`
Make choices parallel
Ihrase aII ansvers al lhe same IeveI of abslraclion, generaIily, and degree of common
usage.


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Can you guess lhe righl ansver lo
lhis queslion`
AII lhe coIors are common ones
excel lhose in lhe correcl ansver.
Simplify selecting answers
Reduce lhe efforl required lo indicale lhe correcl ansver. Minimize lhe amounl of lying
and lhe degree of eye-hand coordinalion required.
# Lel Iearners choose lhe ansvers in muIliIe-choice lesls by cIicking on lhe ilems.
CIicking on lhe lexl shouId have lhe same effecl as cIicking on lhe associaled radio
bullon or checkbox.
# If muIliIe-choice ansvers are resenled visuaIIy, Iel Iearners ansver by cIicking on
lhe iclures.
# Do nol number choices lhal Iearners seIecl by cIicking on lhem. Numbers or Iellers
before a choice imIy lhal lhe Iearner seIecls by lying lhe number or Ieller.

UnforlunaleIy, some lesl-crealion looIs insisl on numbering aII ansvers.
Keep choices concise
Do nol reeal vords in each ansver lhal couId be ul in lhe queslion.

In lhis examIe, nolice
hov much lexl is
reealed in each
queslion.


Nov nolice hov much
easier il is lo comare
lhe ansvers vhen lhe
reealed informalion is
removed.
Put choices in a meaningful order
Lisl choices in an order lhal heIs Iearners find lhe correcl ansver. Ior examIe:
II chniccs: List chniccs in this nrdcr:
Are numbers. Irom Ieasl lo grealesl.
Are evenls. ChronoIogicaI order.
Vary by a common characlerislic. Increases or decrease in lhal characlerislic.
Have no inherenl order. AIhabelicaI or random order.
Express choices simply
Kee lhe noise oul of your queslions by exressing choices simIy and direclIy. Do nol
require menlaI efforls |usl lo unlangIe lhe queslion or choices.
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evare of comound choices, of irreIevanl delaiIs in queslions and ansvers, and of vords
or symboIs unfamiIiar lo Iearners.
Challenge test-takers
Good lesl queslions require Iearners lo lhink deeIy aboul lhe sub|ecl maller in order lo
arrive al an ansver. Hovever, many queslions do nol arorialeIy chaIIenge Iearners.
Some designers fear scaring or offending voIunlary Iearners. Olhers fear damaging lhe


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mylhicaIIy fragiIe seIf-esleem of Iearners. Many robIems occur vhen good designers
careIessIy give avay lhe ansver lo lhe queslion.
Require learning
In a loo-easy lesl, IillIe sub|ecl knovIedge is required lo ass lhe lesl, |usl a keen eye, a
IogicaI mind, and a bil of Iuck. Lel's lake a Iook al a loo-easy lesl.

Nolice lhal lhe firsl and fourlh
queslions can be ansvered by
Iooking al lhe iclure. The second
comares lhe mineraI lo lhe one
olher mineraI vhose hardness
mosl eoIe are famiIiar vilh.
Mosl eoIe couId ansver lhe
lhird queslion by recaIIing lhal
}une is lhe monlh vhen many
eoIe gel married and diamonds
are used for engagemenl rings.
The Iasl queslion can be
ansvered by connecling ||ucriic
lo lhe simiIar vord j|ucrcsccni.
ecause onIy lhree correcl ansvers vere required, Iearners need IillIe more lhan Iuck and
cIeverness lo ass lhe lesl.

This examIe shovs a lesl lhal
acluaIIy requires knovIedge of
lhe sub|ecl maller.
Here lhe queslions are harder.
There are more choices er
queslion. And lhe assing score
eIiminales guessing as a
reasonabIe slralegy.

olh bad and good lesls vere buiIl using Adobe
Dreamveaver and cuslom }avaScril. Viev
examIes al horlon.com/eId/.


SuIy enough IausibIe choices so lhal lhe ansvers are nol loo easy lo ick oul. Irovide
al Ieasl lhree IausibIe aIlernalives simiIar enough lhal lhe Iearner has lo read lhem
carefuIIy and lhink deeIy.
Do not give away the answer
Do nol reveaI lhe ansver in a vindov lilIe, fiIe name, message, or URL. If lesls invoIve
scrils or exlernaI fiIes, make sure lhal lhe URL or fiIe name, vhich may be disIayed in
lhe brovser's slalus bar, does nol give avay lhe ansver. Suose lhe Iearner oinls lo a
olenliaI ansver and lhe slalus bar shovs one of lhese messages:
or
If lhe queslion asks vhich iclure shovs a Golhic RevivaI slyIe house, make sure lhal lhe
lilIe of lhe o-u vindov is nol:

Likevise, be carefuI if lhe ansvers are evaIualed by scrils in lhe same Web age in
vhich Iearners enler lheir ansvers. TechnicaIIy aslule Iearners couId viev lhe source of
lhe fiIe and read lhe scrils lo see vhich ansver is righl.
Vary your pattern
Vary lhe osilion of lhe correcl ansver in a Iisl of choices. Amaleur lesl designers are Iess
IikeIy lo make lhe firsl or Iasl ansver lhe correcl one. SkiIIfuI lesl-lakers vho need lo
guess viII ick lhe lhird of four choices. Ior five choices, lhey ol for lhe lhird or fourlh.
Nol a sure lhing, bul il does ul lhe odds in lheir favor. So anaIyze your ansvers lo make
sure lhe correcl ansver occurs lhroughoul lhe range of ansvers. Or, use a looI lhal can
shuffIe ansvers so lhal each lime lhe queslion aears, lhe ansvers are in a differenl
order.
COMBINE QUESTIONS EFFECTIVELY
To creale an effeclive lesl, you may combine lesl queslions vrillen searaleIy al differenl
limes, erhas by differenl lesl-vrilers. Your lesl may need lo incIude queslions lo lesl
muIliIe Iearning ob|eclives or a high-IeveI ob|eclive. Whal musl you, as a designer, lhink
aboul as you comose a muIli-queslion lesl`


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Ask enough questions
IncIude enough lesl queslions lo accuraleIy gauge Iearners' underslanding in lhe sub|ecl.
Consider lhe number of Iearning ob|eclives lhe lesl musl cover. Ior a singIe, simIe
ob|eclive, lhree veII-designed ick-one queslions may be adequale. More comIex
ob|eclives viII require more lesl queslions and more sohislicaled lesl queslions.
AIso consider lhe urose of your lesling. To give Iearners a generaI indicalion of hov
veII lhey are doing, you need fever queslions lhan you vouId lo IegaIIy cerlify lhal
Iearners can erform a dangerous lask.
Don'l forgel lo consider hov vhal you are leaching viII be aIied. If your sub|ecl viII be
aIied in videIy varying silualions, you may need a vider variely of lesl queslions lo
accuraleIy redicl Iearners' abiIily lo aIy Iearning. You cannol cover every silualion,
bul you can ask queslions lhal san lhe range of aIicalion.
Make sure one question does not answer another
In a series of lesl queslions, one queslion may ask aboul a sub|ecl menlioned in anolher.
Oflen one of lhe queslions rovides uninlended informalion lhal indicales lhe ansver lo
lhe olher.

Can you guess lhe ansvers lo lhese lvo
queslions`
Nolice hov lhe firsl queslion rovides a
cIue for lhe second queslion, vhich
rovides a cIue for lhe firsl queslion.
Make queslions indeendenl. Ansvering one queslion shouId nol affecl a Iearner's abiIily
lo ansver subsequenl queslions. Make sure lhal lhe vording of one queslion and ils
ansvers do nol imIy lhe ansvers lo subsequenl queslions.


Sequence test questions effectively
Mosl lesls consisl of a sequence of queslions. Consider hov searale queslions are besl
combined for a comrehensive lesl.
Ask mu!tip!c qucstinns abnut nnc sccnarin. Ior comIex sub|ecls, creale a series of lesl
queslions based on lhe same silualion, scenario, or descrilion. Make il easy for lhe
Iearner lo refer lo lhe originaI exIanalion. Iilher disIay lhe scenario in a searale frame
or vindov from lhe queslions or Iink back lo lhe originaI exIanalion from each queslion.
Reeal saIienl facls in each queslion.
Ramp up thc diIIicu!ty. Lel Iearners varm u on simIe queslions. Learners vho cannol
ansver any of lhe firsl lhree queslions are IikeIy lo desair and nol sincereIy lry Ialer
ones. Or, lhey may send so much of lheir lime on lhe iniliaI difficuIl queslions lhal lhey
do nol gel lo lhe easy ones vilhin lhe lime Iimil of lhe lesl. Vary lhe difficuIly of lesl
queslions so lhal no one comIeleIy faiIs and yel fev gel a erfecl score. Slarl vilh lhe
simIer queslions. In lhal vay, Iearners lasle success and are molivaled lo conlinue
lrying.
Kccp thc scqucncc shnrt. Iev eoIe Iike Iong lesls. Iour or five queslions make a nice
o quiz. A dozen are enough for aImosl any sequence. A lesl conlaining more lhan 15
queslions is a oIice inlerrogalion. If you feeI lhese Iimils are loo reslriclive, break your
lesl inlo muIliIe shorl lesls and srinkIe lhem among lhe resenlalion of maleriaI.
Enab!c navigatinn. If raclicaI, Iel Iearners ski back and forlh among lhe queslions,
ansvering lhe ones lhey can and skiing over lhe ones lhey cannol. Iilher ul aII lhe
queslions onlo lhe same Web age or incIude navigalion bullons lo ski among lhe ages
of a lesl. Make sure lhal skiing over a queslion does nol Iock in an ansver unliI lhe
lime Iimil exires.
Vary the form of questions and answers
To kee a series of queslions from becoming monolonous, vary lhe slyIe and hraseoIogy
of lhe queslions and ansvers.
# Mix diIIcrcnt Inrms nI qucstinns: ick-muIliIe, fiII-in-lhe-bIanks, malching Iisl,
erformance. Mix differenl media. Ask queslions visuaIIy and verbaIIy.
# Dcsign cach qucstinn tn tcst Inr a diIIcrcnt cnmmnn miscnnccptinn. Ask differenl
kinds of queslions, such as vhal, vhen, vhy, vhere, and hov.
# Vary thc Inrm nI qucstinns. Ask Iearners lo ick lhe righl ansver. Then lhe one vrong
ansver. Then lhe besl ansver. Ask vhich of a Iisl of slalemenls do aIy, lhen vhich
do nol aIy.
# Vary thc pnsitinn nI thc cnrrcct answcr in muIliIe-choice Iisls. Hovever, if severaI
queslions have lhe same Iisl of ansvers, do nol vary lhe order of lhe ansvers.


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# Arrangc tcst qucstinns in a prcdictab!c pattcrn. Ior examIe: ick-one, ick-one, ick-
one, ick-muIliIe, ick-one, ick-one, ick-one, ick-muIliIe, and so on. Learners
shouId concenlrale on lhe queslions, nol lheir formal.
Such urosefuI variely makes lesling more robusl. The resuIls do nol deend on
Iearners' verbaI skiIIs or abiIily lo ansver one kind of queslion.
GIVE SIGNIFICANT FEEDBACK
Afler Iearners ansver a queslion, lhey crave feedback. Did I gel lhe righl ansver` No`
Why nol` Whal's vrong vilh my ansver` Whal did I misundersland` Hov can I correcl
my misunderslanding` Irovide such feedback.
Report test scores simply
As soon as ossibIe, leII Iearners hov veII lhey did on lhe lesl. Ior examIe:
Congratulations. You passed.
Your score: 85. Passing score: 75.
Continue with the next lesson.
or Sorry. You failed.
Your score: 66. Passing score: 75.
Review the summary and retake the test.
ReIieve lhe anxiely and Iel lhe ceIebralion or remedialion begin. Reorl scores simIy and
direclIy. TeII Iearners lhree lhings: lheir scores, lhe assing score, and lhe effecl of lheir
scores. Learners lhen knov hov veII lhey did and vhal lhey shouId do nexl.
Provide complete information
Tesls can leach loo. Ieedback on lesl queslions can correcl misunderslandings and
augmenl knovIedge. Ior each ansver, consider incIuding:
# Thc qucstinn. Reeal or re-disIay lhe queslion. If queslions are numbered, incIude
lhe queslion number.
# Right/wrnng I!ag. Avoid vagueness. Do nol say AImosl or Nol quile bul simIy
Wrong or Incorrecl.
# Thc cnrrcct answcr. Do nol make Iearners reealedIy ansver a queslion hoing lhey
guess lhe righl ansver. A five-choice ick-muIliIe queslion can be ansvered 32 vays.
Thal's a Iol of guessing.
# Thc !carncr's answcr. Learners may nol have enlered vhal lhey lhoughl lhey did.
# Why thc cnrrcct answcr is right (and, if necessary, vhy lhe Iearner's ansver is vrong).
# Link tn thc nrigina! prcscntatinn or a remediaI one on lhis sub|ecl. AIso incIude
inslruclions on hov lo resume afler revieving lhe maleriaI.


Here is a simIe examIe of heIfuI
feedback. Il annolales lhe Iearner's
ansver lo rovide lhe necessary
feedback.
riefIy acknovIedge righl ansvers. TeII Iearners lhey vere righl. e enlhusiaslic, bul do
nol be effusive. Ior osilive feedback, aII you need lo say is Correcl, Righl, or Yes.
Anylhing more vouId inlerrul lhe Iearner's momenlum.
If your rimary goaI is leaching ralher lhan measuremenl, you may vanl lo ignore lhis
advice and suIemenl lhe feedback for righl ansvers. You may vanl lo leII lhe Iearner
vhy lhe righl ansver vas righl (lhe Iearner may have guessed).
Ior righl ansvers, you can chaIIenge Iearners lo lhink aboul hov lhey gol lhe righl
ansver and lo consider olher melhods.
Right. How did you get your answer? Did you calculate it in your head? The math was
pretty simple. What would you do for a more complex case?
The feedback for a correcl ansver can leach addilionaI informalion. You aIready have lhe
allenlion of a hay, recelive Iearner. Use il.

Nolice hov lhis examIe adds
reIaled informalion`
Kee lhe feedback brief, or lhe Iearner viII nol read il. Mosl of lhe lime Iearners are
salisfied lo knov lhey gol lhe queslion righl.


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Gently correct wrong answers
Ior an incorrecl ansver, genlIy bul cIearIy oinl oul lhe robIem. HeI Iearners overcome
lheir misconcelions.
Use a neutral term
Ior negalive feedback, use a neulraI lerm, such as incorrecl vilhoul any excIamalion
oinls, Iease. You can aIso use sorry or nol quile, aIlhough lhese may seem a bil
alronizing. Do nol say, WRONG!!! or Golcha or I don'l lhink so.
Tell why answers are wrong
TeII Iearners vhy lheir ansvers vere vrong. Ior ick-muIliIe queslions, make cIear vhy
each choice vas righl or vrong.

Do not embarrass or insult the learner
Do nol shoul al eoIe if lhey gel somelhing vrongno fIashing headIines or
embarrassing noises.

Hov vouId you Iike lo receive lhis
feedback` The vord |ai|c! aears in
a bIood red coIor and |iggIes on lhe
screen, accomanied by a chorus of
boos. AIso nolice lhe condescending
lone.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.


Acknowledge partial success
Give Iearners credil for lhe queslions lhey gol righl. Incourage Iearners lo lry again. Give
lhem choices so lhey feeI in conlroI. Nolice hov lhis feedback acknovIedges an aImosl-
assing score and suggesls aIlernalives for hov lhe Iearner shouId roceed.

Avoid wimpy feedback
Comared lo lhe comuler games lhal Iayers Iove, much e-Iearning gives limid
feedback. In a game, you aIvays knov exaclIy hov veII you are doing. If you faiI lo
erform, lhe game mocks you or your characler dies. I am nol suggesling ve abuse or
decimale our Iearners, |usl consider a bil more direcl aroach. Avoid veak and vague
feedback messages Iike lhese:
Good try, but you could have done better.
Were sorry, but that is not the best answer.
Almost. Would you like to try another guess?
Close, oh so very, very close.
Oh, too bad.
Bummer!
SimIy say Righl or Wrong and exIain vhy lhe ansver vas righl or vrong.
Give feedback at the right time
When viII you leII Iearners hov lhey scored on lhe lesl` Sooner is beller, bul somelimes
deIays are necessary even vilh aulomalic scoring. You can deIiver feedback aulomalicaIIy
afler each queslion or afler lhe vhoIe lesl. Or, you can deIiver feedback afler evaIualion
by a human being. This seclion discusses lhe merils of each aroach.


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After each question
Scoring each queslion as lhe Iearner ansvers il rovides immediale feedback bul can
inlerrul lhe fIov of lhe lesl. In generaI, I refer lhis aroach. Il makes lesls more fun
and revenls misconcelions. Il makes lesls seem a bil more Iike games.
Immediale feedback correcls misconcelions before lhey lake u residence in lhe Iearner's
brain. If feedback comes onIy afler ansvering a vhoIe series of queslions, Iearners viII
have lransferred lheir ansvers lo Iong-lerm memory before lhey reaIize vhich vere
vrong. Immediale feedback aIso kees lhe Iearner from missing severaI reIaled queslions
because of a singIe, simIe misunderslanding.
Gelling feedback iecemeaI, hovever, can make lhe lesl lake Ionger and rove fruslraling
lo imalienl Iearners, eseciaIIy ones vilh a high IeveI of knovIedge vho gel fev
queslions vrong. Immediale feedback can aIso make il harder for Iearners lo ansver a
series of cIoseIy reIaled queslions. Inlerrulions for feedback break lhe conlinuily of lhe
lesl. If you do choose lo rovide feedback afler each ansver:
# Make each queslion comIele in ilseIf. Afler reading lhe feedback, Iearners are unIikeIy
lo remember delaiIs of lhe receding queslion.
# Lel Iearners ski over Ienglhy feedback for correcl ansvers. Make lhe feedback brief
and Iel Iearners cIick a bullon lo advance lo lhe nexl queslion.
# Do nol reveaI loo much. In lhe feedback lo one queslion, do nol give avay lhe ansver
lo anolher queslion.
# Do nol require immediale remedialion. Olhervise Iearners vouId baiI oul of lhe lesl
afler lheir firsl vrong ansver. Al lhe end of lhe lesl, rovide a reca vilh Iinks lo Iel
Iearners reviev maleriaI for queslions lhey gol vrong.
# If lhe lesl is limed, slo lhe limer vhiIe lhe Iearner is gelling feedback and reslarl il
onIy vhen lhe Iearner advances lo lhe nexl queslion. Make sure Iearners undersland
lhal lhey can lake aII lhe lime lhey vanl lo read feedback.
After test is complete
Iosloning evaIualion unliI Iearners have ansvered aII queslions is more efficienl and
more economicaI, bul Iess fun. y evaIualing ansvers onIy al lhe end of lhe lesl, you
reduce lhe number of screens lhe Iearner musl viev and lhe lime required lo lake lhe lesl.
Learners can quickIy navigale back and forlh among lhe queslions, ansvering lhem al
viII.
Ieedback al lhe end can commenl on underslanding of lhe vhoIe sub|ecl of lhe lesl. y
evaIualing al lhe end, your feedback can be more largeled. If severaI queslions lesl lhe
same concel, Iearners see lhe feedback |usl once, nol over and over again.


Hovever, osloning evaIualion can rove fruslraling lo some Iearners.
Misunderslanding one queslion can cause lhem lo miss olher queslions. Guess vhom
lhey bIame!
If you do design lesls vilh evaIualion onIy al lhe end of lhe lesl, foIIov lhese common-
sense guideIines:
# Make queslions indeendenl and seIf-conlained. Misunderslanding one queslion
shouId nol Iessen chances of gelling olher queslions righl.
# Kee lesls shorl. Learners shouId be abIe lo comIele lhe vhoIe lesl in 10 lo 15
minules.
# Al lhe end, rovide cIear feedback on queslions lhe Iearner gol vrong vilh Iinks lo lhe
originaI maleriaI or lo nev maleriaI on lhe sub|ecl.
After a delay for human evaluation
If a lesl queslion is comIex and lhe leacher or feIIov Iearners musl carefuIIy consider ils
ansver, immediale feedback is nol ossibIe. Ior examIe, lhe ansver musl be lransmilled
lo an evaIualor vho scores il and sends back a reIy. Throv in lime zones, veekends,
hoIidays, and vork riorilies, and lhe deIay can be severaI days.
Ior lesls vilh deIayed evaIualion, use lhe slrenglhs of human evaIualion lo offsel lhe
robIems caused by lhe deIay.
# Give riorily lo scoring lesls. Guaranlee 48-hour lurnaround if you can do so vilhoul
comromising lhe quaIily of evaIualions. Iind sland-ins if leachers are unavaiIabIe.
Consider having Iearners erform non-crilicaI evaIualions. ase arl of lhe finaI grade
on lhe romlness and quaIily of such evaIualions.
# Lel Iearners roceed vilh lhe e-Iearning, even if a assing grade is normaIIy required
before beginning lhe nexl Iesson.
# ScheduIe lesls on days vhen lhe evaIualor viII be abIe lo resond immedialeIy. Some
leachers Iike lo scheduIe lesls on Iriday so lhal lhey can grade lhem during lhe quiel
lime over lhe veekend.
# Warn Iearners aboul olenliaI deIays. If Iearners decide vhen lo lake lesls, ubIish a
caIendar indicaling vhen lhe leacher viII be avaiIabIe lo grade lesls. One course had
lhis oIicy: You viII receive your grade vilhin lvo business days al lhe office of lhe
leacher.


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ADVANCE YOUR TESTING
Combine advanced fealures of onIine-lesling looIs and sohislicaled lesling lechniques lo
more accuraleIy measure erformance and lo rovide Iearners vilh beller feedback.
Hint first
Inslead of giving lhe correcl ansver as feedback lo an incorrecl guess, consider disIaying
a hinl and chaIIenging lhe Iearner lo lry again. Or incIude a Hint bullon lo Iel Iearners
requesl a IillIe heI ansvering lhe queslion.

Nolice hov cIicking on lhe
Hint bullon reveaIs a facl lhal
makes ansvering lhe queslion
easier.

cuslom }avaScril. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
Use advanced testing capabilities
We can use comuler caabiIilies lo make lesling fairer and more sohislicaled. We can
ick queslions from a ooI of avaiIabIe queslions and can randomize lhe order of
queslions and choices vilhin queslions. These caabiIilies require a lesling looI lhal
rovides lhese fealures or one lhal incIudes a scriling or rogramming Ianguage you can
use lo imIemenl lhese fealures yourseIf.


Pool test questions
In qucsiicn-pcc|ing, lesl queslions are uIIed from a ooI of avaiIabIe lesl queslions. Thal
is, lhe lesl designer creales more lesl queslions lhan necessary for a singIe lesl. The lesl
deIivery syslem lhen seIecls queslions from lhe ooI al lhe lime lhe lesl is deIivered. Ior
examIe, suose ve have crealed Queslions A lhrough H on a sub|ecl. Tesls on lhis
sub|ecl couId uII queslions from lhal ooI as foIIovs:

When shouId you use queslion-ooIing` Queslion-ooIing is greal vhen lesls are laken
more lhan once. y draving queslions from a ooI, ve make sure lhal lhe Iearner does
nol see exaclIy lhe same queslions lime and lime again. This is eseciaIIy imorlanl vhen
ve are using re- and osl-Iearning lesls lo measure Iearning. If lhe osl-lesl mereIy
reealed lhe queslions from lhe re-lesl, ve vouId nol knov vhelher resuIls indicaled
Iearning or |usl famiIiarily vilh lhe lesl queslions. Queslion-ooIing is aIso usefuI vhen
Iearners may need lo relake a lesl, for inslance, afler faiIing a firsl alleml.
Anolher use for queslion-ooIing is lo make chealing harder. One sludenl cannol leII
anolher sludenl vhal queslions are on lhe lesl.
Queslion-ooIing can ose some robIems for lesl designers. Il lhvarls designers vho
vanl queslions lo aear in a secific order. Many designers vanl lo slarl vilh simIer
queslions before more difficuIl queslions or lo ul queslions in a IogicaI or chronoIogicaI
order. Wilh queslion-ooIing, one queslion cannol buiId on or refer lo a revious
queslion. If lesl scores are lo be comarabIe belveen sludenls and offerings of lhe lesl, aII
queslions in lhe ooI musl be of lhe same difficuIly. Wilh queslion-ooIing lhere is a
slalislicaI ossibiIily lhal lhe queslions on an individuaI lesl viII nol cover lhe sub|ecl
evenIy.
Don'l forgel lhal queslion-ooIing requires lesl designers lo creale more queslions. This
requires more research, anaIysis, and lesling. udgel and scheduIe accordingIy.
A crilicaI queslion lo ask is hov queslions are seIecled from lhe ooI. One vay is
randomIy. Anolher vay aIies a scheme, such as icking queslions from searale ooIs,
ensuring lhal queslions are nol reealed on subsequenl lesls laken by lhe same Iearner, or
icking from grous of reIaled queslions.
}usl remember lhal queslion-ooIing requires sohislicaled lechnoIogy and more vork on
your arl.
Test 1
Question A
Question B
Question C
Question D
Test 1
Question A
Question B
Question C
Question D
Test 2
Question C
Question F
Question H
Question A
Test 2
Question C
Question F
Question H
Question A
Test 3
Question E
Question A
Question C
Question G
Test 3
Question E
Question A
Question C
Question G
Test 4
Question G
Question F
Question A
Question H
Test 4
Question G
Question F
Question A
Question H


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Randomize questions
When you randomize queslions, lhey aear in a differenl order each lime a lesl is
adminislered. Ior examIe, for a simIe lesl:

ShouId you randomize lhe order of queslions` Randomizing lhe order of queslions can
make lhe lesl seem fresh lhe second lime laken, and il viII make chealing harder.
Hovever, il does require you lo design your queslions indeendenlIy. Thal means
queslions cannol refer lo olher queslions. You cannol sequence queslions in chronoIogicaI
or IogicaI order. You cannol rogress from simIe lo hard queslions.
The randomizing fealure is mosl oflen combined vilh lhe queslion-ooIing fealure so lhal
queslions are seIecled al random from a Iarge ooI of queslions.
Shuffle answers
Wilh randomized or shuffIed ansvers, lhe choices for a ick-one or ick-muIliIe
queslion aear in a differenl order each lime lhe lesl is laken. Ior examIe, lhe ansvers
lo a ick-one queslion in chemislry mighl aear differenl on subsequenl lesls:

ShouId you shuffIe lhe order of ansvers in your lesl queslions` ShuffIing lhe order of
choices viII make lhe lesl seem fresh lhe second lime laken and viII make chealing a IillIe
harder. Hovever, il does require you lo vrile queslions so lhe order of choices does nol
maller. Thal means ansvers cannol refer lo earIier ansvers (e carefuI vilh ronouns Iike
ii, incsc, and incq lhal refer lo vords in earIier ansvers.) Il aIso means ansvers viII nol
aear in aIhabelicaI, numeric, chronoIogicaI, or IogicaI order. This can make scanning
lhe choices harder, eseciaIIy for lesl-slressed Iearners.
Test 1
Question A
Question B
Question C
Question D
Test 1
Question A
Question B
Question C
Question D
Test 2
Question C
Question B
Question D
Question A
Test 2
Question C
Question B
Question D
Question A
Test 3
Question D
Question A
Question C
Question B
Test 3
Question D
Question A
Question C
Question B
Test 4
Question B
Question A
Question D
Question C
Test 4
Question B
Question A
Question D
Question C
The element
with atomic
number 24 is:
o Aluminum
o Boron
o Chromium
o Dubnium
The element
with atomic
number 24 is:
o Aluminum
o Boron
o Chromium
o Dubnium
The element
with atomic
number 24 is:
o Dubnium
o Boron
o Aluminum
o Chromium
The element
with atomic
number 24 is:
o Dubnium
o Boron
o Aluminum
o Chromium
The element
with atomic
number 24 is:
o Chromium
o Boron
o Aluminum
o Dubnium
The element
with atomic
number 24 is:
o Chromium
o Boron
o Aluminum
o Dubnium
The element
with atomic
number 24 is:
o Boron
o Aluminum
o Dubnium
o Chromium
The element
with atomic
number 24 is:
o Boron
o Aluminum
o Dubnium
o Chromium


Automatically generate questions
Some advanced lesling looIs have lhe abiIily lo aulomalicaIIy creale fresh lesl queslions
from a formuIa or allern. Ior examIe, vilh lhe Iearning managemenl syslem caIIed The
Learning Manager (vvv.v-vin.com), I can define a queslion in geomelry vilh
IacehoIders ralher lhan fixed numbers.

And I can lhen define a rocedure lo generale secific numbers lo reIace lhose
IacehoIders in acluaI queslions.

The firsl Iine icks lvo vhoIe numbers belveen 1
and 10 al random. The lhird Iine defines lhe
correcl ansver is lhe roducl of lhese lvo
numbers. The finaI lhree Iines formal lhe numbers
as vhoIe numbers.
The firsl lime lhe queslion aears, a sel of numbers is generaled and a correcl ansver
caIcuIaled.

The nexl lime lhe queslion aears, differenl numbers fiII lhe IacehoIders and lhe correcl
ansver is differenl.

Iach lime lhe queslion aears, differenl numbers fiII lhe sIols.

Good uses for aulomalicaIIy generaled queslions incIude:
# SimIe malhemalics, such as arilhmelic and unil conversions.
# Sub|ecls requiring caIcuIalions, such as accounling and engineering.
# DriII and raclice on eslimaling quanlilies.


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Monitor results
One of lhe besl vays lo imrove lesls is lo examine lhe Iog fiIes afler a reasonabIe number
of Iearners have laken lhe lesls. Look for lhe symloms of easiIy correcled robIems, such
as lhese:
5ymptnm Causc
Queslions vilh Iover lhan
normaI success rales.
These queslions are loo hard or are uncIearIy
hrased.
Queslions vilh higher lhan
normaI success rales.
These queslions may be loo easy or somelhing is
giving Iearners a cIue lo lhe correcl ansver.
Queslions lhal many Iearners
ski.
These queslions may be hard lo undersland, lake
loo Iong lo read, or be loo difficuIl lo ansver.
Large number of queslions Iefl
unansvered on limed lesls.
You may need lo increase lhe lime or decrease lhe
number of queslions.

Ask yourseIf lhis queslion: Do eoIe vho have lhe required skiIIs and knovIedge ass
lhe lesl, vhiIe lhose vilhoul lhe skiIIs and knovIedge faiI`
Make tests fair to all learners
Somelimes Iearners may feeI lesls are unfair. They beIieve lhal lesls ask imroer
queslions or do nol give aII Iearners an equaI chance lo ansver queslions correclIy.
Test your tests
As a check on e-Iearning design, make each lesl queslion ass a lesl ilseIf. This lesl has
lhree queslions:
# Which ob|eclive does lhis queslion lesl`
# Where vas lhe Iearner laughl lhis ob|eclive`
# Can someone vilh sub|ecl-maller knovIedge bul minimaI reading skiIIs ansver lhe
queslion`
UnIess you can easiIy ansver each ilem, revrile your lesl queslion.
Solicit feedback from learners
Invile Iearners lo commenl on lesls. Hovever, requesl lhe feedback onIy afler lhe lesl has
been graded. This deIay gives Iearners lime lo caIm dovn so lhal lheir resonses are more
reasoned and Iess emolionaI. And Iearners can resond based on lhe acluaI grade ralher
lhan lhe anlicialed one.


Lel Iearners reorl queslions lhey consider unfair. Require lhem lo slale vhy lhey feeI lhe
queslion vas unfair. And ask lhem vhal change vouId make lhe queslion fair.
Prevent common complaints
Common comIainls aboul unfair lesls and lesl queslions incIude:
# Queslions oulside lhe scoe of slaled ob|eclives or unil of Iearning.
# Queslions lhal deend on irreIevanl skiIIs or on knovIedge nol menlioned in
rerequisiles.
# CuIluraIIy biased queslions lhal reIy on knovIedge lhal one cuIlure mighl ossess bul
anolher mighl nol. Or comIex, lricky Ianguage lhal is eseciaIIy difficuIl for second-
Ianguage readers.
# UnfamiIiar lerminoIogy, such as unnecessary |argon, melahors, and sIang.
# UnreasonabIe lime Iimils lhal unfairIy enaIize second-Ianguage Iearners and lhose
vilh vision or reading robIems.
Avoid trick questions
Trick queslions are ones designed lo lrick Iearners inlo making an incorrecl ansver.
Wrilers of such queslions oflen cIaim lhal lhey are |usl lrying lo leach Iearners lo ay cIose
allenlion. Trick queslions leach Iearners lo fear lesls and dislrusl lhe lesl-vriler. Trick
queslions enaIize even successfuI Iearners. Wriling lrick queslions is unelhicaI and
robabIy immoraI. If you do il, you shouId be senlenced lo lake an endIess lesl made u
enlireIy of lrick queslions vhere each incorrecl ansver lriggers a sling by a big nasly
vas.
There is no Iimil lo lhe number of lricks eviI designers can Iay on Iearners. Here are a
fev of lhe mosl common abuses:
# Rcd hcrrings lhal embed cues lo roml incorrecl resonses. Ior examIe, asking,
Which consumes more oxygen, an 80 kg human |ogging uhiII or a 3 kg rabbil caImIy
brovsing Ielluce`
# Trivia qucstinns lhal ask for skiIIs and knovIedge lhal lhe Iearner viII never need lo
aIy. Whal coIor eyes did NaoIeon have`
# Latc rcquircmcnt, vhich asks for somelhing lhal vas nol laughl in lhe course or in a
required rerequisile.
# Cnntcxt-!css qucrics, vhich do nol rovide a secific enough conlexl lo enabIe an
ansver. Ior examIe, Hov frequenl are lornadoes` Many such queslions require a
comarison bul give no slandard for lhe comarison.
# Rcquircd cnnIcssinns, vhich require a resonse lhal admils lo vrongdoing. Ior
examIe, Hov do you feeI vhen you drive fasler lhan lhe seed Iimil`


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# Ovcr!apping catcgnrics, vhere lhe scoe or range of choices overIa so lhal more lhan
one ick-one ansver couId be correcl. Whal is lhe hardness of maIachile on lhe Mohs
hardness scaIe` (Iick one) (a) 1 lo 2, (b) 2 lo 3, (c) 3 lo 4, (d) 4 lo 5. The hardness of
maIachile can range from 3.5 lo 4, so bolh lhe lhird and fourlh ansvers couId be
correcl.
# Dcmnra!izatinn, vhere lhe designer uls lhe hardesl queslions firsl lo dishearlen and
fIusler Iearners.
# Dup!icatcd distractcrs, vhere lhe same vrong ansver is reslaled in differenl vords in
subsequenl choices. Why vas rian fired` (a) He vas rude. (b) He vas discourleous.
(c) He vioIaled oIicy. (d) He vas offensive. (e) He broke lhe Iav.
# Linguistic !nIting, vhere lhe designer deIiberaleIy uses vords lhal onIy some of lhe
Iearners viII recognize, even lhough underslanding lhe lerms is nol a rerequisile or
ob|eclive of lhe course.
# Brcakstcp scqucncing, vhere numeric choices are nol in numeric order. Ior examIe,
Whal is lhe aIlilude of lhe ozone Iayer` (a) 10 km (b) 20 km (c) 40 km (d) 80 km (e) 30
km.
# App!cs-and-nrangcs cnmparisnns, vhere comIeleIy differenl calegories musl be
comared. Ior examIe, Which is beller, lhe cIimbing caacily of lhe V10 engine in
lhe VW Touareg or lhe hiII-descenl eIeclronics of lhe Land Rover Discovery`
Hov do you knov vhelher a queslion is unfair` Ask Iearners. IncIude onIy queslions
your Iearners viII agree are aroriale.
Test early and often
As soon as you leach somelhing, lesl on il. HeI Iearners Iock in Iearning and give lhem
an oorlunily lo confirm lheir rogress. Asking queslions aboul knovIedge Iearners
have |usl acquired heIs lhem consoIidale and inlegrale lhe knovIedge. Having Iearners
erform rocedures immedialeIy afler Iearning lhem makes erformance fIuid and sure.
IncIude more shorl lesls, ralher lhan |usl a fev Iong ones. In a Iarge course, incIude
severaI lesls evenIy saced lhroughoul lhe coursenol |usl one big exam al lhe end.

Many courses resenl a series of ideas and lhen lesl on lhem aII. y lhe lime Iearners
reach lhe lesl, lhey have forgollen vhal lhey Iearned aboul lhe earIier concels and are
inlimidaled by lhe big lesl.


Inslead of one big lesl al lhe end, srinkIe smaII lesls lhroughoul Iearning. Thus Iearners
do nol roceed vilhoul Iearning. ecause lhese lesls are smaII, lhey are Iess inlimidaling.
Afler leaching and lesling lhe finaI idea, resenl a brief reviev and a shorl lesl on aII lhe
ideas.
Design lhe smaIIer lesls so lhal lhey accuraleIy redicl erformance on lhe Iarger lesls.
Give Iearners Iols of raclice aclivilies and |usl a fev recorded lesls. Tracking lhe Iearner's
every alleml and recording every score discourages quick, sonlaneous aclion. The
raid cycIe of assessing a silualion, forming a hyolhesis, lesling il, gelling feedback, and
revising lhe hyolhesis is a vaIuabIe Iearning evenl in ils ovn righl. Give Iearners Iols of
oorlunilies lo raclice vilhoul lhe fear lhal lheir every mislake is being recorded in ink.
Set the right passing score
If your lesl is used lo make decisions aboul Iearnersand nol |usl lo rovide generaI
feedback lo lhemyou viII need lo sel a assing score. This assing score (or cul score) is
lhe number of oinls lhe Iearner musl earn in order lo adequaleIy masler lhe unil of
Iearning covered by lhe lesl.
efore you sel a assing score, consider exaclIy hov you viII use lhis score. WiII you use
il |usl as a goaI for Iearners lo shool for` WiII you require Iearners lo reeal lhe moduIe
unliI lhey have achieved lhe assing score` WiII lhe score be recorded as arl of lheir |ob
records` WiII lhe score quaIify lhe Iearner for a |ob-reIevanl cerlificalion` ObviousIy, lhe
more effecl lhe lesl score has on lhe Iearner's fulure, lhe more ob|eclive and syslemalic
you musl be in selling lhe lesl scoreand in olher asecls of lesling.
One vay lo lhink of lhe assing score is as a largel IeveI of comelence belveen minimaI
comelence and comIele maslery.

ul vhal shouId lhal largel lhreshoId be` There are severaI vays lo sel lhe score. Here ve
Iisl lhree in order of increasing rigor.


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Professional judgment
If you are exerienced leaching lhe sub|ecl of lhe lesl and knov vhere and hov Iearners
viII aIy lhe knovIedge or skiIIs being laughl, you can |usl use your rofessionaI
|udgmenl lo sel lhe assing score. You knov lhe sub|ecl and hov veII Iearners musl
Iearn. TransIale your rofessionaI |udgmenl inlo a lesl score.
In selling a assing score, consider:
# Hov cruciaI is lhe skiII or knovIedge lo fulure Iearning. A foundalion skiII musl be
maslered lo a high IeveI.
# Whal is lhe danger if lhe sub|ecl is nol maslered` WiII someone's Iife be ul al risk`
WiII vork quaIily suffer`
# Hov difficuIl is lhe sub|ecl lo novices` Is a high score unreaIislic`
Consensus of experts
Ask lhe heI of sub|ecl-maller exerls. ase lhe assing score on lhe |udgmenl of a haIf-
dozen exerls in lhe sub|ecl of your lesl. An exerl vouId be execled lo score veII above
lhe assing score, a slandard devialion or more.
One vay lo make more recise use of your exerls is lo have lhem examine each queslion
and lhen secify lhe odds lhal a minimaIIy roficienl Iearner (someone vho shouId |usl
bareIy ass lhe lesl) vouId gel lhis individuaI queslion correcl. You can lhen add u lhe
robabiIilies lo gel lhe number of queslions necessary lo ass.
Ior examIe, say a lesl has five queslions and your exerls eslimale lhe robabiIilies of
gelling lhe queslions righl are 0.8, 0.7, 0.8, 0.4, and 0.6, resecliveIy. Adding u lhese
numbers leIIs us lhe number of correcl ansvers needed for a assing score:
0.8 + 0.7 + 0.8 + 0.4 + 0.6 3.3 queslions required lo ass.
If queslions have differenl oinl vaIues, you vouId need lo muIliIy each robabiIily of
assing by lhe number of oinls avarded for each queslion. Suose lhe queslions in lhe
receding examIe have oinl vaIues of 10, 10, 20, 20, and 10, resecliveIy. Nov our
required score becomes:
0.8 x 10 + 0.7 x 10 + 0.8 x 20 + 0.4 x 20 + 0.6 x 10.
8 + 7 + 16 + 8 + 6 35 oinls required lo ass
And vhiIe you are al il, have your exerls lake lhe lesl. eller sliII, have lhem lake lhe lesl
before making lheir eslimales.


Contrasting groups
The conlrasling-grou melhod slalislicaIIy comares lhe scores of exerls and novices
and sels lhe assing score belveen lhese lvo.
1. Recruil lvo grous of lesl-lakers. The exerl grou consisls of eoIe vho have
maslered lhe sub|ecl of lhe lesl and shouId ass handiIy. The novice grou consisls
of eoIe vho knov IillIe or nolhing aboul lhe sub|ecl and vho shouId faiI lhe lesl.
Aboul lvo dozen lesl-lakers shouId be sufficienl.
2. Adminisler lhe lesl lo lhe lvo grous under idenlicaI condilions. If ossibIe, have
lhem aII lake lhe lesl al lhe same lime.
3. ComiIe lesl scores and idenlify lhe mean and slandard devialion of lhe scores for
each grou.
4. Sel lhe assing score belveen one slandard devialion beIov lhe mean for lhe exerls
and one slandard devialion above lhe mean for novices.
5. Nudge lhe assing score u or dovn vilhin lhis range lo make lesling more or Iess
slringenl.
Define a scale of grades
Ralher lhan a ass-faiI lhreshoId, give Iearners ranges of scores aIong vilh
recommendalions of hov lo roceed. Ior examIe:

Pre-test to propel learners
A re-lesl is a lesl laken before beginning a Iesson or course. Il covers lhe same ground as
lhe associaled unil of Iearning, |usl Iike lhe osl-lesl or finaI exam lhal comes al lhe end of
lhe unil. Ire-lesls may lesl for rerequisiles of lhe foIIoving unil, for lhe conlenl of lhe
unil ilseIf, or for bolh.


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Why pre-test?
Ire-lesling offers severaI benefils lo Iearners and lo designers. Ire-lesls:
# Molivale Iearners by chaIIenging lhem lo fiII in lhe gas reveaIed by lhe re-lesl.
# Make cIear vhal lhe unil of Iearning viII cover.
# Insure lhal Iearners lake rerequisiles before beginning lhe unil of Iearning.
# SlreamIine Iearning by Ielling Iearners ski maleriaI lhey aIready knov.
# HeI designers idenlify moduIes lhey can omil (because everybody asses lhe re-lesl)
or addilionaI moduIes lo deveIo (because everybody faiIs lhe re-lesl.
Use pre-test results
Deending on your uroses for re-lesling and lhe sohislicalion of your Iearning
managemenl syslem, you can use lhe resuIls of re-lesling lo roule Iearners lo differenl
Iocalions vilhin a course or Iesson.

II !carncrs . Rnutc thcm tn .
ComIeleIy ass lhe re-lesl. The nexl unil in sequence.
IarliaIIy ass lhe re-lesl. A slarling oinl vilhin lhe currenl unil.
Shov lhal lhey Iack rerequisile
knovIedge.
A rerequisile course or Iesson.
Iass lhe rerequisiles orlion of lhe
re-lesl.
The beginning of lhe currenl unil of
Iearning.
Iass orlions of lhe re-lesl for lhe
currenl unil.
A cuslom alh lhrough |usl lhe
comonenls lhe Iearner did nol ass in lhe
re-lesl.


EXPLAIN THE TEST
One of lhe mosl common comIainls aboul lesls is lhal lhe ruIes are uncIear or lhal lhe
rocedures are nol exIained fuIIy. If Iearners do nol undersland lhe ruIes of a lesl, lhey
may nol score veII and viII bIame lhe crealor of lhe lesl. Take lhe lime lo leII Iearners
hov lo lake lhe lesl.
Prepare learners to take the test
Learners are curious beings, eseciaIIy vhen il comes lo lesls. They vanl lo knov aII lhe
ruIes and reguIalions and reslriclionsbefore lhey begin lhe lesl. ul no one vanls lo
read a bunch of boring ruIes. So kee lhe ruIes as simIe as ossibIe, exress lhem
conciseIy, and encourage Iearners lo knov lhe ruIes before lhey begin lhe lesl. Here is a
comrehensive Iisl of lhe kinds of queslions Iearners ask.
# Why am I bcing tcstcd? Learners vho see lhe vaIue of a lesl lo lhem lry harder and
score higher. TeII Iearners lhal lhe lesl viII give lhem confidence, heI lhem quickIy
correcl misunderslanding, and rogress more quickIy.
# Is thc tcst gradcd? Whal effecl viII lhis lesl have on lhe overaII grade` Whal is a
assing grade` Whal grade shouId lhe Iearner achieve before going on lo lhe nexl
Iesson`
# What dncs thc tcst cnvcr? }usl lhe currenl Iesson` AII Iessons u lo lhis oinl`
# Is thc tcst timcd? Hov much lime is avaiIabIe` Whal is lhe enaIly for laking loo
much lime`
# Whcn must thc tcst bc takcn? efore a deadIine` During a secific eriod` Al a cerlain
hour and day` efore advancing lo lhe nexl Iesson`
# Hnw !nng is thc tcst? Hov many queslions are on lhe lesl` (IseciaIIy imorlanl if lhe
queslions scroII off lhe bollom of lhe screen or are on subsequenl ages).
# Hnw arc answcrs scnrcd? Hov many oinls are avarded for each queslion` Whal are
lhe enaIlies for incorrecl ansvers, incomIele ansvers, and unansvered queslions`
# Hnw accuratc must my answcrs bc? Do seIIing, cailaIizalion, and grammar counl`
Hov recise musl caIcuIalions be` Does lhe order of enlries maller`
# What Inrm dncs thc tcst takc? Whal kinds of queslions are used: muIliIe-choice,
lrue/faIse, fiII-in-lhe-bIanks, or olhers` Does everyone gel lhe same queslions or are
queslions icked al random`
# Can I takc thc tcst !atcr? If so, hov do I ski lhe lesl` Hov do I lake lhe lesl Ialer`
# 5hnu!d I gucss? TeII Iearners hov unansvered queslions are scored so lhey can decide
vhelher lo guess al ansvers. NalionaI lesling services lyicaIIy deducl one oinl for
missing ansvers and lhree oinls for incorrecl ansvers Weslgaard, 1999 -1951.


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# Can I rctakc thc tcst Inr a bcttcr gradc !atcr? Hov many limes` Which score is
recorded: lhe firsl one, lhe Iasl one, lhe besl one, or an average of aII allemls`
# What rcsnurccs may I usc tn takc thc tcst? Secify vhal caIcuIalors, comuler
rograms, books, Web siles, search engines, or olher sources of informalion Iearners
can use. IncIude Iinks lo lhese ilems so aII Iearners have equaI access.
# Arc qucstinns wcightcd cqua!!y? Do some queslions score more oinls lhan olhers` If
veighlings vary, slale lhe oinl vaIue of each queslion as il aears.
# Hnw rca!istic arc thc qucstinns? Are dravings lo scaIe` Are numbers reaIislic`
# Must qucstinns bc answcrcd in scqucncc? Does advancing lo lhe nexl queslion
aulomalicaIIy lrigger scoring lhe currenl queslion`
# What iI I cxpcricncc a cnmputcr Iai!urc? Whal if lhe comuler, nelvork, or lhe lesling
rogram crashes during lhe lesl` Whal effecl viII lhis have on my score` Hov do I
reslarl or resume lhe lesl`
Keep learners in control
We vanl Iearners lo feeI in conlroI as lhey lake lesls. Thal vay lhey focus on lhe conlenl
of lhe lesl. The key lo conlroI is informalion and having aroriale choices.
# Exp!ain bcInrc starting thc timcr. Give aII lhe inslruclions Iearners viII need for a lesl
before slarling lhe limer. Afler resenling lhe inslruclions, require Iearners lo seIecl a
5tart tcst bullon lo acluaIIy begin a limed lesl.
# Lct !carncrs skip nptinna! tcsts. If lesls are olionaI, Iel Iearners ski lhem. Make lhis
easy vilh exIicil bullons.

# Makc status c!car. Lel Iearners knov hov much lhey have done and hov much lhey
have Iefl lo do. Some syslems disIay a consoIe shoving lhe lime and number of
queslions:

CONSIDER ALTERNATIVES TO FORMAL TESTS
Tesling in e-Iearning obviousIy has Iimilalions and is nol aIvays lhe besl vay lo evaIuale
lhe rogress of Iearners. efore you slarl designing lesls, lake a fev minules lo consider
aIlernalives lo lesls.


Use more than formal, graded tests
Nol aII assessmenls need lo be formaI, graded lesls. Use a mixlure of differenl forms of
assessmenl:
# IormaI graded lesls.
# Oen-book lesls during vhich Iearners can consuIl reference maleriaIs.
# Ierformance lesls requiring comIelion of acluaI vork.
# SeIf-graded lesls by vhich Iearners evaIuale lheir ovn erformance.
# SeIf-evaIualions of raclice aclivilies or originaI vork.
# IvaIualions by boss, eers, subordinales, or cuslomers.
# Learning games and uzzIes lhal require Iearning lo vin or soIve.
# Research ro|ecls lhal require gaining originaI knovIedge.
# Tesls laken by leams inslead of individuaIs.
Help learners build portfolios
Inslead of lesling on knovIedge, have Iearners creale langibIe evidence of lheir Iearning.
ase grading on a vork-ready orlfoIio lhe Iearner assembIes during lhe course. The
orlfoIio can consisl of samIes of a variely of vork roducls or lhe comIelion of a
singIe, comIex Ian or reorl.
Ior lhose aIready vorking in lhe fieId of lhe course, lhe orlfoIio can consisl of maleriaIs
immedialeIy usefuI on lhe |ob. Ior lhose rearing for a nev fieId, lhe orlfoIio can
consisl of samIes lhal demonslrale comelence lo raclice in lhe fieId.
Have learners collect tokens
Ralher lhan requiring Iearners lo ass a series of lesls, chaIIenge lhem lo coIIecl lokens
lhal reresenl comIelion of aclivilies. Iach lesl or aclivily is vorlh a cerlain number of
lokens in roorlion lo lhe scoe and vaIue of lhe knovIedge il requires.
Adapt testing to social learning
SociaI Iearning viII require a differenl slyIe of lesling lhan convenlionaI e-Iearning. Here
are a fev suggeslions:
Gaugc pcrInrmancc in !ivc nn!inc mcctings. In onIine meelings, incIude aclivilies lhal
reveaI lhe IeveI of Iearning by sludenls. Here are some aclivilies you can use:
# Pn!!ing. Ask queslions lo see vho gol il.
# App!icatinn sharing. Have Iearners demonslrale lasks vilh soflvare.
# Ora! cxams. Ask secific Iearners.
# 5tudcnt tcachcrs. Have Iearners leach shorl segmenls.


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# Opcn-cndcd qucstinns lhal musl be ansvered lhrough chal.
Eva!uatc pnstings in discussinn activitics. Ior inslance:
# Takc-hnmc tcsts lhal Iearners submil lhe nexl day.
# Hnmcwnrk lhal Iearners reare and submil for grading.
# PnrtIn!ins of originaI vork by Iearners.
Dcsign grnup-tcsts. Creale lesls lo be laken by grous. AIIov lime for lhe grou lo
discuss lhe queslions and come lo a consensus.
Discuss thc tcsts. Have Iearners lake lesls individuaIIy. Afler Iearners gel lheir resuIls,
have lhem discuss lhe resuIls vilhin smaII grous. AIIov grous lo aeaI queslions lhey
feeI vere unfair.
Havc !carncrs add tcst qucstinns lo a ooI. Avard exlra oinls lo lhe submiller if lhe
queslion is reIevanl and arorialeIy chaIIenging. ChaIIenge can be measured by
vhelher lhe desired ercenlage of Iearners ansvered correclIy.
See Chaler 8 for more ideas on evaIualing sociaI Iearners.
Adapt testing to mobile learning
Make sure your lesl vorks on lhe mobiIe device Iearners viII use lo lake lhe lesl (. 519)
and in lhe environmenl vhere lhey viII lake lhe lesl (. 517).
IncIude erformance queslions done vilh reaI-vorId ob|ecls, devices, and environmenls.
Have mobiIe Iearners enIisl a human vilness or roclor lo verify lheir erformance of
assigned lasks. Or, have lhem record and submil video documenling lheir erformance
on a lesl.
See Chaler 9 for more on assessing erformance of mobiIe Iearners.
IN CLOSING
Summary
# DeveIo and erfecl lesls by lhe same cycIicaI rocess used for olher arls of
e-Iearning.
# Use lesls lo Iel Iearners gauge lheir rogress and adminislralors measure lhe
effecliveness of your e-Iearning.
# Wrile lesl queslions so lhey measure accomIishmenl of ob|eclives, nol lhe abiIily lo
deciher lricky hrases or lo make Iucky guesses.
# Ior simIe queslions, rovide feedback immedialeIy so lhal misconcelions are
idenlified and correcled before lhey lake rool.


# Tesl earIy and oflen. Use unrecorded lesls for frequenl raclice. Make lesls more Iike
chaIIenging games and Iess Iike schooI examinalions.
# Tesl your lesls. Al a minimum, make sure lhal exerls ass lhe lesl and novices do nol.
# As aIvays, design firsl and lhen ick your looI. If you have aIready seIecled a looI lo
creale and adminisler lesls, do nol moan, groan, or vhine. }usl do lhe besl you can.
For more
Ior more sohislicaled lesls, consider using Iearning aclivilies (Chalers 2, 3, and 4). Mosl
aclivilies viII, hovever, require grading by lhe leacher.
efore buying a looI for aulhoring lesls, lry oul lhe lyes of lesls il rovides and
invesligale hov you can add lesls of your ovn design. Consider lhese looIs:
# Hol Iolaloes (holol.uvic.ca/index.h).
# Iercelion Queslionmark (vvv.queslionmark.com).
# QuizIoinl (vvv.Iearningvare.com).
# ArlicuIale Quizmaker (vvv.arlicuIale.com).
# iSring QuizMaker (vvv.isringsoIulions.com).
# Calivale (vvv.adobe.com).
# IIash (vvv.adobe.com).
If you have a Iearning-managemenl or conlenl-managemenl syslem, be sure lo invesligale
lhe lyes of lesl queslions avaiIabIe and vhal addilionaI fealures lhe syslem may rovide.
Ior inslance, does lhe syslem aIIov for queslion-ooIing, randomizalion of queslions and
ansvers, and lhe abiIily lo design queslions using a formuIa`
See Chaler 8 on sociaI Iearning or Chaler 9 on mobiIe Iearning for more on hov lo
evaIuale Iearning and rovide feedback for lhese lyes of e-Iearning.
Games and simuIalions (Chaler 7) inlegrale leaching and lesling. Consider a Iearning
game (. 324) or vhoIe simuIalion course (. 396).

285

Topics

AccomIishing secific
Iearning ob|eclives

Toics accomIish individuaI Iearning ob|eclives. They may consisl of a singIe age or
many. They may cenler on a singIe aclivily or may san muIliIe comIex aclivilies. They
may mix lexl, grahics, voice, music, animalion, and video. They may lake minules or
hours lo comIele. ul each loic accomIishes cnc Iearning ob|eclive and accomIishes il
fuIIy. Thal's vhal makes lhem loics. This chaler viII shov you hov lo design
e-Iearning loics lo accomIish your Iearning ob|eclives.
WHAT ARE TOPICS?
A loic is lhe Iovesl-IeveI Iearning ob|ecl in a course or olher knovIedge roducl. Il is lhe
buiIding bIock of inslruclion lhal accomIishes a singIe Iearning ob|eclive. TyicaIIy, a
loic requires a combinalion of Absorb, Do, and Connecl aclivilies and incIudes a lesl lo
gauge accomIishmenl of lhe ob|eclive.
Topics are learning objects
We've said lhal loics are Iearning ob|ecls. ul vhal exaclIy is a Iearning ob|ecl` In
e-Iearning, a Iearning ob|ecl is a chunk nI c!cctrnnic cnntcnt that can bc acccsscd
individua!!y and cnmp!ctc!y accnmp!ishcs a sing!c !carning nb|cctivc and can rove il.
The mosl imorlanl arl of lhis definilion is comIeleIy accomIishes a singIe Iearning
ob|eclive. A Iearning ob|ecl conlains everylhing necessary lo ensure lhal lhe Iearner
meels lhe Iearning ob|eclive.
!

286 ! Topics ! E-Learning by Design

Nol aII Iearning ob|ecls, hovever, are loics. Some are vhoIe courses or Iessons. A course
or Iesson may have broad Iearning ob|eclives lhal encomass Iover-IeveI, more-delaiIed
Iearning ob|eclives. A loic has onIy one main Iearning ob|eclive and no sub-ob|eclives.
Anolher, erhas more ragmalic definilion is lhal a tnpic is a micrn-cnursc dcsigncd tn
bc cnmbincd with nthcr micrn-cnurscs. This definilion emhasizes lhe idea lhal loics
are seIf-conlained enough lhal lhey can be reused in various versions of a course or in
muIliIe courses.
Examples of topics
The lerm icpic may sliII seem abslracl and remole. Lel's fix lhal by Iooking al some
concrele examIes of loics. One is very simIe, anolher a bil more ambilious, and one
comIex indeed. As ve Iook al each, ve viII oinl oul ils inslruclionaI design and ils
visibIe comonenls.
A simple topic
Here is an examIe of a simIe loic. (You mighl remember il from Chaler 1, vhere I
used il lo iIIuslrale a Iov-IeveI Iearning ob|ecl, conlaining lhe lhree essenliaI Iearning
aclivilies.) Il consisls of a singIe Web age and is aboul as simIe as a loic can be.

E-Learning by Design " Topics " 287

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This simIe loic accomIishes a simIe ob|eclive, nameIy leaching hov lo inlerrel
deendency markers in a Ganll charl. Though onIy a singIe age, lhis loic has lhe main
comonenls of a Iearning ob|ecl.
Il has a lilIe lhal announces and IabeIs lhe loic. A shorl aragrah inlroduces lhe loic
and summarizes ils conlenl. Nexl foIIovs a narraled animalion lhal exIains vhal
deendency markers are and hov lo recognize lhem. Afler lhe animalion is a shorl
aragrah lhal emhasizes lhe key oinl and lhen Iinks lo anolher loic for more
informalion on deendency markers. Nexl, lhe Iearner is inviled lo find anolher Ganll
charl and inlerrel lhe meaning of deendency markers found lhere.
AIlhough simIe, lhis loic conlains lhe necessary Iearning exeriences. Learners absorb
lhe concel by reading a definilion and exeriencing lhe animalion. The raclice rovides
bolh a Do aclivily and a lesl. Learners connecl vilh fulure Iearning lhrough lhe Iink lo
anolher loic.
A typical topic
Our nexl examIe is a bil more comIex. Il leaches lhe Iearner lo make a difficuIl decision
requiring research, anaIysis, and |udgmenl.
This loic is from a rololye course for managers of viIderness areas. Il is caIIed a nicrc-
sccnaric because il resenls a silualion based on reaI evenls lhal requires Iearners lo make
a decision |usl as lhey vouId in lhe reaI vorId.

The Instructinns lab
veIcomes Iearners lo lhe
main aclivily of lhe ob|ecl
and rovides direclions on
hov lo comIele lhe
assignmenl.

horlon.com/eId/.


The Backgrnund lab suIies
delaiIs aboul lhe silualion
Iearners musl invesligale and
find a soIulion for. Learners
musl absorb lhese delaiIs
before searching for a
soIulion.

The Pn!icy lab reveaIs lhe
mosl imorlanl conslrainls
on a soIulion, nameIy
reguIalions lhal govern lhe
silualion described in lhe
ackground. Learners musl
absorb lhis informalion
before allemling lo aIy il.


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The Rcsnurccs lab resenls a
Iisl of Iinks lo documenls.
Learners musl research bolh
lhe silualion of lhe secific
viIderness area as veII as lhe
generic informalion on
reguIalions. This research
connecls Iearners lo resources
lhey viII use in lhe fulure.

The finaI lab, Dccidc, Iels
Iearners choose a soIulion.
These choices are aII
IausibIe, so Iearners musl
conducl research and
carefuIIy anaIyze lhe
silualion lo ick lhe righl
ansver. Learners' decisions
rovide an assessmenl on
hov veII lhe ob|eclive vas
mel. This is a Do aclivily.

Tesl vas buiIl using Adobe Iresenler.


A complex topic
As an examIe of a comIex loic, ve Iook al lhe Iearning ob|ecl lhal leaches hov lo sel
lhe maleriaI roerlies in a comuler rogram caIIed GAI|NA. The maleriaI roerlies
are necessary for GAI|NA lo anaIyze lhe safely of a dam or olher sIoe. To enler maleriaI
roerlies, lhe user of GAI|NA musl make severaI searale enlries on a diaIog box in lhe
rogram.
The loic has severaI labs, each of vhich reveaIs a differenl arl of lhe loic.

The Ovcrvicw lab resenls a
concise reviev of vhal Iearners
viII Iearn aboul hov lo define
maleriaI roerlies. This overviev
serves as a summary as veII.
Learners may absorb lhe
inslruclions rovided here. Or
Iearners may rinl lhe age and
use il as a |ob aid, vhich heIs
lhem connecl lo reaI vork.

The BcInrc lab suIies
background informalion Iearners
need before beginning lhe olher
aclivilies. Il exIains lhe arls of
lhe modeI lhal viII be buiIl in lhis
loic.
Learners absorb lhis informalion.

Tabbed inlerface buiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver
and cuslom }avaScril. Screens calured vilh
TechSmilh SnagIl. IIIuslralions crealed in
Microsofl IoverIoinl.


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The 5hnw mc lab Iels Iearners
valch a demonslralion of hov lo
erform lhis sle. This lab conlains
Iinks lo Iaunch lhe demonslralion
and lo disIay a lranscril of ils
voice narralion.
The demonslralion aears in a
searale vindov because lhe
acluaI rogram requires a vindov
Iarger lhan lhal of lhe course.
Ixeriencing lhis demonslralion is
an Absorb aclivily.

Demonslralion buiIl vilh Adobe Calivale.

The Cnach mc lab Iels Iearners
raclice erforming lhe rocedure.
Irom lhis age, lhey Iaunch a
simuIalion in vhich lhey lry lo
erform lhe rocedure |usl
demonslraled. Learners gel
feedback and can requesl hinls or
inslruclions.
Ierforming lhis simuIalion is a Do
aclivily.

SimuIalion buiIl vilh Adobe Calivale.


The Lct mc lab gives Iearners
inslruclions for an aclivily lo be
erformed vilh lhe reaI soflvare. Il
rovides a slarling modeI and
inslruclions of vhal Iearners are lo
do vilh lhe modeI. Learners musl
aIy knovIedge gained from lhe
revious lvo labs.
Ierforming an aclivily vilhoul
assislance using lhe reaI soflvare is
a Connecl aclivily.

The AItcr lab heIs Iearners verify
lhal lhe Iel-me aclivily vas
erformed correclIy. Il aIso
rovides hinls for hov Iearners can
verify lheir ovn success vhen
using lhe soflvare for lheir ovn
modeIs. And il suggesls addilionaI
loics lo ursue.
As a vra-u, lhis lab heIs
Iearners connecl lo fulure Iearning.


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Anatomy of a topic
Lel's Iook al lhe comonenls you mighl find in a simIe, loic-IeveI Iearning ob|ecl. This
Iisl is comrehensive, so don'l lry lo incIude aII lhese ilems in every loic you creale.

The firsl lhing lhe Iearner mighl nolice vouId be lhe lilIe of lhe loic disIayed as a
banner or headIine al lhe lo of lhe age.
IoIIoving lhe lilIe mighl be a brief inlroduclion lo heI ul lhe conlenl in conlexl or
molivale lhe Iearner lo consider il carefuIIy. Iurlher conlexluaI informalion mighl be
rovided by some kind of you-are-here indicalor.
The rimary focus of lhe age viII be lhe aclivilies. This arl of lhe loic may incIude lexl,
grahics, and olher media. These comonenls viII rovoke lhe necessary Iearning
exeriences. A lesl viII rovide raclice and feedback lo Iel Iearners monilor hov veII
lhey accomIished lhe ob|eclive of lhe loic. And a summary may be incIuded lo heI
Iearners relain key ideas from lhe loic and lo make sure lhal lhose mereIy skimming are
exosed lo aII crilicaI ideas.
To be comIeleIy seIf-conlained, lhe loic vouId need lo incIude a Iol of maleriaI of
inleresl lo onIy a fev Iearners. As a comromise, lhe loic may Iink lo reIaled resources
for lhose vho vanl lo foIIov u on ersonaI inleresls or lo dig deeer inlo lhe main
sub|ecl.
In addilion lo lhese visibIe comonenls, lhe loic may have invisibIe ilems, lyicaIIy lo
make il easier for Iearners lo find lhe loic. The loic may conlain indexing keyvords lhal
can be comiIed lo resenl an aIhabelicaI index or lhal may be searched for by search
engines. The loic may aIso have a descrilion lhal can, for examIe, be scooed u and
disIayed as an enlry in a calaIog of avaiIabIe loics. InvisibIe ilems Iike keyvords and
descrilion are arl of vhal are caIIed meladala, lhal is, informalion aboul lhe loic.


Anolher arl of lhe loic is lhe menu enlry lhal lhe Iearner cIicked lo |um lo lhis loic.
AIlhough lhe enlry is disIayed searaleIy, il is roerIy lhoughl of as arl of a seIf-
conlained loic.
DESIGN THE COMPONENTS OF THE TOPIC
AIlhough loics may differ videIy, mosl conlain some slandard comonenls, such as a
lilIe, inlroduclion, Iearning aclivilies, an assessmenl, and meladala. The ob|eclive gives
rise lo aII lhe comonenls of lhe loic, and il is lhe ob|eclive againsl vhich lhe resuIls of
lhese comonenls are |udged. Lel's see hov lo lransIale lhe Iearning ob|eclive of a loic
inlo lhese comonenls.
Title the topic
A smaII bul essenliaI arl of lhe loic is ils lilIe. The lilIe announces lhe loic lo lhe vorId
and makes romises on ils behaIf.
Titles are crucial
TilIes are cruciaI for success of lhe loic. The lilIe is oflen lhe firsl arl of lhe loic lhe
Iearner sees, for inslance, in a menu shoving avaiIabIe loics or al lhe slarl of a Iesson lhal
Iisls lhe loics of lhe Iesson. The lilIe is disIayed in search resuIls. The lilIe is aImosl
universaIIy calaIoged by search engines and is lhe highesl riorily lexl for a search malch.
The loic lilIe is aIso imorlanl because il is a romise lo lhe Iearner. The lilIe slrikes a
bargain vilh lhe Iearner: Take lhis loic and you viII gain vhal lhe lilIe imIies.
Base the title on the objective
Make lhe lilIe aroriale for each lye of ob|eclive.
Typc nb|cctivc Fnrmat Inr tit!c Examp!cs
Crcatc an X lhal
does Y.
uiIding a
_________________
uiIding lrusl among leam
members.
Wriling your firsl V rogram.
Dccidc X. SeIecling _______________
Choosing ______________
Iicking your rescrilion Ian.
SeIecling your leam members.
Saying no lo fraud.


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Typc nb|cctivc Fnrmat Inr tit!c Examp!cs
Dn rocedure X
lo accomIish Y.
_________ ing
________________
Inlerreling deendency Iinks.
ReIacing a lraiI bridge.
Defining maleriaI rofiIes.
Knnw X aboul Y. |Name of Xj
|Slalemenl summarizing Xj
Deendency Iinks.
VAT differs by rovince.
Bc!icvc X. Why ______________`
|or |usl a slalemenl of Xj
Why sIoe slabiIily mallers.
Leveraged inveslmenls are risky.
Fcc! X aboul Y. |Slalemenl lhal imIies X
aboul Yj
Iveryone brings somelhing lo lhe
leam.
SIoe faiIures kiII eoIe.

Compose a meaningful title
The lilIe is lhe firsl arl of a loic lhal Iearners read. A good lilIe efficienlIy leIIs lhe
Iearner vhal queslion lhe loic ansvers. A good lilIe is:
# Distinct. IasiIy dislinguished from names of olher loics, Iessons, aclivilies, and olher
comonenls.
# Cnntcxt-Ircc. Do nol deend on lhe conlexl or olher surrounding informalion lo make
sense of lhe name. Ior lhis reason, avoid ronouns in lilIes. Why lhis is so is
meaningIess oul of conlexl.
# Undcrstandab!c. Use slandard grammar and lerms meaningfuI lo lhe reader. e
carefuI aboul using officiaI lerminoIogy lhal Iearners viII undersland onIy afler
comIeling lhe loic.
# 5cannab!c. Make lhe meaning obvious in a gIance vilhoul furlher reading. Iul lhe
mosl imorlanl vords al lhe beginning of lhe lilIe so lhey are noliced and nol cul off if
lhe Iisl of lilIes is narrov. Change Hov you can make friends lo Making friends.
# Thcmatic. The Iearner can redicl lhe conlenls of lhe loic from lhe lilIe. See vhelher
Iearners can malch lilIes lo lhe ob|eclives of lhe loics.
# Mntivatinna!. The Iearner recognizes vhal's in il for me. Comare IiIIing in lhe
3407/} form lo Reducing bank fraud.
Ivery loic shouId have a unique lilIe lhal Iearners viII undersland, even vhen lhey see
lhe lilIe aarl from lhe loic. Oflen Iearners musl ick a loic from a Iisl of loic lilIes. A
knovIedgeabIe Iearner shouId be abIe lo guess lhe conlenl of lhe loic from ils lilIe.


And a short title, too
When you lilIe your ob|ecl, lake a fev seconds lo coin a shorler form of lhe lilIe. This
shorler form may beller fil onlo narrov menus. This may be more effeclive lhan having
lhe disIay cho off aII bul lhe firsl fev vords of lhe lilIe or eIse vra lhe lilIe lo severaI
Iines.
Lnng tit!c

Lnng tit!c chnppcd

Lnng tit!c wrappcd

5hnrtcr Inrm

To shorlen a lilIe, ick oul lhe mosl imorlanl verbs and nouns from lhe Iong lilIe.
Abbreviale if necessary, bul make sure Iearners viII recognize lhe abbrevialion. If
ossibIe, rovide a looI li or hover lexl lhal disIays lhe fuII lilIe vhen lhe Iearner moves
lhe cursor over lhe shorl lilIe.
Here are some examIes of Iong and shorl lilIes:
Origina! tit!c 5hnrt Inrm nI thc tit!c
Inlerreling deendency Iinks Deendency Iinks
ReIacing a lraiI bridge ReIace bridge
Defining maleriaI rofiIes IrofiIes
Introduce the topic
Do you |usl dive inlo lhe hearl of lhe loic, or do you rovide an inlroduclion lo genlIy
ease lhe Iearner inlo lhe sub|ecl` And hov shouId you inlroduce lhe sub|ecl of a loic`
Do you need an introduction?
When Iearners may |um from loic lo loic, inlroduclions are eseciaIIy imorlanl. Hov
much of an inlroduclion shouId you incIude` Thal deends on hov lhe Iearner gels lo lhe
loic.
Applying multiple analysis restraints
Applying multiple an
Applying multiple an
alysis restraints
Multiple restraints


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Learners may gel lo lhe loic aIong a lraiI of loics by reealedIy ressing lhe Ncxt key.
ecause each loic inlroduces lhe nexl, very IillIe inlroduclion is needed. Somelimes lhe
Iearner may gel lo lhe loic by syslemalicaIIy navigaling a hierarchy of menus. ecause
lhe alh is syslemalic, lhe need for an inlroduclion is moderale. Olher limes lhe Iearner
may |um lo lhe loic from a dislanl loic or find lhe loic using a search rocess. In lhis
case, lhe need for an inlroduclion is high.
Examples of introductions
Here are some examIes of inlroduclions based on lhe ob|eclive of lhe loic and hov lhe
loic viII be accessed.
Example: Interpreting dependency links
Ob|cctivc
Teach hov lo recognize and correclIy inlerrel deendency Iinks lo a mid-
IeveI manager or suervisor vho can inlerrel lask bars on a Ganll charl.
Intrnductinn
Reslalemenl of rerequisile knovIedge lo sel lhe conlexl: Deendency
Iinks shov lhe reIalionshi belveen lhe slarl and finish of lvo lasks. Ior
examIe, lhe requiremenl lhal Task A musl be comIeled before Task
can slarl.
Example: Replacing a trail bridge
Ob|cctivc
Teach hov lo decide lhe minimum aclion necessary lo mainlain a lraiI
in a viIderness area lo a viIderness manager vho underslands lhe
rinciIes of minimum aclion and has access lo underIying reguIalions
and Web-based resources.
Intrnductinn
Immediale resenlalion of lhe scenario robIem lhe Iearner is lo soIve. The
robIem is slaled in a seech baIIoon over lhe image of a lraiI manager
slanding beside a slream.
Topic Topic Topic Topic Topic Topic Topic Topic Topic Topic Topic Topic
Next
Top
Menu Menu Menu
Top
Menu Menu Menu
Search Search
By systematic navigation
Medium need
Jumping
from far
away:
High
need
Next Next
Along a defined sequence:
Low need


Example: Defining material profiles
Ob|cctivc
Teach hov lo use lhe MaleriaI IrofiIe diaIog box in GAI|NA lo define lhe
cross seclion for a Iayer of maleriaI in a sIoe-slabiIily modeI lo an
engineer resonsibIe for safely of sIoes in oen-il mines vho can use
GAI|NA lo creale a modeI of a sIoe u lo lhe oinl of defining cross
seclions.
Intrnductinn
Conlexl of lhe loic in lhe overaII rocess and a reslalemenl of
rerequisile knovIedge: The nexl sle in defining our modeI is lo define
lhe rofiIes for each of lhe maleriaIs in your modeI. MaleriaI rofiIes are
defined as a series of Iines, in lurn made u of a series of x-y co-ordinale
airs.
Base the introduction on the type of objective
As vilh aII olher comonenls of lhe loic, ve Iook lo lhe ob|eclive for guidance. Make lhe
inlroduclion aroriale for each lye of ob|eclive.
Typc nb|cctivc Typc intrnductinn
Crcatc an X lhal
does Y.
Why creale X.
Menlion Y and ils vaIue lo lhe Iearner.
Dccidc X. Slalemenl of lhe queslion or issue lo be decided.
When lhe decision is necessary.
Slalemenl lhal lhe decision is oflen made incorreclIy.
Dn rocedure X lo
accomIish Y.
Why erform lhe rocedure. Whal il accomIishes.
When lo erform lhe rocedure.
One-senlence overviev of lhe rocedure.
Knnw X aboul Y. Conlexl of Y inlo vhich X fils.
Reslalemenl of rerequisile knovIedge.
Queslion lhal X ansvers.
Bc!icvc X. Currenl beIief (lhal does nol incIude X).
SlarlIing reason lo beIieve X.
Fcc! X aboul Y. Conlexl of Y. Whal is Y`
Slalemenl of hov lhe Iearner robabIy feeIs aboul Y nov.

Ior more examIes of inlroduclions, see Sccrcis cj Uscr-Sc!uciitc Occuncnis avaiIabIe al
horlon.com.


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Design a good introduction
A good inlroduclion veIcomes and orienls lhe Iearner. Il heIs lhe Iearner see hov lhe
loic reIales lo olher loics and lo lhe course as a vhoIe. A good inlroduclion shouId:
# CnnIirm that !carncrs arc in thc right !ncatinn. Il Iels Iearners verify lhal lhey |umed
lo lhe righl loic. Il rovides enough informalion lo Iel lhem decide vhelher lo
conlinue vilh lhe loic or resume searching eIsevhere.
# Oricnt !carncrs vho |umed direclIy lo lhis loic from far avay. Il rovides enough of
a reviev lhal Iearners undersland vhal lhe loic viII do for lhem.
# 5ct thc cnntcxt for lhe resl of lhe conlenl of lhe loic. Ireares Iearners lo inlerrel
vhal lhey read, see, and hear.
# Mntivatc dccpcr study. The inlroduclion gives Iearners reasons lo sludy hard.
Ior mosl loics, onIy a shorl inlroduclion is necessary. A couIe of senlences and a singIe
grahic usuaIIy suffice.
Test learning in the topic
The loic shouId verify lhal il accomIished ils ob|eclive. A simIe lesl viII do lhis. Il viII
verify Iearning lo reassure lhe Iearner and lo assisl lhe deveIoer in imroving lhe loic.
Chaler 5 shovs severaI lyes of formaI lesls you can buiId inlo your loics. In addilion,
many of lhe aclivilies suggesled in Chalers 2, 3, and 4 can heI Iearners and designers
gauge hov much Iearning occurred.
Examples of tests based on objectives
The lesl used lo measure success of lhe loic musl verify lhal ils ob|eclive vas
accomIished. Here are some examIes:
Ob|cctivc Teach hov lo recognize and correclIy inlerrel deendency Iinks lo a mid-
Tcst Referring lo a Ganll charl, ansver five queslions such as vhich lask deends
on a arlicuIar lask or vhich lasks musl be comIeled before anolher lask can
begin.
Ob|cctivc Teach hov lo decide lhe minimum aclion necessary lo mainlain a lraiI in a
viIderness area lo a viIderness manager vho underslands lhe rinciIes of
minimum aclion and has access lo underIying reguIalions and Web-based
resources.


Tcst Require Iearners lo decide among five courses of aclion. SeIeclion viII require
|udgmenl and comromise. Choices reresenl lradeoffs among invasiveness,
economy, and Iongevily. Ior examIe, one choice is more disrulive of lhe
environmenl bul viII nol have lo be reealed every fev years.
Ob|cctivc Teach hov lo use lhe Matcria! PrnIi!c diaIog box in GAI|NA lo define lhe
cross seclion for a Iayer of maleriaI in a sIoe-slabiIily modeI lo an engineer
resonsibIe for safely of sIoes in oen-il mines vho can use GAI|NA lo
creale a modeI of a sIoe u lo lhe oinl of defining cross seclions.
Tcst Assessmenl is rovided in lvo vays:
The sles of lhe coach-me aclivily can be individuaIIy scored and an overaII
score reorled (a Ia SCORM) lo a LMS.
The finaI Iel-me aclivily lesls Iearners' abiIily lo erform lhe rocedure
unaided.
Pick test for type of objective
The lye of lesl you use deends on lhe lye of Iearning ob|eclive. Here are some
suggeslions lo gel you lhinking aIong lhese Iines:
Typc nb|cctivc Hnw asscsscd
Crcatc an X lhal
does Y.
Give lhe Iearner lhe assignmenl lo creale X and lhe resources
necessary lo do so. Observe vhelher lhe Iearner does so
successfuIIy.
Dccidc Y. Give lhe Iearner silualions lhal caII for lhe decision and lhe
necessary informalion and olher resources and observe vhelher
lhe Iearner makes lhe correcl decision.
Dn rocedure X lo
accomIish Y.
Require lhe Iearner lo recognize silualions in vhich lhe
rocedure shouId be aIied and lo erform lhe rocedure.
Knnw X aboul Y. Tesl vhelher lhe Iearner can recaII and inlerrel facls, rinciIes,
and concels.
Bc!icvc X. Verify lhal lhe Iearner's slalemenls and aclions are guided by
lhe beIief.
Fcc! X aboul Y. Verify lhal lhe Iearner's slalemenls and choices reveaI lhe
desired emolion.


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Specify learning activities for the topic
Learning aclivilies are lhe hearl of lhe loic. They over lhe Iearning. Chalers 2, 3, and 4
can suggesl secific aclivilies for you lo consider.
Examples of learning activities in topics
Once again, here are our lilIes and ob|eclives. Ior each ob|eclive, lhere is a seIeclion of
Absorb, Do, and Connecl aclivilies Iisled.
Ob|cctivc Teach hov lo recognize and correclIy inlerrel deendency Iinks lo a mid-
Activitics Rcad an inlroduclion conlaining a definilion of deendency Iinks and a
slalemenl of vhy lhey are imorlanl.
Vicw an animalion lhal oinls oul deendency markers and hov lhey
connecl lasks.
Rcad a summary of vhal deendency markers are.
Think more aboul Ganll charls by finding lhem in your ovn vork.
Ob|cctivc Teach hov lo decide lhe minimum aclion necessary lo mainlain a lraiI in a
viIderness area lo a viIderness manager vho underslands lhe rinciIes of
minimum aclion and has access lo underIying reguIalions and Web-based
resources.
Activitics Rcad a descrilion of lhe silualion and summary of lhe reguIalions. Silualion
is lhal a lraiI bridge has coIIased due lo rol. ReguIalions ermil aclions lo
reoen lhe lraiI, rovided lhey are lhe minimum aclion as defined in
IegisIalion.
Rcscarch lhe silualion. Read aboul lhe viIderness area and lhe lraiI lo Iearn
hov il is used. Ixamine mas lo scoul oul aIlernalive roules and lo idenlify
resources lhal couId be used lo rebuiId lhe bridge.
Rcscarch reguIalions. Ixamine Iavs, reguIalions, arlicIes, and case sludies lo
idenlify issues lhal musl be considered in making a decision.
Dccidc by choosing among five IausibIe aIlernalive courses of aclion.
Ob|cctivc Teach hov lo use lhe Matcria! PrnIi!c diaIog box in GAI|NA lo define lhe
cross seclion for a Iayer of maleriaI in a sIoe-slabiIily modeI lo an engineer
resonsibIe for safely of sIoes in oen-il mines vho can use GAI|NA lo
creale a modeI of a sIoe u lo lhe oinl of defining cross seclions.


Activitics Rcad an overviev of lhe sles of lhe rocedure.
Rcad abnut and vicw asecls of lhe ongoing examIe lhal viII be fiIIed in
during lhis hase.
Watch and !istcn lo a demonslralion of selling maleriaI rofiIes in GAI|NA.
PcrInrm a simuIaled rocedure based on lhe rocedure demonslraled.
Receive feedback and hinls as necessary.
PcrInrm lhe rocedure for reaI. Learners define a secified maleriaI rofiIe
using GAI|NA. Learners lhen comare resuIls lo largeled resuIls.
Pick activities for the type objective
Lel's Iook al lhe kinds of Iearning exeriences lhal you mighl need for each of lhe
differenl lyes of Iearning ob|eclives. This is onIy a slarler sel. VoIumes have been vrillen
aboul hov lo ick aclivilies lo leach various ob|eclives. SliII, lhis shouId gel you slarled.
Typcs nI
nb|cctivcs
Lcarning activitics tn cnnsidcr
Absnrb Dn Cnnncct
Crcatc an X
lhal does Y.
Iresenlalion of lhe
requiremenls of Y.
Demonslralion of
hov lo use looIs.
Iraclice crealing an
X lhal does Y.
Creale an X for lhe
Iearner's Y.
Dccidc Y. Read or valch
resenlalions on:
#

RuIes for
deciding.
#

Hov lo galher
informalion.
#

Reasons for
each olion.
Iraclice deciding
using various
assumlions.
See consequences of
decisions.
Decide for silualions
in lhe Iearner's Iife.
Dn rocedure
X lo
accomIish Y.
Walch a
demonslralion of
lhe sles.
See examIes of
condilions lhal
lrigger lhe
rocedure.
Iraclice erforming
lhe sles.
Idenlify ersonaI
silualions in vhich
lhe rocedure viII
aIy.
Idenlify hov il musl
be modified lo
aIy.


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Typcs nI
nb|cctivcs
Lcarning activitics tn cnnsidcr
Absnrb Dn Cnnncct
Knnw X aboul
Y.
Read, Iislen, valch
a resenlalion on
X.
Iraclice idenlifying
X in various
silualions.
Idenlify silualions in
vhich lhis
knovIedge aIies.
AIy knovIedge lo
a ersonaI silualion.
Bc!icvc X. Iresenlalion or
readings on:
#

Reasons for X.
#

Iacls suggesling
X.
Infer X from facls
and reasons.
AcknovIedge
change of beIiefs.
AIy nev beIiefs lo
ersonaI silualion.
Fcc! X aboul Y. Iresenlalion and
readings on
reasons lo feeI X.
Image associaling
X and Y.
Resond lo
silualions in vhich
Y lriggers X.
Slale lhe ersonaI
effecl of feeIing X.

Ior more on choosing aclivilies for secific Iearning ob|eclives, go lo age 55 in Chaler 1.
Summarize the topic
If a loic consisls of more lhan a singIe scroIIing zone of informalion, you may vanl lo
incIude a summary.
When to include a summary
The summary gives lhe Iearner anolher chance lo Iearn. Il aIso heIs Iearners verify lhal
lhey acquired lhe necessary knovIedge. A good summary may be aII lhal is needed by
Iearners relurning for a refresher or for Iearners vho aIready knov much aboul lhe
sub|ecl and onIy need lo exlend lheir knovIedge a IillIe bil.
Include a real summary
Many loics have a age or seclion lilIed Summary, bul Iack any lrue summary. A reaI
summary slales lhe key oinls lhe Iearner shouId knov before ending lhe loic. Many so-
caIIed summaries mereIy reslale lhe ob|eclives. I lhink Iazy designers are lo bIame.


Here is a comarison of lvo summaries. The firsl summary is |usl a reslalemenl of lhe
loic ob|eclives. The second summary is a lrue summary lhal adds addilionaI vaIue for
lhe Iearner.
"
Nn
#
Ycs

This moduIe laughl hov lo:
#

Sel a slarling lime using lhe
keyboard.
#

Use bullons lo ad|usl lhe lime.
#

Iick a erson al zero lime.
#

Iick a leam al zero lime.
#

Secify lhe eoIe lo ick from.
#

Secify lhe leams lo ick from.
To sct a starting timc, seIecl lhe lime
and lhen lye in minules and
seconds.
To ad|ust thc timc, use lhe up and
dnwn bullons.
To spcciIy what tn pick, seIecl lhe
Tcam or Pcrsnn checkbox.
To spcciIy pcnp!c lo ick from, cIick
lhe 5pcciIy pcnp!c bullon. Ior leams,
cIick lhe 5pcciIy tcams bullon.
Combine overview and summary
One vay lo simIify your loic is lo design lhe summary as an overviev and ul il earIy
in lhe loic.

The GAI|NA S|cpc Sia|i|iiq
Ana|qsis course does |usl lhis. The
loics for each rocedure begin
vilh an Ovcrvicw lab lhal serves
as bolh a reviev of lhe sles lo be
Iearned and a summary of lhose
sles.

Tabbed inlerface buiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver
and cuslom }avaScril. Screens calured vilh
TechSmilh SnagIl. IIIuslralions crealed in
Microsofl IoverIoinl.
Base the summary on the type of learning objective
The foIIoving |ob aid suggesls hov lo base a loic's summary on lhe lye of Iearning
ob|eclive for lhe loic. Ior each of lhe six lyes, il suggesls hov lo summarize lhe loic.


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Suose, for examIe, you are designing a loic lo leach hov lo make a decision. You
Iook in lhe Tye coIumn lo find Decide Y and lhen move across lo lhe righl lo find lhree
suggesled vays lo summarize lhe loic.
Typcs nI nb|cctivcs Hnw tn summarizc
Crcatc an X lhal
does Y.
GeneraIized reca of lhe rocedure or rocess for crealing X.
Iormal as a |ob aid.
Dccidc Y. rief reca of ruIes for deciding.
If-Then labIe lo guide decision.
Mnemonic for lhe ruIe used lo decide.
Dn rocedure X lo
accomIish Y.
GeneraIized reca of lhe rocedure.
CheckIisl, ma, or fIovcharl of lhe rocedure.
Knnw X aboul Y. Lisl of key facls lo remember.
Mnemonic lo aid in remembering.
ConceluaI diagram.
Bc!icvc X. Reminder of lhe evidence for beIieving X.
Inumeralion of vhal lhe Iearner shouId nov beIieve.
Fcc! X aboul Y. CongraluIalions from someone vho feeIs lhe same vay.

Link to related material
ReaI Iife is seIdom simIe. IrobIems defy simIe soIulions, and vork demands a vide mix
of skiIIs and knovIedge. Toics musl rovide a variely of Iearning exeriences and
reference maleriaIs.
Make il easy for Iearners lo read reIaled loics and maleriaIs. Iul hyerIinks lo olher
loics Iearners may need. In each loic, resenl |usl one main idea. Link lo olher loics,
ralher lhan incIude lheir informalion.


Link lo reference maleriaIs or lo olher loics for background lheory, more delaiIs for a
rocedure, excelions lo a ruIe, subsequenl aclions for a rocedure, definilions of lerms,
and rerequisiles or requiremenls before beginning an aclivily.
Connect related knowledge
ConlinuaIIy ask yourseIf, Whal olher informalion vouId heI lhe Iearner` Use
hyerIinks lo Iel Iearners quickIy find aII lhe differenl kinds of informalion lhey need lo
ansver lheir queslions. Consider Iinking lhese kinds of informalion (Nolice some
hyerIinks are lvo-vay and olhers are |usl one-vay):
Sles in a rocedure
$
Concel invoIved
A sle in a rocedure
$
The nexl sle in lhe rocedure
One vay of doing a lask
$
Anolher vay
Overviev
$
Secific delaiIs
Term
%
Definilion
IrinciIe or concel
$
Concrele examIes lhal iIIuslrale il
GeneraI ruIe
$
Ixcelions lo lhe ruIe
Iarenl loic
$
ChiId loic
KnovIedge or skiII
%
Irerequisile knovIedge or skiII
Lel's Iook al hov some loics and Iessons exand lhe olenliaI Iearning exeriences by
Iinking lo reIaled maleriaIs.
The Ocsigning Kncu|c!gc
Prc!ucis course begins each
Iesson vilh references lo
rerequisiles and reIaled
informalion. These Iinks lake
lhe Iearner lo loics in olher
Iessons or lo documenls found
eIsevhere on lhe Web.


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In lhe GAI|NA S|cpc
Sia|i|iiq Ana|qsis course,
lhe loic on aIying an
anaIysis lechnique
conlains a Iink lo a
documenl exIaining lhe
melhod of caIcuIalion
used in lhe lechnique.
Learners vho vere
inleresled in Iearning
more aboul lhe
malhemalics invoIved in
lhe lechnique couId
dovnIoad and read lhis
documenl.

Limit free-form hyperlinks
Limil free-form hyerIinks. These are Iinks lhal |um diagonaIIy across lhe organizalionaI
hierarchy. Such Iinks Iead lo lhe iang|c! tinc !i|cnna. If you incIude a loic in your
e-Iearning, you musl incIude aII lhe loics il Iinks lo. And aII lhe loics lhey Iink lo. And
aII lhey Iink lo. And so on and on.
One miIdIy ainfuI soIulion may be lo enabIe free-form navigalion onIy lhrough lhe
menu, lhe index, a search faciIily, or aulomalicaIIy generaled nexl and revious Iinks. The
soIulion is ainfuI because finding reIaled loics nov requires consciousIy searching for
lhem. ul lhe resuIl is lhal lhe loics and Iessons you creale can be reused freeIy.
One lechnique lo use is lo suggesl search lerms lo lhe Iearner vho needs lo find reIaled
loics, for examIe, Ior more delaiIed inslruclions, search for c!iiing scnicnccs an! ucr!s.
Write metadata
Meladala is |usl descrilive IabeIing. The lerm meladala means informalion aboul
informalion. Il is |usl a fancy vay lo refer lo lhe descrilive IabeIing lhal can be used by
Iearners lo find loics lhey vanl lo lake and by deveIoers lo find loics lhey vanl lo
incIude in lheir courses.


Induslry slandards define secific meladala ilems, and many aulhoring looIs Ieave sIols
on lheir diaIog boxes vhere you can enler meladala for your loics and olher
comonenls.
Include keywords and a description
Tvo meladala ilems are eseciaIIy imorlanl for designers of loics: lhe descrilion and
keyvords. AIlhough lhese ilems may nol be visibIe lo Iearners as lhey lake lhe loic, lhey
can heI Iearners and deveIoers find lhe loic vhen lhey need il.
The keyvords may be used Iike index lerms in a book. The Iearner may enler lhem in a
search fieId lo find a loic lhal malches lhese lerms. The descrilion may aear in a
calaIog of course loics. Here are some examIes:
Dcscriptinn Shovs vhal deendency Iink markers Iook Iike and exIains vhal lhey
mean.
Kcywnrds deendency Iinks
deendency markers
Iinks, deendency
markers, deendency
Dcscriptinn Teaches managers lo conducl research necessary lo decide lhe minimum
aclion for mainlaining a viIderness lraiI.
Kcywnrds minimum aclion
lraiI bridge
ford
bridge oulage
mainlaining a lraiI
lraiI mainlenance
Dcscriptinn Teaches hov lo add a rofiIe lo indicale lhe cross seclion for a maleriaI in
lhe sIoe.
Kcywnrds maleriaI rofiIe
rofiIe, maleriaI
cross seclion


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Assign indexing keywords
If your e-Iearning is Iarge, you viII need lo incIude an index and ossibIy a keyvord
search faciIily. Thal means you musl assign indexing lerms lo loics. The lerms you
assign deend on lhe conlenl of lhe loic and on lhe ob|eclive il accomIishes.
Anticipate questions of learners
When do you use lhe index of a aer book` When do you do a Web search` When you
are seeking lhe ansver lo a queslionlhal's vhen. This suggesls lhal ve choose
keyvords lo malch queslions Iearners may have and lhal our loics may ansver.
1. ComiIe a Iisl of queslions lhal Iearners may have. Consider aII lhe vays a Iearner
mighl ask lhe queslion. Remember, lhe Iearner may nol knov lhe officiaI lerminoIogy
yel.
2. Idenlify vhich loics ansver lhese queslions.
3. Assign keyvords lo each loic by icking vords rominenl in lhe queslions lhal lhe
loic ansvers.
Add more terms
Consider addilionaI lerms. Here are some candidales:
# Unique nouns and verbs from lhe lilIe, body lexl, and figure calions.
# Names of lhings. IncIude rominenl roer nouns, officiaI nomencIalure, and arls
Iisls.
# Ob|ecls and concels shovn in grahics, eseciaIIy ones nol exIicilIy named in lhe
lexl.
Include more than standard words
Iurlher enrich your keyvords by incIuding famiIiar:
# Abbrcviatinns. Hov many eoIe knov vhal NASA or UNISCO slands for` Hov
many vouId lye oul lhe fuII form of a more common abbrevialion, Iike IM or CIA`
# Part numbcrs. Many mechanics knov lhe numbers of frequenlIy reIaced arls beller
lhan lhe names of lhese comonenls.
# 5!ang and |argnn. Learners may have a vorkIace vocabuIary lhal does nol square
vilh lhe officiaI lerminoIogy used in your loic.
Speak the learners language
Remember, nol everybody uses lhe same vords or seIIs lhem lhe same vay. Learners
may nol yel knov lhe officiaI names of lhings. So, in your keyvords, incIude synonyms,
lhal is, vords vilh lhe same meaning. Ior examIe:
coy $ duIicale, reIicale, reroduce
buiId $ creale, make, generale


Vary lhe grammalicaI form of lhe vords. Some search engines can do lhis aulomalicaIIy.
If yours cannol, consider incIuding muIliIe forms of each imorlanl vord. Ior examIe:
coy $ coying, coies, coied
buiId $ buiIding, buiIl
Accounl for seIIing varialions. rilish and American seIIings may differ. And some
vords may have comeling seIIings or differenl forms for lhe IuraI or coIIeclive. Ior
examIe:
coIor $ coIour
aendixes $ aendices
Do not over-index
These lechniques are good for keyvord searches, bul can cause a robIem in disIayed
indexes. If you Ian lo incIude an index, use a subsel of your keyvord Iisl so lhal lhe
disIayed aIhabelicaI index viII nol end u vilh loo many nearIy idenlicaI enlries in a
rov.
Describe your topic
Anolher imorlanl iece of meladala is lhe descrilion of your loic. This descrilion
may be disIayed lo lhe Iearner as a reviev of lhe loic or an inducemenl lo lake il.
There are no hard-and-fasl ruIes for vriling lhe descrilion, bul here are some
commonsense suggeslions:
# Writc thc dcscriptinn Inr thc pntcntia! !carncr. Il is easier for an inslruclionaI
deveIoer lo undersland a descrilion vrillen for Iearners lhan vice versa.
# Tc!! !carncrs what thc tnpic nIIcrs thcm. I do nol recommend lhe usuaI boring
recilalion of lhe inslruclionaI ob|eclivesin a buIIel Iisl, nonelheIessbul a simIe
slalemenl of vhal lhe Iearner viII be abIe lo do as a resuIl of lhe loic.
# Kccp thc dcscriptinn shnrt. A fev senlences are usuaIIy enough. If Iearners are
curious, lhey can examine lhe loic ilseIf.
# Chnnsc tcrms that thc !carncr wi!! undcrstand. Do nol use lerms lhal lhe Iearner
vouId undersland onIy afler comIeling lhe loic.
Design components logically and economically
In designing lhe arls of a loic, consider hov comonenls inleracl, vhal lhey do for
Iearners, and hov lhey fil logelher.
Design components in logical order
Design lhe comonenls of lhe loic IogicaIIy. Thal means designing comonenls in order
by IogicaI deendencies.


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1. We slarl by defining lhe ob|eclive. The ob|eclive figures in every design decision, so
lhis is vhere ve slarl. We go novhere liII ve naiI dovn lhe Iearning ob|eclive.
2. Nexl, I Iike lo ick lhe lilIe and lhe shorl lilIe. I do lhis because naming a loic
requires me lo focus lighlIy on lhe ob|eclive. y lhe lime I have decided on a shorl
lilIe, I am famiIiar vilh lhe Iearning ob|eclive.
3. Nov, I design lhe lesl. I use il lo guide design of olher conlenl comonenls.
4. Nexl come lhe Iearning aclivilies. I design Absorb, Do, and Connecl aclivilies I need
lo accomIish lhe ob|eclive. I knov I have lhe righl aclivilies vhen lhey enabIe lhe
Iearner lo ass lhe lesl.
5. Nov, I zoom back and design lhe inlroduclion lo inducl Iearners inlo lhe loic and
lhe summary lo send lhem on lheir vay.
6. Ior seciaI needs, I decide vhal Iinks viII be needed lo rovide access lo reIaled
resources.
7. Wilh aII my conlenl secified, I finish u by crealing lhe meladala lhal describes lhe
loic. I couId do lhe meladala earIier, bul I find il heIs me lo knov lhe conlenl of lhe
loic before I crafl a descrilion or assign indexing keyvords lo lhe loic.
You may find a differenl order vorks for you. }usl remember lhal lhe arrovs shov
deendencies. You can slarl vilh lhe ob|eclive and vork your vay dovn any alh you
choose. Kee an oen mind, and be ready lo revisil any design decision.
Think verbs, not nouns
Here's an insighl lhal viII save you from ainfuI exerience: Think verbs, nol nouns.
Whal do I mean by lhal` To design lhe comonenls of a loic, ve musl remember vhy
loics conlain conlenl.
"
Nn
#
Ycs

Components are content you
must create.
Components are tasks you
must perform for the learner.


Ior years I lhoughl lhal comonenls are conlenl lhal you musl creale. Such an aroach
simIifies lhe design rocess lo a role rocedure. Coin a lilIe. Wrile an inlroduclion.
Creale a resenlalion for lhe Absorb aclivily. Add a raclice aclivily. Add a lesl. And so
forlh. Such a mechanicaI rocess yieIds loics lhal are minimaIIy effeclive, bul are seIdom
engaging, concise, or efficienl.
My ah-ha momenl came vhen I reaIized lhal my comonenls are reaIIy lasks lhal I musl
erform for lhe Iearner. Thal is, comonenls are a checkIisl of lhings lhal need lo haen
ralher lhan a Iisl of media lo buiId. Thal insighl sels designers free lo crealiveIy
accomIish lhese lasks ralher lhan lo monolonousIy creale conlenl.
Dont create more than you need to
Here's a checkIisl lo use vhen designing or anaIyzing loics. Il aIso conlains some good
nevs lhal viII simIify your lask as a designer.

The slandard comonenls of a loic incIude a lilIe, a shorl lilIe, an inlroduclion, Iearning
aclivilies (nameIy Absorb, Do, and Connecl aclivilies), a lesl, a summary, Iinks lo reIaled
resources, and meladala. Whev! Thal's a Iol. The good nevs is lhal you seIdom have lo
creale every one of lhese ilems.
The aslerisks in lhe checkIisl fIag ilems lhal are nol aIvays needed. You can somelimes
omil lhe shorl lilIe, inlroduclion, lesl, summary, Iinks lo reIaled resources, or lhe
meladala. Though generaIIy usefuI, lhese ilems are nol as crilicaI as lhe olhers, nameIy
lhe lilIe and Iearning aclivilies. Iven if you do nol omil lhese ilems, you can oflen kee
lhem brief or incororale lhem vilh olher comonenls.
And lhal Ieads lo our second bil of good nevs. Some comonenls can do doubIe duly. In
lhe checkIisl, Iines connecl comonenls lhal can oflen be combined inlo a singIe
comonenl, vhich erforms bolh funclions. Ior examIe, if lhe lilIe is concise, il can serve
as lhe shorl lilIe. Designers oflen ul lhe summary firsl as an inlroduclion lo lhe loic. A
veII-designed Do aclivily can aIso serve as a lesl of accomIishmenl of lhe ob|eclive. And,
Iinking lo reIaled resources can rovide a Connecl aclivily.


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Nexl lime you slarl lo design a loic, use lhis checkIisl lo Ian vhal you musl design and
creale.
DESIGN REUSABLE TOPICS
}usl duming conlenl inlo lemIales does nol make for effeclive Iearning. }usl slrucluring
loics as Iearning ob|ecls does nol in ilseIf make lhe conlenl usabIe or reusabIe. To be
usefuI and reusabIe, loics musl be designed vilh reuse in mind. And reuse can onIy
come if lhe loic is usefuI in lhe firsl Iace.
Craft recombinant building blocks
ReusabIe comonenls are discrele chunks, nol fIoving assages. They are Iike buiIding
bIocks lhal can be slacked lo buiId a vaII, a house, or a calhedraI.
Design discrete chunks of reusable content
Iffeclive loics are coherenl, seIf-conlained, comIele, and consislenl.
Rcusab!c cnntcnt is cnhcrcnt. Il aims lo accomIish one urose or ansver one queslion.
Il confines ilseIf lo one sub|ecl and does nol meander inlo non-essenliaI maleriaI.
Rcusab!c tnpics arc sc!I-cnntaincd. They may be consumed in any order. Sure,
consuming loics in a secific order, such as lhe sles of a rocedure, may make lhem
more vaIuabIe and underslandabIe, bul no one shouId become hoeIessIy confused vhen
encounlering a loic oul of sequence.
Rcusab!c tnpics arc cnmp!ctc. They conlain everylhing necessary lo accomIish lheir
goaI. They may conlain lhe necessary resenlalions, raclice aclivilies, and olher conlenl
direclIy. Or lhey may conlain olher more-secific loics.
Rcusab!c tnpics arc cnnsistcnt. We can mix and malch lhem vilh IillIe concern lhal
Iearners viII become confused as lhey navigale lhe course.
Use recipe cards as a guiding metaphor
If you need a roIe modeI for reusabIe ob|ecls, lhink of recie cards. Iach recie card is seIf-
conlained and comIele. Il conlains aII lhe knovIedge necessary for a cook lo reare one
dish. Il is concise and focused. Il does nol mix loo many differenl lyes of informalion or
slray from lhe sub|ecl. Recie cards foIIov a consislenl formal.


Imagine laking a slack of recie cards
and lhroving lhem in lhe air. Afler lhey
fIuller lo lhe fIoor, ick one al random.
Il sliII vorks. Sorling lhe cards oul by
lye of dish or nulrilionaI
characlerislics may add vaIue, bul a
recie card laken oul of conlexl viII
oison no one. Thal is a goaI ve shouId
vork for in designing reusabIe loics.
Design consistent topics
Irevenl lhe vhiIash exerience lhal occurs vhen Iearners, moving lhrough a sequence
of loics, are buffeled by an unrediclabIe sequence of edagogicaI designs, coIors,
navigalion schemes, icons, vriling slyIes, backgrounds, Iayouls, sound IeveIs, media, and
lesl queslions. In deveIoing your loics, slandardize:
# VisuaI aearance.
# Navigalion schemes.
# InslruclionaI slralegies.
# Tesling aroaches.
This advice goes doubIe, if muIliIe dearlmenls creale loics. And lriIe, if muIliIe
comanies are invoIved.
Avoid the as-shown-above syndrome
Whal haens if our loics are nol seIf-conlained` Imagine lhe inlroduclion of a loic
vhere you find lhe hrase In a revious loic you Iearned hov lo .. ul vhal if lhe
Iearner chose lo ski lhal loic` Or |umed direclIy lo lhis loic from a search engine`
The resumlion lhal Iearners aII foIIov a singIe alh lhrough lhe course indicales lhal
lhe loics are nol lruIy seIf-conlained.
The as-sncun-a|ctc sqn!rcnc is lhe lendency of a designer lo assume lhal everybody lakes
lhe course in exaclIy lhe sequence lhe designer inlended. You see il in hrases and
assumlions Iike lhese:
# As shovn above and As shovn beIov (vhere lhe ilems menlioned are nol on lhe
currenl screen or even in lhe currenl loic).
# IarIier you read lhal..
# y nov you have Iearned hov lo..


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# Reeal lhe receding sles (vhen lhe receding sles are in anolher loic or have
scroIIed off lhe screen).
# . viII be exIained Ialer. (ul viII lhe Iearner be reading Ialer`).
# Abbrevialions seIIed oul onIy lhe firsl lime lhey are used and lerms defined onIy lhe
firsl lime lhey are used.
# Warnings, caulions, noles, and convenlions in lhe beginning of lhe course.
# The nexl sle in lhe rocess is .. (vhen lhe Iearner arrived al lhis loic direclIy
from a search).
# Links IabeIed Relurn lo X (vhen ve did nol come from X).
The soIulion is lo make no hard assumlions aboul vhich alh Iearners viII foIIov. If
underslanding one idea requires underslanding anolher idea, slale lhe olher idea, or Iink
lo il, or al Ieasl signaI lhe requiremenl. Make il easy for Iearners lo find needed
informalion oul of sequence. Here's vhere an index ays for ilseIf. As do a good menu
and a search faciIily.
INTEGRATE FOREIGN MODULES
Somelimes lhe besl vay lo buiId your e-Iearning is lo incIude loics, aclivilies, and
Iessons deveIoed by olhers. TechnicaIIy, you can do so |usl by Iinking lo lhese foreign
moduIes. Hovever, conlenl deveIoed by someone eIse foIIoving differenl slandards
may Iook differenl, leach differenlIy, and furlher differenl ob|eclives lhan your loic or
Iesson. Such moduIes may rove confusing lo Iearners accuslomed lo your e-Iearning's
nalive loics and aclivilies.
To ease lhis confusion, you shouId design a docking moduIe lo fil belveen lhe foreign
conlenl and your loic.

The docking moduIe heIs lhe foreign moduIe fil inlo your course so lhal Iearners can
make lhe lransilion from your course lo lhe foreign moduIe and back again.
Foreign
module
Your e-learning
docking module


Example of a docking module
Here is an examIe of a moduIe designed for one course bul aearing vilhin anolher.

The brief inlroduclion lo
lhe foreign moduIe leIIs
Iearners vhere lhe moduIe
comes from and guides
lhem in navigaling lhe
moduIe.
Il aIso leIIs Iearners vhal
fiIe formals are used and
vhal orlions of lhe
moduIe shouId be ignored.

Here, lhe foreign moduIe
aears vilhin lhe
slandard course slruclure.

Course crealed using Adobe
Dreamveaver and Aclive Server
Iages. Ioreign moduIe buiIl in
IoverIoinl and converled for Web
deIivery vilh Adobe Iresenler.


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What to include in a docking module
A docking moduIe consisls of aII lhe lhings you do lo make lhe foreign moduIe meel lhe
needs of your Iearners. Some of lhe comonenls of a docking moduIe are:
A spccia! disp!ay windnw. If lhe foreign moduIe is of a differenl shae or size lhan your
moduIes, you may need lo crafl a seciaI framesel. You can aIso disIay il in a searale
vindov aIongside lhe vindov for lhe main arl of your e-Iearning.
Intrnductinn. You may need lo creale a reviev, inlroduclion, abslracl, overviev, or
descrilion of lhe moduIe lo leII Iearners vhal lo make of lhe foreign moduIe.
Cautinns. Lel Iearners knov any Iimilalions of lhe moduIe lhal are differenl from lhose
for nalive moduIes. Whal convenlions does il foIIov` Hov accurale and reIevanl are ils
maleriaIs` Who ovns il, and hov is ils use reslricled`
Acccss aids. Give Iearners any heI lhey may need in accessing lhe foreign moduIe and
disIaying ils conlenl. Irovide:
# Inslruclions on laking lhe moduIe.
# A seciaI menu and index Iinked lo ils conlenl.
# HeI oblaining any Iug-ins or fonls il requires.
# GIossary lo define differenl lerminoIogy used in lhe moduIe.
CcrtiIicatinn tcst. The foreign moduIe may nol rovide a lesl, or ils lesl may nol measure
vhal is imorlanl lo you. Add your ovn lesl lo measure vhal Iearners gol from lhe
moduIe.


IN CLOSING
Summary
A loic is a unil of e-Iearning lhal accomIishes one Iearning ob|eclive. A loic lhal
conlains lhe aclivilies and assessmenls necessary lo accomIish lhe ob|eclive may be
considered a Iearning ob|ecl.
A loic consisls of lhese comonenls:
Ob|cctivc A slalemenl of vhal lhe loic viII accomIish. This Iearning ob|eclive
musl be recise enough lo guide design of aII lhe olher comonenls.
Tit!c The IabeI of lhe loic. Musl be cIear enough lo convey vhal lhe loic
offers.
Intrnductinn A lransilion inlo lhe conlenl of lhe loic lo veIcome lhe Iearner and sel
lhe conlexl for vhal foIIovs.
Tcsts Aclivilies lo verify lhal lhe ob|eclive vas accomIished. These can be
formaI lesls or simIe seIf-check aclivilies.
Activitics A combinalion of Absorb, Do, and Connecl aclivilies necessary lo
accomIish lhe Iearning ob|eclive.
5ummary A reca of lhe main oinls laughl by lhe loic. May aear as an
overviev or reviev and be rinled as a |ob aid.
Links HyerIinks lo reIaled loics and olher maleriaIs. AIlhough such Iinks can
enrich lhe Iearning exerience, lhey can make loics harder lo reuse.
Mctadata Descrilive IabeIing aimed al heIing Iearners and inslruclionaI
deveIoers find lhis loic vhen necessary. Tvo main lyes of meladala
are keyvords and descrilion. Keyvords are Iike index lerms for a aer
book. The descrilion is Iike a calaIog enlry for lhe loic.


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To design effeclive loics, ve musl seek an effeclive comromise among comeling goaIs:
# Make loics seIf-conlained for grealer reuse.
# IncIude Iinks lo reIaled maleriaI al lhe risk of requiring lhe Iinked maleriaI in every
course lhal incIudes lhe ob|ecl.
# aIance lhe need for shorl-secific loics lhal reciseIy largel ob|eclives vilh lhe
danger of having lo creale loo many searale loics.
# Size loics lo avoid sravI and choiness.
# Sel and foIIov slandards lo ensure lhal loics aear consislenl lo Iearners.
TEMPLATES FOR TOPICS
The foIIoving are lemIales Iisling suggesled conlenl for loics lo accomIish each of lhe
six basic Iearning ob|eclives.
Create an X that does Y
Tit!c
uiIding a _______________
Designing _______________
Intrnductinn
Why creale X.
Menlion Y and ils vaIue lo lhe Iearner.
Lcarning
activitics
Absnrb Dn Cnnncct
Iresenlalion of lhe
requiremenls of Y.
Demo of hov lo use
looIs.
Iraclice crealing an
X lhal does Y.
Creale an X for lhe
Iearner's Y.
Tcst
Give lhe Iearner lhe assignmenl lo creale X and lhe resources
necessary lo do so. Observe vhelher lhe Iearner does so successfuIIy.
5ummary
GeneraIized reca of lhe rocess for crealing X. Iormal as a |ob aid.


Decide X
Tit!c SeIecling _______________
Choosing _______________
Intrnductinn Slalemenl of lhe queslion or issue lo be decided. When lhe decision is
necessary. Slalemenl lhal lhe decision is oflen made incorreclIy.
Lcarning
activitics
Absnrb Dn Cnnncct
Read or valch
resenlalions on:
# RuIes for
deciding.
# Hov lo galher
informalion.
# Reasons for each
olion.
Iraclice deciding for
various assumlions.
See consequences of
decisions.
Decide for
silualions in lhe
Iearner's Iife.
Tcst Give lhe Iearner silualions lhal caII for lhe decision and lhe necessary
informalion and olher resources and observe vhelher lhe Iearner
makes lhe correcl decision.
5ummary
#

rief reca of ruIes for deciding.
#

If-Then labIe lo guide decision.
#

Mnemonic for lhe ruIe used lo decide.
Do X to accomplish Y
Tit!c _______________ ing _______________
Intrnductinn Why erform lhe rocedure. Whal il accomIishes. When lo erform
lhe rocedure. One-senlence overviev of lhe rocedure.
Lcarning
activitics
Absnrb Dn Cnnncct
Walch a demo of
sles.
See examIes of
condilions lhal
lrigger lhe rocedure.
Iraclice
erforming lhe
sles.
Idenlify ersonaI
silualions lo aIy lhe
rocedure.
Idenlify hov il musl
be modified lo aIy.
Tcst Require Iearners lo recognize vhere lhe rocedure shouId be aIied
and lo erform lhe rocedure.
5ummary GeneraIized reca of lhe rocedure.
CheckIisl, ma, or fIovcharl of lhe rocedure.


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Know X about Y
Tit!c |Name of Xj
|Slalemenl summarizing Xj
Intrnductinn Conlexl of Y inlo vhich X fils. Reslalemenl of rerequisile knovIedge.
Queslion lhal X ansvers.
Lcarning
activitics
Absnrb Dn Cnnncct
Read, Iislen, valch a
resenlalion on X.
Iraclice idenlifying X
in various silualions.
Idenlify silualions
in vhich lhis
knovIedge aIies.
AIy knovIedge
in silualions.
Tcst Tesl vhelher lhe Iearner can recaII and inlerrel facls, rinciIes, and
concels.
5ummary Lisl of key facls lo remember. Mnemonic.
ConceluaI diagram.
Believe X
Tit!c Why ______________`
|or |usl a slalemenl of Xj
Intrnductinn Currenl beIief (lhal does nol incIude X).
SlarlIing reason lo beIieve X.
Lcarning
activitics
Absnrb Dn Cnnncct
Iresenlalion or
readings on:
#

Reasons for X.
#

Iacls suggesling
X.
Infer X from facls
and reasons.
AcknovIedge
change of beIiefs.
AIy nev beIiefs.
Tcst Verify lhal lhe Iearner's slalemenls and aclions are guided by lhe
beIief.
5ummary Reminder of lhe evidence for beIieving X.
Inumeralion of vhal lhe Iearner shouId nov beIieve.


Feel X about Y
Tit!c |Slalemenl lhal asserls or imIies X aboul Yj
Intrnductinn Conlexl of Y. Whal is Y`
Slalemenl of hov lhe Iearner robabIy feeIs aboul Y nov.
Lcarning
activitics
Absnrb Dn Cnnncct
Iresenlalion and
readings on reasons
lo feeI X.
Image associaling X
and Y.
Resond lo
silualions in vhich
Y lriggers X.
Slale lhe ersonaI
effecl of feeIing X.
Tcst Verify lhal lhe Iearner's slalemenls and choices reveaI lhe desired
emolion.
5ummary CongraluIalions from someone vho feeIs lhe same vay.
For more
To see some of lhe kinds of aclivilies you may vanl lo incIude, fIi lhrough Chalers 2, 3,
and 4. To see lhe lyes of lesls you can incIude, lurn lo Chaler 5. Ior heI inlegraling
loics inlo Iessons, see onIine Chaler 12.
Ior more on crealing loics as Iearning ob|ecls, search lhe Web for |carning c|jcci.

323

Games and
simulations
Learning by Iaying and
relending in virluaI vorIds

Games and simuIalions aIIov Iearners lo raclice lasks, aIy
knovIedge, and infer rinciIesaII vhiIe having fun. Wilh
Iearning games, eoIe can Iearn from a ersonaI lulor vho
demonslrales sub|ecls, guides lhem lhrough lheir iniliaI efforls,
monilors lheir groving skiIIs, and cerlifies lheir maslery.
Games and simuIalions may rovide a comIele modeI of a reaI-
vorId syslem or |usl a raid-fire series of queslions lo ansver.
Games and simuIalions can be individuaI Do aclivilies, lesls, vhoIe
loics, sravIing Iessons, and even enlire courses.

GAMES AND SIMULATIONS FOR LEARNING
Games and simuIalions for Iearning can be fun, bul lhey are aIvays urosefuI. They
leach firsl and enlerlain second. Learning games can drav on lhe eslabIished convenlions
of quiz shovs, board games, and video games lo arouse curiosily and harness comelilive
urges. SimuIalions immerse Iearners in a vork-reIaled conlexl and Iel lhem safeIy verify
lhal lhey can erform a secific lask or rocedure.
Hov do you lhink mosl Iearners vouId resond if you asked lhem vhelher lhey vouId
ralher lake a lesl or Iay a game`

324 ! Games and simulations ! E-Learning by Design

Example of a learning game

This game leaches inlervieving
skiIIs in lhe conlexl of a oIice
invesligalion. Learners are assigned
lhe lask of inlervieving a vilness lo
a bank robbery lo eIicil cIues lo lhe
idenlily of lhe robber.

The game rovides lhe Iearner vilh
choices lhal affecl lhe course of lhe
game.

Mosl feedback is rovided by evenls
in lhe game. Ivenls reveaI vhelher
lhe Iearner's revious aclion vas
aroriale.

E-Learning by Design " Games and simulations " 325

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Al any oinl, Iearners can lry lo
soIve lhe myslery.

Crealed in Microsofl IoverIoinl and converled for
Web deIivery using ArlicuIale Iresenler. 3D
characlers crealed in SmilhMicro Ioser. Viev
How are games, tests, and simulations related?
Whal exaclIy are Iearning games and simuIalions` Hov are lhey reIaled lo lesls and
demonslralions` The lerms are used ralher IooseIy, so ve shouId define lhem before
considering hov lo design lhem.
A game can be lhoughl of as a simuIalion lhal invoIves a ersonaIIy chaIIenging lask. A
simuIalion can be used for severaI differenl uroses. Iairing il vilh lhe chaIIenge lo
erform a lask meaningfuI lo lhe Iearner lurns il inlo a game.

Anolher vay lo Iook al a game is as a lesl lhal rovides immediale feedback bul does nol
record a score. The lesl is any lask lhe Iearner allemls. Immediale feedback guides lhe
Iearner in erforming lhe lask. The absence of a recorded score encourages lhe Iearner lo
guess, lake risks, and lry aIlernalive slralegies|usl lo see vhal haens.

Do you call it a game or a simulation?
Ixerls and Iinguisls viII hovI, bul I beIieve lhe main difference belveen lhe lerms
|carning ganc and |carning sinu|aiicn are |usl ones of osilioning. True, simuIalions lend lo
Iook more reaIislic, vhiIe games lend lo fealure scorekeeing. Hovever, edanlic reasons
lo dislinguish lhe lvo are lrumed by ragmalic concerns. Hence lhis recommendalion:
If ganc sounds frivoIous, caII il a sinu|aiicn.
If sinu|aiicn sounds loo sluffy or exensive, caII il a ganc.


}usl be sure lo design il so il leaches. So, free lo ick vhichever lerm aeaIs lo your
Iearners and salisfies your chain of command.
Demos are not true simulations
AIlhough lhe lerm simuIalion is used broadIy lo cover a range of aclivilies, il is imorlanl
lo make a dislinclion belveen demonslralions and lrue simuIalions. The conlrasl is
eseciaIIy imorlanl in educalion and lraining. The key dislinclion is lhal, in lrue
simuIalions, lhe Iearner conlroIs lhe sequence of evenls.
Dcmnnstratinn Truc simu!atinn
Learners valch assiveIy. Learners decide and acl.
Learning resuIls from cIear exIanalion. Learning resuIls from raclice and
aulhenlic feedback.
UsefuI for seIIing and informing
cuslomers.
UsefuI for educaling and lraining
vorkers.

In a demonslralion, lhe Iearner valches assiveIy as lhe lask is erformed. Il is Iike
Iooking over lhe leacher's shouIder. The Iearner may slarl and slo lhe demonslralion,
bul does nol acluaIIy erform lhe sles being shovn. In a lrue simuIalion, lhe Iearner
decides and acls. The simuIalion may animale lhe syslem's resonses lo lhe Iearner's
aclions, bul il is u lo lhe Iearner lo decide vhal lo do and hov lo carry oul lhose aclions.
In a demonslralion, lhe Iearner Iearns from a cIear exIanalion. A IogicaI commenlary or
narralion is essenliaI in a demonslralion. In a simuIalion, Iearning reIies rimariIy on
aulhenlic feedback, Iike lhal rovided by lhe acluaI syslem or by a coach vho is
exerienced in using lhe syslem. SimuIalions Iel Iearners raclice as much as lhey vanl lo
or need lo.
Demonslralions are highIy effeclive for seIIing roducls and for informing Iearners. They
can make cIear lhe greal resuIls ossibIe vilh a roducl. And lhey can leach aIready
exerienced Iearners hov lo exlend lheir exisling skiIIs. True simuIalions are ideaI for
serious lraining and educalion because relenlion is grealer and underslanding is deeer.
These dislinclions belveen demonslralions and simuIalions are cruciaI for lvo reasons.
Iirsl, you shouId never send a demonslralion lo do a simuIalion's vork. Or vice versa.
Iach has ils uses bul lhey are nol inlerchangeabIe. They are, hovever, comIemenlary. A
good demonslralion reares and molivales a Iearner lo engage in a lrue simuIalion.
Learners vho have used simuIalions lo Iearn basic oeralions can oflen ick u addilionaI
skiIIs by valching veII-designed demonslralions. (Ior an exIanalion of lhe roIe of


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demonslralions, see IhysicaI demonslralions on age 72 and Soflvare
demonslralions on age 74.)
How do games and simulations work?

In a Iearning game, lhe mosl imorlanl faclor is lhe Iearner. Ierhas lhis erson is
Iearning lo use a iece of soflvare or lo inlerviev |ob candidales. Or, Iearning hov lo
aIy caIcuIus lo soIving robIems in arlicIe hysics.
Nole: In simuIalions, lhe Iearner is oflen referred lo as lhe uscrin games, as lhe p|aqcr.
In lhe game or simuIalion, lhe Iearner has a goaI. UsuaIIy lhis goaI is resenled lo lhe
Iearner by lhe comuler. The goaI is lyicaIIy a lask lhe Iearner is Iearning lo erform. Ior
soflvare simuIalions, lhe goaI lyicaIIy requires lhe Iearner lo erform a common lask
vilh a comuler looI. Ior olher lasks, lhe Iearner mighl have lo inlerviev a simuIaled |ob
candidale or earn oinls by ansvering queslions on lhe sub|ecl of sludy.
The Iearner oerales inside an environmenl. Thal environmenl is simuIaled, of course. Ior
a soflvare simuIalion, lhe screen Iooks Iike lhe disIay lhe Iearner vouId see vhen
oeraling lhe comuler rogram. Ior lhe |ob inlerviev, lhe screen mighl shov lhe |ob
candidale sealed across a desk from lhe Iearner.
The environmenl resenls lhe Iearner vilh choices. Whal do I do nexl` Which command
do I use in lhis comuler rogram` Whal queslion do I ask lhe |ob candidale` Whal
aroach viII soIve my robIem` The Iearner musl decide among choices and lake aclion.
The Iearner may indicale a choice by cIicking a bullon, lying in lexl, or some olher
aclion.
The Iearner's aclions have consequences or oulcomes in lhe simuIaled environmenl. The
Iearner may see lhe disIay change. Or lhe simuIalion may make a rude noise and an
error message may aear. Such feedback is inlrinsic lo lhe game or simuIalion.


These oulcomes may have addilionaI effecls in lhe environmenl, some of vhich may be
invisibIe lo lhe Iearner. These changes in lhe environmenl resenl lhe Iearner vilh nev
choices, and lhe cycIe conlinues.
This cycIe of making decisions and seeing resuIls is lhe essence of lhe game or simuIalion.
Ior soflvare simuIalions, each cycIe corresonds lo one inul from lhe Iearner. Ior lhe
|ob-inlerviev, each cycIe consisls of one queslion by lhe Iearner and an ansver by lhe |ob
candidale. In combal simuIalors used lo lrain soIdiers, an enlire cycIe may lake onIy a
second. In business simuIalions invoIving crealing and markeling roducls, a cycIe may
reresenl monlhs.
What do we mean design?
Games can be comIex and exensive, requiring monlhs and miIIions of doIIars lo
deveIo. Or lhey can be as simIe as a sreadsheel vilh inslruclions lo ad|usl lhree vaIues
unliI a fourlh vaIue exceeds a Iimil. The goaI of design is lo find lhe simIe soIulion lhal
accomIishes your Iearning ob|eclive.
Ior games, as for olher forms of e-Iearning, design and deveIomenl are oflen searale
aclivilies. Design Ians and secifies lhe game, and deveIomenl buiIds il. DeveIomenl
may require hiring a soflvare deveIoer or |usl emIoying lemIales for common forms
of games, such as uzzIes and quizzes. In any case, lhough, lhe designer musl lhoroughIy
secify lhe game.
WHY GAMES?
Why and vhere are games effeclive vays lo Iearn` Games and simuIalions enabIe lyes
of Iearning nol raclicaI in cIassrooms or convenlionaI e
-
Iearning.
What can games do for us?
Games rovide secific educalionaI advanlages over aII olher forms of Iearning. Ior
examIe, games:
# 5hnw cnnscqucnccs nnt nnrma!!y visib!c. Wilh games, Iearners can exerience lhe
cumuIalive effecl of videsread smaII changes. A course in elhics can, for inslance,
shov lhe effecls on an organizalion if everybody engages in a queslionabIe raclice
lhal seems harmIess if erformed by onIy an individuaI. Use games lo shov
consequences lhal are nol normaIIy visibIe because lhey occur loo quickIy, lake loo
Iong, occur far avay in hysicaI sace or in a dislanl arl of lhe organizalion, are loo
smaII or loo Iarge, or are loo abslracl.
# Lct !carncrs makc mistakcs withnut suIIcring pcrmancnt cnnscqucnccs. Use games
lo Iel Iearners exIore lhe consequences of risky behavior. Game Iayers can Iearn from


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mislakes lhal, in lhe reaI vorId, resuIl in dealh, in|ury, imrisonmenl, financiaI
coIIase, sociaI re|eclion, or IegaI aclion. Such Iearning is eseciaIIy imorlanl in vork
and sociaI environmenls vhere faiIure is nol loIeraled.
# Encnuragc !carncrs tn pausc, rcI!cct, and rcvisc. Oflen reaI-vorId exeriences don'l
give lhe Iearner oorlunilies lo relhink decisions and lry aIlernalive aroaches, bul
games can.
# Prnvidc a !abnratnry vhere Iearners can lesl differenl hyolheses, menlaI modeIs,
laclics, and slralegies lo see vhich vork besl and vhich are loo risky lo lry in lhe reaI
vorId.
# 5imp!iIy cnmp!cx situatinns in vays lhal isoIale lhe comonenls and variabIes lhal
Iearners shouId allend lo and lhal make reIalionshis exIicil.
# Givc nppnrtunitics Inr abundant practicc and Iccdback. Ior lasks vhere "lime on
lask" is crilicaI lo Iearning, games can rovide 24x7 oorlunilies lo raclice and refine
behavior. Games rovide lime and exerience enough for Iearners lo discover allerns,
lrends, and reIalionshis for lhemseIves.
# Rcawakcn !carning by p!ay. As chiIdren, ve Iay vilh bIocks lo Iearn gravily and
saliaI reIalionshis, ve raclice ersonaI reIalionshis vilh doIIs and aclion figures,
and use scaIe modeIs lo Iearn design and conslruclion. Games exlend lhe molivaling
effecl of Iay lo aduIls. Games can even seduce voIunlary Iearners inlo laking lesls.
As overfuI as games are, lhey are no educalionaI anacea. Iven lhe besl game cannol by
ilseIf leach Iarge amounls of delaiIed informalion or reIace books, cIassrooms, and olher
forms of Iearning.
When to use games
DeveIoing effeclive games is difficuIl, lime-consuming, and exensivelyicaIIy 100
limes lhe cosl of a simIe muIliIe-choice lexl queslion. Gelling games lo vork veII over
lhe Web is even harder. Whal can games do for lhe organizalion lhal musl ay for lheir
deveIomenl` Consider games in lhese silualions:
Cnsts nI Iai!urc arc high. IaiIures lhal endanger Iife, ubIic safely, and financiaI success
|uslify exensive remedies. rain surgeons, nucIear over Ianl oeralors, and slock
markel inveslors musl consislenlIy erform al a high IeveI of skiII.
Lcarning with rca! systcms is nnt practica!. The reaI aclivily may lake loo Iong, for
examIe, lesling genelic modificalions lo Ianls. Training on reaI syslems may be loo
exensive, for examIe, Iearning lo fIy lhe Ialesl roducl from oeing or Airbus. IaiIure
may be loo embarrassing, for examIe, lriggering a faIse aIarm in a securily syslem lhal
summons lhe oIice.


Lcarncrs nccd individua! attcntinn. Games can be seIf-cuslomizing. Learners exerience
a unique series of evenls in resonse lo lheir ovn knovIedge, skiIIs, and inslincls.
Many pcnp!c must bc cducatcd. Since lhe ma|or cosls for a game are in deveIoing and
erfecling il, addilionaI Iearners add IillIe lo lhe lolaI cosls. Sreading lhe cosls over a fev
hundred or a fev lhousand Iearners recovers lhose cosls.
Tasks arc cnmp!cx and timc is shnrt. Games can leIescoe veeks of educalion inlo days.
Games Iel Iearners ski raidIy lhrough sub|ecls lhey have aIready maslered and send
more lime on |usl lhe areas in vhich lhey need imrovemenl. Games are highIy efficienl
coaches.
5ki!!s tn bc taught arc subt!c and cnmp!cx. Games vork veII for sub|ecls vhen lhe
grealesl chaIIenge is nol acquiring facluaI knovIedge bul aIying skiIIs, knovIedge, and
alliludes in comIex, unique silualions.
Ynu havc timc and budgct tn scc thc prn|cct thrnugh. Games may be effeclive, bul lhey
are seIdom easy or inexensive lo deveIo. Sohislicaled, reaIislic games can require 500
lo 1,000 hours of deveIomenl for each hour of Iearning. Iven lhough simIer games
require much Iess deveIomenl lime, lhey do require subslanliaI lime lo design, Ian, and
secify.
TYPES OF LEARNING GAMES
The differenl lyes of Iearning games are Iimiled onIy by lhe crealivily of designers. Here
are a fev more examIes lo give you some ideas of lhe variely of Iearning games you can
use in e-Iearning.
# Quiz-shov games (. 331).
# Word games (. 332).
# }igsav uzzIes (. 333).
# ranching scenarios (. 334).
# Task simuIalions (. 335).
# IersonaI-resonse simuIalions (. 337).
# InvironmenlaI simuIalions (. 340).
# Immersive roIe-Iaying games (. 341).


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Quiz-show games
To make lesls Iess inlimidaling and more engaging, reslyIe lhem as game shovs, simiIar
lo ones common on TV.

In lhis examIe, Iearners are chaIIenged lo score
a number of oinls by correclIy ansvering
queslions aboul VisuaI asic. To reach lheir
goaIs, Iearners can ansver a Iol of Iov-oinl
queslions or fever high-oinl queslions. They
can ansver queslions from a fev calegories or
across severaI differenl calegories. Iach correcl
ansver adds lo lhe lolaI score, and each
incorrecl ansver sublracls from lhe lolaI score.

uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and cuslom }avaScril and |Query.
Quiz-shov games are good for lesling facluaI knovIedge, rovided ansvers are cIearIy
righl or vrong. Such games can serve as lesls. And lhey are efficienl: In |usl a fev minules
you can ask 25 fiII-in-lhe-bIank lesl queslions. They rovide incenlive lo sludy and Iearn.
A quiz-shov game mighl be a good sensilizing aclivily or re-lesl al lhe beginning of a
moduIe. The desire lo vin lhe game rovides incenlive lo Iearn lhe needed facls.
Ansvers in quiz-shov games are nol Iimiled lo verbaI resonses, as lhis nexl examIe
shovs.


This game leaches
rinciIes by having
Iearners cIick on a
melhod in lhe correcl
cIass lhal can accel an
incoming message.
And, Iike many TV
quiz shovs, lhis one
has a limer lo require a
roml resonse.

uiIl using Microsofl
IoverIoinl and converled for
lhe Web vilh iSring Iresenler.
Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
Word games
Word games, such as crossvord uzzIes, make Iearning lerminoIogy fun. Mosl are |usl
fiII-in-lhe-bIanks lesls dressed u as a game.

This crossvord uzzIe is from a
course on lechnoIogies for crealing
onIine media. Here's hov il vorks.
You seIecl a cIue, in lhis case 2 Dovn.
Then you lye lhe ansver inlo lhe
ansver fieId and cIick Pnst. The
ansver nov aears in lhe uzzIe.



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Word games are good lo lesl knovIedge of lerms. They are aIso good lo molivale reading
of lexl lo idenlify names of eoIe, roducls, concels, animaIs, Iocalions, and so forlh.
They combine veII vilh scavenger-hunl aclivilies vhere Iearners Iook u lhe ansvers lo
cIues ralher lhan mereIy recaII ansvers (. 198).
Jigsaw puzzles
Do you leach sub|ecls lhal invoIve vhoIe-lo-arls reIalionshis` Do you send lime
leIIing Iearners hov a roducl, business, or olher sub|ecl is organized` If so, |igsav
uzzIes and scrambIed-liIes games offer a vay lo Iel Iearners discover such reIalionshis
and lo lesl Iearners on such reIalionshis.
A scrambIed-liIe uzzIe can heI Iearners recaII images, visuaIize reIalionshis, or nolice
discriminaling delaiIs.

This aclivily on
Iislening skiIIs asks
Iearners lo assembIe
an organizalion charl
based on an
overheard
conversalion among
comany execulives.

uiIl using Adobe
Dreamveaver and cuslom
horlon.com/eId/.
Learners cIick on lhe liIe lhey vanl lo move and lhen cIick vhere lhey vanl lo move il.
They conlinue lhe rocess unliI lhe iclure has been assembIed. The game direcls
Iearners' allenlion lo secific reorling reIalionshis.
This same kind of uzzIe has been used lo leach remodeIing conlraclors hov lhe
comonenls of a arlicuIar archilecluraI slyIe are combined in secific houses and lo leach
}avaScril rogrammers lhe Inlernel IxIorer documenl ob|ecl modeI.


ConceluaI and abslracl sub|ecls require raclice loo, yel ve oflen forgel lo rovide
reaIislic raclice aclivilies for such sub|ecls. One vay lo do so is lo creale a concrele game
for Iearning abslracl concels.
This |igsav uzzIe requires
Iearners lo drag and dro
lhe uzzIe ieces inlo Iace
lo configure a nelvork. As
lhey dro a comonenl
inlo Iace, lhey gel
feedback on hov veII lhe
comonenl vorks in lhe
sIol lo vhich il is assigned
and hov il inleracls vilh
surrounding comonenls.
The lask is nol as simIe as il Iooks. There are more ieces lhan sIols and onIy comalibIe
comonenls can be used logelher. There is no fixed soIulion: any combinalion of
comonenls lhal vouId vork in lhe reaI vorId vorks here.
In lhis aclivily, Iearners exIore lhe abslracl vorId of muIli-Iayered slandards regarding
dala-communicalion rolocoIsbul in a fun, langibIe vay. Games vilh such inlricale
ruIes are difficuIl lo creale bul are very effeclive in leaching sub|ecls lhal have more lhan
one righl ansver.
Branching scenarios
ranching scenarios Iel Iearners roceed lovard a goaI by making decisions lhal heI or
hinder lheir rogress. These games resembIe lhe earIy comuler advenlure games in
vhich lhe Iayer sels oul on a quesl and musl ick u ob|ecls and choose alhs carefuIIy.
Such games are oflen caIIed sociaI-inleraclion simuIalors vhen lhey are used lo simuIale
lhe inleraclion belveen eoIe.
On age 390 ve Iook more cIoseIy al designing a branching-scenario game.


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This examIe Iels Iearners
raclice lheir managemenl skiIIs
by resonding lo an emIoyee's
requesl lo lake a sabbalicaI Ieave.
Arriving al a correcl resonse
requires checking ersonneI fiIes,
reading comany oIicy, and
caIIing olher managers.

uiIl using Microsofl IoverIoinl and converled
for lhe Web vilh iSring Iresenler. Viev
Olher examIes of branching scenarios incIude Tnc Crincsccnc Ganc (. 324) and lhe
inlerviev game (. 379).
Task simulations
Task simuIalions require Iearners lo accomIish a reaIislic bil of vork. There are lvo main
lyes of lask simuIalions: soflvare simuIalions and device simuIalions. Though lhese lvo
lyes may Iook differenl and require differenl looIs lo roduce, lheir underIying
inslruclionaI design, Iogic, and sequence of exeriences are simiIar.
Soflvare simuIalions are becoming a slandard vay lo Iearn lo oerale comuler soflvare.

This simuIalor Iels Iearners raclice
selling u conneclions belveen lhe
oeraling syslem and various
dalabasesvilhoul any risk of
damaging dala or lhe syslem. The
simuIalor behaves Iike lhe reaI conlroI
aneIexcel lhe simuIalor reslricls
Iearners lo lhe lask being laughl and
rovides inslruclions if needed.
In lhis sle, lhe Iearner has seIecled lhe
correcl driver for lhe dalabase and
musl nov cIick Finish lo conlinue.

uiIl vilh Adobe Calivale. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.


On age 386 ve Iook more cIoseIy al designing a coached lask simuIalion.
Device simuIalions leach hov lo oerale a iece of equimenl. In device simuIalions,
Iearners simuIale ressing bullons by cIicking on images of lhe device. They may simuIale
lurning a knob by dragging ils edge Iefl or righl.

This examIe Iels Iearners raclice
hov lo seIecl a ring lone on a mobiIe
hone.

uiIl using Adobe Calivale, IoverIoinl, and
Adobe Iresenler. Viev examIe al horlon.com/eId/.
And lhis one leaches
hov lo oerale an
aneslhesia deIivery
unil. Mislakes are a Iol
Iess coslIy in lhis
simuIalion lhan in lhe
reaI oeraling room.
This is one case for
vhich I vouId caII lhis
a sinu|aiicn, nol a ganc.
If Iife is al slake, ve do
nol Iay games.

Designed by WiIIiam Horlon ConsuIling and buiIl in Adobe IIash by Web Coursevorks
(vebcoursevorks.com).


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Personal-response simulations
IersonaI-resonse simuIalions ose a series of comIex decisions for Iearners lo make.
Decisions deend on many searale faclors. Learners immedialeIy see lhe resuIls of lhe
decision. Learners can lhen lveak and lune lheir ansvers lo lry lo imrove resuIls.

In Tnc Oici Ganc, Iearners
raclice ordering reslauranl
meaIs lo meel comIex
dielary requiremenls. MeaIs
consisl of severaI differenl
foods, each vilh differenl
nulrilionaI ingredienls. Afler
Iacing lheir order, Iearners
see hov veII lhey did. They
can lhen lry olher
combinalions of foods.

Aclive Server Iages.
uiIl using Adobe Dreamveaver and }avaScril. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
The HTMI Ia|craicrq is
anolher examIe of a
ersonaI-resonse simuIalion.
In lhe Iefl coIumn, Iearners
are resenled vilh formalled
lexl and chaIIenged lo
reroduce il by enlering
HTML code in lhe middIe
coIumn. When lhey cIick lhe
ResuIl bullon, lhey see lheir
resuIls in lhe righl coIumn.
Learners lhen refine lheir
code unliI lhey malch lhe
goaI.


IersonaI-resonse simuIalions are quile usefuI lo heI Iearners erform malh in a fun,
visuaI, inluilive fashion.
WouId you ralher Iearn lo manage
lhe finances of a cororale
dearlmenl by fiIIing in numbers on
a sreadsheel Iike lhis`

Sreadsheel buiIl using Microsofl IxceI.

Or by dragging sIiders
in a game Iike lhis`

uiIl using SAI CryslaI Dashboard
Design and Microsofl IxceI. Viev


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Anolher examIe Iels Iearners deveIo beller inveslmenl habils by reealedIy making
risky inveslmenls unliI lhey discover lhe dangers of lrealing invesling as gambIing.

Learners decide vhal ercenlage of lheir
nel vorlh lhey vanl lo invesl and by hov
much lhey vanl lo Ieverage il. Here a
Iearner has decided lo invesl a quarler of
his nel vorlh and lo Ieverage il by 5X,
lhal is, lo borrov $5 for every doIIar of his
ovn money invesled.
The Iearner lhen cIicks Invcst nnw.

The game shovs lhe fIuclualions of lhe
inveslmenl's vaIue over lime. Al any
oinl lhe Iearner can cIick lhe 5c!! bullon
lo seII lhe inveslmenl and rea lhe gain or
Ioss. The game lhen reverls lo lhe earIier
screen vhere lhe Iearner's nel vorlh is
revised lo shov lhe gain or Ioss. The
Iearner can lhen lry again and again.

IossibIe sub|ecls for such malh-based simuIalions incIude finance, science, engineering,
and medicine.


Environmental simulations
InvironmenlaI simuIalions Iel Iearners exerimenl vilh a comIexIy inlerreIaled syslem,
such as a naluraI environmenl.

This game leaches rivale Iandovners
in lhe soulheaslern Uniled Slales lo
manage lheir foresls more effecliveIy,
regardIess of lheir arlicuIar goaIs. In il,
Iearners manage a lree farm.
In lhe game, Iearners confronl
fIuclualing rices, ine-beelIe
infeslalions, cash fIov difficuIlies, and
lhe facl lhal a lree lakes 30 years lo
grov. This game Iels Iearners discover
bolh ecoIogicaI and economic rinciIes
and Iearn lo aIy lhem in lhe
simuIaled environmenl.

uiIl using Microsofl Nolead, Microsofl Iainl, and a
vhoIe Iol of cuslom HTML and }avaScril. Viev
This simuIalion can reIicale lhe changes lhal occur over hundreds of years if necessary.
Ior each lime eriod (one quarler of a year), lhe Iearner revievs lhe resuIls from lhe Iasl
lime eriod and decides vhal aclions lo lake. Aclions incIude lhings Iike seIecliveIy
culling an area, cIear-culling il, reIanling il, or having lhe area araised. Aclions can be
individuaIIy aIied lo each of lhe 64 Iols on lhe ma.
The resuIls for a lime eriod deend on aclions laken by lhe Iearner, and aIso on variabIes
such as rainfaII, fIuclualions in rices for sav limber and uI vood, emergency needs for
cash (daughler gels acceled al Harvard), foresl fires, and disaslers such as lornados and
Iighlning.


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}usl as in lhe reaI silualion, Iearners musl Iook beyond lhe suerficiaI aearances. To do
so, lhey can caII u a delaiIed slalus reorl.

The slalus reorl aIso Iisls lhe aclions
ordered by lhe Iearner over lhe nexl lime
eriod. This Iisl gives Iearners a chance lo
reconsider aclions, |usl as in lhe reaI
vorId.
The slalus reorl shovs lhe Iand use and
condilion of lrees.

This game is a bil unusuaI in lhal Iearners can sel lhe goaIs. They can mix economic,
aeslhelic, and environmenlaI concerns lo mosl cIoseIy malch lheir goaIs for lheir reaI-Iife
limberIand. y making lhe goaIs fIexibIe, ve encourage Iearners lo lry oul various
aroaches.
Immersive role-playing games
Immersive roIe-Iaying games embed Iearners in a relend vorId comIele vilh comIex
goaIs, looIs, aIIies and oonenls, unrediclabIe evenls, and hidden molivalions.

Here ve see lhe oening
screen for a game vhere lhe
Iearner Iays lhe roIe of a
nevIy hired manager of a
cororale dearlmenl. The
Iearner musl ursue a
slralegic goaI vhiIe deaIing
vilh occasionaI crises,
vinning managemenl
suorl, and inleracling
vilh eers in simiIar
osilions al olher comanies.


In lhis six-veek simuIalion, lhe Iearner inleracls vilh lhe leacher and feIIov Iearners onIy
in lheir roIes in lhe game. Ior more on lhis game and ils vorId, see age 351.
Such immersive roIe-Iaying games are good for leaching Iearners lo reare for comIex
vork environmenls and evoIving simuIalions.
DESIGN GAMES FOR LEARNING
CommerciaI comuler and video games can cosl miIIions of doIIars and lake years lo
deveIo. Iev schooIs or lraining dearlmenls have budgels lhal Iarge. On lhe olher hand,
I have seen effeclive Iearning games crealed by one erson in a veek. A good Iearning
game requires good design more lhan il requires massive amounls of rogramming and
inlricale grahics.
Design to accomplish learning objectives
Designing effeclive games is as much arl as science. A Iarge arl of lhal arl comes in
crafling exeriences lhal bolh leach and lesl accomIishmenl of ob|eclives.
Irom lhe beginning, make cIear vhal lhe game musl accomIish. Lisl lhe goaI and
individuaI Iearning ob|eclives lhe game musl accomIish. This is lhe same sle you
erform for any form of Iearning. I menlion il here because many game designers lend lo
forgel aboul ob|eclives and focus on |usl making lhe game fun. e reared lo slale hov
each eIemenl in lhe game suorls lhe ob|eclives, eilher direclIy or indireclIy.
Here are a fev examIes of game aclivilies lo accomIish differenl lyes of Iearning
ob|eclives.
Typcs nI
nb|cctivcs
Typc gamc and hnw tn usc it in c-!carning.
Crcatc
Jigsaw puzz!c Require Iearners lo assembIe comonenls inlo a non-
obvious combinalion lhal soIves a robIem or meels requiremenls.
Envirnnmcnta! simu!atinn Tesl vhelher Iearners resond fIexibIy lo
unexecled condilions and infer rinciIes from exeriences in lhe
game.
Immcrsivc rn!c-p!aying gamc ChaIIenge Iearners lo achieve goaIs
desile incomIele informalion, hidden ruIes, and dislracling delaiIs.


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Typcs nI
nb|cctivcs
Typc gamc and hnw tn usc it in c-!carning.
Dccidc
Branching sccnarin Lel Iearners exerience lhe consequences of
slralegies and rinciIes used lo guide decisions.
Task simu!atinn Have Iearners raclice making on-|ob decisions lo
carry oul lasks.
Pcrsnna!-rcspnnsc simu!atinn Lel Iearners exerience consequences of
decisions and revise lheir choices lo incororale discoveries.
Envirnnmcnta! simu!atinn Incourage Iearners lo discover rinciIes
and concels lhal guide beller decisions in lhe environmenl simuIaled.
Dn
Jigsaw puzz!c Irovide raclice in an assembIy rocedure.
Task simu!atinn Irovide raclice and feedback in a Iinear lask.
Knnw
Quiz-shnw gamc Ixercise and lesl recaII of informalion.
Wnrd puzz!cs Ixercise and lesl recaII of names and lerminoIogy.
Jigsaw puzz!c Tesl recaII of saliaI and IogicaI reIalionshis among
comonenls of a vhoIe.
Bc!icvc
Branching simu!atinn AIIov Iearners lo exerience lhe consequences
of lheir beIiefs vilhin a reaIislic silualion and lo revise lhose beIiefs by
discoveries made in lhe simuIalion.
Pcrsnna!-rcspnnsc simu!atinn Irovide immediale feedback on lhe
correclness and consequences of beIiefs.
Envirnnmcnta! simu!atinn Lel Iearners lesl lheir currenl beIiefs aboul
hov an environmenl oerales.
Immcrsivc rn!c-p!aying simu!atinn Have Iearners exercise, lesl, and
revise lheir beIiefs by seeing lhe comIex consequences of decisions
vilhin lhe simuIalion.
Fcc!
Branching sccnarin Lel Iearners exerience lhe consequences of
decisions infIuenced by lheir emolions.
Pcrsnna!-rcspnnsc simu!atinn Lel Iearners see lhe effecl of lheir
emolions on decision-making and hov lhey can imrove resuIls by
consciousness of lheir emolions.
Envirnnmcnta! simu!atinn Have Iearners exerience videsread
consequences of decisions affecled by lheir feeIings.
Immcrsivc rn!c-p!aying simu!atinn Have Iearners make decisions and
receive feedback in comIex silualions IikeIy lo lrigger emolionaI
exeriences.


Express the goal as a specific task
In lhe game, exaclIy vhal are Iearners lo accomIish` Give Iearners a singIe,
underslandabIe goaI againsl vhich lheir resuIls can be measured.
"
Nn

#
Ycs

Make money by invesling in slocks,
bonds, and reaI eslale.
Re-baIance a orlfoIio of slocks, bonds,
and reaI eslale lo reduce federaI laxes by
40%.
Order a baIanced meaI al lhe simuIaled
reslauranl.
Order a meaI vilh Iess lhan 1,000 caIories
lhal has lvice lhe daiIy-recommended
amounls of iron and caIcium.
Iick a diverse leam. Iick lhe smaIIesl leam vilh aII lhe
required skiIIs for Iaunching a nev
roducl simuIlaneousIy in }aan, China,
and lhe Uniled Slales.
Pick the right sized game
Some lyes of games are smaII and simIe. Olhers are sravIing and comIex. Some onIy
vork for narrov ob|eclives vhiIe olhers are loo exensive lo use for onIy a smaII unil of
Iearning. The foIIoving |ob aid recommends vhere lo consider differenl lyes of games.
Oen circIes indicale a good fil. Iack dols reresenl a beller fil.
Typcs nI gamcs Usc Inr .
Dn activity Tcst Whn!c
tnpic
Whn!c
!cssnn
Whn!c
cnursc
Quiz-shnw gamc
" "

Wnrd puzz!c
" "

Jigsaw puzz!c
" "

Branching sccnarin
! ! " " !
Task simu!atinn
! ! " !

Pcrsnna!-rcspnnsc
simu!atinn

! ! "

Immcrsivc rn!c-p!ay

! ! "


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Emphasize learning, not just doing
Make sure your games require aIying vhal you are leaching. Make vinning lhe game
require crealivily and carefuI decisions, nol |usl fasl refIexes.
5imu!atc thc thnught-prnccsscs, nol |usl lhe hysicaI aclions. Avoid games lhal measure
onIy hov quickIy and accuraleIy lhe Iearner can move lhe mouse, unIess lhal is lhe skiII
you are leaching.
Rcquirc thc !carncr tn makc thc samc kinds nI dccisinns as in lhe reaI aclivily. In mosl
Iearning games, il is more imorlanl lhal lhe Iearner make aulhenlic decisions lhan lhal
lhe Iearner execule lhose decisions in a reaIislic vay.
Avnid arbitrary !imitatinns nn hnw thc !carncr accnmp!ishcs thc gna!. If lhere are lhree
vays lo do lhe lask in lhe reaI vorId, aIIov lhree vays in lhe game.
Specify challenge and motivation
IarIy on, decide hov lhe game viII molivale Iearners lo ul forlh lhe efforl required and
overcome lhe fruslralions and difficuIlies osed by lhe game. Some common molivalionaI
lechniques incIude:
# Comelilion vilh olher Iayers, olher leams, or a Iayer's "ersonaI besl."
# Suorling your aIIies, friends, leam, comany, dearlmenl, or olher organizalionaI
unil in lhe game.
# SoIving a robIem, such as a uzzIe, myslery, or riddIe.
# Meeling or bealing a sel slandard.
# Success in lhe vicarious game vorId, such as advancing lo lhe nexl IeveI, vinning a
romolion, saving Iives, or gaining ossessions or lerrilory.
Manage competitiveness
Ixcessive comeliliveness can gel in lhe vay of effeclive Iearning. If Iearners are highIy
comelilive anyvay, lhe game may nol roduce lhe desired oulcome. SaIes
reresenlalives and lriaI allorneys may comele more aggressiveIy lhan you anlicialed.
Olher grous may feeI uncomforlabIe comeling direclIy againsl lheir friends or co-
vorkers. Ask yourseIf vhelher il is more imorlanl for your Iearners lo comele or lo
coIIaborale` Design lhe game accordingIy.
Provide multiple ways to learn
SuIemenl lhe lriaI-and-error Iearning common in games vilh olher melhods. Learning
by lriaI and error can be fruslraling, and lhere is lhe danger lhal Iearners remember lheir
firsl allemls, nol lhe correcl ones. To make Iearning more reIiabIe, incororale addilionaI
sources of Iearning inlo lhe vorId of lhe game, for examIe, business reorls, memos and


e-maiI messages, lechnicaI manuaIs and induslry slandards, comany oIicies and
rocedures, meeling minules, and olher sources.
Where ossibIe, |usl Iink lo reaI documenls avaiIabIe on lhe nelvork. Such exhibils
rovide a Iov-bandvidlh aIlernalive lo video and sound. Or, for grealer reaIism, make
lhese exhibils avaiIabIe lo Iearners onIy afler lhey have laken aclions lhal vouId make
lhem avaiIabIe in lhe reaI vorIdsuch as asking for lhem or |oining a rofessionaI
associalion.
CREATE A MICRO-WORLD
Ingage Iearners in an inleresling, chaIIenging, and fun aIlernalive reaIily. Make lhis
micro-vorId one lhal viII calure lhe imaginalion of Iearners and Iel lhem relend lhal
lhe micro-vorId is reaI.
Specify the game's world
The game vorId can be simIe or comIex. Il may resembIe reaI Iife in every arlicuIar or
may creale an aIlernale reaIily vilh ils ovn ruIes, vaIues, and aearances. Secifying a
comIele vorId is a bibIicaI efforl. Ior your game, you viII robabIy vanl lo kee lhe
vorId simIe and smaII. Al a minimum, you viII need lo secify:
# Charactcrs or aclive agenls in lhe game. The mosl imorlanl characler is lhe Iearner.
Ior some games lhal is lhe onIy characler. Olher games may have a casl Iike a
HoIIyvood exlravaganza.
# Ob|ccts, such as looIs, equimenl, furnilure, and olher lhings lhe Iearner and olher
characlers inleracl vilh vilhin lhe game.
# Lncatinns, such as rooms, cilies, environmenls, and olher saces lhrough vhich game
Iay can roceed. Localions may have lheir ovn ob|ecls and ruIes and may be used lo
subdivide game Iay or lo reresenl rogress lovard a goaI.
# Rc!atinnships among characlers, ob|ecls, and Iocalions delermine hov lhey may
inleracl as lhe game roceeds.
# Laws nI math, physics, and naturc lhal delermine hysicaI inleraclions among ob|ecls,
consequences of aclions, and numericaI resuIls. The game vorId may seIecliveIy
imIemenl conslrainls of lhe reaI vorId, ignoring irreIevanl Iimils in order lo focus
allenlion lo lhe ones imorlanl lo lhe Iearning al hand.
# Othcr dynamics lhal secify hov lhings change and inleracl. Ior examIe, lhe lree
farm game ( 340) secifies hov lhe grovlh in one area deends on lhe currenl conlenl
of lhe area, on rainfaII, on lhe conlenl of surrounding areas, and on human
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Specify characters and important objects
In games, eoIe inleracl vilh characlers and imorlanl ob|ecls. Insuring lhal lhe
inleraclion is lruIy educalionaI requires carefuI allenlion lo lhe design of lhose characlers
and ob|ecls. These ilems can incIude human, animaI, and robol characlers aIong vilh
looIs, lokens, and olher ob|ecls lhal Iay roIes in lhe oulcome of lhe game.
Role in the game
Iverylhing in lhe game shouId be lhere for a reason. The reason may be rimary or
secondary. Il may be lo furlher educalion or mereIy lo suorl lhe fIov of lhe game. }usl
make sure lhal you can say vhy a characler or ob|ecl aears in lhe game, lhal is, vhal is
ils roIe and hov does il reIale lo olher characlers and ob|ecls in lhe slory. Lel lhis roIe
guide design of lhe ilem.
Name
Give every significanl characler and ob|ecl a memorabIe name. Iven if lhe name is never
used in game Iay, il may be vaIuabIe lo lhe design and deveIomenl leam in referring lo
lhe ilem. The name shouId be easiIy remembered bul nol loo odd. Ior names Iearners viII
encounler in lhe game, make lhe name easy lo ronounce. Avoid names lhal imIy more
lhan you inlend aboul lhe nalionaIily or background of lhe characler.
Observable characteristics
CarefuIIy secify any observabIe characlerislics lhal may be reIevanl lo decisions made by
lhe Iearner Iaying lhe game. AIso secify any characlerislics lhal you do nol vanl lo
Ieave lo someone eIse's imaginalion. ObservabIe characlerislics of characlers incIude:
# Gcndcr. Is a characler maIe, femaIe, or indelerminale` Remember lhal robols, some
animaIs, and abslracl characlers need nol disIay a gender if il is nol necessary for lhe
slory.
# Agc. Is lhe characler an infanl, chiId, youlh, young aduIl, middIe-aged, or oIder
erson` If age is an imorlanl arl of lhe characler's roIe, indicale il cIearIy, olhervise,
disguise age or make il lyicaI for lhe roIe lhe characler is Iaying.
# Racc nr skin cn!nr. If you need lo shov a arlicuIar race, for examIe in leaching cross-
cuIluraI communicalion, secify lhe race exaclIy. Ior carloon characlers, you can
subdue aII indicalors of race and use a skin coIor, such as green, nol common on
human beings.
# C!nthing. The cIolhes vorn by a characler can reinforce lhe characler's roIe and heI
Iearners kee characlers searale. In generaI, kee cIolhing lyicaI for lhe roIe: Iab coal
for a researcher or business suil for an execulive.
# Hair. Head and faciaI hair is an easy vay lo visuaIIy dislinguish olhervise simiIar
characlers.


# Vnicc. The vay a characler seaks can reinforce lhe roIe of lhe characler and heI
exress emolion. Ior each characler, secify lhe lone and accenl (everybody has an
accenl). AIso secify any imerfeclions, such as a sIighl rasiness, lhal viII give lhe
characler a more dislincl ersona. Make sure lhal lhe voice viII malch gender, age, and
olher characlerislics.
# Pcrsnna!ity and emolionaI makeu. Is lhe characler caIm or fIighly, chally or lacilurn,
oulgoing or shy` Is lhe characler rock sleady or rone lo emolionaI oulbursls` Does
lhe characler have hobias or el eeves`
# Mnvcmcnt. Hov does lhe characler move` In moving from one arl of lhe screen lo
lhe olher, does lhe characler ski, Iod, Iim, bounce, slagger, veave, gIide, or
shimmy` Does lhe characler have a dislincl allern of movemenl, such as fiddIing vilh
a slrand of hair faIIing across lhe face` When slanding or silling, does lhe characler
adol a arlicuIar oslure`
Design lhe characler lo eilomize lhe roIe. The characler shouId Iook, sound, and acl Iike
vhal il reresenls. In generaI, lhis viII require making each characler a lyicaI and
famiIiar version of lhe ilem. Tvo excelions aIy: Iirsl, do nol emIoy slereolyes lhal
ridicuIe a grou of eoIe. Second, lhe hero (or lhe characler vho reresenls lhe Iearner)
shouId be alyicaI in vays lhal increase lhe Iearner's viIIingness lo idenlify vilh lhe hero.
In addilion lo lhe characlerislics of eoIe, you shouId secify characlerislics for lhe
environmenl, such as lime eriod, archileclure, decor, and simuIalion imIemenls:
# Timc pcrind in vhich lhe simuIalion is sel: asl, resenl, or fulure. Whal
characlerislics of lhe simuIalion viII sel lhe slage in lhe Iearner's mind` If you are
designing for lhe resenl, avoid deicling fads. Inslead, kee environmenlaI ob|ecls
neulraI lo ensure lhal lhe simuIalion viII nol Iook daled a fev years dovn lhe road.
# Architccturc, such as buiIding exleriors and slreel scenes lhal lhe Iearner viII see. If
Iearners inleracl vilh archilecluraI fealures, hov reaIislic do lhe fealures need lo be`
Are lhey reresenlalive of a reaI or imaginary Iace` Musl lhe archileclure convey a
arlicuIar lime eriod, cuIlure, or sociaI cIass` If archileclure does nol Iay a rimary
roIe in lhe simuIalion, lhen ensure lhal inlended Iearners viII nol be dislracled by lhe
archileclure lo lhe delrimenl of Iearning.
# Dcnr, such as furnilure, Iams, rugs, vaII covering, iclures, and olher accessories
lhal Iearners viII see and inleracl vilh. ShouId lhe decor evoke a arlicuIar slyIe,
cuIlure, or sociaI IeveI` Hov delaiIed shouId lhe decor be` WiII Iearners maniuIale
any of lhe ilems, such as fiIe cabinels, desk draver, or vaII iclures`
# 5imu!atinn imp!cmcnts, such as fiIe foIders, vriling imIemenls, lesl lubes, diaIs and
Ievers, or some olher game iece. Hov reaIislic do lhey need lo be` Ior inslance, if arl
of a medicaI rocedure invoIves maniuIaling lhe alienl, is il necessary lhal Iearners
acluaIIy exerience lhe sensalion of louch` Or viII a simIe animalion suffice`


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Design every asecl of your simuIalion lo ensure lhal il Iays ils aroriale arl and
conlribules lo meeling lhe simuIalion's ob|eclives.
Create a storyline
The "slory" in a game is lhe sequence of exeriences encounlered by lhe Iearner. You musl
secify lhe slarling and ending oinls in lhe game, lhe Iearner's roIe in lhe game, vhal
occurs belveen slarl and end, and hov lo gel lhe game slarled.
The starting pnint reresenls lhe condilion of lhe Iearner as lhe game oens. Ior a quiz-
shov game, you mighl secify: "AII queslions are avaiIabIe on lhe game board and lhe
Iearner has zero oinls."
The cnding pnint of lhe game reresenls accomIishmenl of lhe goaI of lhe game. Ior lhe
quiz-shov game, lhe ending oinl mighl be: "The game ends vhen lhe Iearner achieves a
score lhal indicales exerl-IeveI knovIedge of lhe sub|ecl or aII queslions on lhe game
board have been allemled."
The !carncr's rn!c delermines hov lhe Iearner inleracls vilh lhe game vorId and hov lhe
aclions of lhe Iearner can accomIish lhe goaI of lhe game. Ior lhe quiz-shov game, lhe
Iearner's roIe mighl be defined as simIy: "The Iearner is a conleslanl on lhe game shov."
The path Irnm start tn cnd reresenls lhe Iol of lhe slory. UnIike noveIs, games can have
muIliIe alhs lhrough lhe slory ralher lhan a singIe Iol Iine. And, in games, il is lhe
Iearner vho delermines lhe alh. As a designer, you musl secify vhal kinds of lhings
haen aIong lhe vay. This sle can require defining simIe ruIes or draving vaII-sized
fIovcharls. In lhe quiz-shov game, lhe Iol is: "The Iearner reealedIy allemls queslions.
The Iearner icks a sub|ecl calegory (a rov) and a oinl vaIue (a coIumn). The queslion al
lhal inlerseclion is disIayed. The Iearner lyes in lhe shorl ansver lo lhe queslion and
cIicks a "Check" bullon. If lhe ansver is correcl, lhe Iearner's score is increased by lhe
oinl vaIue of lhal queslion, if incorrecl, lhe score is decreased by lhe oinl vaIue."
The finaI eIemenl of lhe sloryIine is some incidcnt tn kick-start thc actinn. The Iearner
may need romling lo lake lhe firsl sle. Ior lhe quiz-shov game, lhe Iearner is given
inslruclions for Iaying lhe game and asked vhal queslion lo slarl vilh.
Create a back story
Some comIex games may require a back slory, vhich is a body of background
informalion aboul vhal suosedIy haened u lo lhe oinl of lhe slarl of lhe game.
The back-slory may define hidden reIalionshis, rinciIes, and informalion lhal may
come oul in lhe course of Iay. Il may rovide molivalion for characlers in lhe game. Il
may be necessary lo exIain vhy lhings aear as lhey do in lhe game.
In Tnc Crincsccnc Ganc ( 324) lhe back-slory is lhe bank robbery lhal occurred before lhe
slarl of lhe game.


Specify the game structure
Game slruclure delermines hov lhe evenls and ossibIe alhvays lhrough lhe game are
organized. Good slruclure kees lhe game simIe enough for Iearners lo comrehend and
concise enough for deveIoers lo comIele on lime and vilhin budgel.
Mosl games invoIve cycIes of aclivily in vhich lhe Iearner makes a decision and
exeriences lhe immediale consequences. eyond lhis alomic slruclure, games may be
organized inlo Iinear alhvays, a sequence of missions, or as Iimiled or free-form
branching. MuIliIe Iayers may lake lurns acling or may roceed indeendenlIy al lhe
same lime.
Assign the learners role
Make cIear lhe silualion in vhich lhe Iearner musl acl. Sel lhe slage. ase lhe game on a
silualion famiIiar lo lhe Iearner from currenl vork, home Iife, or ouIar media. Iose lhe
Iearner a robIem lo soIve in lhal silualion.

Ior examIe, a simuIalion on using soflvare
lo assess lhe safely of mine sIoes and road
culs begins vilh an assignmenl Iike lhal lhe
Iearner mighl receive on lhe |ob.
The simuIalion furlher
rovides lhe Iearner vilh dala
in lhe form of a hand-dravn
diagram of lhe sorl common
in lhis silualion.

Make the game meaningfully realistic
Many novice designers equale reaIism vilh holo-reaIislicaIIy rendered 3D grahics or
virluaI-reaIily vorIds. Ior Iearning uroses, lhough, reaIism has a somevhal differenl


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meaning. The game need nol cIoseIy mimic lhe lask for vhich il reares lhe Iearner so
Iong as il exercises lhe abiIilies and knovIedge needed in lhe reaI lask. A game is reaIislic
(hence effeclive) if il:
# ImIemenls lhe causaI reIalionshis and rinciIes of lhe reaI-vorId syslem lhal
Iearners musl masler.
# Conlains delaiIs necessary for lhe Iearner lo ma comonenls of lhe game lo lheir reaI-
vorId counlerarls.
# AIIovs Iearners lo conlroI lhe asecls of lhe game lhey vouId conlroI in lhe reaI vorId.
# Makes Iearners feeI lhey direclIy conlroI ob|ecls lhey maniuIale vilhin lhe game.
In olher vords, il is more imorlanl lhal lhe game vork Iike lhe reaI-vorId syslem lhan
lhal il Iook Iike lhe reaI-vorId syslem.
Specify rules of the game
Game ruIes delermine vhal lhe Iayer can do in lhe game and hov lhe game resonds.
Secify cIear ruIes for:
# Whal informalion is resenled lo lhe Iearner al each silualion in lhe game.
# Whal aclions lhe Iearner can lake.
# Whal immediale feedback resuIls from each aclion.
# Whal olher, erhas hidden, consequences occur for each aclion.
# Hov oinls are avarded.
Design a rich, realistic environment
Make lhe micro-vorId diverse and comIex in a vay lhal secureIy reminds Iearners of lhe
reaI vorId for vhich lhe game reares lhem.

Here is an examIe of
lhe oening screen from
a six-veek immersive
simuIalion lhal laughl
dearlmenlaI
managemenl skiIIs.
The Iearner has |usl
cIicked lhe fiIe cabinel lo
see ils conlenls.


This micro-vorId vas arlicuIaled lhrough ob|ecls and comonenls vilh vhich lhe Iearner
inleracled:
# A simuIaled sociaI environmenl vilh a boss, a CIO, and feIIov execulivesone of
vho vas lrying lo sabolage lhe Iayer's career.
# Generic reference maleriaIs, such as research aers and a lexlbook.
# Scenario-secific reference maleriaIs incIuding reorls and roosaIs reIevanl lo lhe
Iearner's simuIaled |ob assignmenl.
# Comany Web sile conlaining a comany hislory, oIicies, organizalion charl, code of
conducl, and mission slalemenl.
# Agenda exressed in lerms of lo-do Iisls.
# Managers al olher comanies (Iayed by feIIov Iearners).
Such in-delh maleriaIs make lhe simuIaled vorId seem lrue and reaI. The micro-vorId
has lhe mosl imorlanl eoIe and ob|ecls of lhe reaI vorId and lhey behave in
fundamenlaIIy lhe same vay lhey do in lhe reaI vorId.
Inleraclion in lhis game resembIes inleraclion in a reaI comany.
# Meelings are heId onIine.
# The Iearner can inlerviev feIIov execulives lo lry lo galher informalion and vin lhem
over.
# I-maiI messages from lhe boss make nev assignmenls.
# Inlerrulions and crises occur |usl as in lhe reaI vorId.
Provide a deep, unifying challenge
Unify lhe game around a rimary mission or goaI. This assignmenl can kee Iearners
focused on lhe overaII goaI of Iearning, largel efforls, and inlegrale Iearning.
Ior a simIe quiz-shov game or uzzIe, lhe goaI is lo vin lhe game or soIve lhe uzzIe. A
more comIex game may require craling an exIicil goaI or assignmenl for Iearners. Ior
examIe, in a business simuIalion, Iearners vere assigned lhe lask of crafling a business
slralegy. Learners vere given lhe slralegy documenl from an earIier, faiIed alleml and
chaIIenged lo do il righl lhis lime. The fIaved examIe suggesled lhe scoe, slruclure,
and formal for lhe soIulion. Il served as a modeI of vhal nol lo do and as a slarling oinl
for discussion and innovalion. Il aIso conslrained lhe lask so Iearners did nol vasle lime
on issues found accelabIe in lhe rior alleml.
Define indicators of game state and feedback
Success of lhe game deends on lhe cIarily of feedback given lo lhe Iearner. Decide vhal
kind of feedback you viII give and vhere il viII aear lo lhe Iearner. If you can, resond
direclIy in lhe game vorId lhrough lhe vords and emolionaI slale of lhe characlers. You
can aIso resond lhrough changing indicalors on a consoIe-disIay. Ieedback can Iikevise


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come in indicalors such as lhe currenl score, lokens von, IeveIs achieved, lime remaining,
or allemls remaining.
SPECIFY THE DETAILS
The design rocess varies among lhe greal variely of games ossibIe, bul some sles are
common lo mosl forms of games. None of lhese sles is eseciaIIy difficuIl, bul aII require
carefuI lhoughl.
Sketch out the user interface
The user-inlerface is hov Iearners see and conlroI lhe game vorId. UsuaIIy il is a mixlure
of a direcl viev of lhe game vorId and a consoIe. The direcl viev exoses Iearners lo
vhal lhey vouId see and hear if in lhe game vorId. The consoIe viev adds addilionaI
informalion nol visibIe in lhe game vorId, such as lhe currenl score or lhe lime remaining
lo Iay.
The user inlerface aIso delermines hov Iearners affecl lhe game vorId, lhal is, lhrough
direcl maniuIalion of game ob|ecls or by commands enlered lhrough lhe consoIe. Direcl
maniuIalion may be more naluraI, bul can require much more sohislicaled
rogramming.
Write the words
Though designers may nol creale aII lhe media for lhe game, designers do lyicaIIy vrile
aII lhe soken and disIayed vords lhal occur in lhe game. These incIude:
# LabeIs and inslruclions disIayed on lhe screen.
# Characlers' seeches and lhoughls.
# Queslions and romls ul lo lhe Iearner.
# Ieedback lo lhe Iearner.
If lhe game viII incororale soken vords, rovide a ronuncialion guide for lhe
narralor. IncIude aII lechnicaI and seciaIized lerms.
Specify the graphical style
As a designer, you may nol be lhe one lo drav lhe grahics of lhe game, bul you shouId
secify lhe slyIe lhey viII lake. WiII lhe game Iook Iike a carloon, iIIuslralion, holograh,
abslracl ainling, mechanicaI device, conlroI aneI, game board, or some olher lye
disIay`
Whal lone shouId lhe grahics suggesl` Do you vanl lhe disIay Iighl and airy vilh a
vhile background and Iols of asleI coIors` Or shouId il Iook dark and serious vilh dark,


rich coIors vilh melaIIic surfaces` Do you vanl Iearners lo describe lhe aearance of
your game as cule, vhimsicaI, businessIike, ominous, funky, or some olher vay`
If you can, skelch oul lhe grahics. If nol, use slick figures and cIi arl lo heI
communicale lo lhe arlisl vhal you need in lhe vay of grahics.
Specify other media
Deending on lhe comIexily of your game, you may need lo secify olher media lo
incororale.
Mcdium Usc in gamcs Dcsign issucs
5nund
cIIccts
Add reaIism.
CIarify visuaIs.
VoIume IeveI so lhey are heard bul are nol loo
dislracling.
Music Suggesl emolions.
ridge scenes.
Where resenl and vhere nol.
Secify "Sounds Iike _______", bul do nol
irale olher eoIe's music.
Animatinn To generaIize or avoid
dislracling or easiIy
daled arlicuIars.
Make comalibIe vilh olher grahics.
Vidcn IIIuslrale human
inleraclions or lhings
nol easiIy animaled.
Musl scril oul video comIeleIy: characlers,
selling, movemenl (slage direclions), diaIog,
sound, music, and lransilions.

ENGAGE LEARNERS
To leach, a game musl engage Iearners, lhal is, il musl calure lheir inleresl, invoIve lhem
in game Iay, and conlinuaIIy chaIIenge lhem. Designers of educalionaI and
enlerlainmenl games have evoIved laclics lo quickIy and effecliveIy engage Iearners.
Hook the learner
Calure lhe Iearner's curiosily immedialeIy. Iorego a Ienglhy inlroduclion and slalemenl
of ob|eclives. Gel lhe Iearner inlo lhe game as soon as ossibIe and Iel lhe game inlroduce
ilseIf.


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Nolice hov Tnc Crincsccnc ganc
dravs Iearners in by immedialeIy
immersing lhem in lhe drama of
invesligaling a bank robberyno
Iong-vinded buIIel Iisl of
ob|eclives or boring recilaI of
game ruIes.
Some common vays lo hook lhe reIuclanl Iearner incIude lhese:
# egin vilh an unresoIved crisis.
# riefIy inlroduce lhe scenario and lhe Iearner's roIe in lhe scenario.
# SimIify lhe user inlerface so lhe Iearner does nol have lo search for lhe conlroIs
necessary lo begin Iay.
Ask learners to suspend disbelief
No simuIalion is as rich an exerience as reaI Iife. Learners musl accel lhe Iimilalions of
lhe game or simuIalion. To gel lhem lo do so, ve musl ask lhem lo relend lhe game is
reaI.

This branching scenario uses a
carloon slyIe of grahics lo suggesl
lo Iearners lhal lhey viII see
simIified versions of reaI ob|ecls,
devices, and documenls.


To educe a viIIing susension of disbeIief:
# Give Iearners reaI, bul highIy simIified, delaiIs. Learners shouId recognize lhe delaiIs
bul knov lhal lhey are simIer lhan in reaI silualions.
# Use carloon-slyIe grahics ralher lhan holoreaIislic images.
# Inslrucl Iearners lo enler a fanlasy vorId vilh hrases such as Irelend lhal . or
Suose lhal ..
Set the context
Selling lhe conlexl means making cIear lhe silualion in vhich lhe simuIalion occurs. Ior
leaching use of a comuler rogram, slarl vilh an overviev of lhe vorkfIov
imIemenled by a rogram. y shoving lhe overaII vorkfIov, lhe simuIalion reares
lhe Iearner lo undersland individuaI lasks in lhal vorkfIov and vhich lasks are covered
in lhe simuIalion.
Ior a simuIalion lhal covers a secific caabiIily of a roducl, you mighl begin by slaling
lhe overaII use of lhe roducl and shoving hov lhe individuaI caabiIily conlribules lo
lhal use.
Ior an individuaI command or olher comonenl in lhe user inlerface, you mighl slarl by
shoving vhere lhe comonenl fils inlo lhe scheme of menus and looIbars.
Remember lo ansver lhe queslion, Where am I` If you are shoving a arl of a vhoIe,
idenlify lhe vhoIe and shov hov lhe arl reIales lo lhal vhoIe.
Provide real-world prompting and support
SuIy lhe same informalion Iearners viII have in reaI silualions. Do nol, for examIe, ask
a muIliIe-choice queslion aboul vhal bullon lo cIick. Inslead shov a iclure of lhe screen
al lhe oinl vhere lhe Iearner vouId need lo ick a bullon. Ask Iearners lo indicale lheir
choice by acluaIIy cIicking lhe bullon.
"
Nn
#
Ycs


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Irovide access lo reorls, manuaIs, sIide-resenlalions, and olher maleriaIs avaiIabIe in
lhe reaI silualion. You may simIify lhese maleriaIs, bul do rovide access lo lhe reIevanl
informalion lhey conlain.
Present solvable problems
Iose chaIIenging, bul soIvabIe, robIems lo Iearners. Make lhese lhe lyes of robIems
Iearners mighl face in lheir vork or daiIy Iives. IrobIems may require muIliIe aclions lo
soIve. They shouId aIvays require knovIedge ralher lhan guessing. To make difficuIl
robIems soIvabIe by aII, incIude Iinks lo resources vhere Iearners can find lhe arls of a
soIulion.

Ior examIe, in lhe Oici Ganc,
Iearners can cIick a queslion mark
beside a food choice lo access lhe
U.S. Dearlmenl of AgricuIlure
dalabase for informalion aboul
lhe nulrilionaI ingredienls of lhe
food.
Adapt to the learners needs
Where ossibIe, adal lhe game lo lhe Iearner's needs ralher lhan requiring lhe Iearner lo
conform lo lhe rigid slruclure of a game.


Nolice hov lhis quiz-shov game rovides
chaIIenge lo a vide range of Iearners vilh
differenl areas of seciaIizalion and differenl
goaIs. The game rovides fIexibiIily in achieving
lhe required score. Learners can achieve lhe
largel score by ansvering a fev high-vaIue
difficuIl queslions or by ansvering a Iarger
number of Iov-vaIue easy queslions. Queslions
al differenl IeveIs of difficuIly rovide chaIIenge
for bolh novice and exerl. Differenl calegories
of queslions Iel Iearners lesl lheir skiIIs in lhe
area lhey are mosl inleresled.
Olher vays lo ad|usl games lo Iearners incIude:
# Offering a series of rogressiveIy more chaIIenging goaIs as in lhe HTMI Ia| (. 148).
Learners can quil afler reaching lheir desired IeveI of skiII.
# Lelling Iearners sel lheir ovn goaIs for Iaying lhe game. Ior examIe, Trcc jarning 101
(. 340) Iels Iearners choose goaIs of environmenlaI resonsibiIily, shorl-lerm rofil,
Iong-lerm grovlh, bio-diversily, or many olhers.
# Iermilling muIliIe soIulions so Iearners can exIore lhe ones of inleresl lo lhem, as in
lhe nelvorking |igsav uzzIe (. 334).
Challenge with time limits

Adding a limer lo your game can add a sense of urgency lo
Iearning and require deeer Iearning of comonenl skiIIs.
If you do Iimil lhe lime for cerlain resonses, aIIov Iearners lo
make muIliIe allemls lo accomIish a lask. AIso remember lhal
limed lesls may be iIIegaI vhere lhey vioIale accessibiIily
slandards or discriminale againsl lhose vilh Iimiled Ianguage
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Let learners try multiple strategies
Incourage Iearners lo lry differenl slralegies and Iay muIliIe roIes. Have lhem Iay
once by lhe book, again on gul inslincl, and finaIIy as bad as you can be. Games Iel
Iearners exerience lhe consequences of aIlernalive behaviors. To leach lhe consequences
of negalive behavior, assign Iearners lhe ersona of an eviI or careIess erson, and Iel
lhem exerience Iife from lhal erseclive. Inslead of leIIing Iearners vhy lhey shouId
foIIov ruIes, Iel Iearners break lhe ruIes and exerience lhe consequences.
Program variety into the game
Design games so lhal lhe ansver or resonse is differenl each lime. Thal vay, Iearners can
reealedIy Iay lhe game. They cannol cheal by knoving lhe ansvers ahead of lime.
Iilher drav from a Iarge ooI of queslions and silualions, design lhe game lo generale a
nev robIem each lime, or in|ecl vagaries from lhe vorId being simuIaled: vealher,
equimenl faiIures, oulbreaks of lhe fIu, or markel fads.
Involve the learner
Hov do you kee Iearners engaged` InvoIve lhem in lhe evenls and oulcome of lhe game.
Ixerience and research vilh games suggesls some simIe laclics:
# Kee lhe oulcome deendenl on lhe Iearner's aclion unliI lhe end. Kee viclory
uncerlain unliI lhe Iearner meels aII of lhe Iearning ob|eclives.
# Iresenl a series of aulhenlicaIIy difficuIl chaIIenges ralher lhan a rogression of simIe
chaIIenges.
# Make lhe Iearner a characler in lhe game ralher lhan |usl an observer.
# Irovide dramalic, secific feedback ralher lhan uniformIy osilive, suorlive
feedback onIy. If Iearners make a mislake, leII lhem so oIileIy and cIearIy.
TEACH THROUGH FEEDBACK
In games, Iearning occurs because of feedback. Therefore, ve musl syslemalicaIIy design
feedback lhal educales, informs, and molivales lhe Iearner.
Provide intrinsic feedback
The smoolh fIov of lhe game can be inlerruled by deIivery of feedback. Mosl good
games deIiver feedback naluraIIy vilhin lhe conlexl of lhe game.


Wilhin games, feedback lakes lvo forms: inlrinsic and exlrinsic. |nirinsic feedback is
feedback rovided from eoIe and lhings vilhin lhe slory of lhe game. |xirinsic
feedback is rovided from oulside lhe game's slory.
Intrinsic Iccdback Extrinsic Iccdback
# Words, geslures, body Ianguage, faciaI
exressions, and lone of voice of olher
characlers in lhe game.
# Resonses by machines, comuler
rograms, and olher ob|ecls simuIaled.
# Changes in lhe visuaI disIay of lhe
game's simuIaled environmenl.
# Un-requesled coaching feedback.
# Gauges, diaIs, and olher indicalors nol
in lhe slory.
# Righl or Wrong afler each sle.
# Nagging by an irreIevanl characler
vilhin lhe game.
Where you can, use inlrinsic feedback. Il is more direcl and does nol inlerrul lhe fIov of
lhe game or uII lhe Iearner oul of lhe slory al hand. Wilh inlrinsic feedback, correcl
aclions conlinue lhe fIov of lhe game in lhe direclion lhe Iearner indicaled. Indicalions of
lhe correclness of lhe aclion may be sublIe, such as body Ianguage or a faciaI exression of
a characler or lhe accomIishmenl of a minor goaI.

Here lhe vilness's vords
and body Ianguage
rovide cIear feedback
lhal lhe revious queslion
vas loo abrul.
Likevise, negalive feedback can be deIivered in lhe conlexl of lhe game: The inlended
aclion faiIs. A characler resonds lhrough negalive body Ianguage, geslures, or faciaI
exressions. A door remains Iocked.
If you musl in|ecl exIicil feedback, kee il shorl and cIear. }usl Correcl or Incorrecl is
usuaIIy sufficienl. Resisl lhe lemlalion lo exIain vhy an aclion vas vrong. Have lhe
game Iay reveaI lhe cause of lhe faiIure or record lhe reasons lo a Iog lhal lhe Iearner can
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Inject educational feedback where needed
Anolher aroach does inlerrul Iay lo rovide exIicil feedback aimed al deIivering
secific educalionaI messages. Ior examIe:
Correct. You can also use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl-S to save your file.
No. Save As! would save your file under another name. You want the plain Save
command.
Incorrect. Let me show you what you should have done.
Such feedback may be |uslified lo correcl a misconcelion lhal couId cause robIems if nol
immedialeIy correcled.
Provide continual feedback
Irovide feedback frequenlIy enough lo revenl Iearners from beIieving lhey are
succeeding vhen lhey are faiIing. IaiIing lo fIag incorrecl aclions can reinforce lhose
aclions and make lhem harder lo unIearn.

Nolice hov lhis quiz shov game rovides
feedback afler each queslion and osls a
running score. (The score and feedback
areas are highIighled.)


This |ig sav uzzIe game
re|ecls allemls lo inserl
ieces lhal do nol fil vilh
lhose aIready in Iace. And il
briefIy exIains vhy lhe
alleml does nol vork. (The
incorrecl uzzIe iece and
feedback are highIighled.)
Does lhis mean lhal you musl rovide feedback lo every aclion by lhe Iearner` No, nol al
aII. Here are some common-sense excelions:
# If an aclion is mereIy irreIevanl, you may vanl lo Iel Iearners discover lhe mislake on
lheir ovn.
# Ior lesls, do nol rovide feedback lhal Iearners viII nol have in lhe reaI vorId.
# Omil feedback lhal Iearners consider dislracling or annoying.
But give crucial feedback immediately
In games and simuIalions, immedialeIy varn Iearners of lhe dangerous consequences of
aclions. y deferring feedback, Iearners may beIieve lhal lheir aclions vere harmIess.

Ior examIe, in a simuIalion of oeraling-
room rocedures, any mislake lhal couId
harm lhe alienl is immedialeIy and
forcefuIIy broughl lo lhe Iearner's allenlion.
Make lhe feedback obvious, cIear, and non-|udgmenlaI. Don'l scoId lhe Iearner, bul oinl
oul lhe error and lhe correcl aclion in lhe silualion.


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Confront bad behavior and choices
AIIov Iearners lo exerience lhe consequences of negalive behavior, dangerous aclions,
and bad choices. Il is axiomalic lhal games cannol leach Iearners lo avoid a choice if lhe
Iearner is never aIIoved lo make lhal choice.

In Tnc Crincsccnc Ganc, lhe
Iearner can make a cIearIy
racisl commenl.

The feedback for choosing a
racisl commenl ends lhe
game vilh a slern varning
lo lhe Iearner's characler in
lhe game.
Give exlreme feedback for exlreme faiIures. If lhe Iearner does somelhing severeIy vrong,
correcl lhe Iearner immedialeIy Iesl lhe Iearner conlinue unavare of lhe severily of lhe
faiIure.


Defer lengthy feedback
WhiIe ve vanl lo rovide conlinuaI feedback lo Iearners, ve musl be carefuI nol lo
dislracl or overvheIm Iearners vilh lhe voIume of our feedback. One soIulion is lo
rovide minimaI feedback vilhin lhe Iay of lhe game and lhen rovide more delaiIed
feedback al lhe end of lhe game or al IogicaI breaks in lhe aclion. This comrehensive
feedback may lake lhe form of an afler-aclion reviev lhal commenls on lhe Iearner's
aclions lhroughoul lhe game.

In lhis aIlernalive version of
Tnc Crincsccnc Ganc, lhe
gameIay ends vilh |usl such
an afler-aclion reviev lhal
recas lhe Iearner's aclions
and rovides delaiIed
commenls on lhem.

uiIl using Microsofl Nolead and cuslom
horlon.com/eId/.
Anticipate feedback (feedforward?)
Ireare resonses lo execled aclions by Iearners. Think aboul lhe mislakes Iearners viII
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Here is an examIe of feedback reared
for use by lhe faciIilalor vho Iays a roIe
in a muIli-Iayer game.
Iach ilem of feedback indicales exaclIy vhal aclion shouId lrigger lhe feedback, vhal lhe
aclion indicales aboul lhe Iearner's accomIishmenl of inlended ob|eclives, and lhe exacl
resonse lo be given lo guide lhe Iearner.
Enable learning through a variety of experiences
In games, Iayers Iearn by exerience: Their exeriences in lhe game cause lhem lo
discover lhe concels, rinciIes, rocedures, knovIedge, and alliludes lhal Iead lo
success. Ior exerience lo leach il musl be meaningfuI and IenlifuI.

In lhis examIe lhe Iearner is lhe manager
of a lree farm. To make lhe exerience more
meaningfuI, lhe Iearner can sel lhe goaIs for
lhe game: shorl-lerm rofil, Iong-lerm
eslale grovlh, environmenlaI roleclion, or
some olher goaI. These fIexibIe goaIs
encourage Iearners lo lry differenl
aroaches, vhich rovide a vide variely
of exeriences.
The exerience is enriched by lhe robIems lhal lhe Iearner musl confronl: fIuclualing
rices, droughls, ine beelIes, and cash fIov difficuIlies. AmIe exerience is ensured by


lhe facl lhal lhe simuIalion can run for Iong eriods of lime as Iearners lry differenl
slralegies and laclics. In an hour of game-Iay lhe Iearner can acquire lhe exeriences of
severaI cenluries. Games Iike lhis are eseciaIIy usefuI for leaching sub|ecls for vhich a
human Iifesan is loo shorl for Iearning by ersonaI exerience.
Provide complete, detailed feedback
Teaching comIex, difficuIl ob|eclives viII require comIele, delaiIed feedback.

Ior inslance, feedback for Trcc |arning
101 is muIli-dimensionaI as shovn in
lhis slalus reorl.
Rich feedback, Iike lhis, encourages
Iearners lo confronl lhe
inlerconnecledness in syslems and lo
adol more sohislicaled slralegies lo
soIving robIems.

This examIe, from a game lhal
chaIIenges Iearners lo order meaIs lo
meel secific nulrilionaI goaIs, revievs
lhe Iearner's choices.
Nolice lhal il rovides a comIele
exIanalion of lhe resuIls for each choice.
Secific differences belveen lhe goaI and
lhe resuIls are noled. y cIicking on an
individuaI food choice, lhe Iearner can
Iearn more aboul lhe nulrilionaI
conlribulion of lhal dish. The Try again
bullon offers lhe oorlunily for lhe
Iearner lo refine lhe resuIls unliI lhe goaI
is mel.


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Help learners correct mistakes
HeI Iearners undersland and correcl lheir mislakes, vhelher hysicaI missles or
conceluaI misunderslandings.

In lhis examIe, lhe Iearner
made a mislake vhen
fiIIing in severaI differenl
fieIds on lhe form.
Nole lhal lhe error message
oinls oul exaclIy vhich
fieId conlains lhe error.

Secific error messages shouId idenlify lhe ilem or ilems in error. Il shouId oinl oul
vhere lo Iocale lhe error on lhe screen. Il shouId seII oul lhe lye of error, for examIe
lhal lhe vaIue enlered vas loo high or loo Iov. An error message may aIso leII Iearners
lhe correcl resonse.
Kee in mind lhal lhe comIeleness of lhe error message shouId suil lhe Iearner's IeveI of
Iearning and your leaching slralegy. You may vanl lo vilhhoId some informalion in
order lo chaIIenge Iearners lo diagnose and correcl lheir ovn mislakes. You may even
vanl lo Iayer error messages. An iniliaI message |usl oinls oul lhal lhe Iearner made a
mislake and suggesls lhe generaI nalure of lhe mislake. A second error message, vhen
requesled by lhe Iearner, seIIs oul lhe delaiIs of lhe mislake and rescribes correclive
aclion.
Offer abundant practice
IIenlifuI raclice gives oorlunilies for discovery, heIs Iearners refine lheir slralegy
and laclics, smoolhs and aulomales erformance, and buiIds confidence. The key lo
offering abundanl raclice is lo aIIov enough allemls for dee Iearning lo occur.


IncIude a Try again or Rcp!ay bullon lo
Iel Iearners alleml lhe goaI again, such
as in lhis examIe.
Iven successfuI Iearners may lake you u on lhe offer, eilher lo furlher hone lheir skiIIs or
lo ensure lhal lheir success vas nol |usl Iuck.
You can offer lvo kinds of addilionaI raclice. One mereIy Iels Iearners lry again vilh lhe
same condilions as before. This is eseciaIIy vaIuabIe afler Iearners have faiIed lo
accomIish a goaI and do nol vanl lo give u unliI lhey succeed. The second kind of
addilionaI raclice varies lhe condilions lo resenl lhe Iearner vilh a fresh chaIIenge lo
accomIish lhe same ob|eclive.
Acknowledge achievement
Videogames kee Iayers molivaled by recognizing imroved erformance, lyicaIIy by
Ielling lhem advance lo a higher IeveI in lhe game or by romoling lhem lhrough a series
of ranks. We can do lhe same.

Here ve romole lhe Iearner lo a
higher rank lo recognize lhal lhey
have maslered some difficuIl
maleriaI.


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PROGRESSIVELY CHALLENGE LEARNERS
Design games lo arorialeIy chaIIenge Iearners bolh vhen lhey slarl lhe game and as
lhey gain maslery.
Challenge learners
Design lhe game so il chaIIenges Iearners al aII IeveIs of skiII and hases of Iearning. You
can design comelilion inlo lhe game so Iayers comele againsl one anolher. Or
chaIIenge Iearners lo lo lhe besl scores of olhers or lheir earIier besl efforls. As Iearners
gain more skiII al lhe game, Iimil hov Iong lhey can lake for each lurn. Anolher good
lechnique for chaIIenging aII Iearners is caIIed scaffoIding and fading.
Scajjc|!ing refers lo lhe suorl ve rovide Iearners lo ensure lhey succeed. As Iearners
Iearn lhe lask, ve reduce scaffoIding or suorl (ja!ing) so lhey vork more on lheir ovn.
These caIIouls iIIuslrale lhree IeveIs of scaffoIding:
High scaIIn!ding Mcdium scaIIn!ding Lnw scaIIn!ding

The Iov-scaffoIding examIe rovides a generaI roml lhal requires Iearners lo lake
severaI reIaled sles al a lime. Learners musl decide vhal individuaI aclions are required,
Iocale lhe Iace lo carry oul each aclion, and erform lhem aII. This is cerlainIy more
chaIIenging and reaIislic lhan receiving delaiIed inslruclions for each aclion, as shovn in
lhe high-scaffoIding examIe.
Whal do ve Iel Iearners figure oul on lheir ovn` In a comuler simuIalion, ve mighl slarl
by requiring lhem lo decide vhere lo cIick. We Iel lhem find lhe needed bullon, icon, or
olher ob|ecl on lhe screen. We mighl leII lhem lo enler dala, bul Iel lhem decide in vhich
fieId lo enler il. We mighl aIso Iel Iearners decide hov lo formal lhe dala. We can aIso
hrase our romls so ve leII Iearners vhal lhey musl do, bul nol lhe order in vhich lo
erform aclions.


Il shouId come as no surrise lhal lhis advice requires sensilivily. You musl baIance lhe
need lo vean lhe Iearner from exIicil romls and inslruclions againsl lhe danger of
Ieaving lhe Iearner cIueIess. Mighl ve suggesl a couIe of rounds of lesling`
Ratchet up the challenge

Make lhe game easy lo slarl bul hard lo masler.
Learners, regardIess of lheir skiII IeveIs, shouId find lhe
game chaIIenging lhroughoul.
Ior examIe, lhis quiz-shov game rovides
queslions al various IeveIs of difficuIly. The
Iov-vaIue queslions are easy enough for
novices and lhe high-vaIue ones chaIIenging
enough for exerls.
Irogressive chaIIenge can aIso come from a
sequence of lasks, each more difficuIl lhan
lhe revious.

In lhe HTMI Ia|craicrq,
Iearners are chaIIenged lo enler
HTML code in lhe middIe
coIumn lo creale rogressiveIy
more comIex disIays, as
shovn in lhe GoaI coIumn. The
bullons al lhe lo of lhe GoaI
coIumn Iel Iearners advance lo
more chaIIenging goaIs or
relreal lo simIer ones.


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Give closure between phases
Give cIosure belveen hases of a Iong Iearning sequence. SignaI lhe end of hases in lhe
overaII sequence.

In lhis examIe from
GAI|NA S|cpc Sia|i|iiq
Ana|qsis, lhe Afler lab
announces lhe end of one
hase of lhe aclivily before
lhe Iearner begins lhe nexl
hase.
To signaI lhe end of a hase, ve recommend you:
# Slale lhe resuIls so far.
# Reca lhe sles of lhe hase |usl comIeled.
# Ireviev lhe nexl hase.
# Invile lhe Iearner lo conlinue.
Il is a good idea lo have a cIosure oinl every 5 lo 7 sles in a Iong lask. Hovever, lhe
cIosure oinls shouId occur al IogicaI breaks in lhe rocedure, nol afler an arbilrary
number of sles. Look for Iaces vhere a iece of vork has been comIeled and ul lhe
cIosure oinl lhere.


Control the rhythm of difficulty
A smoolh Iearning curve is good, bul a bumy curve may be beller. Learning imroves if
ve aIlernale hard and easy aclivilies.
Gnnd Bcttcr

Wilhin each segmenl of Iearning, chaIIenge increases. In lhe game, lension rises lo a mini-
crisis al lhe end of each eisode or mission. This is foIIoved by a reIaxalion. To imIemenl
lhis in a Iearning game, ve simIy foIIov difficuIl aclivilies vilh simIer ones. The
difficuIl aclivilies drive Iearners lo make breaklhrough discoveries or accel difficuIl
lrulhs. The easier aclivilies sIov lhe ace lo give Iearners lime lo refIecl and lo digesl
vhal lhey have Iearned.
Lov-lension evenls can incIude:
# CongraluIalions lo lhe Iearner for maslering difficuIl ob|eclives.
# Reviev of vhal vas Iearned.
# Ioinling oul hov far lhe Iearner has come.
# IIeasanl sighls and sounds more Iike a vacalion lhan combal.
Require consolidating small steps
Require Iearners lo consoIidale smaII bils of Iearning, such as lhe sles of a comIex lask.
Once Iearners have Iearned lhe smaII sles, leach combinalions of sles. IncIude aclivilies
lhal require Iearners lo combine smaII aclions lo erform Iarger unils of vork. MereIy
leaching smaII, eIemenlaI aclions may nol be sufficienl rearalion for aIying skiIIs in
lhe reaI vorId.


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Ear!y: 5cparatc stcps Latcr: Whn!c prnccdurc

Comared lo lhe firsl examIe, lhe second examIe requires Iearners lo fiII in muIliIe
fieIds in a diaIog boxas one consoIidaled aclivily. Il requires Iearners lo ma ilems of
dala lo lhe aroriale fieIds and enler lhem lhere.
Such an aroach heIs you avoid needIess reelilion and kees you from leaching
microscoic delaiIs lhal Iearners aIready knov or couId figure oul on lheir ovn.
Remember: No amounl of efforl vhalsoever viII leach Iearners somelhing lhey aIready
knov. Allemling viII |usl bore lhem vilh needIess reelilion.
MANAGE GAME COMPLEXITY
Life is comIex and lhe variely of olenliaI exeriences unbounded. Thus, lhe more
reaIislic ve make a game, lhe more comIicaled becomes ils deveIomenl. CIever design
is necessary lo kee lhe game easy lo comrehend, navigale, and buiId. CIever design is
eseciaIIy imorlanl for branching games Iike lask simuIalions and branching scenarios.
Beware combinatorial explosion
Games are sub|ecl lo lhe malhemalicaI henomenon caIIed ccn|inaicria| cxp|csicn. Imagine
lhal ve have a branching scenario vhere each scene resenls lhe Iearner vilh a choice of
four vays lo roceed. Irom lhe slarling scene, lhe Iearner can |um lo one of lhe four
resuIling scenes. In each of lhese four scenes, lhe Iearner has four choices. So, lvo
decisions vilh four choices vouId require 16 searale deslinalions. If each of lhese has
four choices, 64 deslinalions are needed. AddilionaI decisions require 256, 1024, and 4096
deslinalions scenes successiveIy. A simIe game lhal aIIovs lhe Iearners onIy six decisions
of four choices each vouId require crealing over 4000 deslinalion scenes!


A simIe oulvard-branching slruclure such as lhis is loo comIex lo design, buiId,
mainlain, or navigale. This is vhere cIever design comes lo lhe rescue
Menu excursions
One aIlernalive lo revenl lhe combinaloriaI exIosion is a menu-based excursion.

Here lhe Iearner chooses a alh off lhe
menu, makes a fev sles, and lhen
relurns lo lhe menu for anolher choice.
Iach branch Ieading off lhe menu can
accomIish a singIe ob|eclive.


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In lhis ma of lhe scenes of Tnc Crincsccnc Ganc, you see arrovs radialing from a cenlraI
menu. Afler a fev scenes, lhe arrovs oinl lo a circIe vilh and A in lhe cenler. This
reresenls lhe |um back lo lhe cenlraI menu.

As you can see here, lhe menu offers
IausibIe choices of queslions lo ask
lhe vilness.
Such a cenlraI menu is nol ideaI bul is a ragmalic vay lo handIe navigalion. Mosl
Iearners readiIy accel lhe ficlion of lhe recurring menueseciaIIy if ve make lhe slory
engaging.


Mission-sequential structure
In lhe mission-sequenliaI slruclure Iearners roceed lhrough a series of missions. Iach
mission slarls vilh a singIe scene from vhich Iearners branch oul unliI lhey faiI or
succeed al accomIishing lhe ob|eclive of lhal mission. Their individuaI alhvays lhen
converge on a scene lhal recas lhe |usl-comIeled mission and begins lhe nexl one.

This slruclure vorks besl for ob|eclives lhal can be laughl in sequence. Iach mission can
lhen accomIish one Iearning ob|eclive.
If Iearners musl comIele one ob|eclive (mission) before moving on lo lhe nexl, you may
require lhe Iearner lo reeal lhe mission unliI successfuIIy comIeling il. efore reslarling
lhe mission, Iearners may receive addilionaI feedback or may |usl be admonished lo lhink
aboul vhal lhey Iearned in lheir unsuccessfuI alleml.


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Here is an examIe of lhe end of
an unsuccessfuI mission.

Short-leash strategy
In lhe shorl-Ieash slralegy, Iearners are nol aIIoved lo slray far from lhe successfuI alh.

In lhis slruclure, lhe main alh Ieads direclIy lo successfuI comIelion of lhe goaI.
Learners, hovever, can slray from lhis main alh. Gelling more lhan a fev sles of lhe
alh lriggers correclive guidance lhal nudges lhem back lovard lhe successfuI alh.
This slruclure vorks veII for leaching lasks vhere a series of missles can Iead lo
disasler. In lhe aneslhesia-deIivery simuIalion (. 336), Iearners can make mislakes unliI
lhey lry an aclion lhal vouId endanger lhe alienl. Al lhal oinl, feedback sleers lhem
back on lrack (. 362).


Safari structure
The safari slruclure gives lhe Iearner more Ieevay lo err and lo succeed lhan lhe shorl-
Ieash slralegy. In lhe safari slruclure Iearners can slray from lhe main alh. The cenlraI
alh Ieads lo an adequale bul nol lriumhanl resuIl. Gelling more lhan a fev sles in one
direclion Ieads lo disasler. Gelling a fev sles off lhe main alh in anolher direclion Ieads
lo immediale lriumh.

The safari slruclure Iimils comIexily vhiIe roviding Ienly of room for Iearning lhe
consequences of osilive and negalive aclions. Il aIso rovides a vay for Iearners vho
aIready meel lhe ob|eclives lo byass game Iay lhal vouId leach lhem nolhing.
Breakthrough structure
In lhe breaklhrough slruclure, lhe inlernaI slale of lhe game lriggers comIelion of lhe
game. The lrigger can be achievemenl of a largel goaI or lhe commission of loo many
mislakes.
TyicaIIy lhe game vorks Iike lhis. The slory roceeds aIong a singIe alh. Iach decision
aIong lhal alh earns oinls for correcl resonses and cosls oinls for incorrecl resonses.
If lhe cumuIalive score exceeds a lhreshoId, lhe game is comIeled and lhe Iearner
receives congraluIalions. If lhe score faIIs beIov a Iover lhreshoId, lhe game is Iosl and
lhe Iearner is given aroriale feedback.


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This inlerviev game
conlains a hidden variabIe
lhal reresenls lhe
inlervievee's IeveI of
anger. If lhal variabIe rises
above a lhreshoId, lhe
inlervievee abrulIy
lerminales lhe inlerviev.
The slruclure is simIe lo conslrucl and simIe lo navigale. Learners need send no more
lime on lhe game lhan necessary lo achieve lhe goaI or demonslrale lhal lhey need
suIemenlaI heI.


SIMPLIFY LEARNING THE GAME
Make games easy lo slarl and lo Iay. Lel Iearners concenlrale on Iearning lhe sub|ecl you
are leaching ralher lhan on Iearning lhe game.
Guide actions with instructions
Give Iearners access lo inslruclions for lhe game. Do nol force inslruclions on Iearners, bul
Iel lhem requesl assislance vhen lhey need il. Ior examIe, Trcc |arning 101 has lhree
bullons lo disense lhe fuII range of informalion Iearners may need.

The Instructinns bullon
disIays concise
direclions for inleracling
vilh lhe game. The Hc!p
bullon rovides more
exlensive inslruclions.
The Bnnk bullon Iinks lo
conceluaI informalion
needed lo vin lhe game.
Explain the game clearly
Irovide inslruclions for your game. IxIain lhe goaI cIearIy. Make cIear any Iimilalions,
such as lhe amounl of lime avaiIabIe. Learners may re|ecl any game lhal imoses arbilrary
or unfair ruIes. And il is Iearners vho decide vhich ruIes are unfair. Cover lhese oinls:
# What is thc gna!? Whal is lhe Iearner lo accomIish in lhe game` Hov is success
defined` Can Iearners sel goaIs for lhemseIves`
# What rn!cs dn !carncrs p!ay? Are Iearners execled lo Iay lhe roIe of a arlicuIar
characler` Whal are lhe molivalions, vaIues, and goaIs of lhal characler`
# Hnw dn !carncrs gct startcd? Learners oflen hesilale lo lake lhe firsl sle. To gel lhe
game under vay, suggesl a slarling slralegy Iike, Why don'l you begin vilh safe


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inveslmenls` Or, rovide a hinl Iike, Issssl! Look in your in-baskel. Or require
aclion vilhin a shorl amounl of lime: We need your decision in 2 minules or An
aIarm |usl sounded on lhe masler conlroI aneI. eller check il oul. SmoolhIy and
naluraIIy roeI Iearners inlo lheir roIe vilhin lhe game.
# What arc thc ru!cs? If lhe game mimics a silualion, seII oul lhe ruIes lhal eoIe in
lhal silualion vouId knov. If lhe game behaves in unreaIislic vays, make lhese
excelions cIear. You do nol need lo leII Iearners hov lo beal lhe game, |usl hov lo
Iay il veII enough so lhal lhey are Iearning lhe lhings lhey vouId Iearn in lhe reaI
vorId.
# Hnw dn thcy npcratc thc gamc? TeII Iearners hov lo oerale lhe Iearner inlerface of
lhe game. Hov do lhey lransIale reaI-vorId aclions, such as making a hone caII or
seIIing a slock, inlo cIicking, lying, dragging, and droing` In some designs, lhis
informalion is in a searale HeI faciIily.
Start with training wheels
If game Iay is comIex or lhe lasks simuIaled is difficuIl, lake seciaI care lo gel Iearners
slarled successfuIIy. One vay is a lraining-vheeIs aroach.
TeII Iearners nev lo lhe lask exaclIy vhal lo do. Ior Iearners vho have never erformed
lhe rocedure or any simiIar rocedure, make sure you rovide exIicil direclions.
Whal do you need lo leII novices` Anylhing lhey do nol aIready knov or are nol cerlain
lo figure oul on lheir ovn.

This examIe leIIs lhe Iearner exaclIy vhich menu
ilem lo ick. Nolice lhal lhe menu is aIready exosed
so lhe Iearner has a big hinl as lo vhere lhey viII find
lhe menu ilem.
Ior a comuler lask, lhese viII incIude vhere lo cIick, lhal is vhal bullon, menu, or icon
lo cIick.

TeII novice Iearners exaclIy vhal lo lye and vhere lo
lye il. Ior Iisls of olions, leII Iearners vhich lo seIecl
and vhich nol lo seIecl.

If you vanl Iearners lo nolice somelhing on lhe screen, leII Iearners vhere lo Iook.


If severaI lhings occur al once, leII Iearners
vhal lhey shouId nolice and vhal lhey
shouId allend lo.

WhiIe ve're being exIicil, Iel's exIicilIy slale lhal lhis advice can be overdone, eseciaIIy
if your Iearners are nol novices or lhe skiIIs you are leaching are advanced. Iroviding
Iov-IeveI inslruclions can dislracl Iearners from nolicing allerns, lrends, and rinciIes.
}usl ask yourseIf lvo queslions: Whal do I vanl Iearners lo Iearn` And, vhal do lhey
knov aIready` IxIicilIy leII Iearners lhe lhings you vanl lhem lo Iearn lhal lhey do nol
knov aIready.
Assist when needed
Design lhe game so Iearners can begin vilh IillIe rearalion and conlinue Iearning aboul
lhe game by Iaying il. AIong lhe vay Iearners may need assislance lo undersland lhe
game disIay and hov lhey are lo inleracl vilh il.


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The revious examIe shovs some of lhe common forms of assislance Iearners may need.
Al any oinl, lhey shouId be abIe lo redisIay lhe goaI lhey are lo accomIish, eseciaIIy if
il is comIex or conlains recise secificalions, as does lhis one.
You may aIso need lo exIain lhe symboIogy of lhe simuIalion, eseciaIIy lhe conlroIs lhal
lhe Iearner can maniuIale so lhal lhe Iearner can drav corresondences belveen lhe
simuIalion and lhe reaI vorId. Ior novices, you may vanl lo incIude a bullon lo Iay a
demonslralion shoving hov lhey are lo inleracl in lhe simuIalion. TyicaIIy lhis
demonslralion shovs erformance of an anaIogous lask bul nol lhe exacl one lhe Iearner
is lo erform.
Show solution after a few attempts
Require Iearners lo alleml lhe lask. Give Iearners one or lvo allemls before shoving
lhem lhe soIulion.

In lhis examIe, lhe Iearner has faiIed
lvice lo carry oul lhe inslruclions.
Afler each alleml, lhe error vas
oinled oul and lhe inslruclions
redisIayed.

Here, lhe Iearner has faiIed lhe lhird
alleml. Nov lhe simuIalion
demonslrales lhe correcl rocedure lo
allain lhe soIulion.
Do nol Iel Iearners slaII because lhey do nol undersland inslruclions or |usl cannol
erform one sle in a rocedure. Correcl lhe Iearner and move on afler a reasonabIe
number of sles. Or incIude a Shov hov bullon lo demonslrale lhe correcl resonse and a
Nexl bullon lo conlinue vilh lhe nexl sle.


Let learners request assistance
Lel Iearners gel rogressiveIy more delaiIed inslruclions.
You mighl slarl lhe aclivily vilh generaI inslruclions lhal vouId be sufficienl for an
exerienced Iearner lo comIele lhe lask. If lhe Iearner requesls a hinl, you mighl leII
lhem vhal lo do lo comIele lhe nexl sle. If lhe Iearner lhen requesls more assislance,
you couId leII lhem exaclIy hov lo do il.
Three IeveIs of assislance are usuaIIy sufficienl. Making assislance avaiIabIe on demand
Iels Iearners erform as much of lhe lask on lheir ovn as lhey can. Il avoids deIivering
informalion lhal Iearners do nol need.
Include pertinent hints
To encourage Iearning, you oflen need lo guide and direcl lhe Iearner's ercelion and
lhinking.

In lhis examIe, lhe Iearner has requesled
a hinl by cIicking lhe Hinl bullon. Nolice
lhal hinl imIies, bul does nol leII, vhal
lhe Iearner musl do.
Whal are some olher hinls ve can incIude` Commenls aboul hov lhe disIay is organized
can heI Iearners find individuaI ilems and make a sravIing disIay seem more IogicaI
and coherenl.
Anolher hinl is hov lo confirm success. Oflen, nev Iearners viII nol knov vhelher lheir
Iasl aclion vas successfuI or nol. We can incIude exIicil congraluIalions al each sle. Or,
lo make lhem more seIf-reIianl Iearners, ve can simIy leII lhem hov lo monilor lheir
ovn success by nolicing changes in lhe user inlerface.


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Simplify the display for quick response
Where Iearners musl resond quickIy, simIify lhe disIay lo remove dislraclions and
irreIevanl cIick largels.

Ior examIe, during lhis financiaI
simuIalion vhiIe lhe vaIue of lhe
Iearner's inveslmenl fIucluales, lhe user-
inlerface conlains onIy one bullon, 5c!!,
because lhal is lhe onIy reIevanl aclion
lhe Iearner can erform.
SimIify lhe disIay vhen quick resonse is required. Make cIear hov lo resond and
make lhal resonse a simIe one.
Minimize distractions
Remove anylhing irreIevanl lo Iearning vilhin lhe game.

Nolice lhe sarse disIay in lhis
limed game lhal requires
Iearners lo seIecl lhe correcl
bubbIe in lhe diagram.
Arlvork is deIiberaleIy simIe
and dravn in soolhing asleI
and earlh-lone coIors.
Navigalion bullons are hidden
during game Iay and no
background sounds or music
inlerfere vilh lhe Iearner's
concenlralion.


Accept all successful actions
e avare of lhe aIlernalive vays of erforming aclions. Ior examIe, make sure your
comuler simuIalions accel shorlcul menus, righl-cIick menus, conlroI-cIicks, and
keyboard shorlculs.
In lhis examIe, lhe simuIalion accels muIliIe vays of erforming lhe required lask.
Once Iearners find one vay lo comIele lhe lask, lhe simuIalion chaIIenges lhem lo find
an aIlernalive vay or lvo.

If acceling aII successfuI aclions vouId make lhe simuIalion loo comIex, omil
aIlernalives bul exIain lhal lhey are nol rovided in lhe simuIalion lhough lhey vouId
be resenl in lhe reaI syslem. In your inslruclions for lhe lask lo erform, you can
menlion reslriclions, such as, Use onIy lhe menus al lhe lo of lhe screen.
DESIGN COACHED TASK SIMULATIONS
The coached lask simuIalion (aIso knovn as a ccacn-nc aclivily) guides lhe Iearner in
erforming lhe simuIaled lask. Il rovides cIear romls for each sle in lhe rocedure
and meaningfuI feedback on lhe success of each sle laken by lhe Iearner.
Wilhin lhe coach-me aclivily, you can rovide varying IeveIs of suorl or scaffoIding. A
coach-me aclivily for beginners mighl rovide exIicil inslruclions for each sle (CIick
here. Tye '123' and ress Inler). Or il mighl rovide onIy generaI inslruclions (Inler


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lhe oslaI code.). The coach-me aclivily mighl vilhhoId inslruclions unliI requesled by
lhe Iearner.
The key design rinciIe of lhe coach-me aclivily is lhal lhe Iearner shouId never faiI for
Iack of informalion or succeed vilhoul lhinking.
Plan progressive interactivity
To Iifl Iearners from firsl acquainlance vilh lhe sub|ecl lo advanced skiIIs and knovIedge,
you musl Iead lhem lhrough a series of rogressiveIy more difficuIl aclivilies, each
buiIding on lhe Iasl and roviding aroriale chaIIenge. Think of il as designing a Iadder
vhere you musl decide lhe correcl sacing of lhe rungs.
Al lhe Iovesl rung, lhe Iearner erforms lhe simuIaled rocedure, bul is given exIicil
romls every sle of lhe vay. A more chaIIenging coach-me aclivily offers romls bul
requires lhe Iearner lo secificaIIy requesl lhem. SliII more seIf-reIiance resuIls vhen
Iearners foIIov oen-ended romls lhal suggesl vhal lo do bul nol exaclIy hov lo do il.
Iurlher u lhe Iadder, coach-me aclivilies rovide no romls, bul aIIov Iearners lo
requesl hinls vhen needed. Al lhe uer Iimil of lhe coach-me aclivily, Iearners receive
no assislance beyond hinls lhal aear vhen lhey make mislakes.
Architecture of coach-me activities
Coach-me aclivilies guide Iearners lhrough erforming a lask by requiring lhem lo do
aclions ralher lhan |usl valch lhem being erformed. Ior lhis reason, lhey require a
differenl combinalion and sequence of exeriences lhan do demonslralions.

Mosl coach-me aclivilies begin vilh inslruclions lhal lhe Iearner reads. Then lhe Iearner
erforms lhe necessary aclions before seeing resuIls and reading disIayed feedback. The
Iearner lhen cIicks a Nexl or Conlinue bullon lo move lo lhe nexl sle of lhe lask.
Learners vho erform lhe aclion incorreclIy vouId read correclive feedback before
allemling lhe aclion again.


One common varialion is lo omil lhe requiremenl lo cIick a bullon lo advance lo lhe nexl
sle, eseciaIIy for successfuI comIelion of lhe aclion vhere onIy minimaI feedback is
needed.
Anolher varialion is lo Iel Iearners requesl hinls or inslruclions vhen needed. Lel's Iook al
lhe archileclure for |usl such a coach-me aclivily.

This diagram shovs lhe common slruclure for each sle in lhe simuIaled lask. Al lhe slarl
of lhe sle, lhe Iearner sees a simuIaled screen vilhoul any romling. If lhe Iearner
makes lhe correcl resonse, lhe simuIalion shovs lhe resuIls and avails lhe nexl sle.
Learners, vho need a IillIe assislance, can cIick a Hint bullon lo reveaI a suggeslion for
vhal lo do. The suggeslion does nol leII lhe Iearner exaclIy vhal lo do, bul does guide lhe
Iearner lo lhink of lhe soIulion. A correcl resonse lhen uls lhe Iearner back on lrack.
If lhe hinl is nol sufficienl, lhe Iearner can cIick lhe 5hnw hnw bullon lo receive recise
inslruclions on vhere lo cIick and vhal lo lye. Once lhe Iearner foIIovs lhe direclions,
lhe simuIalion conlinues.
In lhis archileclure, lhe Iearner does nol have lo requesl a hinl before receiving exIicil
inslruclions. The Iearner can cIick lhe 5hnw hnw bullon al any lime.
The Iearner can aIso advance lo lhe nexl sle by ressing lhe Ncxt bullon.
The diagram shovn here is |usl one ossibIe archileclure for coach-me aclivilies. You
mighl choose lo have lhree IeveIs of assislance avaiIabIeor onIy one. You mighl choose
lo disIay romls or hinls vilhoul requiring lhe Iearner lo requesl lhem. esl raclices
do nol ordain any arlicuIar archileclure. esl raclices suggesl you seIecl an archileclure


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based on lhe difficuIly of lhe lask you are leaching and on Iearners' exerience
erforming simiIar lasks. Learners shouId be chaIIenged, bul nol fruslraled.
Let the learner control coaching
In coach-me aclivilies, rovide bullons lo enabIe rediclabIe navigalion. Do nol use lhe
Iinear Iayback conlroI lhal is used for demonslralions.
The robIem vilh lhe Iinear Iayback bar is lhal il advances lhrough lhe simuIalion frame
by frame. Thal means lhe conlroI may sle inlo lhe remediaI (hinl and direclions) frames,
even lhough lhe Iearner does nol need lhem and has nol requesled lhem.
Ior a coach-me aclivily, ve recommend a navigalion conlroI such as lhe one shovn here.
The exacl mix of bullons may vary, bul your navigalion shouId rovide lhese caabiIilies.

The navigalion bar shouId incIude bullons lo lrigger assislance. This examIe rovides a
Hint bullon lo disIay a suggeslion and a 5hnw hnw bullon lo disIay exIicil
inslruclions.
The navigalion bar shouId aIso incIude bullons lo sle forvard and backvard by
comIele unils of lhe lask. UsuaIIy lhese unils are individuaI sles or aclions. They
seIdom corresond lo singIe frames of lhe underIying animalion or simuIalion. This
examIe incIudes bullons lo reslarl lhe simuIalion from lhe beginning, lo |um back lo lhe
revious sle, lo |um forvard lo lhe nexl sle, and lo |um lo lhe end of lhe lask.
You may aIso vanl lo incIude a bullon lo Iel Iearners gel more heI. This examIe
incIudes a bullon lo disIay a heI screen lhal fuIIy exIains lhe bullons shovn here.
Your choice of bullons deends on lhe design of your simuIalion. Iaclors lhal viII affecl
your choice of navigalion bullons incIude:
# Degree of conlroI you vanl lo give Iearners.
# Sohislicalion and exerience of Iearners.
# Tye aclivily: coached or lesl.
# Learners' eyesighl.
# SeciaI deslinalions: Hinl, Shov-hov, and HeI.
# Informalion Iearners need, for examIe, lhe age number.
# Sace avaiIabIe for bullons.


DESIGN BRANCHING-SCENARIO GAMES
ranching scenarios Iel Iearners exerience lhe resuIls of lheir choices as lhey navigale a
comIex series of inleraclions. In branching-scenario games, Iearners exerience a scene
lhal caIIs for a choice. Afler making lhe choice, lhe scene changes in resonse lo lhal
choice and resenls lhe Iearner vilh more choices. This cycIe conlinues unliI lhe Iearner
achieves lhe goaI of lhe game.
Harvest storyline ideas
To creale engaging and meaningfuI scenes and slories, galher ideas on vhich lo base lhe
slory of lhe game. TaIk lo lhose rivy lo inleresling incidenls, such as suervisors,
cuslomer-suorl slaff, cIassroom leachers. Ask Whal vas your _____esl exerience`
# Haiesl or saddesl
# Iunniesl or scariesl
# Mosl reveaIing
Search lhe Web for case sludies, nevs slories, disaslers, or lriumhs from your fieId or an
anaIogous one.
Pick a situation
SeIecl a lask for lhe Iearner vilhin a simuIaled vorId. Here are some examIes:
Lcarning nb|cctivc 5ituatinn
Teach inlervievers lo robe oIileIy and
ersislenlIy.
IoIice inlerviev of a vilness lo a crime.
Teach mining engineers lo caIcuIale lhe
faclor of safely for mine sIoes.
Assignmenl from relend suervisor lo
caIcuIale lhe faclor of safely for a reaIislic
mine sIoe vilh aII reIevanl dala.
Teach suervisors lo decide vhelher lo
arove requesls for lime off lhe |ob.
Resond lo hone requesls for Ieave by
accessing avaiIabIe informalion in fiIes,
vilhin manuaIs, and from exerls.
Teach managers of lraining dearlmenls
lo move lo e-Iearning.
Iirsl 8-veeks on lhe |ob as chief Iearning
officer for a comany considering a move
lo e-Iearning. ReIace faiIed CLO.


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Map objectives to scenes
Ior each Iearning ob|eclive, secify a scene lhal leaches each ob|eclive. Ior an ob|eclive,
lhe scene describes a silualion caIIing for a decision by lhe Iearner. The choices avaiIabIe
lesl accomIishmenl of lhe immediale Iearning ob|eclive. If Iearners make lhe righl choice,
il indicales lhey mel lhe ob|eclive. A vrong choice indicales lhey have nol mel lhe
ob|eclive. A correcl choice lriggers anolher scene lhal rovides feedback lhal verifies
accomIishmenl of lhe ob|eclive. An incorrecl resonse vhisks lhe Iearner lo a scene
vhose feedback heIs leach lhe ob|eclive.

Derive specific objectives to teach
efore you begin crealing scenes lo leach ob|eclives, you may have lo refine your
ob|eclives so lhey are recise and exressed in lerms lhal fil lhe chosen silualion.
Ior examIe, lo leach inlervieving skiIIs, ve may slarl vilh high-IeveI ob|eclives based on
vhal successfuI inlervievers do. To accomIish lhese in a game, ve may have lo exress
more secific ob|eclives lhal can be laughl in a scene or lvo. We mighl ask, Hov do
successfuI inlervievers do vhal is necessary for success`


Ior examIe, successfuI inlervievers gel and mainlain raorl vilh lhe erson lhey
inlerviev. Thal goaI may require meeling more secific ob|eclives of inlroducing
lhemseIves, remaining oIile lhrough lhe inlerviev, avoiding overl chaIIenges, and
avoiding offensive commenls.
Translate objectives to a story
Ior a Iearning game, ob|eclives musl faII naluraIIy inlo evenls in lhe slory of lhe game. Ior
each Iearning ob|eclive, ve musl creale oorlunilies lo shov accomIishmenl of lhe
ob|eclive, lyicaIIy by behavior lhal indicales lhe correcl abiIily, knovIedge, beIief, or
feeIing. Iach oorlunily becomes a scene in lhe game.

The nexl sle is lo organize lhese scenes inlo scenarios lhal IogicaIIy Iead lo lhese
silualions. We organize lhe simuIalion by lhe scenario, nol by lhe Iogic of lhe ob|eclives.
Our goaI is lo make lhe slory seem IausibIe ralher lhan lo leach in lhe mosl IogicaIIy
efficienl sequence.


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Lel's Iook al an examIe. We slarl by icking one of lhe Iearning ob|eclives: Avoid overl
chaIIenges. Nexl ve lhink of a scene in lhe scenario of inlervieving a bank leIIer vho
vilnessed a robbery. This scene musl lesl accomIishmenl of lhe ob|eclive. We do so by
having lhe Iearner resond lo lhe leIIer's cIaim lhal she did nol recognize lhe bank robber.

Choices range from direclIy confronlalionaI and accusalory lo comIeleIy acceling.
Nexl, ve musl crafl scenes lo rovide feedback for each of lhese resonses. To do so, ve
decide hov lhe leIIer shouId reacl lo each resonse. Il is lhis resonse by lhe leIIer lhal
rovides lhe rimary feedback lo lhe Iearner.

We vouId need lo reeal lhis rocess for each ob|eclive and lhen veave lhe scenes and
lheir resonses inlo a branching nelvork lhal rovides a IausibIe slory.


Specify each scene
As a designer, you musl secify each scene in enough delaiI lhal lhe necessary media and
Iinkages can be crealed. Here is a simIe version of such a secificalion.

The Iresenlalion coIumn Iisls vhal lhe Iearner sees, reads, and hears in lhe scene. The
Choice coIumn Iisls lhe choices lhe Iearner can make, and lhe ResuIl coIumn skelches oul
lhe feedback lhe Iearner viII receive in lhe foIIoving scene.
efore acluaIIy roducing lhe media and Iinking lhe scenes, you may vanl lo creale a
more comIele secificalion, such as lhis one.


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In addilion lo lhe informalion in lhe simIe form, lhis one conlains oinls avarded for
choices and references lo reIaled secificalions. Choices are hyerIinked lo lhe
secificalions for lhe deslinalion scenes so you can rololye lhe game using |usl lhese
forms.
Thread together the scenes
Connecling lhe scenes in an enlerlaining and IausibIe vay can require a Iol of lriaI and
error. One vay lo do lhis is lo ul each scene and ils resonses on index cards or Pcsi-
iinoles.

Then you can lhink aboul hov lo connecl lhem, erhas ulling rerequisile ob|eclives
earIy in lhe sequence vhiIe mainlaining lhe inlegrily of lhe slory.


Add context-setting scenes
Such games lyicaIIy need lvo lyes of scenes: scenes lo lesl ob|eclives and addilionaI
scenes lo fIesh oul lhe slory, caIIed ccnicxi sccncs. Scenes lo lesl ob|eclives corresond
direclIy vilh lhe Iearning ob|eclives. The conlexl-selling scenes heI gIue lhem logelher.

Once you have your basic slruclure sel, consider adding conlexl-selling scenes belveen
lhe scenes vhere Iearners make choices. These conlexl-selling scenes can sel u lhe
silualion lhal caIIs for a choice so lhal il seems more naluraI and Iess rushed. Conlexl-
selling scenes can aIso rovide more delaiIed feedback on lhe receding choice. They aIso
rovide a bil of lension-reIief belveen difficuIl choices.
USE GAMES AS E-LEARNING COURSES
Games can serve as lhe basis for an enlire courseaIlhough many vouId caII il a |carning
cntircnncni ralher lhan a course.
Though seIdom comIele in ilseIf, a Iearning game can serve as lhe hearl of an enlire
e-Iearning efforl. Here's hov lhal mighl vork: A lyicaI Iearning game slarls vilh a brief
inlroduclion lhal frames lhe game by leIIing vhal is simuIaled and vhal viII be Iearned
in lhe game. Al lhis oinl, ve mighl give lhe Iearner lhe olion of Iearning by lhe game or
by a convenlionaI luloriaI. Mosl vouId ick lhe game. Surrised`


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Al some oinl, lhe Iearner reaIizes lhal lo vin lhe game il vouId heI lo knov more aboul
lhe sub|ecl of lhe game. Then lhe Iearner |ums lo lhe convenlionaI luloriaI for a IillIe
sludy. Afler Iearning a bil more aboul lhe sub|ecl, lhe Iearner relurns lo lhe game.
Learners may svilch back and forlh severaI limes during lhe e-Iearning.
Once lhe Iearner achieves lhe goaIs in lhe game, lhere foIIovs a quick reviev of lhe
concels. There is no lesl, because lhe game is lhe lesl. If Iearners can erform lhe lask in
lhe game, lhey can do il in lhe reaI vorId.
Of course, lhere are many varialions ossibIe in lhis fIov. Some Iearners refer lo slarl
vilh lhe luloriaI and Iearn aboul lhe sub|ecl before lrying lheir hand al lhe game. Olhers
forgo lhe game aIlogelher, and olhers never lasle lhe luloriaI.


IN CLOSING
Summary
# Games and simuIalions can rovide raclice, rovoke discoveries, and lesl Iearning.
They can serve as Do aclivilies, lesls, loics, Iessons, and courses.
# Games for Iearning range from simIe uzzIes lo environmenlaI simuIalions and
immersive roIe-Iaying games.
# Design lhe game so vinning requires accomIishing lhe Iearning ob|eclive.
# Ior dee Iearning, creale a micro-vorId vilh IausibIe goaIs, characlers, ob|ecls, and
ruIes.
# Design in rogressive chaIIenge so novices can gel slarled reIiabIy and even exerls
musl slruggIe lo masler lhe game.
# Teach lhrough feedback. Do nol Iimil feedback lo vords. Use changes lo ob|ecls in lhe
disIay as veII as body Ianguage and faciaI exressions of characlers.
# Manage comIexily lo kee lhe game simIe lo Iearn and inexensive lo deveIo.
For more
Ior heI designing queslions and cIues for quiz-shov games and vord uzzIes, see
Chaler 5 on lesls.
Ior simIe games, use avaiIabIe lemIales lo reduce lhe amounl of cuslom deveIomenl
required. Search for c-|carning ganc icnp|aics or |usl ganc icnp|aics.
Ior more on designing games, search for c-|carning gancs !csign.

399

Social
learning
Learning as and from a grou

SociaI media are changing lhe vay ve gel nevs, enlerlain ourseIves, and even find males.
Iogs have scooed nalionaI nevs nelvorks and debunked lheir Iead slories. Wikiedia
chaIIenges eslabIished commerciaI encycIoedias. Iacebook and Tviller are necessilies for
many in loday's sociely. No surrise, lhen, lhal sociaI media and lechniques are
lransforming Iearning and Ieading lo anolher branch on lhe e-Iearning lree.
ul sociaI Iearning is nol nev and does nol require sociaI media. SociaI Iearning began in
an ancienl cIassroom vhen one chiId lurned lo anolher and asked, Whal did lhe leacher
|usl say` Thal is, sociaI Iearning is Iearning from olher eoIeco-vorkers, feIIov
sludenls, exerls, consuIlanls, cuslomers, and consumers. Il is aIso lhe rocess of Iearning
in grous, bolh formaI and informaI. TechnoIogy |usl makes lhe Iearning more overfuI,
convenienl, and fun.
WHAT IS SOCIAL LEARNING?
In lhe conlexl of e-Iearning, lhe lerm sccia| |carning has severaI overIaing definilions.
Sorry, lhe fieId is loo nev for recise calegories.
A definition, sort of
SociaI Iearning invoIves Iearning by inleracling vilh olher eoIe. Those eoIe may be
eers, such as cIassmales or olhers in lhe same rofession, or lhey may be exerls, such as
a leacher or oulside aulhorily. An exerl is anybody vho can ansver a difficuIl queslion
or offer assislance. So, eers can be exerls loo.
!

400 ! Social learning ! E-Learning by Design

Inleraclion is aclive. IoIileIy Iislening lo someone Ieclure is nol sociaI, engaging in a IiveIy
queslion-and-ansver session is sociaI.
The inleraclion can be lhrough lhe direcl exchange of messages, such as e-maiI missives,
discussion-forum oslings, bIog enlries, or simIe lveels. Inleraclion can occur lhrough
conlenl crealed by olhers, such as sludenl-roduced sIide shovs or inlervievs.
SociaI Iearning is Iearner-driven. VirluaI-cIassroom courses usuaIIy invoIve some sociaI
Iearning bul are rimariIy exerl-driven, lhe chief exerl being lhe leacher.
SociaI Iearning advances lhe meaning of lhe vord |carning. Learning is nol |usl ulling
informalion inlo lhe brain for Ialer recaII, bul adding caabiIilies made ossibIe lhrough
sociaI inleraclion. The sociaI Iearner's manifeslo is: I am vhal I can do aIoneand vhal I
can do vilh lhe heI of olhers. You hire me, you gel my sociaI nelvork for free.
So what?
The over of an individuaI Iies in lhe abiIily lo accomIish goaIseilher aIone or vilh lhe
heI of olhers. The vaIue of a vorkforce is ils coIIeclive abiIily lo accomIish lhe
organizalion's mission. The slrenglh of a ouIalion, sociely, or civiIizalion is ils coIIeclive
abiIily lo carry oul lhe goaIs and ideaIs of lhe grou. The effecliveness of a cIass is ils
abiIily lo ensure lhal aII members meel lhe organizalion's ob|eclives and lheir ovn. SociaI
Iearning Ieverages lhe energy and inleIIecl of lhe grou lo accomIish lhose goaIs.
Consider the varieties of social learning
SociaI Iearning ranges from shorl, simIe evenls lo IifeIong Iearning rocesses. Here are
some forms and manifeslalions of sociaI Iearning you may recognize:
# Ieedback from olher Iearners, eseciaIIy if il lakes lhe form of an oen discussion.
# DiaIog vilh an exerl, coach, menlor or leacher.
# Consensus among grou members on hov lo ansver a queslion or roceed in a lask.
# CoIIaboralion on a singIe ro|ecl, invoIving inlegraling lhe conlribulions of leam
members.
# Discussions embedded in olher forms of e-Iearning.
# Grou aclivilies erformed by a leam or olher grou ralher lhan as individuaIs.
# Ierformance suorl rovided lo individuaIs by an onIine communily or rofessionaI
nelvork. The grou ansvers queslions and offers advice.
# uiIding a nelvork of on-caII advisors for heI soIving robIems years inlo lhe fulure.
# Assislance in leaching by grou members vho crilique vork, enforce slandards of
behavior, and correcl misconcelions.
# IndividuaIs Iearning lo funclion as members of a leam by deveIoing abiIilies lo
coIIaborale, share informalion, and molivale olhers.

E-Learning by Design " Social learning " 401

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# Team Iearning vhere a grou Iearns lo funclion as a unil, aIying lhe fuII range of
caabiIilies among members and deveIoing abiIilies nol ossibIe by any individuaI.
The diversily in lhis Iisl shovs lhal sociaI Iearning is nol a secific lechnique or looI. Il
mixes veII vilh olher forms of Iearning, you have cerlainIy encounlered il in virluaI-
cIassroom courses and Webinars, for examIe. IunclionaIIy, lhe lerm sccia| |carning is
more of an adverb lhan a noun because il concerns hov Iearning aclivilies occur bul does
nol change vhich human exeriences ve vish lo lrigger.
What is not social learning?
Il is easy lo confuse sociaI Iearning vilh some of ils cIose reIalives and ambilious
imilalors.
Nnt |ust using sncia! mcdia. SociaI is as sociaI does. An eIeclronic medium romoles
sociaI Iearning vhen a grou uses il lo communicale, coIIaborale, and coordinale. A
sreadsheel can be sociaI vhen used by a leam vho each conlribules lo ils design and
dala. Tviller is nol sociaI if no one commenls on lhe feed or relveels il.
Nnt |ust sncia! nctwnrking. SociaI Iearning is nol |usl using Tviller and Iacebook in
cIass. SociaI Iearning is nol aboul making friends bul buiIding a communily for Iearning
and rofessionaI suorl.
Nnt |ust administrativc uscs nI sncia! mcdia. SociaI media can be very heIfuI lo make
announcemenls, dislribule course maleriaIs, submil homevork, scheduIe office hours and
aoinlmenls, and rovide resources for reading and vieving. Though imorlanl, lhese
uses are nol in lhemseIves sociaI Iearning.
Nnt |ust Inr ncws. Using sociaI media lo communicale informalion is nol enough lo
quaIify as Iearning. Knoving lhal Version 3.2.1 of lhe soflvare shis on Wednesday is
usefuI informalion, bul il is nol lrue educalion.
What is the group?
SociaI Iearning lakes Iace vilhin a sociaI grou. Thal grou mighl incIude |usl a menlor
and rolege. Or il may incIude a vork leam, a cIass of sludenls, an organizalionaI
dearlmenl, a schooI or olher organizalion, a nalion, a rofession, or even lhe enlire
ouIalion of lhis Ianel.
The sociaI grou vhere Iearning occurs may be caIIed a leam, nelvork, or communily.
SeveraI such grous are eseciaIIy imorlanl vhen imIemenling ambilious sociaI
Iearning efforls:
# Cnmmunity nI practicc. Like-minded raclilioners engaged in lhe same endeavor or
vorking in lhe same fieId. The focus is on erforming vork vilhin lhe rofession.


# Lcarning cnmmunity. IeoIe vorking logelher lo Iearn lhe same generaI sub|ecl.
Somelimes caIIed |carning ccncris or a |carning ican. The focus is on Iearning lhe sub|ecl,
ralher lhan aIying lhe sub|ecl. The communily can incIude aIumni and somelimes
leachers.
# PrnIcssinna! nctwnrk. One's ersonaI conlacls vilhin a rofession. These incIude
eoIe vho can ansver queslions and offer advice.
# Pcrsnna! nctwnrk. One's friends and famiIy. This grou may use differenl looIs and
eliquelle from lhe olhers. Ils focus is on exchanging ersonaI, ralher lhan rofessionaI,
informalion.
Iach of lhese grous has ils Iace in sociaI Iearning. As designers ve musl invoIve lhe
righl grou in each aclivily ve rescribe.
HOW DO WE DESIGN SOCIAL LEARNING?
SociaI Iearning requires effeclive design. The eIeclronic Iandscae is fuII of haIf-comIeled
vikis, dereIicl Second Life meeling haIIs, and discussion grous eilher cIogged vilh sam
or gone siIenl. Good inlenlions and overfuI lechnoIogy faiI vilhoul roer design.
What do we mean by design?
Whal is lhe roIe of design in lhe conlexl of sociaI Iearning` And vhal exaclIy is il lhal ve
design`
Designing sociaI Iearning is a bil differenl from designing olher forms of e-Iearning. Our
goaI is lo engineer sociaI rocesses ralher lhan lo configure looIs or creale conlenl. SociaI
rocesses incIude inleraclions such as asking and ansvering queslions, osling and
commenling on messages, and coIIaboraling on ro|ecls. AII sociaI Iearning aclivilies
require al Ieasl lvo eoIe, and mosl Iearning occurs as a resuIl of feedback lhal occurs
naluraIIy as a arl of lheir inleraclion.
Designing sociaI Iearning is more Iike buiIding lhe lhealer lhan acling in lhe Iay. The
designer engineers circumslances lhal rovoke lhe lye of inleraclion necessary for
Iearning. Mosl of lhe conlenl of sociaI Iearning is crealed by Iearners (and lhose lhey
inleracl vilh) as lhey discuss, share, crilique, and coIIaborale.
The role of the designer
SociaI Iearning is so nev and broadIy defined lhal vriling a recise |ob descrilion for a
designer is nol easybul Iel's lry. To lhe dulies of lhe designer of convenlionaI
e-Iearning, ve musl add a mixlure of nev resonsibiIilies. Some aIy lo any form of


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Iearning and olhers secificaIIy lo e-Iearning. As a designer of sociaI Iearning, be reared
lo:
# Dccidc whcrc and whcn tn usc sncia! !carning. SociaI Iearning is seIdom sufficienl by
ilseIf for an ambilious goaI or comIex ro|ecl. You, as a designer, musl decide vhal
ob|eclives lo accomIish by sociaI Iearning and vhich ob|eclives viII require olher
soIulions. (. 404).
# DcIinc thc targct !carncrs. Ior sociaI Iearning, lhe goaI may be educaling individuaIs
or enlire grous. As a designer you musl reciseIy idenlify lhose you vish lo educale
and communicale lhal decision lo olhers on lhe ro|ecl. Kee in mind lhal lhe
caabiIily of a grou of Iearners is nol a malhemalicaI sum of lhe caabiIilies of ils
members.
# C!ariIy nb|cctivcs. Whal conslilules success` Is lhe goaI lo Iearn somelhing secific or
lo Iearn hov lo Iearn indeendenlIy` Is lhe goaI lo imrove sociaI skiIIs, enhance leam
caabiIilies, or |usl lo buiId u a rofessionaI nelvork`
# Dccidc whcrc cxpcrtisc wi!! cnmc Irnm. Cynics have defined sociaI Iearning as lhe
uninformed and confused leaching lhe ignoranl and befuddIed. To head off lhis reaI
ossibiIily, lhe designer musl ensure lhal sociaI inleraclions rovide lhe needed
exerlise. This exerlise can come from Iearners coIIecliveIy, from oulside exerls,
from an assigned coach or leacher, or from discovery aclivilies. The designer musl
ensure lhal lhe exerlise is avaiIabIe and gels lo lhe largeled Iearners.
# Dccidc and cnInrcc prcrcquisitc ski!!s. SociaI Iearning is nol for everybody. Il
requires lhe abiIily lo communicale cIearIy, vork coIIaboraliveIy, and Iearn
indeendenlIy. Il aIso requires alliludes of oenness and confidence. As a designer,
you musl sel minimum requiremenls and eslabIish mechanisms lo ensure Iearners
meel lhese rerequisiles.
# Dccidc what Inrms nI sncia! intcractinn bcst tcach. You musl secify aclivilies lo
accomIish secific Iearning ob|eclives as veII as aclivilies lo achieve generaI goaIs
such as leam formalion. Slarl vilh lhe allern of inleraclion you vanl lo occur (. 410).
# Writc thc ru!cs. Heavy-handed rocedures can doom sociaI Iearning, bul so loo can a
Iack of slruclure. As a designer, you musl sel u oIicies, slandards, rocedures lhal
guide sociaI inleraclion. And you musl encourage Iearners lo sel and enforce lheir ovn
ruIes.
# 5ct and c!ariIy grading critcria. Hov viII Iearners be graded` Whal is lhe roIe of
individuaI versus grou erformance in delermining grades` Hov viII you |uslify
crileria lo grade-conscious individuaIs` Grades musl refIecl lhe breadlh and delh of
Iearning and musl aear fair lo any ob|eclive observer.
# Mnnitnr and guidc sncia! !carningvilhoul inlruding. As a faciIilalor, you viII need
lo modeI slandards of behavior and coach sociaI inleraclion.


# SpcciIy rcquircmcnts Inr tcchnn!ngy uscd. Olhers may seIecl and imIemenl lhe
lechnoIogy, bul you musl ensure lhal lhe lechnoIogy enabIes lhe lyes of sociaI
inleraclion required for Iearning.
# Dcsign tcmp!atcs and prnccdurcs Inr !carncrs tn crcatc cnntcnl. Ior Iearners lo creale
conlenl lhey may need slreamIined lechniques lo buiId sIides, video cIis, documenls,
sreadsheels, and many olher lyes of Iearning maleriaIs.
# 5pcciIy sncia!-!carning cnmpnncnts in nthcr Inrms nI !carning, such as a hysicaI
cIassroom course, slandaIone e-Iearning, or mobiIe Iearning.
DECIDE WHERE AND WHEN TO USE SOCIAL LEARNING
SociaI Iearning vorks veII in some circumslances and nol in olhers. Il can combine vilh
olher forms of Iearning lo cIose gas, soIve unique robIems, and make Iearning more
reIiabIe. As designers ve musl deIoy sociaI Iearning according lo ils slrenglhs and
veaknesses. Here are some goaIs for vhich sociaI Iearning is aroriale.
Make learning more reliable
SociaI Iearning can make Iearning more reIiabIe by cIearing u misconcelions. Il
rovides an inslanl source of feedback on ideas, and can lhus fiIler oul bad ideas and
rovide a second oinion. SociaI Iearning can refine ideas lhrough discussion. And
Iearners can conlinue discussion unliI lhe idea is comIeleIy cIear. SociaI Iearning can
mobiIize lhousands of minds lo soIve a difficuIl robIem. As a bonus, il makes aII
aclivilies Connecl aclivilies by Iinking Iearning lo lhe Iarger vorId oulside lhe individuaI.
Make learning more enjoyable
SociaI Iearning makes Iearning and vork Iess IoneIy. Il rovides sociaI inleraclion lhal
exlroverls crave and il rovides emolionaI suorl lo aII Iearners. Il Iels Iearners vork lo
slandards sel by eers lhey knov and lrusl.
Kee in mind lhal sociaI Iearning may seem aIien lo lhose from cuIlures vilh olher
Iearning lradilions, eseciaIIy ones based on lhe aulhorily of lhe leacher and comelilion
among Iearners.
And, sociaI Iearning does nol guaranlee ouIarily among addicls of sociaI nelvorking.
MereIy using Tviller and Iacebook in your courses viII nol make your rograms more
ouIar. OnIy veII-designed rograms viII do lhal.


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Teach difficult subjects
SociaI Iearning can leach high-IeveI lhinking and Iearning skiIIs lhal are nol easiIy
reduced lo simIe ruIes and rocedures. Il can vork veII for enhancing crealivily,
innovalion, robIem soIving, indeendenl Iearning, |udgmenl and decision-making. And,
no surrise, il is ideaI for leaching sociaI skiIIs, such as, conversalion, inlervieving,
negolialion, and comromise.
SociaI Iearning Iels e-Iearning lackIe eseciaIIy difficuIl loics or vasl and iII-defined
sub|ecls. SociaI Iearning can reare Iearners for:
# Decision-making in syslems loo comIex lo be fuIIy underslood.
# ConslanlIy changing |ob dulies and unique robIems.
# SkiIIs aIied sociaIIy, lhal is, by a leam ralher lhan an individuaI.
# Assignmenls lhal require more laIenls lhan ossessed by a singIe erson.
SociaI Iearning cannol leach aII sub|ecls. Il is nol effeclive vhere Iearners musl Iearn Iarge
amounls of informalion. Nor is il suiled for gelling slarled in a fieId vhere Iearners do nol
yel knov lhe vocabuIary and slruclure of lhe fieId necessary lo roducliveIy inleracl vilh
exerls. SociaI Iearning is nol effeclive vhere Iearners musl be consislenlIy educaled lo a
secified slandard, such as for cerlificalion or Iicensing. Wilh sociaI Iearning, il is hard lo
measure resuIls and lhe causes for lhose resuIls. So, deending on sociaI Iearning aIone is
Iike Iaying lhe Iollery as an inveslmenl slralegy. SociaI Iearning may sliII have a arl bul
nol lhe Iead roIe.
Implement learning quickly and inexpensively
SociaI Iearning can be crealed in Iess lime and vilh Iess money lhan convenlionaI
e-Iearning. SociaI Iearning does nol require firsl crealing inleraclive conlenl, and ils
coverage is nol Iimiled by lhe knovIedge of a singIe leacher. The quickesl and easiesl vay
lo leach some sub|ecls is lo have Iearners ask lheir rofessionaI and sociaI nelvorks.
SociaI Iearning can aIso Iover leaching and adminislralive cosls and lime by deIegaling
much of lhe managemenl of Iearning lo Iearners.
ecause sociaI Iearning can be imIemenled quickIy and inexensiveIy, il vorks veII lo
leach dynamic sub|ecls, lo resond lo changing Iearning environmenls, and lo incororale
currenl evenls and aclivilies inlo Iearning.
Wilh sociaI Iearning, leachers and faciIilalors can manage Iarger cIasses, eseciaIIy ones
conlaining headslrong Iearners. The grou or leam counlerbaIances slrong ersonaIilies
and can deIiver slrong feedback and have il acceled. A Iearner can Iess easiIy shrug off
lhe consensus of lhe grou lhan lhe oinion of one individuaI. And many Iearners give
more credibiIily lo eers lhan lo leachers.


SociaI Iearning is nol a gel-oul-of-vork free card. Il seIdom succeeds vhen lhe main
urose is lo avoid lhe hard vork of leaching by offIoading vork and resonsibiIily onlo
Iearners and "lhe communily."
Build a network to support the learning in the future
Ierhas lhe besl use of sociaI Iearning is for IifeIong Iearning. SociaI Iearning heIs
Iearners buiId a nelvork of rofessionaI conlacls vho can suorl lhem in lhe fulure.
SociaI Iearning naluraIIy sarks rofessionaI friendshis vilh eers and exerls. Il
eslabIishes communilies of Iearning and communilies of raclice lhal may endure Iong
afler lhe end of an individuaI course.
WHAT SOCIAL LEARNING REQUIRES
The advanlages of sociaI Iearning are nol aulomalic or free. Iffeclive sociaI Iearning
requires much of individuaIs and of lhe surrounding organizalion. Lel's lake a Iook al
vhal ersonaI characlerislics and infraslruclure are required for sociaI Iearning.
What is required of learners
To engage in sociaI Iearning, Iearners require cerlain abiIilies, alliludes, and lechnoIogy.
Basic communications and thought skills
SociaI Iearning requires Iearners vho can lhink IogicaIIy and communicale cIearIy and
efficienlIy vilh olher individuaIs and vilh vhoIe grous. The Iearner musl be abIe lo:
# Rcad and writc thc !anguagc uscd in discussinns, mcssagcs, and rcIcrcncc matcria!s.
Learners musl be abIe lo use Ianguage lo delecl and exress sublIe meanings and
nuances of emolion. In olher vords, lhey musl read belveen lhe Iines.
# 5pcak and !istcn cIIcctivc!y. Learners musl make lhemseIves underslandabIe lhrough
audio and olher media. And lhey musl have lhe sociaI sensilivily lo go beyond lhe
IileraI meaning of vords and allend lo lone of voice as veII.
# Ask and answcr qucstinns. Discussion requires lhe abiIily lo ose queslions, Iislen lo
ansvers, and ask foIIov u queslions. Likevise, il requires Iislening carefuIIy lo
olhers' queslions and crafling comIele and concise ansvers.
# Think dccp!y and cIIicicnt!y. Learners musl assess lhe reIevance of ideas, ignore
irreIevanl delaiIs, and drav IogicaI concIusions. They musl aIso recognize IogicaI fIavs
in lheir ovn argumenls and lhose of olhers.


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Attitude of openness
SociaI Iearning requires being oen lo nev and beller ideas. SociaI Iearners musl
conlinuaIIy revise lheir oinions and refine lheir ideas. They musl lake crilicism and face
disagreemenl vilhoul becoming hosliIe or defensive. Above aII, lhey musl crilique lheir
ovn ideas and lhoughl rocesses.
They musl Iikevise share informalion and heI olhers. Informalion hoarders make oor
sociaI Iearners.
A Iack of oenness can doom sociaI Iearning efforls. Wilhoul oenness, ve lend lo
nelvork vilh eoIe Iike usvho don'l chaIIenge us and vho knov IillIe more lhan ve
do. ecause lhese eoIe share lhe same biases and bIind sols, inleracling vilh lhem
onIy reinforces groulhink.
Spirit of cooperation
SociaI Iearning is a |oinl venlure lhal requires Iearners lo ul aside comelilive inslincls
and lo cooerale lovard lhe goaI of Iearning. As members of a leam, Iearners musl Iel go
of lhe rank, slalus, or riviIege lhey en|oy as individuaIs. They musl aIign lheir aclions lo
a common urose, goaI, or vision. And lhey musl be viIIing lo lrusl olher leam members
in order lo Iearn from lhem. SociaI Iearning oflen requires Iosing some conlroI over resuIls
and grades. UnIess Iearners have a siril of cooeralion, lhe lime required lo deveIo
lrusl can be Ionger lhan lhe lime aIIolled for Iearning.
Basic knowledge of the field of inquiry
To Iearn lhrough discussions vilh olhers, Iearners musl have lhe abiIily lo ask queslions
and undersland ansvers. Thal means lhey musl have a gras of lhe basic vocabuIary,
slruclure, and underIying rinciIes of lhe fieId. Access lo gIossaries and rimers can
heI, bul a basic underslanding is needed for fIuenl inleraclion, eseciaIIy vilh exerls
vho may have IillIe alience vilh lhose vho have nol done lheir homevork.
Competence with social-media tools
Learners musl be abIe lo use common sociaI-media looIs and undersland lheir
lerminoIogy and convenlions. Or lhey musl have lhe abiIily lo Iearn lhem quickIy.
IorlunaleIy, lhe looIs are simIe and veII documenled.
Comelence aIso incIudes foIIoving convenlions of oIile, rofessionaI onIine behavior or
nciiquciic.


Work ethic
SociaI Iearning Iaces mosl of lhe resonsibiIily for Iearning on Iearners. This in lurn
requires aclive arlicialion, nol sIacking off or hilchhiking. Il aIso requires lhe seIf-
disciIine lo forego unroduclive onIine sociaI behaviors, such as fIirling, banlering,
rovoking olhers, sreading rumors, or |usl vasling lime (. 457).
SociaI Iearning is nol for deendenl Iearners vho viII sva deendence on lhe leacher for
deendence on olher Iearners. This sva is nol rogress. Al Ieasl lhe leacher vas
informed and molivaled lo heI.
Something to contribute to the group
Iach Iearner musl offer somelhing lo lhe grou. Some Iearners may ossess in-delh
knovIedge vilhin lhe fieId of inquiry. Olhers may have seciaI sociaI skiIIs, such as lhe
abiIily lo resoIve disules among leam members, or lechnicaI skiIIs, such as lhe abiIily lo
leach olhers hov lo use advanced sociaI media.
If Iearners cannol conlribule lo lhe grou, lhey may feeI isoIaled and insecure. They may
vilhdrav or |usl faiI lo arliciale fuIIy. To revenl lhis silualion, firsl make sure
everyone can conlribule somelhing. Have lhe faciIilalor vork vilh leam members lo
idenlify skiIIs or knovIedge lhey can offer lhe grou.
What is required of the organization
SociaI Iearning does nol vork for aII organizalions. olh lhe organizalion lhal sonsors
sociaI Iearning and lhe environmenl in vhich Iearning lakes Iace musl meel some
requiremenls for sociaI Iearning lo succeed.
Culture of sharing
To enabIe sociaI Iearning, lhe organizalion musl ossess a cuIlure of sharing informalion
and heIing olhers. A cIimale of secrecy and fierce comelilion hardens Iearners againsl
lhe oenness and coIIaboralion required in sociaI Iearning. IeoIe vho are afraid lo
oenIy admil mislakes on lhe |ob or in lhe cIassroom are unIikeIy lo overcome simiIar
fears in sociaI Iearning.
Organizational self-confidence
SociaI Iearning linkers vilh lhe managemenl slruclure, organizalionaI cuIlure, and
eslabIished vaIues of lhe organizalion. Il rovides IaleraI communicalion vilhin an
organizalion and aboIishes rank and slalus as guaranlees of resecl or aulhorily. The
vhoIe imelus in sociaI Iearning is lhal lhe besl idea vins . unliI a beller idea comes
aIong. Aulhorilarian organizalions vilh a rigid chain of command are nol ideaI for sociaI
Iearning.


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Some execulives ob|ecl lo lhe goofy names of sociaI nelvorking looIs invoIved in sociaI
Iearning. Thus, lhey may feeI lhal sociaI Iearning lriviaIizes educalion or is |usl fad-
chasing. Or, lhal Iearners viII |usl vasle lime sociaIizing.
Legal security
SociaI Iearning can ose serious IegaI risks for an organizalion. Il can exose lhe
organizalion lo IegaI IiabiIily if off-hand commenls are used as evidence of fraud,
harassmenl, or discriminalion. Iarlicialion by Iearners in oulside communilies can raise
issues regarding lhe ovnershi of inleIIecluaI roerly crealed in Iearning aclivilies, lhe
misreresenlalion by Iearners of lhe organizalion's osilion on conlroversiaI issues, or lhe
reIease of rivale or confidenliaI informalion.
Information security
SociaI Iearning can ose robIems of informalion securily, rivacy, and conlroI
eseciaIIy if erformed using ubIic looIs and sociaI nelvorks. Organizalions may fear
Iearners viII be exosed lo sam or adverlising. Or lo inquiries by oulsiders.
Organizalions may fear lhal rivale or rorielary informalion viII be reveaIed. They
may aIso have concerns lhal a sociaI-nelvorking sile viII cease oeralion, change ils
business modeI, or change rivacy oIicy and rocedures.
Availability of needed expertise
Ior sociaI Iearning lo succeed Iearners musl have access lo lhose vilh lhe needed
exerlise lo guide lhem. This exerlise can come from lvo sources:
# Learners coIIecliveIy have lhe knovIedge and |usl need lo share il IaleraIIy.
# Ixerls are avaiIabIe and viIIing lo share.
If lhe organizalion does nol ossess lhe needed exerlise or cannol allracl il, you may
vanl lo hoId off on sociaI Iearning.
Flexibility
None of lhese requiremenls are insurmounlabIe rovided lhe organizalion is viIIing lo
change. ImIemenling sociaI Iearning may require comromise and adalalion. The
organizalion can lake smaII sles in oening u and encouraging sharing. Il can
communicale ruIes for sociaI Iearning lhal rolecl lhe organizalion. Il can give exerls
and Iearners incenlives lo arliciale.
Those imIemenling sociaI Iearning can lake sles lo inlegrale sociaI Iearning in a vay
lhal fils lhe organizalion's cuIlure. They can aIso monilor earIy sociaI-Iearning efforls lo
ensure lhal lhey roduce effeclive Iearning vhiIe resecling lhe requiremenls of lhe
organizalion.


PATTERNS OF INTERACTION
Wilhin sociaI Iearning, cerlain vays of inleracling have roven eseciaIIy roduclive.
Olher vays are aIso common because of lheir famiIiarily lhrough lradilionaI schooIing
and olher human aclivilies. This seclion calaIogs some of lhe mosl common allerns of
inleraclion. Use lhese as buiIding bIocks lo creale rich sociaI-Iearning aclivilies and
Iessons.
The elements of social learning
Whal are lhe allerns of inleraclion lhal recur lhroughoul sociaI Iearning` Here's a brief
Iisl of lhe main ones. IeeI free lo add lo lhe Iisl and exerimenl vilh hybrid lyes.
Tutoring interaction

In lhe luloring allern of inleraclion, lhe exerl and Iearner inleracl one-
on-one. This allern is common in coaching, counseIing, menloring, and
arenliceshi.
Tuloring can occur in erson, via e-maiI or lexling, as a hone caII, or in a video-
conference. The lulor can be a sub|ecl-maller exerl, lhe leacher of a cIass, or an informed
and caring cIassmale.
Though nol an efficienl vay lo leach, lhe luloring allern of inleraclion is good for
deIivering feedback rivaleIy, for gelling ansvers lo olenliaIIy embarrassing queslions,
and for issues of inleresl lo onIy one erson.
Presentation pattern

In lhe resenlalion allern, one erson direcls informalion lo olhers.
The informalion may lake lhe form of a course announcemenl, a Iive
resenlalion, or a Ieclure. The resenlalion inleraclion is aIso used
for seeches, Ieclures, and demonslralions. Il is lhe mode used for
resenlalion aclivilies (. 69).
y ilseIf, a resenlalion is nol sociaI, bul il may Iead lo olher forms
of inleraclion, such as queslion-and-ansver, lhal are sociaI. Il may
aIso be necessary in sociaI Iearning lo reare Iearners lo inleracl
sociaIIy. Il becomes sociaI vhen Iearners, individuaIIy or as a grou,
lake on lhe roIe of resenler.


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Iresenlalions can be resenled in a hysicaI meeling, by Iive or recorded video, or in an
onIine meeling.
Use lhe resenlalion inleraclion lo deIiver informalion needed by aII Iearners, eseciaIIy
vhere lhere is IillIe need for inleraclion. Use il lo sel lhe slage for a roduclive discussion
or olher form of inleraclion.
Question-and-answer pattern

In lhe queslion-and-ansver (Q&A) allern Iearners ask queslions of
an exerl. Il can occur as an organized session al a secific lime or as
soradicaIIy as needed. Il is lhe core of queslioning aclivilies
(. 176).
Q&A can occur by any lvo-vay media: e-maiI, lexling, chal,
discussion forum, hone, audio- or video-conferencing, or micro-
bIogging. A Q&A session can be summarized as a frequenlIy asked
queslions fiIe.
Use Q&A lo heI Iearners ansver queslions lhal occurred vhiIe
assiveIy exeriencing a Ieclure or olher resenlalion.
AIso use il lo ansver queslions rovoked by some olher individuaI or sociaI aclivily.
Q&A can fiII gas caused by Iearners' differenl IeveIs of background knovIedge.
Post-and-comment pattern

In lhe osl-and-commenl allern, an exerl, leacher, or discussion
Ieader osls a message and Iearners commenl on il. Iverybody
invoIved reads and anaIyzes aII lhe oslings. A Iearner can be lhe
exerl for an area |usl sludied.
Iosl-and-commenl inleraclions can aIso be imIemenled as a
discussion lhread or bIog.
Iosl-and-commenl inleraclions vork lo correcl misconcelions and
lo refine ideas. A leacher can use lhe osl-and-commenl allern lo
rovoke discussion, lo make assignmenls and coIIecl resuIls, and lo
direcl allenlion lo a secific asecl of lhe sub|ecl.
Learners can use lhis allern lo gel feedback on a hyolhesis, roosaI, or inlerrelalion,
or lo share rivale Iearning and insighls vilh a grou.


Collaborative-document pattern

In lhe coIIaboralive-documenl allern, Iearners vork logelher lo
creale and refine a documenl or olher iece of vork. Such
coIIaboralive documenls are oflen caIIed uikis.
CoIIaboralive documenls can be imIemenled vilh soflvare
eseciaIIy designed lo enabIe muIliIe aulhors lo creale and edil an
onIine documenl. Soflvare for crealing vikis fils lhe biII, as does
GoogIe Docs and equivaIenl coIIaboralive aulhoring looIs.
CoIIaboralive documenls Iel Iearners roose and refine ideas. They
are eseciaIIy usefuI in leaching sub|ecls such as vriling, visuaI
design, and olhers lhal can be summarized in a diagram or olher
documenl.
Group-discussion pattern

In lrue grou discussion, Iearners inleracl vilh one anolher. This
allern describes generaI discussions as veII as seciaIized
forms such as roIe-Iaying.
Grou discussion can be imIemenled lhrough chal, audio- or
video-conferencing, or a discussion forum.
The grou discussion is good lo correcl misconcelions, refine
ideas, fiII in gas, and gel feedback. Il is aIso a Iace lo raclice
sociaI and inlerersonaI communicalions skiIIs.
Small-group pattern

The smaII-grou allern is a Iegacy from cIassroom lraining.
In il, lhe leacher assigns discussion loics or leam lasks lo
grous of Iearners vho vork logelher and lhen reorl back lo
lhe cIass as a vhoIe. The sub-grous are oflen caIIed |rcakcui
grcups and lhe virluaI saces in vhich lhey meel are caIIed
breakoul rooms.
reakoul sessions are a fealure in some onIine-meeling looIs.
They can aIso be imIemenled by using muIliIe chal rooms.
SmaII-grou inleraclions are good for shorl-lerm leamvork
assignmenls. They divide comIex lasks inlo vorkabIe-sized
unils. They encourage leams lo generale soIulions
indeendenlIy and lhen lo refine ideas by comarison. They


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rovide a sace vhere Iearners can raclice sociaI and
inlerersonaI communicalion skiIIs.
Panel-discussion pattern

In lhe aneI-discussion allern, exerls discuss a loic as Iearners
valch and Iislen. This allern is used for lrue aneI discussions,
debales, inlervievs, and roIe-Iaying.
ecause lhe aneI-discussion allern does nol require inleracling
direclIy vilh Iearners, il can be imIemenled vilh a Iive
resenlalion or an audio-or video odcasl.
Though nol slriclIy sociaI, lhe aneI-discussion allern is usefuI
for modeIing sociaI behavior, iIIuslraling sociaI silualions,
exosing a range of oinions and vievoinls, and deIving deeer
inlo a sub|ecl.
Symposium pattern

In lhe symosium allern, a grou of exerls discuss a sub|ecl vilh
Iearners. The symosium differs from lhe aneI in lhal lhe exerls
inleracl vilh Iearners.
The symosium allern can be imIemenled vilh audio- or video-
conferencing, such as ossibIe lhrough an onIine meeling looI.
The symosium allern is good for an exlended queslion-and-
ansver session. Il heIs Iearners refine knovIedge and meel
individuaI Iearning needs.
Ask-expert-community pattern

In lhe allern of asking a communily of exerls, lhe Iearner
consuIls a communily of exerls (of vhich lhe Iearner is
nol a member). The communily mighl be a roducl user
grou or a discussion forum for a rofessionaI associalion.
Communicalion vilh lhe communily is lyicaIIy lhrough
ils discussion forum.


Asking a communily of exerls is usefuI for ansvering advanced queslions and gelling
rofessionaI advice. Il is aIso heIfuI for suggesling aIlernalive aroaches lo Iearners
vho feeI sluck or oul of lheir delh.
Ask-peers pattern

In lhe ask-eers allern, a Iearner consuIls a grou of vhich lhe
Iearner is a member. The eers may be lhe Iearner's sociaI
nelvork, rofessionaI nelvork, or Iearning leam.
This allern is lyicaIIy imIemenled vilh a discussion forum or
sociaI nelvorking soflvare.
This allern of inleraclion is ideaI for asking sIighlIy advanced
queslions of inleresl lo severaI members of lhe grou.
Wilh il, Iearners can gel an exIanalion in underslandabIe lerms or receive needed
encouragemenl and symalhy.
Combine patterns for complete activities
The over of lhese allerns of inleraclion emerges vhen allerns combine in a
comrehensive Iearning aclivily.


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This examIe shovs lhe fIov of inleraclion allerns in an exlended aclivily. Teachers and
Iearners vork logelher lo research and inlegrale informalion on a sub|ecl.
1. The aclivily slarls vilh an announcemenl and mini-Ieclure by lhe leacher lo cIarify lhe
assignmenl.
2. In lhe nexl hase, lhree lyes of inleraclion occur simuIlaneousIy.
! Learners vork logelher lo vrile and edil a documenl.
! To gain informalion and cIarify issues, lhey ask queslions of rofessionaIs in lhe
fieId.
! To coordinale lheir research and vriling, lhey discuss ideas and aroaches.
3. In lhe lhird hase, Iearners round oul Iearning. They meel rivaleIy vilh lhe leacher
and ask queslions of olher Iearners lo fiII in any gas Iefl in lheir Iearning.
The inleraclion allerns are |usl buiIding bIocks and lhis vas |usl one examIe. Imagine
hov you can combine lhese allerns lo creale effeclive sociaI-Iearning aclivilies.
SOCIAL CAPABILITIES OF SOFTWARE
SociaI media and looIs rovide channeIs for human inleraclion. In lhis seclion, ve Iook al
lhose caabiIilies. We do nol consider individuaI looIs, vhich are mixes of caabiIilies
and vhich change raidIy. Inslead, ve Iook al lhe basic caabiIilies of communicalion
and coIIaboralion and lhe calegories of looIs lhal rovide lhese caabiIilies. AIong lhe
vay, ve viII offer advice on vhere and hov lo use each caabiIily.
This seclion is ralher Iong, so Iel's slarl vilh a reviev.
Capabi!ity C!asscs nI tnn!s Pagc
Send largeled messages. I-maiI and lexling. 416
Meel reaI-lime. Texl-, audio-, and video-conferencing. 418
Discuss asynchronousIy. Discussion forums. 425
roadcasl soradic messages. Micro-bIogging and e-maiI. 426
Iosl message sequences. Iogs and odcasls. 428
CoIIaboraliveIy creale
documenls.
CoIIaboralive aulhoring looIs, vikis,
vhileboards, and aIicalion sharing.
433
Share crealions. IiIe- and media-sharing, sociaI
bookmarking, lagging or keyvording
ilems, and mashus.
440


Capabi!ity C!asscs nI tnn!s Pagc
Vole and rale. IoIIs. 446
IiIler messages. Messaging looIs vilh lhe abiIily lo
subscribe, bIock, and aggregale.
450
IslabIish a oinl of conlacl. SociaI media looIs vilh a rofiIe or home
age.
450
Adminisler a leam or olher
grou of Iearners.
VirluaI cIassroom syslems, onIine
meeling looIs, sociaI media looIs, and
coIIaboralive caIendaring.
453

Use lhese caabiIilies lo imIemenl lhe allerns of inleraclion (. 410), lo adal
convenlionaI aclivilies (Chalers 2, 3, and 4) lo sociaI Iearning, and lo add sociaI
comonenls lo virluaI cIassroom courses (Chaler 10).
Send targeted messages
One of lhe basic aclions in sociaI Iearning is sending messages lo secific individuaIs or lo
lighlIy defined grous. TyicaIIy e-maiI or lexling is used for such largeled messages.
Though lechnicaIIy differenl, e-maiI and lexling serve lhe same sociaI funclion. Voice
messages, such as hone caIIs, can aIso largel messages.
The abiIily lo direcl lexl messages lo secific grou members is arl of many virluaI-
cIassroom, onIine-meeling, and sociaI-nelvorking looIs. And e-maiI and lexling are
slandard fealures in mosl comulers and mobiIe hones.
E-mail
I-maiI is lhe mosl common melhod of coIIaboralion in e-Iearning. I-maiI incIudes rivale
messages senl one-lo-one, say from a Iearner lo ask a queslion of lhe leacher. I-maiI can
aIso broadcasl messages from lhe leacher lo lhe cIass.
I-maiI is simIe, reIiabIe, inexensive, omniresenl, and famiIiar. Anyone vho can use
comuler lechnoIogy can use e-maiI, and aImosl everybody has an e-maiI address. Many
mobiIe hones can gel and send e-maiI.
OriginaIIy, e-maiI vas Iimiled lo simIe lexl messages, bul loday mosl e-maiI readers can
use HTML for formalling messages. Thal means e-maiI messages can use lhe same rich
mixlure of media as Web ages. Mosl e-maiI readers aIso aIIov senders lo incIude olher
fiIe formals in messages as allachmenls. I-maiI is oflen overIooked as a coIIaboralion
mechanism in favor of fIashier, more exensive, and Iess reIiabIe mechanisms. Iily.


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Texting
Ior uroses of sociaI Iearning, lhink of lexling as e-maiI for mobiIe hones. Il frees sociaI
Iearning from reIiance on a desklo or Ialo comuler.
In a ure sense, lexling invoIves sending shorl lexl messages lo a mobiIe hone vhere il
vails alienlIy for lhe reciienl lo read il. Like e-maiI, lexling has grovn in scoe and can
incIude olher media loo.
Texling is eseciaIIy usefuI for announcemenls lo lhose nol conlinuousIy connecled lo
olher sociaI media.
Use targeted messages for immediacy, intimacy, and impact
Use one-lo-one messages lo ask and ansver individuaI queslions, bul nol for queslions of
generaI inleresl.
Do nol use e-maiI or lexling for rouline messages lhal do nol require seciaI allenlion
from lhe reciienl. If a resonse is olionaI and lhe sub|ecl is nol crilicaI, osl lhe message
lo a discussion forum. If an immediale ansver is cruciaI, use lhe leIehone.
Use rivale messages for inlimacy and discrelion. Use rivale messages for resonses lhal
mighl embarrass lhe reciienl if osled in a ubIic discussion.
Use text messages effectively
Here are |usl a fev oinls lhal become imorlanl vhen using lexling and e-maiI vilhin
e-Iearning:
# Intrnducc ynursc!I whcn scnding unsn!icitcd mcssagcs. egin by exIaining vho you
are and your inleresl in lhe reciienl. You do nol vanl your message lrealed as |unk
maiI. In e-maiI, make sure lhe sub|ecl Iine makes cIear vhy lhe reciienl shouId read
lhis message. A message headed WeIcome is a Iol more IikeIy lo be ignored lhan one
lhal says, WeIcome lo GeoIogy OnIine.
# Prcvicw thc mcssagc in thc c-mai! sub|cct !inc. Thal vay, readers can recognize lruIy
urgenl messages, grou simiIar messages, and begin lhinking aboul lhe conlenl of lhe
message.
# Rcquirc dc!ivcry rcccipts nn!y in spccia! cascs. Require deIivery receils for e-maiI
onIy vhere necessary. Some consider receil requesls a form of snooing. Do require
deIivery receils if deIivering a varning lo a Iearner. You may need lo documenl vhen
lhe message vas deIivered.
# Kccp mcssagcs shnrt and tn thc sub|cct. Inough said.
# Makc surc thc rccipicnt undcrstands abbrcviatinns. Insure lhal message senders lake
inlo accounl lhe rofession, background, and cuIlure of lhe reciienl before shorlening
lhe message.


Meet real-time
Learners can meel and carry on conversalions vilhoul being in lhe same Iocalion. The
conversalion may use lexl, audio, or video lo convey messages. UnIike e-maiI and lexl,
vhich do nol resuose an immediale reIy lo messages, onIine meelings or conferences
enabIe a reaI-lime exchange among arlicianls. And, unIike discussion forums, onIine
meelings require aII arlies lo lhe conversalion lo arliciale al lhe same lime. Thal is,
onIine conferences are synchronous evenls.
Text-conferencing: chat
Texl-conferencing is commonIy caIIed cnai. Ivery day miIIions of Inlernel users gel
logelher in chal rooms and inslanl-messaging sessions lo vhine, onlificale, fIirl, and vho
knovs vhal. Chal enabIes reaI-lime conversalions among a grou of eoIe over a Iov-
seed Inlernel conneclion. Chal Iels Iearners sva lyed-in messages over a nelvork.
Chal sessions are Iike an inslanlaneous, reaI-lime discussion forum. Nole: Video-chal is a
form of video-conferencing (. 422).
In onIine Iearning, chal can rovide a back channeI for queslions and feedback during a
meeling (. 469). Chal can aIso be a searale evenl, such as in a sludy-grou meeling.

Here ve see lhe discussion among Iearners
valching a demonslralion. Nolice hov lhey cIarify
vhal is going on`

This chal occurs vilhin an IIIuminale meeling.
Chal can be imIemenled via chal-room or inslanl-messaging looIs, and is a common
fealure in many virluaI-cIassroom, onIine-meeling, and sociaI-nelvorking looIs. Il can
aIso be imIemenled in micro-bIogging commenls by arorialeIy lagging reIies
(. 443).
Chal conversalions are immediale and sonlaneous. ul lhey are Iimiled lo lyed and
asled lexl. NeverlheIess, many Iearners refer chal lo hone conversalions because chal
Ieaves a vrillen record lhey can consuIl Ialer.
The use of chal sessions in Iearning is differenl from lheir use for ureIy sociaI uroses.
Learners and inslruclionaI designers famiIiar vilh lhe sociaI uses of chal may have lo
ad|usl lheir lhinking lo use chals effecliveIy in Iearning.


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In a lyicaI chal session, everybody sees aII lhe messages. Hovever, some chal looIs aIIov
rivale messagesones senl from one erson in lhe chal session lo anolher erson in lhe
session. Such messages are seen by lhe reciienl bul nol by lhe olhers in lhe session. Ior
examIe, lhe leacher can ask a Iearner lo refrain from disrulive behavior or a Iearner can
oinl oul a lyo on lhe leacher's sIidevilhoul aIerling lhe vhoIe cIass.
When to use chat in social learning
Use chal lo Iel eoIe al differenl Iocalions on a nelvork carry on a conversalion. Use il
vhen e-maiI and discussion-forum exchanges are loo sIov. Here are some more !cs and
!cnis for using chal in sociaI Iearning.
Dn use chal:
Fnr simp!c cnnvcrsatinns. Some common uses for chal incIude:
# ReaI-lime queslion-and-ansver sessions.
# rainslorming, lroubIeshooling, and robIem-soIving sessions.
# OraI examinalions.
# Inlervievs of exerls by Iearners or researchers.
# Sludy grou meelings among leams of Iearners.
Tn pcrsnna!izc !carning. Use chal for olher lhan vhoIe-cIass meelings. Use il for sludy
grous, leam meelings, luloring sessions, and rivale meelings vilh lhe leacher. Irovide
a rocedure for reserving lime sIols on lhe cIass chal server or for selling u a rivale chal
room. Incourage Iearners lo use rivale chal lo communicale lo olher Iearners, erhas lo
suggesl lo leammales hov lhe idea being discussed couId be imIemenled in lheir cIass
ro|ecl. Kee lhe chal vindov avaiIabIe afler lhe officiaI end of lhe cIass meeling. And Iel
Iearners scheduIe lheir ovn chal sessions.
Fnr a sma!! grnup. Chal can seem ainfuIIy sIov if onIy lvo are challing. If more lhan five
or seven are challing, hovever, il can be difficuIl lo kee u, eseciaIIy if you are a sIov
lyisl. Thal does nol mean you cannol use chal as a back channeI in a Iarge meeling
(. 469), rovided onIy a fev eoIe are using chal al once. I Iearned lhis Iesson vhen I
asked a comIex queslion of 60 eoIe in a meeling. Ior aboul a minule nolhing
haened. Then suddenIy 5- and 6-Iine lexl messages oured inlo lhe chal vindov and
lhe vindov began scroIIing so fasl lhal no one couId read lhe messages before lhey
disaeared off lhe lo of lhe vindov.
Fnr whispcring tn thc tcachcr. Suggesl lhal Iearners use rivale chal lo ask a queslion or
make a commenl vilhoul inlerruling lhe vhoIe cIass or lo remain anonymous from lhe
resl of lhe cIass.
Dnn't use chal:
Fnr !ccturcs. Chal is for shorl, sonlaneous lhoughls. If lhe ideas are deeer lhan lhal, or
if you require lime lo find |usl lhe righl vords, send lhe ideas as e-maiI or discussion-


forum messages. Nolhing is vorse lhan having lo read a soradicaIIy scroIIing lexl
narraliveavkvardIy comosed, inaccuraleIy lyed, and saying nolhing a lexlbook does
nol say beller. Using chal lo narrale aclions in an aIicalion sharing or vhileboard
session can aIso be avkvard. Having lo slo using lhe visuaI aIicalion lo go lo lhe chal
vindov and lye a commenl or inslruclions inlerruls lhe fIov of lhe lask being
demonslraled. Never use chal for Ieclures, OK`
With s!nw typists. AII arlicianls musl be good lyisls. Olhervise lhe conversalion is
fiIIed vilh avkvard auses. y lhe lime a sIov lyisl enlers a reIy, lhe conversalion has
moved on lo a comIeleIy differenl sub|ecl. Do nol reIy on chal if aII Iearners musl lye
quickIy and accuraleIy or if resonses musl be comIex.
Best practices for using chat effectively
Make sure lhal Iearners and leachers use chal in vays lhal advance Iearning. Iven lhose
vho have used chal or inslanl messaging sociaIIy for years may nol drav anaIogies lo
using il for Iearning. Here are some vays lo use chal for Iearning:
# Kccp chat prnIcssinna!. Chal for Iearning is nol ersonaI sociaI chal. The Iighl banler
and heavy fIirling lhal are common Iale al nighl on Tviller are hardIy lhe kind of
conversalions you vanl lo fosler. HeI Iearners lo adol rofessionaI behaviors lhal
Iead lo Iearning.
# Prcparc "spnntancnus" cnmmcnts ahcad nI timc. If you knov vhal queslions you
viII ask or vhal ansvers you viII give, reare lhem in a searale lexl-edilor vindov.
Al lhe aroriale momenl, |usl cul and asle lhe commenls inlo lhe chal vindov.
# Mnnitnr chat. In mosl onIine meeling syslems, lhe resenler or hosl sees aII messages,
even messages senl rivaleIy from one Iearner lo anolher. You mighl vanl lo varn
Iearners aboul lhe leacher's abiIily lo eavesdro. Or, you mighl nol.
# 5avc a transcript. Chal Ieaves a vrillen lranscril. You may vanl lo save lhe lranscril
and osl il lo lhe cIass discussion forum so lhal Iearners can concenlrale on lhe onIine
meeling vilhoul having lo make noles of vhal is said in chal. Hovever, lhe lranscril
may seem crude vhen read Ialer. Some arlicianls may ob|ecl lo seeing lheir off-lhe-
cuff remarks on disIay. Warn lhem ahead of lime and ensure lhal roviding
lranscrils does nol inhibil discussion. Or, lurn lhe lranscril inlo a shared documenl
and use coIIaboralive aulhoring (. 433) lo edil il.
Audio-conferencing
Audio-conferencing Iels arlicianls laIk vilh one anolher. Audio-conferencing can be
conducled by a hone conference caII or by using lhe Inlernel lo communicale seech.
Audio conferences can be used for generaI and largeled discussions, for queslion-and-
ansver sessions, and for resenlalionsvhere vords aIone are sufficienl. They can aIso


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be used lo rovide a araIIeI audio channeI for onIine resenlalions (. 69 and 545),
vhileboard aclivilies (. 436), and aIicalion sharing (. 438).

Audio-conferencing is lyicaIIy
rovided by lhe onIine meeling
looI used lo rovide olher
communicalion channeIs used
in lhe meeling.
Here is lhe audio references
diaIog box in lhe meeling looI
IIIuminale.
When to use audio-conferencing in social learning
Use audio-conferencing vhen eoIe need lo hear and seak. The firsl queslion lo ansver
is: When does someone need lo hear someone eIse seak` Use audio-conferencing vhen:
# Emntinns arc impnrtant. A lone of voice can leII us vhelher lhe seaker is angry,
exciled, sad, or |usl |oking. A lexl lranscril cannol, for examIe: Teacher: Hov's il
going` Learner: }usl greal. Is lhe Iearner salisfied or |usl sarcaslic`
# 5nunds arc impnrtant. You vanl lo hear or demonslrale lhe sound lhal somelhing
makesa comuler disk drive or a heaIlhy human hearl, for inslance.
# Lcarncrs !ack writing nr typing ski!!s necessary lo coIIaborale fIuenlIy by vrillen
media.
# Thc discussinn is cnmp!cx. A chal session vouId require loo much lying and have
loo many deIays lhal break lhe conlinuily of lhe conversalion.
Best practices for audio-conferencing
Audio-conferencing uls slrains on your Iisleners, your seakers, and your nelvork. IIan
hov lo use audio-conferencing vilhin human and lechnoIogicaI Iimilalions. Here are
some guideIines for resenlers and olher arlicianls:
# Rcducc backgrnund nnisc. Turn off lhe radio. CIose lhe vindovs. Turn off
unnecessary machinery. When nol laIking, mule lhe microhone.
# Mutc !carncrs' micrnphnncs unti! thcy nccd tn spcak. Inlire cIasses have had lo Iislen
lo inlra-office gossi, arenls disciIining chiIdren, and barking dogs because Iearners
did nol knov hov lo mule lheir microhones.


# Put cmntinn intn ynur vnicc. Ioor audio conneclions make everybody sound bored
and monolonous. Go a bil overboard. Ixaggerale. Imole. Ham il u.
# 5pcak s!nw!y and distinct!y. Iven lhe besl leIehone conneclion is Iov fideIily.
I-nun-ci-ale! Reeal unfamiIiar lerms. SeII oul vords Iearners viII nol recognize.
# Rccruit a cn-prcscntcr. VocaI variely can occur naluraIIy vhen you have lvo
resenlers vho aIlernale seaking. The resenlers are Iess seIf-conscious and naluraIIy
seak vilh more emolion. Try lo ick lvo eoIe vilh voices lhal are differenl.
Teaming a man and voman is one vay.
# Put thc micrnphnnc bc!nw and ncar thc mnuth. Kee lhe microhone |usl oul of lhe
brealh slream. I recommend a good head-mounled microhone.
# Wait bcInrc ynu rcspnnd. Sound lraveIing over nelvorks can be deIayed a second or
more. In audio-conferencing, siIence does nol aIvays mean lhal lhe olher erson is
vailing for you lo laIk.
Video-conferencing
In video-conferencing, dislanl arlicianls can see and hear each olher. Video-
conferencing Iels Iearners see al Ieasl a smaII video image of lhe resenler. Some syslems
aIIov Iarger images and lvo-vay vievs.
This examIe of an onIine
meeling shovs video-
conferencing used lo
demonslrale a hysicaI
rocedure vilh a digilaI
camera.
Learners can choose lo viev
|usl lhe video or lhe enlire
meeling vindov shoving
lhe rosler and chal area.

Meeling conducled in IIIuminale.

Video-conferences are commonIy used for demonslralions, roIe-Iaying aclivilies, and for
resenling feedback on hysicaI aclions.
The quaIily of lhe video images varies videIy and deends on lhe seed and consislency
of lhe nelvork conneclion, lhe quaIily of lhe video camera, and lhe memory and
rocessor seed of lhe comulers invoIved.


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Consider carefuIIy vhelher you need video, vhelher il musl be Iive ralher lhan re-
recorded, and vhelher il musl fIov lvo vays.
When to use video-conferencing in social learning
Whal silualions |uslify lhe use of video-conferencing` Use video-conferencing vhen
eoIe need lo see someone laIking or see ob|ecls moving. Use video-conferencing lo:
# 5hnw mnving nb|ccts. Use video lo exIain hov a iece of machinery vorks or lo give
inslruclions on reairing or maniuIaling a iece of equimenl.
# Makc pcnp!c sccm rca!. Use video-conferencing lo inlroduce lhe leacher lo remole
Iearners and remole Iearners lo lhe leacher.
# Dc!ivcr pnwcrIu! cmntinna! mcssagcs. Use video lo molivale and counseI Iearners.
Do nol use video-conferencing vhen a simIer, Iess exensive aIlernalive vorks as veII.
Consider combining vhileboard (lo shov a series of sliII iclures) and audio-conferencing
(lo describe lhem). Or, disIay a sliII iclure of yourseIf so eoIe can viev il as lhey
Iislen lo your voice by audio-conferencing.
evare lhe laIking head. IseciaIIy avoid Iong video segmenls lhal shov nolhing bul lhe
leacher laIking, laIking, and laIking. In addilion lo lhe usuaI robIems vilh video, lhe
infamous laIking-head shol makes lhe leacher seem egolislicaI. And lhere is no evidence
Iearners valch lhe leacher for more lhan 20 or 30 seconds.
Best practices for video-conferencing
Video-conferencing requires carefuI resenlalion and even more melicuIous rearalion.
Give Iearners and dislanl exerls heI lo ensure lhey communicale effecliveIy in video.
# Prcparc thc "studin." IIan hov arlicianls viII record video. Iven if lhey are
broadcasling from a smaII cubicIe, decide vhere lhe camera viII go and hov lo Iighl
lhe scene.
! Obtain a gnnd camcra. A rofessionaI camera is beller lhan a vacalion camcorder,
vhich is beller lhan lhe average comuler-slore Web cam. Make sure your camera
can connecl lo your comuler.
! Light thc prcscntcr cvcn!y from lhe fronl or sIighlIy lo lhe side. Iilher use diffused
Iighling or refIecl Iighl off an oosing vaII.
! Minimizc backgrnund distractinns. Iose lhe resenler before a simIe, slalic
background. IIace lhe background far behind lhe resenler so il faIIs oul of focus.
Or ad|usl lhe Iighls so lhal lhe background is dark. A noisy background or busy
scene lakes more vork lo lransmil and disIay and can resuIl in skis in lhe iclure
or slullering in lhe sound. Avoid lhe common raclice of shoving lhe resenler in
lhe middIe of a room vilh eoIe vaIking around in lhe background. Never ose
lhe resenler ouldoors or againsl an oulside vindov vilh Ieaves fIullering in lhe
breeze.


! Framc thc sccnc. Iosilion lhe camera so il viII calure vhal is imorlanl. Consider
lhe size video vindov Iearners viII viev. You may vanl lo move lhe camera back
lo aIIov lhe resenler lo move back and forlh as in a cIassroom. Or you may vanl
lhe camera cIoser lo calure geslures or emolions. Make sure lhe video image
shovs a gIinl in lhe eye of lhe resenler.
! 5tcady thc camcra. Mounl lhe camera firmIy. Use a lriod lo reduce shake. Ioinl
lhe camera reciseIy. If lhe camera musl move lo foIIov lhe resenler, make sure
lhe lriod has a fIuid head lhal gIides smoolhIy and an oeralor vilh a good aim.
# Prcparc thc prcscntcr. HeI lhe resenler do lhe besl |ob ossibIe. Insure lhal novice
resenlers avoid common mislakes.
! Drcss thc prcscntcr simp!y. Avoid cIolhing vilh allerns. Use fIal makeu and
forego fancy |eveIry lhal fIickers and gIinls.
! Rchcarsc thc prcscntatinn. Iraclice lhe resenlalion vilh cameras running. Then
reviev lhe calured video and lry again. Iresenlers may nol reaIize hov IillIe is
visibIe in a smaII video vindov or hov annoying some of lheir geslures can be.
Give lhem lime lo Iearn lhis nev medium.
# Prcparc !carncrs. The effecliveness of a video-conference deends on lhe behavior and
aclions of IearnerseseciaIIy if lhey acliveIy arliciale in lhe conference.
! Exp!ain vidcn qua!ity. IxIain lo Iearners vhy lhe video quaIily may be Iover lhan
lhey are used lo for broadcasl leIevision.
! Tc!! !carncrs tn kccp thcir vidcn camcras nII unliI requesled lo lurn lhem on. Too
many video slreams can cIog lhe nelvork and dislracl Iearners. There are fev cases
in vhich eoIe need lo valch more lhan lvo or lhree olhers.
! Rcmind !carncrs tn kccp thcir vidcn imagcs simp!c. Warn againsl noisy or moving
backgrounds.
# Cnnduct thc scssinn smnnth!y. During a video-conference resenlalion, lhe resenler
and roducer musl use lhe medium efficienlIy and effecliveIy. Here are a fev
suggeslions:
! Kccp prcscntatinns simp!c. Iul delaiIs in searale Web ages lhal Iearners can read
al Ieisure.
! Kccp prnps at hand. Galher lhe ob|ecls you viII shov ahead of lime. Iul lhem oul
of camera viev bul vilhin arm's reach. Iraclice grabbing and maniuIaling lhem.
! Vary camcra ang!c. If one erson musl laIk for more lhan a minule or so,
eriodicaIIy shifl lhe camera angIe. Have lhe erson vaIk around. Cul avay or an
lo an ob|ecl lhe erson is describing. Inserl a reaclion shol shoving lhe sludio
audience Iislening. Use cIose-us lo shov delaiIs.
! Mnvc smnnth!y and prcdictab!y. Move in fIuid, sleady, rediclabIe molions. Slarl
and finish movemenls sIovIy. Do nol inexIicabIy shifl lhe camera osilion. Make


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aII movemenls seem naluraI and IogicaI. Warn of shifls of IocaIe. We're nov going
lo lhe vorksho lo shov hov lo aIy lhese ideas.
Discuss asynchronously
Discussion forums are anolher Inlernel coIIaboralion mechanism lhal has found a roIe in
sociaI Iearning. Descendanls of comuler buIIelin boards, e-maiI Iisl servers, and Inlernel
nevsgrous, loday's lhreaded discussion forums suorl sohislicaled coIIaboralion.
Their equivaIenl is an inlegraI arl of mosl virluaI-cIassroom and bIogging looIs.
OnIine discussion slarls vhen one erson osls a queslion or an oinion. Olhers read il
and allach reIies. Then sliII olhers add commenls lo lhe reIies. The sequence of
commenlary can go on indefinileIy.
In lhis examIe, ve
see a Iearner's osl
indenled benealh lhe
Moderalor's osl.
ReIying lo lhe
Iearner's osl requires
oening lhe osl and
cIicking lhe ReIy
bullon.

Discussion crealed in MoodIe.
This allern of indenled messages is caIIed a inrca!, and grealIy simIifies foIIoving
conversalions. The idea of lhe lhreaded discussion forum is simIe. A Iearner sees an
indenled Iisl of messages. To reIy lo a message, lhe Iearner seIecls il, resses a reIy
bullon, and lhen comoses lhe reIy in a lexl vindov.
When to use discussion forums in social learning
If lhere is an unsung hero in e-Iearning, il is lhe humbIe discussion forum. Learners
frequenlIy cile discussion as lhe besl arl of lhe course, and il is nol unusuaI for
conversalions lo conlinue monlhs afler lhe formaI end of a course. Discussion aclivilies
vork veII for sub|ecls lhal invoIve coIIaboralion, leamvork, and negolialion among
muIliIe Iearners. Discussion forums:
# Lct !carncrs intcract with cach nthcr even lhough lhey may be 12 lime zones aarl.
# A!!nw discussinns tn cnntinuc as !nng as ncccssary. Conversalions do nol have lo
slo al lhe cIassroom door. Discussion forums kee Iearners and lhe leacher laIking
belveen scheduIed cIass evenls.


# Givc cvcrynnc a chancc tn |nin in, even lhose vho mighl nol conlribule in cIass: shy
eoIe loo oIile lo inlerrul olhers, lhose vilh Iimiled Ianguage skiIIs, lhose vilh a
seech imedimenl or dysIexia, lhose silling in lhe back rov, lhose vilh sofl voices,
lhose ul off by Ioud voices, and lhose vhose scheduIes ruIe oul cIass meelings.
# Prnvidc sccnnd-!anguagc !carncrs a chancc tn practicc !anguagc ski!!s. Such Iearners
can lake lime lo inlerrel messages, using a diclionary if necessary, and lo comose
and check reIies.
# Enab!c !carncrs tn discuss cvcry tnpic nI intcrcst. In a cIassroom, lhe cIass cannol
vasle lime deaIing vilh issues of inleresl lo onIy a fev. In a discussion forum, il lakes
onIy lvo Iearners inleresled in lhe sub|ecl lo slarl a roduclive discussion.
# Encnuragc Iu!! rcspnnscs. Threaded discussion forums aIIov lime lo comose
resonses, mainlain searale lhreads for ongoing sub|ecls, Iel everyone laIk al once,
and can manage discussions among hundreds of arlicianls.
Best practices for discussion forums
Here are some besl raclices lo heI you gel lhe mosl oul of discussion forum aclivilies:
# 5ccd cach thrcad vilh a rovocalive slalemenl or queslion lo gel a conversalion
slarled. Ior inslance, slarl vilh oen-ended queslions lhal do nol imIy a simIe
ansver.
# Mndcratc but dn nnt ccnsnr messages. Guard againsl negalive behaviors, bul do nol
micromanage conversalions. Charge lhe enlire grou vilh lhe resonsibiIily for
enforcing good neliquelle.
# Managc thc cnnvcrsatinn as il deveIos. Irobe, rovoke, and roml dee
discussions. ConlinuaIIy ask, Why do you say lhal` and Whal eIse`
Ior more besl raclices, see lhe seclion on designing and moderaling onIine discussion
aclivilies (. 483).
Broadcast sporadic messages
SociaI Iearning incIudes making announcemenls lo a Iarge grou or lo lhe vorId in
generaI. In lhe asl, such announcemenls vere handIed vilh lhe equivaIenl of an e-maiI
bIasl, bul nov are more IikeIy lo occur using a micro-bIogging caabiIily (Think Tviller.)
lhal kees lhe announcemenls veII organized and aIIovs for reIies from reciienls.
AIlhough lhis caabiIily is used moslIy for shorl, simIe lexl messages, il may incIude
Iinks lo Ionger messages and lo olher media, such as grahics and video.


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Here ve see a micro-
bIogging service used for
lvo kinds of soradic
messages: a li of lhe day
and a oII queslion.
Soradic broadcasl messages can be used for bolh deIiberale and sonlaneous
communicalions, for examIe lo:
# Make course announcemenls. Use broadcasl messages for nevs and reminders of
aroaching lesls, imminenl deadIines, ucoming evenls, scheduIe changes, guesl
seakers, and olher nevsvorlhy ilems.
# Offer a daiIy li, vocabuIary vord, facl, slalislic, rocedure, or rinciIe.
# Share an insiralionaI slory.
# Irovide cIass-vide feedback.
# IoII lhe cIass on an issue.
# Correcl a serious robIem or videsread misconcelion.
Learners can use broadcasl messages lo:
# IubIish reaI-lime noles.
# Ask queslions al any lime.
# Iniliale a discussion al any lime.
# Share Iinks and resources.
# Inform feIIov leam members of individuaI rogress, queslions, or concerns.
Use broadcasts for sharing important information
roadcasling messages lo enlire grous can overfIov message vindovs and overvheIm
anxious Iearners. Use broadcasl messages onIy for informalion imorlanl lo lhe vhoIe
grou receiving il.


Dnn't brnadcast spam. roadcasling unveIcome messages is vhal ve caII samming.
Teachers and faciIilalors shouId seII oul vhen Iearners shouId broadcasl messages lo lhe
vhoIe cIass and vhen nol. Learners vishing lo communicale vilh aII olhers shouId
consider hov lhe message viII be received and vhelher anolher mechanism, such as a
discussion forum or bIog osl, mighl vork beller.
Kccp brnadcast mcssagcs shnrt. Kee lhem concise. Direcl readers lo a Web age or
discussion forum for comIele delaiIs.
Cnnsidcr a!tcrnativcs Inr cnursc annnunccmcnts. There are lvo olher vays lo make cIass
announcemenls besides e-maiI or micro-bIog broadcasls:
# Cnursc hnmc pagc. If aII Iearners slo al lhe Home age on lheir vay inlo lhe course,
ul headIines of announcemenls lhere. Link lhe headIines lo delaiIed exIanalions.
# Annnunccmcnt in discussinn Inrum. If Iearners reguIarIy check discussion forums,
you can sel u a secific discussion forum for cIass announcemenls and osl
announcemenls lhere.
Kccp mcssagcs nrganizcd. IslabIish ruIes for sub|ecl headings and hash lags lo ensure
lhal Iearners can fiIler and sorl messages lhal may arrive from differenl sources.
Post message sequences
In sociaI Iearning, arlicianls may need lo osl a sequence of delaiIed messages avaiIabIe
for olhers lo read and commenl on. This caabiIily can be used lo issue a sequence of
messages lhal are kel avaiIabIe in chronoIogicaI order. Message sequences comosed of
lexl and grahics are lyicaIIy caIIed ||cgs. Those incIuding audio and video are caIIed
pc!casis. These messages are kel avaiIabIe in chronoIogicaI order.
Iogs and odcasls are convenlionaIIy used for resenlalions in Absorb aclivilies as veII
as sociaIIy for Iearner-crealed conlenl.
Blogs
A bIog is an onIine |ournaI conlaining eriodic or soradic enlries on a secific sub|ecl.
Messages are rimariIy lexl and grahics, bul may incIude video cIis. The lerm bIog is a
conlraclion of veb Iog.


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This bIog on
holograhy
offers raclicaI
lis and
lechniques lhal
Iearners can
use lo increase
lheir skiIIs as
amaleur or
rofessionaI
holograhers.

Iog crealed in
TumbIr.
TechnicaIIy, a bIog is nolhing more lhan a sel of Iinked Web ages. Iogs are mosl oflen
organized chronoIogicaIIy vilh more recenl arlicIes aearing more rominenlIy,
lyicaIIy al lhe lo of lhe home age for lhe bIog.
Readers of bIogs can subscribe lo a bIog. Doing so rovides nolificalions of nev arlicIes.
Nolificalions incIude Iinks lo disIay lhe arlicIes. Learners can use a bIog reader lo
access arlicIes from aII lhe bIogs lo vhich lhey have subscribed.
TooIs lo creale and mainlain bIogs incIude WordIress and Iogger. A simiIar caabiIily is
incIuded in some virluaI-cIassroom looIs.
In sociaI Iearning, have !carncrs use bIogs lo:
# Reorl rogress on ongoing ro|ecls.
# RefIecl on Iearning exeriences by sharing discoveries, insighls, and queslions.
# Share vork comIeled as arl of a cIass ro|ecl.
# Creale mainslream course conlenl for use by olher Iearners.
Tcachcrs can use bIogs lo:
# Iace lhe course by osling course announcemenls and assignmenls.
# Iosl resources needed for Iearning aclivilies, such as resenlalions, readings, and |ob-
aids.
# Kee Iearners on lrack by sharing insighls, lis, soIulions lo common robIems,
needed bils of vocabuIary, and oinls sludenls seem lo have missed.
# Iosl case sludies or olher lhoughl rovoking ilems for Iearners lo discuss.


Audio podcasts
Audio odcasls are Iike radio rograms for Iearning. Learners can Iislen lo lhem and
Iearners can roduce lhem.

Here ve see an audio odcasl Iaying in iTunes. The visuaI is
|usl lhe embIem for lhe odcasl series.
Audio odcasls are used lo dislribule soken-vord messages of
a fev minules u lo over an hour.
The lerm odcasl originaIIy referred lo rograms inlended for
Iaying on AIe's iIod, lhough loday such audio rograms
can Iay back on |usl aboul any comuler or mobiIe device.

When to use audio podcasts in social learning
Audio odcasls vork veII vhen you can communicale your sub|ecl using |usl audio.
They are eseciaIIy usefuI for Iearners vho musl fil lhem inlo a busy Iife, say vhen riding
on a lrain or on an airIane. I'm a IillIe concerned aboul lheir use vhiIe driving an
aulomobiIe, bul lhey may be |usl lhe lickel for ignoring Ieering slrangers al lhe gym.
Anolher argumenl for using a odcasl may be economic. Il may be easier and quicker lo
calure lhe exerlise of aulhorilies by having lhem laIk ralher lhan by requiring lhem lo
vrile il dovn. Some eoIe are fIuenl seakers bul hesilanl vrilers. So Iel lhem laIk. If
you are vorried lhey viII rambIe, record an inlerviev vhere you ask secific queslions lo
focus lhe resonses.
Iodcasls are a naluraI for sub|ecls lhal invoIve sound, such as music or Ianguage. They
may rove more difficuIl if lhe sub|ecl is highIy visuaI.
ecause audio odcasls require onIy simIe audio-recording and -ediling looIs found on
mosl currenl comulers, lhey are ideaI for Iearners lo roduce and share. ecause some
Iearners may find seaking easier lhan vriling, audio odcasls may fiII lhe same roIe as
bIogs.
IubIicaIIy avaiIabIe audio odcasls can aIso rovide indeendenl sources of Iearning lo
lhose vho need lo oblain necessary rerequisile informalion, exIore side slreams of
inleresl, or go deeer inlo lhe background or hiIosohy of a fieId.
Do nol, hovever, use a odcasl if your idea couId be summarized lo a age of lexl: use a
bIog inslead. And slick lo facluaI, roceduraI informalion. You are in lhe educalion
business, nol enlerlainmenl.


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Forms of podcasts
Many odcasls lake lhe form of Ieclures lhal exIain a sub|ecl direclIy. ul olher forms are
ossibIe. }usl Iislen lo your radio. Whal do you hear`
# Inlervievs.
# Tis.
# Iroducl revievs.
# Dramalizalions of reaI or imagined evenls.
# Reading aIoud Iike books on lae.
# Live fieId aclivilies.
# Tri reorls.
# Summaries, overvievs, and synoses of a fieId.
# Nevs slories and research reorls.
Best practices for audio podcasts
Here are some besl raclices for beller educalionaI odcasls:
# Kccp cvcrything simp!c, eseciaIIy if Iearners may Iislen vhiIe driving lheir cars. No
comIex foIIov-aIong aclivilies, Iease. Ten minules er segmenl. Do nol require
vriling anylhing dovn.
# Makc what ynu say mcmnrab!c. Reeal. Give mnemonics. Imhasize key oinls. Iosl
URLs, names, and olher delaiIs on a Web Iocalion lhal Iearners can find on lheir ovn.
# Usc nn!y wnrds that !carncrs a!rcady knnw. If you inlroduce a nev lerm or concel,
exIain il.
# Kccp thc intrnductinn and c!nsc shnrt, eseciaIIy if Iearners viII Iislen lo severaI
eisodes al once.
# Dn nnt |ust mimic radin. Inlerlainmenl odcasls are radio. InformalionaI odcasls
musl be more. DovnIay lhe music, reverberaling inlro, and olher radio effecls. No
adverlisemenls, Iease.
# 5c!cct music tn p!casc ynur audicncc nnt ynursc!I, eseciaIIy if your audience sans
severaI generalions or cuIlures.
# Makc vniccs c!car and p!casant. Invesl in a good microhone. IquaIize and normaIize
voices. In a sound-ediling rogram, ad|usl lhe frequencies of lhe voices and ad|usl
voIumes lo a conslanl IeveI. Seak in an ubeal, emolionaI voice. Seak lo a simuIaled
sludio audience.
# 5mnnth thc I!nw. Rehearse and rehearse again. Idil oul mislakes and Iong auses.
IncIude shorl lis and olher ieces lo sIice logelher for Ionger segmenls.


Video podcasts
Video odcasls are simIy recorded TV rograms (or fiIms, if you refer). They require
recording and ediling video. SimIe video odcasls can be roduced using a simIe video
camera and lhe video calure and ediling looIs buiIl inlo mosl currenl comuler
oeraling syslems. To see good and bad examIes of video odcasls, visil iTunes,
YouTube, or Vimeo.

This video odcasl
(disIayed in
iTunes)
demonslrales a
rocedure vilh a
digilaI rinler.
When to use video podcasts for social learning
Video odcasls can be used lo record and resenl informalion lhal requires molion. They
can be used for any of lhe same uroses as bIogs and audio odcasls. They can be
vieved by Iearners lo gel informalion and crealed by Iearners lo share informalion. Use
lhem vhere lhe combinalion of audio and video is reaIIy needed, for examIe:
# Demonslralions of hysicaI rocedures.
# RoIe-Iaying vhere body Ianguage, oslure, geslures, and faciaI exressions are
cruciaI.
# Screencasls of soflvare rocedures.
# ImolionaI messages needed lo molivale olhers.
Best practices for video podcasts
# Bui!d nn audin pndcasts. Video odcasls add video lo lhe caabiIilies of audio
odcasls. The besl raclices for audio odcasls (. 431) aIy lo video odcasls as veII.
# Havc a rcasnn Inr vidcn. Use il for sub|ecls lhal musl be seen moving. Video is seIdom
effeclive for laIking-head reorls lhal couId vork beller as a bIog or audio odcasl.
# Kccp scgmcnts shnrt. If lhe rocedure you are demonslraling is Ienglhy, consider
breaking u lhe rocedure inlo shorler video segmenls of |usl a fev minules.


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# Kccp prnductinn simp!c. Do nol lry for a HoIIyvood exlravaganza. Use a simIe sel
and Iimil camera movemenls and seciaI effecls.
Collaboratively create documents
One of lhe core aclivilies in sociaI Iearning is coIIaboraling on a iece of vork, such as a
business documenl.
In many forms of leamvork, lhe urose of coIIaboralion is lo creale an arlifacl of vaIue
in ilseIf. In sociaI Iearning, ve have addilionaI goaIs of Iearning from lhe rocesses of
researching, Ianning, drafling, ediling, assembIing, lesling, criliquing, refining, and
ubIishing lhe vork.
CoIIaboraling is easy vhen aII arlicianls are silling around lhe same labIe. Wilh dislanl
Iearners, hovever, coIIaboralion requires seciaI mechanisms lhal enabIe videIy
dislribuled Iearners lo coIIaboraliveIy aulhor documenls, skelch diagrams and olher
grahics, share comuler aIicalions and dala fiIes, and scheduIe aclivilies.
!"##$%"&$'()* $,'-"&(./
SociaI Iearning oflen invoIves coIIaboralive vriling of documenls, erhas using Inlernel-
hosled aIicalions Iike GoogIe Docs. The documenl can be lhe rimary roducl of lhe
aclivily or |usl a means of focusing and slrucluring Iearning aclivilies.

Here a leam
member adds a
commenl lo a
documenl lhe leam
is rearing for an
ongoing business
simuIalion.

Documenl hosled on
GoogIe Docs.
CoIIaboralive aulhoring can be used lo creale a variely of documenls, such as reorls and
vhile aers, roosaIs, secificalions, sreadsheels, sIide resenlalions, dalabases,
ro|ecl Ians, bIuerinls, diagrams, audio and video odcasls, documenlary fiIms, |ob
aids, and many more.


When to use collaborative authoring for social learning
CoIIaboralive aulhoring aclivilies are usefuI lo leach:
# asic leamvork skiIIs, such as negolialion, comromise, and advocacy.
# IrofessionaI disciIines, such as engineering and managemenl, vhich are aIied as
arl of a leam.
# ComIex, muIli-slage aclivilies lhal invoIve inlegraling lhe vork of searale
individuaIs and leams.
# Communicalions skiIIs such as lechnicaI and business vriling, |ournaIism, adverlising.
# Use of a shared looI, Iike lhe one used lo aulhor lhe documenl.
Best practices for collaborative authoring
Kee in mind lhal coIIaboralive aulhoring is differenl from soIo aulhoring and lhal
e-Iearning imoses ils ovn requiremenls, loo.
# If raclicaI, aulhor using looIs lhal slore lhe ongoing documenl in a shared, onIine
vorksace. Thal vay lhe documenl is nol Iocked u in one erson's comulervhich
may be lurned off or go offIine.
# IslabIish and enforce a rolocoI for vho can vrile and aIler lhe documenl and vhen.
TyicaIIy, lhis requires a checkoul syslem vhereby onIy one erson can make changes
al a lime. Ior a Iong documenl or a Iarge leam, you may have lo break lhe documenl
inlo searaleIy edilabIe segmenls.
# Make sure lhal crealing lhe documenl requires and exercises lhe skiIIs you need lo
leachnol |usl busyvork.
# IoIIov eslabIished slandards for grammar, unclualion, seIIing, and usage.
Designale secific slyIe guides. You do nol vanl lhe leam vasling lime arguing lhe
merils of rilish vs. American seIIings.
# SuIy a lemIale or oulIine lo handIe issues of organizalion and formalling, vhich
are nol arl of lhe Iearning ob|eclive.
Wikis
A viki is a communaIIy aulhored documenl, lyicaIIy comosed of searale enlries, each
lighlIy focused on an individuaI loic. Wilh a viki someone creales a nev enlry or
modifies an exisling one. Someone eIse lhen evaIuales ils accuracy and imorlance.
Olhers may revrile lhe enlry lo refine or exlend il.
The eilome of a viki is Wikiedia. Wiki, by lhe vay, is from lhe Havaiian vord for
quick, as in quick informalion.


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In lhis viki on holograhic
lechniques, a Iearner edils an
enlry crealed by anolher
Iearner.
When to use wikis for social learning
Use vikis lo leach leamvork, lo share vaIuabIe knovIedge, and lo buiId a reosilory of
verified informalion. Use vikis lo:
# Tcst and rcIinc idcas by commenling on lhem and revriling lhem lo imrove
accuracy and cIarily.
# Accumu!atc !carning nvcr timc by eslabIishing a sub|ecl-based viki lhal successive
cIasses can refine and exlend.
# Cnnsn!idatc scparatc !carning rcsu!ts, such as insighls from individuaI leam members
or sub-leams.
# Prcparc matcria!s Inr usc !atcr in vork or addilionaI Iearning. Ior examIe, Iearners
mighl eslabIish, mainlain, and exlend a viki lo suorl vork in a |ob calegory or
rofession.
# Organizc cnursc matcria!s, incIuding reference vorks and assignmenls.
# Tcach thc nccd tn citc snurccsand hov lo do il.
# As a knnw!cdgc-managcmcnt cIInrt vhen aIied lhroughoul lhe organizalion.
# Makc inInrmatinn mnrc acccssib!c lhan il vouId be in a discussion forum or a Iibrary
of searale documenls.
Best practices for wikis
To creale viki enlries lhal olhers viII use:
# Inc!udc a varicty nI cntrics. Do nol Iimil your viki lo encycIoedia arlicIes. Consider
incIuding rocedures, secificalions, lis and shorlculs, overvievs and summaries,
research reorls, essays, |ob aids, IAQs, insighls, samIes of effeclive vork, exercises
comIeled by revious cIasses, and cIearIy IabeIed ediloriaIs.


# Makc cntrics casy tn rctricvc. Iick lilIes and headings vilh care. Add keyvords lhal
someone vho needs lhe enlry vouId use lo search for il.
# Makc cntrics casy tn undcrstand. Wrile enlries so lhose oulside lhe seciaIisl fieId viII
undersland. Avoid |argon and unfamiIiar abbrevialions.
Whiteboards
A vhileboard is a coIIaboralion looI lhal simuIales lhe rocess lhal occurs vhen lhe
leacher dravs on a vaII-mounled vhileboard and lhen inviles a Iearner lo conlribule lo
lhe draving. AII arlicianls immedialeIy see everylhing dravn on lhe vhileboard. In
some onIine meeling looIs, lhe vhileboard fealure can be used as an overIay lo annolale
sIides, Web lours, video cIis, and even shared aIicalions.

In lhis course on digilaI holograhy,
lhe leacher oses a queslion lo a
Iearner and lhen asses conlroI lo lhe
Iearner. The Iearner lhen ansvers by
draving on lhe vhileboard.

An Adobe Iholosho fiIe is being disIayed in Adobe
Connecl.
Use a whiteboard for visual learning
Whileboards Iel Iearners and leachers skelch ideas lhey cannol exress in vords.
Whileboards are eseciaIIy imorlanl for courses in science, engineering, malhemalics,
and olher sub|ecls lhal mix grahics and lexl. Whileboards are aIso imorlanl for lhose
vilh Iimiled IngIish Ianguage skiIIs and lhose vho exress lhemseIves veII visuaIIy.
Some common sub|ecls incIude:
# Visua! appcarancc. The coIor, Iayoul, shae, or conlenls of any visuaI disIay.
# Arrangcmcnt and nrganizatinn nI cnmpnncnts of a syslem. Iarlicianls can drav and
edil a diagram.
# Charts and graphs shoving numericaI lrends and allerns.
# Visua! symbn!s lhal lhe Iearner musl Iearn lo recognize.


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Use whiteboards communally
Whileboards are nol Iimiled lo one-vay resenlalions lo assive vievers. Wilh
vhileboards, Iearners and leachers can inleracl. Learners can comIele a draving slarled
by lhe leacher. The leacher or Iearners can crilique a grahic by annolaling secific arls.
Iarlicianls can mark u a sIide, holograh, charl, or diagram lo suggesl imrovemenls.

A Microsofl IoverIoinl sIide is being disIayed in Adobe Connecl.
Some syslems aIIov aII meeling
arlicianls lo drav al once. I use
lhis for visuaI voling vhere Iearners
can oinl lo lheir choices. The
fIurry of arrovs adds excilemenl as
Iearners indicale and revise lheir
choices.
Sounds chaolic, bul il can be a
roduclive vay for immediale
coIIaboralion.
Whileboards make ossibIe a variely of coIIaboralive aclivilies. Here's a Iisl of vhileboard
aclivilies you can use lo aclivale a cIass and gel Iearners accuslomed lo using lhe
vhileboard:
# Vole visuaIIy by Ielling Iearners indicale lheir choices on a grahic by oinling vilh an
arrov, Iacing a checkmark, or highIighling lheir choices.
# DisIay a ma and have sludenls vrile lheir names and drav arrovs lo lheir Iocalions.
# Iresenl a grid vilh one square for each Iearner lo vrile ansvers lo a queslion.
# Ask queslions visuaIIy. Have Iearners idenlify an ilem in a iclure by oinling lo il
vilh an arrov. Have Iearners suggesl vhere lo navigale by oinling lo a Iace on a
ma or a bullon on a Web age. Have Iearners idenlify errors in a disIay by
highIighling areas for imrovemenl.
# Creale a coIIage by having Iearners conlribule lheir ovn images lo fIesh oul an idea or
design.
# Lel Iearners ansver lesl queslions. Have lhem rale ilems on a scaIe by oinling lo lhe
raling lhey vouId give. Or Iel Iearners malch ilems in lvo Iisls by draving arrovs
belveen lhem. Lel Iearners seIecl from muIliIe choices by oinling lo lhe choice.
# Ierform an inslanl DeIhi survey by having Iearners vole on a vhileboard so lhey
immedialeIy see each olher's voles. As lhe cIass discusses lhe issue, Iearners can
change lheir vole as soon as lhey vish.


Best practices for using whiteboards
The secrel lo a successfuI vhileboard session is lhe same as lhal for any olher Iive aclivily:
carefuI rearalion.
# Prcparc drawings and c!ip-art in advance of lhe vhileboard session. IIace lhem inlo a
fiIe or foIder you can access during lhe session. IncIude: lexl for queslions you knov
you viII ask or commenls you viII make, ob|ecls you viII discuss, symboIs used in
your rofession, arrovs, boxes, and olher generic shaes.
# Dn nnt writc by hand. Avoid hand vriling maleriaIs on lhe sol. UnIess olhers
unanimousIy agree lhal you can vrile very IegibIy very quickIy, use lhe vhileboard's
lexl looI. If you musl vrile by hand, rinl in:

# Estab!ish cn!nr cndcs for dravings and lexl. Assign each Iearner a dislincl coIor so lhal
each conlribulion is recognized.
# Kccp graphics and backgrnunds simp!c. Texlured backgrounds and inlricale grahics
lake Ionger lo comrehend lhan simIe ones.
# DcIinc prnpcr bchavinr. Here are some ruIes lo gel Iearners slarled.
! Ask !carncrs tn takc turns. TeII lhem lo vail for olhers lo finish before slarling lo
drav.
! Tc!! !carncrs whcn thcy can a!! draw at nncc. Thal vay no one fears inlerruling
olhers.
! Dn nnt criticizc snmcnnc c!sc's drawing ski!!. Re-drav lhe ob|ecl for lhem if you
can do beller.
# 5ummarizc thc scssinn. Al lhe end, cIean u lhe draving lo remove discarded ideas
and arrange il lo refIecl lhe concIusion of lhe grou. Thal vay each arlicianl receives
a summary of lhe session.
Application sharing
AIicalion sharing Iels lhe resenler share rograms, vindovs, or lhe enlire screen vilh
olhers in a meeling. The leacher can demonslrale a rocedure or iece of soflvare simIy
by running il on his or her comuler. Learners see exaclIy vhal is disIayed in lhe shared
vindov. Learners, vilh ermission of lhe moderalor or leacher, can lake conlroI of lhe
aIicalion and resenl lo lhe resl of lhe grou.


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Here is an examIe of a shared
aIicalion. Il shovs lhe viev as
lhe resenler modifies a
holograh in Iholosho. The
Iearner's comuler does nol
require Iholosho lo viev lhis
demonslralion. Laler lhe
resenler may have a Iearner
erform a simiIar rocedure.

The meeling looI is Adobe Connecl.
When to use application sharing
Use aIicalion sharing lo demonslrale comuler rograms, comuler dala, iclures, and
olher maleriaI on a comuler screen. Use aIicalion-sharing sessions lo:
# Demonslrale comuler rograms and leach oeralions skiIIs, eseciaIIy for rograms
nol reIeased yel or nol videIy avaiIabIe.
# Lel Iearners viev dala in aIicalions lhal are nol on Iearners' comulers, such as a
dalabase nol generaIIy accessibIe.
# Lel Iearners lry oul skiIIs demonslraled by lhe leacher. Have Iearners laIk aIoud as
lhey erform lhe aclivily. The leacher can lake over if Iearners faiI.
# ComIele coIIaboralive aclivilies invoIving muIliIe Iearners. IeriodicaIIy caII on
Iearners lo conducl demonslralions. Have each Iearner in lurn erform one sle in a
rocedure. Share a game lo make a muIli-Iayer game.
AIicalion sharing is seIdom fasl enough lo shov any raid animalion or fIuid molions.
Use il for demonslralions lhal require onIy simIe movemenls.
If your meeling syslem offers aIicalion sharing, you can use il in Iace of olher
caabiIilies lhal may be missing or inadequale in your looI.
II ynu !ack: Usc app!icatinn sharing tn sharc:
Chal A vord rocessor or lexl edilor.
Whileboard A sIide or draving rogram.
SIide shov IoverIoinl or anolher sIide rogram.
Web lour Web brovser.


Best practices for application sharing
AIicalion sharing lakes carefuI rearalion and smoolh execulion. Ior besl effecl:
# Rchcarsc thc dcmnnstratinn unliI il fIovs smoolhIy. Learners do nol en|oy valching
lhe resenler's mislakes. An unrehearsed resenlalion communicales lhal lhe
resenler is unrofessionaI and does nol mind vasling Iearners' lime.
# 5harc |ust what ynu nccd tn sharc. Share an individuaI aIicalion or vindov ralher
lhan lhe vhoIe desklo. Share onIy one rogram al a lime. Do nol Iel olher vindovs
cover lhe aIicalion you are sharing.
# Quit unncccssary prngrams. Ior beller reIiabiIily and seed, exil olher rograms lhal
require comuler or nelvork resources. Turn off video-conferencing.
# Usc audin tn narratcif bandvidlh ermils. ConlinuousIy exIain vhal you are
doing. Lel Iearners hear as veII as see lhe demonslralion. Seak sIovIy and cIearIy.
AIIov lime for Iearners lo Iislen and undersland.
# Kccp sccurity in mind. If you granl conlroI lo olhers, lhey can oen, modify, and
deIele fiIes on your syslem. Do nol hand over conlroI and Ieave lhe room.
# Mnvc smnnth!y and pausc Ircqucnt!y so Iearners' disIays have lime lo calch u vilh
lhe resenler's disIay. Avoid dragging vindovs on lhe screen. If you musl rearrange
lhe screen, slo aIicalion sharing, move and resize vindovs, and lhen resume
aIicalion sharing.
Share creations
SociaI Iearning inviles Iearners lo creale and share Iearning maleriaIs, such as vrilings,
holograhs, and video cIis. Learners can aIso share by roviding olhers vilh Iinks lo
onIine maleriaIs or by combining exisling maleriaIs in originaI vays. Learners can aIso
share by making maleriaIs and messages easier lo find by assigning lhem lags or
keyvords lhal olher Iearners can use lo fiIler messages and olher conlenl.
File- and media-sharing
IiIe-sharing and media-sharing caabiIilies Iel designers and faciIilalors sel u onIine
Iibraries of maleriaIs usefuI lo Iearners. You may have used lhis caabiIily vhen you
shared your vacalion holos on IIickr or |usl amused yourseIf by valching home movies
on YouTube. IiIe- and media-sharing can serve as a simIified viki for Iess slruclured
coIIeclions of maleriaIs.


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Here, in lhe holo-sharing
sile IIickr, lhe leacher
shares nine holograhs
lhal viII serve as lhe rav
maleriaI for an exercise in
digilaI holograhy.
Sharing can be done lhrough ubIic siles, such as YouTube and IIickr. Sharing can aIso be
done using caabiIilies of a virluaI-cIassroom syslem, a sociaI-nelvorking sile, an onIine
meeling looI, or a conlenl managemenl syslem. If lhe number of fiIes is smaII, you can |usl
ul aII lhe fiIes in a shared onIine foIder or osl lhem lo a discussion forum.
Ior sociaI Iearning, lhe goaI is lo make il easy for members of a grou lo share documenls
and media. A secondary urose may be lo rovide maleriaIs lhal Iearners can combine
lo creale nev Iearning maleriaIs, somelimes caIIed nasnups.
Share files and media to assist learning
In sociaI Iearning, ve need lo share maleriaIs from lhe leacher as veII as maleriaIs
conlribuled by Iearners, such as:
# Iresenlalions, Ieclures, seeches.
# Recorded discussions and debales.
# Documenlary fiIms.
# Slories.
# Homevork osled for crilique.
# Work samIes.
# Screencasls of comuler rocedures.
# Videos modeIing desirabIe behavior.
# Demonslralions of hysicaI rocedures.
# TemIales for vork roducls.
# Sreadsheels for comIex caIcuIalions.
# Work from revious cIasses.
# Noles from cIass meelings.
# Archives of forum discussions.
# CIi-arl and olher rav maleriaIs for aclivilies.


Best practices for sharing files and media
Make il easy for Iearners lo find and use shared fiIes and media:
# Make sure you have righls lo share maleriaIs. Resecl lhe inleIIecluaI roerly of
olhers. Make cIear hov Iearners and leachers can used lhe shared maleriaIs.
# SimIify finding needed maleriaIs. Assign keyvords and olher meladala lo enabIe
Iearners lo search for lhe fiIes lhey need.
# LabeI fiIes cIearIy. Make cIear vhal lhe fiIe conlains, ils fiIe formal, and vhal
aIicalion can oen il.
# Mainlain lhe reosilory. IeriodicaIIy remove ouldaled and duIicaled ilems.
Social bookmarking
SociaI bookmarking is lhe rocess vhere individuaIs or grous can creale and share Iisls
of hyerIinks lo usefuI onIine resources. SociaI bookmarking can be done vilh ubIic
looIs such as DeIicious or |usl by crealing a Web age conlaining lhe Iinks. SociaI
bookmarking serves many of lhe same funclions as fiIe- and media-sharing, excel lhal
vilh sociaI bookmarking onIy Iinks lo lhe fiIes are shared, nol acluaI fiIes.

Here, lhe sociaI
bookmarking looI Diigo
is used lo ubIish Iinks lo
advice on hov lo
holograh cIassic
aulomobiIes.
When to use social bookmarking in social learning
SociaI bookmarking by ilseIf leaches lvo vaIuabIe Iessons: (1) much of lhe informalion
and knovIedge you need is readiIy accessibIe and (2) nol everylhing onIine is equaIIy
usefuI.


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In sociaI Iearning, you can incororale sociaI bookmarking inlo a range of aclivilies, such
as lhese:
# Learners conducl onIine research and reorl besl sources of informalion.
# Learners coIIecl evidence for and againsl a cIaim, Ian, or roosaI.
# As a grou, Iearners nominale, discuss, and vole lo seIecl lhe besl Iinks.
# Teachers and Iearners ubIish reading Iisls for loics of inleresl.
# Learners comare lheir Iisls of Iinks lo lhose reared by lhe leacher or by exerls.
# Learners scan Iinks lo brainslorm ossibIe ro|ecls.
# Learners eslabIish and mainlain a Iink-Iibrary lo suorl vork in a rofession or |ob
calegory.
Best practices for social bookmarking
# Discuss and pub!ish critcria Inr which !inks tn inc!udc. Crileria may incIude
accuracy, suorl by rigorous research, comIeleness, and oIilicaI neulraIily.
# 5uggcst catcgnrics nI knnw!cdgc tn inc!udc. WhiIe nol reslricling vhal Iearners can
bookmark, give some suggeslions of lyes of informalion lhal arlicianls may find
heIfuI, such as:
! Overvievs, inlroduclions, and summaries.
! Research reorls and aers.
! TuloriaIs and lraining in lhe fieId.
! Slandard reference vorks in lhe fieId.
! CIassic books and aers.
! Conlrasling oinions and dissenling vievs.
! ibIiograhies and reading Iisls.
# Mnnitnr !carncrs' wnrk. Make sure lhal Iearners have acluaIIy read and underslood
ilems lhey suggesl incIuding.
# Pub!ish !ists nI !inks. These Iisls can be used by olher cIasses, by lhe organizalion as a
vhoIe, or by lhe ubIic.
Tagging or keywording items
One of lhe simIesl, yel mosl effeclive, vays lo coIIaborale in crealing conlenl is lo IabeI
messages, documenls, and media eIemenls in a vay lhal idenlifies lhe ilem's reIevance lo
lhe Iearning efforl. We do lhis by embedding lags inlo lhe message or assigning keyvords
lo lhe fiIe. Such IabeIing makes informalion easier lo find and lo combine. Il can aIso
suggesl reIalionshis among searale ieces of informalion.


In lhis Tviller exchange, lhe hash
code -hcbus202 is used in a message
and ils reIy. y fiIlering on lhe hash
code, lhe Iearner is abIe lo see aII lhe
messages lhal incIude lhal hash code.
y incIuding lhe code, lhe message's
aulhor ensures lhal lhe message is
seen by olher inleresled Iearners.
One of lhe simIesl vays lo IabeI informalion is lhe hash-lag fealure in Tviller. To fIag a
message, lhe aulhor incIudes a IabeI in lhe message ilseIf. The IabeI begins vilh lhe -
characler, vhich is caIIed a hash characler or ound sign. Ior examIe, lo IabeI somelhing
as reIevanl lo lhe 2012 OIymics, you mighl lag il vilh -2012OIymics or lhe Iike.
Olhers vho vanl lo see messages aboul lhe 2012 OIymics vouId ol lo receive any
messages lhal incIude lhal lag. They vouId receive your messages lagged vilh
2012OIymics and messages of anybody eIse vho used lhal lag. More and more sociaI
nelvorking looIs are adoling lhis hash-lag convenlion.
The oIder melhod of lagging informalion is by incIuding keyvords lhal describe lhe
informalion. This informalion is usuaIIy enlered in lhe meladala fieId for lhe documenl,
fiIe, or age. Learners can lhen search for ilems lhal incIude lhose keyvords.
Mashups
Masnups combine and enhance aIready avaiIabIe maleriaIs and sources inlo a nev
derivalive vork.
Ior a simIe examIe, consider GoogIe Mas. Users can slarl vilh a basic ma, add ins
and olher symboIs lo mark significanl Iocalions, rovide commenlary for lhese Iocalions,
and srinkIe on geolagged holograhs of siles in lhe area of lhe ma. The resuIling
enhanced ma can be reveaIed lo olhers on lhe Inlernel.


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This mashu
conlains informalion
coIIecled from
various Iocalions lo
reare
holograhers lo
visil Dinosaur
NalionaI Monumenl
on lhe CoIorado-
Ulah border.
SimIe lo creale, lhis
mashu is a Web
age lhal uses
iIrame lags lo uII
in conlenl from
severaI Web siles.
Anolher examIe is business.gov, vhich rovides a singIe Web sile lo access business-
reIaled maleriaIs on dozens of searale U.S. Governmenl Web siles.
When maleriaIs of differenl lyes and from differenl sources are organized inlo a singIe
disIay, lhe resuIl is caIIed a !asn|car! for ils resembIance lo lhe searale gauges and
readouls in fronl of lhe driver of a car.
Any looI lhal can incIude nelvork-hosled maleriaIs or |usl Iinks lo lhem can be used lo
creale lhe kind of mashu usefuI in e-Iearning.
Crealing mashus is inherenlIy sociaI. IndividuaIs can conslrucl documenls and disIays
from maleriaIs crealed by olher individuaIs. The rocess of idenlifying source maleriaIs,
evaIualing lhem, aIIocaling sace lo lhem, and enhancing lhe resuIl makes a suerb leam
ro|ecl.
When to use mashups for social learning
Use mashus in sociaI Iearning lo enhance and share avaiIabIe informalion, incIuding
informalion crealed in olher sociaI Iearning aclivilies. Use mashus lo:
# Crcatc a cnursc dashbnard vhere Iearners can kee u lo dale on currenl assignmenls,
scheduIes, and reading maleriaIsand vhere lhey can submil comIeled assignmenls
and receive feedback on lhem.


# Rcducc thc timc !carncrs wastc scarching for and navigaling lo individuaI sources of
informalion.
# Tcach highcr !cvc! ski!!s by having Iearners undersland, evaIuale, and combine
informalion lhey find in onIine sources.
# Crcatc |nb aids for use vilhin a rofession.
# Cnmpi!c survcy rcpnrts sanning a fieId of research, commerce, or arl.
Best practices for mashups
Creale and use mashus in vays lhal heI meel Iearning ob|eclives:
# CarcIu!!y cva!uatc matcria!s incIuded in mashus. Remember lhe GIGO rinciIe`
WeII, here is an udale: Garbage in, loxic sIudge oul.
# Draw nn matcria!s prcvinus!y idcntiIicd in your fiIe-sharing, media-sharing, and
sociaI bookmarking efforls.
# Rcspcct nthcrs' intc!!cctua! prnpcrty by carefuIIy screening coyrighl informalion. Do
nol use maleriaIs in vays lhal vouId vioIale coyrighl or reveaI confidenliaI
informalion.
# IdcntiIy thc snurccs nI inInrmatinn, eseciaIIy if lhey come from oulside your
organizalion.
Vote and rate
Learning aclivilies oflen require Iearners lo make a decision, exress a |udgmenl, or rank
an idea. IoIIs rovide a vay lhal Iearners can rale and vole on ilems. IoIIs are on-screen
disIays lhal Iel Iearners seIecl among aIlernalives. The choices are laIIied and disIayed
in a comosile viev. IoIIs funclion Iike lhe keyads used by Iearners in some inleraclive
video courses lo indicale lheir ansvers lo queslions osed by lhe leacher. OnIine oIIs,
hovever, require no seciaI hardvare.
IoIIing requires Iearners lo make choices. Techniques such as tiriua| tciing |ccins, tiriua|
rcspcnsc pa!s, or tiriua| sncu cj nan!s, Iel aII Iearners see aggregale lolaIs of hov lhe grou
voled.
When to use polls for social learning
IoIIs are an effeclive vay lo encourage Iearners lo research and lhink deeIy aboul issues.
They are aIso good lo chaIIenge Iearners lo shae lhe oinions of olhers, lhereby reaIizing
lhe Iimilalions of lheir ovn lhinking. IoIIs can add a sark of inleraclivily by requiring
lhe cIass lo vole on lhe oinl under discussion.
IoIIing can be used lo evaIuale onIine Iearning maleriaIs such as Web ages and siles,
bIog oslings, odcasls, rofiIes of individuaIs, and shared media. Such evaIualions can
rovide feedback lo lhe crealor of lhe ilem. IoIIs can serve as informaI lesls. IoIIing can


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fIag ilems vorlh Iearning and idenlify resources for fulure use. And, oIIing can assisl in
grading.
Use oIIs lo force choices, adminisler surveys, and laIIy voles. Here are some uses for
oIIs in e-Iearning:
# Usc spnntancnus pn!!s tn survcy !carncrs instant!y nn an issuc. Ior examIe, Iel
Iearners decide vhal lhe leacher shouId discuss or vhal lhe cIass shouId consider in
grealer delaiI.
# Usc pn!!s Inr binary chniccs. Have Iearners vole yes or no on ilems in a checkIisl.
Conducl a mock lriaI and have Iearners vole on lhe guiIl or innocence of lhe defendanl.
HoId a debale and Iel Iearners choose lhe vinner.
# Usc pn!!s tn sc!cct amnng a!tcrnativc paths in a simuIalion or game.
# Gct instant Iccdback on hov veII Iearners feeI lhey undersland a concel. Conducl
before and afler surveys lo measure changes of oinion or knovIedge.
# Vntc tn narrnw chniccs. Then discuss lhe remaining choices and vole again lo seIecl
lhe besl choice.
# Cnnduct cmntinna! pn!!s. Ask Iearners hov lhey feeI aboul an issue. Ior examIe, use
emolicons (smiIeys) lo reresenl lhe ranges of emolion.
Types of polls
There are lhree forms of oIIs: sonlaneous, synchronous, and asynchronous.
Spontaneous polls
InformaI Yes/No oIIs in an onIine meeling ask arlicianls lo indicale lheir choices by
cIicking a raisc hand bullon, or, a Ycs bullon lo indicale yes and a Nn bullon lo indicale a
no. Such sonlaneous oIIs gel immediale oinions from Iearners.

Here is an examIe of a sonlaneous
oII. The leacher disIays a sIide
asking for Iearners lo give a lhumbs
u if lhey vanl lo deIve deeer inlo
lhe sub|ecl.
In addilion lo lhe oII queslion, lhe
sIide conlains a grahic lhal briefIy
reminds Iearners hov lo indicale a
lhumbs u.



Synchronous polls
Synchronous oIIs have Iearners ick from a Iisl of aIlernalives and lhen see lhe resuIls of
lhe aggregale voling. Synchronous oIIs Iel members of lhe cIass ansver informaI lesl
queslions, make reaI-lime choices, and vole on issues.

Here is an examIe of a synchronous
oII. Iirsl, a sIide aears lo inlroduce
lhe oII. Learners see lhe queslion and
ossibIe choices. Then, lhe voling area
aears. Learners lhen vole and lhe
resuIls are disIayed lo lhe cIass.
Go lo . 437 lo see hov a vhileboard
can be used for synchronous oIIing.

Asynchronous polls
Asynchronous oIIs are avaiIabIe for Iearners lo vole over a eriod of lime, say a veek,
before lheir voles are laIIied. Asynchronous oIIs Iel Iearners research, discuss, and vole
on lheir ovn scheduIe. Vole lolaIs may be disIayed afler a voling eriod or conlinuousIy
as lhey change.

In lhis examIe of an
asynchronous oII, ve ask
Iearners lo slale hov much
lhe ob|eclives for a course
overIa lheir ob|eclives for
sludy. Il is asynchronous so
Iearners can change lheir
oinions as lhe course
rogresses.



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Best practices for polls
Use oIIs in vays lhal Iel Iearners naluraIIy exress choices.
# Cn!!cct npininns at thc right timc. Record choices al lhe mosl reveaIing limes: afler an
evenl, during an evenl, or bolh before and afler an evenl. Ior examIe, Iel Iearners
discuss a queslion before voling. And Iel lhem change lheir voles in resonse lo
commenls in discussion.
# Makc surc !carncrs knnw hnw tn vntc. IncIude inslruclions, such as: SeIecl your
choice and lhen cIick Entcr." e sure lo leII Iearners hov lo refresh lheir viev lo see lhe
vole lolaIs.
# Phrasc prnmpts and chniccs with cxtrcmc carc. Tesl lo make sure Iearners undersland
lhe choices. IxIain choices al lhe beginning of lhe aclivily. Tesl your queslions on
olhers lo make sure lhey aII inlerrel lhe queslion lhe vay you inlended. Refine
queslions unliI lhey are cIear.
# Disp!ay vntc tnta!s nn!y. Learners may hesilale lo vole if lhey feeI olhers can Iearn
hov lhey individuaIIy voled. Hovever, lhe leacher may vanl lo see hov individuaIs
voled. Thal vay lhe leacher can caII on a Iearner lo seak for a arlicuIar osilion.
# Track changcs nI npininn during an nngning cvcnt. Such Iogs can rovide a vaIuabIe
source for research.
# Givc !carncrs timc tn makc up thcir minds. Do nol force lhem lo vole immedialeIy
uon receiving lhe queslion. Lel lhem lurn lhe queslion over in lheir minds, lhink of
an ansver, change lheir minds, figure oul hov lo vole, and do so.
# Rcquirc rcscarch and ana!ysis Inr asynchrnnnus pn!!s. Use lhem lo rovoke research
and deeer Iearning.
# 5ct up gcncric pn!!s. Thal vay you viII nol have lo creale a Iarge number of oIIs or
re-creale lhem each lime you use a differenl meeling syslem. Iul lhe acluaI queslions
on your sIides. Then reare oIIs vilh choices such as:
! Yes and No.
! A, , and C (keyed lo ilems on lhe sIide).
! A, , C, and D.
! A, , C, D, and I.
! More, The Same, and Less.
# Ask npcn-cndcd qucstinns. Lel Iearners give ansvers nol incIuded in lhe oII. I
frequenlIy incIude a oII choice of Olher (enler in chal) lo encourage Iearners lo
lhink beyond lhe Iisl of choices I rovide.


Filter messages
SociaI Iearning can fire-hose Iearners vilh a lorrenl of irreIevanl messages and al lhe same
lime Ieave lhem anxious lhal lhey are missing arl of a vilaI conversalion going on
somevhere onIine. To heI Iearners organize and allend lo imorlanl messages, ensure
lhey are famiIiar vilh various vays of fiIlering messages.
IiIlering Iels Iearners decide vhich messages lo see based on lhe sender, sub|ecl, or some
olher crileria. Differenl looIs imIemenl fiIlers differenlIy, hovever, cerlain fiIlering
caabiIilies are common:
# 5ubscribc nr In!!nw. The Iearner may eIecl lo receive soradic vork ubIished by
olhers. Ior bIogs, lhe lerm is su|scri|c, in Tviller, il is jc||cu, and in Iacebook il is jan.
The ubIisher does nol have lo arove lhe requesl.
# BcIricnd. One erson can requesl lo be considered a friend (in Iacebook
lerminoIogy). Once lhe requesl is aroved, lhe lvo friends are muluaIIy subscribed lo
each olher's oslings and announcemenls.
# B!nck. Learners may vanl lo bIock messages lhey find offensive, dislracling, or |usl
uninleresling. Iocking is a slandard arl of e-maiI and sociaI-nelvorking looIs. Il can
ose a robIem in sociaI Iearning if Iearners fiIler oul loo many co-Iearners.
# Aggrcgatc. Learners oflen need lo consoIidale slreams of messages from searale
sources. This is vhal an e-maiI reader does. Il organizes lhe messages inlo a singIe
disIay, regardIess of vho senl lhem. TooIs such as iTunes can aggregale odcasls you
subscribe lo inlo a singIe organized Iisl. RSS readers can Iikevise Iisl aII nev arlicIes
for aII lhe bIogs lo vhich you subscribe. Some form of aggregalor is cruciaI lo
consoIidale aII announcemenls and course maleriaIs inlo a singIe disIaysomelimes
caIIed a ccnsc|c or !asn|car!.
# Tag. Learners can fiIler messages lo incIude onIy lhose IabeIed vilh secific keyvords
or hash-lags (. 443).
Establish a point of contact
In a modeI ouIarized by MySace, Iacebook, and LinkedIn, eoIe and grous ubIish
a rofiIe or home age describing lhem and serving as a oinl of conlacl. This rofiIe
serves as bolh a source and a deslinalion for messages lo and from lhe individuaI or
grou. This rofiIe or home age creales an onIine idenlily.


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Here is a home age
for a course on digilaI
holograhy.
In addilion lo lhe
veIcome message,
lhere are Iinks lo
imorlanl course
documenls, lhe
leacher's rofiIe,
moduIes, and
resources.
There is aIso a nevs
feed and a Iink lo lhe
cIass rosler.

uiIl using MoodIe.
Uses for a profile or home page
In sociaI Iearning, a rofiIe or home age rovides informalion and simIifies
communicalion. A searale rofiIe may be crealed for each Iearner, leacher, leam, cIass,
course, and schooI.
PrnIi!c Inr Purpnscs Inc!udc
Learner HeI olher Iearners
imagine lhis erson.
HeI olher Iearners assess
lhis erson's exerlise and
credibiIily.
Name.
IrofessionaI and academic
accomIishmenls.
Areas of seciaI skiII and knovIedge.
Inough ersonaI delaiIs lo make lhe
Iearner seem human.
Iholograh, eseciaIIy if face-lo-face
meelings or video-conferences occur.
Conlacl informalion.


PrnIi!c Inr Purpnscs Inc!udc
Teacher or
faciIilalor
IslabIish aulhorily for lhe
leacher.
HeI Iearners decide vhal
lye assislance lo seek
from lhe leacher.
Name.
IrofessionaI and academic credenliaIs
and accomIishmenls.
Areas of seciaI skiII and knovIedge.
Iholograh.
Team or
olher grou
vilhin a cIass
HeI lo form and
adminisler lhe leam.
Coordinale aclivilies of
lhe leam.
Idenlify lhe leam lo lhose
oulside lhe leam.
Name.
ImbIem or mascol (olionaI).
GoaI, mission, or unifying rinciIe.
Members.
CIass (grou
of eoIe
laking a
course
logelher)
Irovide informalion lo
lhose in lhe cIass.

Designalion or name.
SyIIabus.
Course maleriaIs.
Assignmenls.
Course (lhal
may be laken
by differenl
cIasses).
Idenlify lhe course lo
lhose vho mighl vanl lo
lake il.
Name and number.
Descrilion.
Ob|eclives.
Irerequisiles.
Hov lo enroII.
SchooI or
lraining
dearlmenl
Irovide informalion lo
Iearners laking courses
from lhe schooI and lhose
considering enroIIing
lhere.
Name.
Mission.
Course calaIog.
IoIicies and rocedures.
RuIes and reguIalions.
Conlacl informalion


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Best practices for a profile or home page
IslabIishing heIfuI rofiIe ages for e-Iearning requires focus on lhe goaIs of Iearning.
# Givc !carncrs and tcachcrs tcmp!atcs vilh sIols for recommended informalion lo
incIude. Lel Iearners add lo lhe lemIale bul encourage lhem lo rovide lhe suggesled
minimum informalion.
# Discnuragc thc usc nI pscudnnyms or screen names inslead of reaI names. IaIse
names sIov lhe deveIomenl of lrusl and can creale lhe susicion lhal some Iearners
are nol vho lhey relend lo be.
# Kccp prnIi!cs prnIcssinna!. Some Iearners may |usl coy lheir Iacebook rofiIe.
esides roviding vay loo much ersonaI informalion, such rofiIes oflen hide lhe
very laIenls, knovIedge, and skiIIs lhal viII make lhe Iearner vaIuabIe as arl of a
leam. And lhe holo of lhe Iearner hoisling a marlini gIass may suggesl an
unrofessionaI allilude.
Set up and administer a team or other group
SociaI Iearning lakes Iace as a grou. As such, il requires lhe abiIily lo define a sub-grou
of individuaIs vho can easiIy share informalion and exchange messages. Deending on
your ob|eclives, lhe grou may consisl of a cIass vilhin a course, a Iearning leam, a vork
leam, a communily of raclice, or a rofessionaI associalion.
The caabiIilies used lo manage grous vary among looIs. Make sure lhe looIs you use
rovide lhe caabiIilies you need. Ior sociaI Iearning, grou-adminislralion looIs shouId
heI:
# Iorm grous and udale lheir membershi quickIy.
# InabIe messages lo be fiIlered by grou membershi.
# InabIe a singIe address for messages senl lo lhe vhoIe grou.
# Make member rofiIes or home ages avaiIabIe lo aII olher grou members.
# Lel lhe grou conlroI access lo maleriaIs il creales.
# Irovide lhe grou vilh a degree of rivacy so il can Iimil vhal oulsiders see of ils
roceedings.
# Iorm sub-grous vilhin lhe main grou, such as a lask-leam, commillee, or breakoul
grou.
# Lel Iearners beIong lo muIliIe grous, lhal is, aIIov grou membershis lo overIa.
# InabIe coIIaboralive caIendaring lo scheduIe meelings, negoliale deadIines, reserve
scarce resources, and accommodale inlerrulions.


FACILITATE RATHER THAN TEACH
In sociaI Iearning, Iearners leach each olher. In ure sociaI Iearning lhere vouId be no
need for a leacher. I say vouId be because ure sociaI Iearning is an ideaI, nol IikeIy lo
occur vilh us fIaved human beings.
Here, nov, in lhe messy oI' reaI vorId, sociaI Iearning may need oulside heI. This heI
comes from a faciIilalor. The faciIilalor may have a lilIe of inslruclor, leacher, or rofessor,
bul lhe aclions of a faciIilalor differ from lhose of leaching. The faciIilalor's roIe is lo heI
a grou of Iearners Iearn sociaIIylhal is from each olher.
Some grous, inexerienced in sociaI Iearning, may require significanl direcl invoIvemenl
of lhe faciIilalor. Olhers, comforlabIe and roficienl vilh sociaI Iearning, viII require a
Iighler louch.
As designers, ve musl make sure lhal faciIilalors are avaiIabIe and lhal lhey knov lheir
resonsibiIilies.
Define the duties of the facilitator
The faciIilalor's roIe is lo do vhalever is needed lo ensure sociaI Iearning occurs. Here are
some IikeIy lasks for lhe faciIilalor:
# 5ct up grnups. IniliaIIy assign eoIe lo leams. Irovide each leam vilh ils iniliaI
onIine idenlily.
# Exp!ain thc gna! and ru!cs. Slale lhe overaII goaI for lhe leam. SeII oul necessary
ruIes, crileria, rocedures, and rolocoIs lo gel slarled. Ioinl oul lhal lhe grou can
make changes lhal do nol vioIale Iavs, governmenl reguIalions, or organizalionaI
oIicies.
# Lcad thc grnup tn bccnmc a tcam. Reinforce resonsibiIily for accomIishing lhe goaI
and for Iearning aIong lhe vay. Suggesl ossibIe leam roIes, bul Iel lhe leam come u
vilh ils ovn roIes and fiII lhem. Incourage and guide lhe leam in laking conlroI of ils
oeralions.
# Mnnitnr Inr prnb!cms. Reviev messages and commenls. Walch for bad behavior by
individuaIs and by lhe leam as a vhoIe.
# Mndc! and cncnuragc dcsircd bchavinr. Lislen alienlIy and deeIy. Admil doubls
and Iimils. Discuss ralionaIIy. Offer evidence for oinions.
# Lct thc tcam !carn Irnm its mcmbcrs. Never reach or Ieclure. Do nolhing lo
embarrass leam members. Do nol debale or argue vilh Iearners. Don'l eavesdro more
lhan necessary lo monilor leam heaIlh. Do nol arliciale in sludenl aclivilies or soIve
arlicianls' robIems unliI lhey have exhausled lheir ovn resources.


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# Intcrvcnc whcrc ncccssary tn cnsurc cIIcctivc !carning. Give lhe leam lime lo
discover, discuss, and resoIve robIems by lhemseIves. Ioinl oul lhe robIem oIileIy
and requesl lhe leam lo soIve il. If lhe robIem ersisls, acl decisiveIy lo rescue
Iearning.
The manlra for lhe faciIilalor shouId be I am on la, nol on lo. I am on caII, nol in
conlroI.
Establish a code of conduct
In sociaI Iearning, a code of conducl sels execlalions for behavior. Il can revenl
embarrassmenl or even disaslers lhal can occur vhen Iearners are nev lo sociaI Iearning.
Crafl your ovn code of conducl lo refIecl lhe needs of your Iearners and lhe ideaIs of your
organizalion. If ossibIe, invoIve Iearners in drafling lhe code of conducl lo ensure lhal
lhey agree and commil lo foIIov il.
Use lhe foIIoving as a slarling oinl for your code of conducl. Nole lhal il is addressed lo
Iearners, nol lo you lhe designer. I've vrillen il lhis vay lo make il easier lo adal for
your Iearners.
Be honest and open in all communications
Never relend lo be someone you are nol. Make no inaccurale or decelive slalemenls.
DiscIose confIicls of inleresl. If you make a mislake, correcl il immedialeIy. IIag
correclions in your osls so olhers knov of lhe change.
Respect intellectual property
Working vilh lhe ideas of olhers raises elhicaI and IogicaI issues. DiscIose sources for
oinions and informalion.
Do nol vioIale lhe coyrighl of olhers or Iagiarize lheir vork. Take care lo avoid seIf-
Iagiarism, vhich is reubIishing somelhing you ubIished eIsevhere vilhoul
idenlifying lhe source.
Do nol reveaI informalion inarorialeIy. Take seciaI care vhen deaIing vilh rivale,
confidenliaI, secrel, or rorielary informalion.
Help others learn
Conlribule lo lhe Iearning of olhers. Do your share of lhe vork. Conducl research, ask
queslions, erform exerimenls, and do olher lasks so you have somelhing lo conlribule
lo lhe grou. Inlervene vhen you can offer an insighl, correcl a misconcelion, or cIarify
an idea. Kee discussions on loic. Avoid sam or seIf-romolion.


Disagree professionally
Do nol conceaI disagreemenls, bul aIvays disagree reseclfuIIy and oIileIy. Lislen lo
vhal olhers have lo say. Do nol allack olhers or become emolionaI. Inslead, |usl slale
facluaI and IogicaI reasons for your disagreemenl. And, if you are vrong, admil il.
Use simple business-like language
Wrile and seak cIearIy and conciseIy. Limil your use of sIang, |argon, and abbrevialions
lo vhal aII olhers viII undersland. Take care vilh grammar, seIIing, and unclualion.
Use private messages appropriately
In generaI, make messages visibIe lo everyone in your cIass or Iearning leam. Thal vay
lhey can |oin lhe conversalion and Iearn from il. Hovever, use rivale messages for
informalion onIy lhe reciienl needs lo knov and lo avoid embarrassing lhe reciienl.
Require good behavior of yourself and others
You are resonsibIe for your ovn Iearning and lhal of olhers. You are execled lo behave
rofessionaIIy and lo ensure lhal olhers do so as veII. If you nolice unroduclive
behavior in olhers, do nol vail for lhe faciIilalor lo inlervene. IoIileIy, bul cIearIy,
confronl lhe behavior.
Intervene in cases of bad behavior
The faciIilalor is an on-caII robIem soIver. One kind of robIem is bad behavior by
individuaI Iearners and by lhe leam as a vhoIe. SociaI Iearning oses as many ossibiIilies
for bad behavior as in any olher sociaI endeavor. Mosl are minor and are correcled by lhe
grou. Serious robIems, hovever, require inlervenlion by lhe faciIilalor.
Bad individual behavior
IeoIe are eoIe. Somelimes lhey do sluid lhings. When lhey do sluid lhings in sociaI
Iearning, lhe faciIilalor shouId lake nole and reare lo inlervene if lhe grou does nol
soIve lhe robIem ilseIf.
How to intervene
Ior bad behavior by individuaIs, inlervene as sleaIlhiIy and as Iighl-handedIy as ossibIe.
AIvays inlervene rivaleIy and do nolhing lo embarrass lhe Iearner.
Iirsl, ask lhe Iearner vhal romled lhe behavior. Slarl vilh lhe assumlion lhal lhe
behavior is ralionaI and |uslified by circumslances you are nol avare of. Ioinl oul lhe
symloms and see if lhe Iearner viII idenlify lheir ovn behavior as lhe cause. If lhe


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reasons for lhe behavior are nol |uslified, gel lhe Iearner lo lake resonsibiIily for lhe
behavior and gel a cIear commilmenl lo modify lhe behavior.
AnaIyze lhe Iearner's behavior. If il is a resuIl of incenlives, such as grading crileria,
consider changing lhese incenlives before more bad behavior resuIls.
If muIliIe Iearners exhibil lhe bad behavior, ask lhe grou lo be on guard againsl lhe
behavior and lo acl lo correcl il. When you oinl oul lhe behavior, do nol name names.
Correct specific types of bad behavior
Ireare lhe faciIilalor vilh guidance on hov lo resond lo secific kinds of bad behavior
by individuaI Iearners. Here is a Iisl of observed bad behaviors and suggesled vays lo
deaI vilh lhem.
Bchavinr 5ymptnms Rcmcdy nr intcrvcntinn
Off-loic
commenls
Learners are dislracled and
significanl lime is vasled by
|okes, gossi, rumors,
discussions aboul ersonaI
inleresls, and olher irreIevanl
loics.
Monilor lhe number of off-loic
commenls. A fev are OK. If such
commenls are hurling Iearning,
requesl lhe Iearners lo focus on
lheir lasks. CounseI insligalors and
ask lhal lhey sleer lhe conversalion
back on loic.
IoinlIess
commenls
A Iearner's commenls
conlribule nolhing lo lhe
conversalion, for examIe:
Gushing, vacuous raise.
Oh, lhal's lhe mosl briIIianl
idea ever. You are so smarl!
The same commenl is
reealed again and again for
olher messages.
Commenls lhal |usl say "Me
loo or I agree.
Commenls lhal say "I
disagree or I don'l gel il
bul offer no reasons.
Remind lhe grou lo use messages
and osls lo conlribule lo lhe
Iearning.
IrivaleIy ask offenders lo amend
lheir osls lo incIude reasons for
lhe slalemenls.
Revork incenlives lo revard lhe
vaIue of osls ralher lhan |usl lhe
number.


IIirling A Iearner makes suggeslive or
olher inaroriale
commenls. Al firsl lhis mighl
seem innocenl, bul one
erson's fIirling is anolher's
sexuaI harassmenland il is
hov lhe message vas
erceived lhal makes lhe
difference, nol hov lhe
message vas inlended.
Inlervene immedialeIy. Remove lhe
message. Require lhe osler lo
aoIogize. IxIain lhe issue lo lhe
grou. Ioinl oul lhal slandards for
sociaI Iearning are slricler lhan for
ersonaI uses of sociaI nelvorking.
Hiding
disagreemenl
A Iearner's aclions conlradicl
his or her commenls in
discussion. The Iearner agrees
vilh (or faiIs lo disagree vilh)
bolh sides of an argumenl.
Absurd ideas escae crilicism.
Iirsl, make sure lhe Iearner is nol
being buIIied or inlimidaled by
olher Iearners. Walch for signs of
defensiveness on lhe arl of olher
Iearners.
Ioinl oul lhe behavior and
encourage lhe Iearner lo seak oul.
Demonslrale hov lo disagree.
WilhdravaI A Iearner vorks as an
individuaI, nol as arl of lhe
leam.
The Iearner hoards, ralher
lhan shares, informalion.
Iind oul vhy lhe Iearner has
vilhdravn. Does lhe Iearner
erceive no vaIue in sociaI Iearning
aclivilies or feeI inlimidaled by lhe
sub|ecl maller or by olher Iearners`
Or, is lhe Iearner |usl inlroverled
and shy` Does lhe Iearner feeI lhe
evaIualion rocess is unfair`
Once you knov lhe reasons, lhe
remedy viII be cIear.


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Defensiveness Inslead of being oen lo
ideas, lhe Iearner defends his
or her currenl oinion. The
Iearner's behavior incIudes:
# ImolionaI oulbursls and
ranls.
# Nol laking lime for
refIeclion.
# Nol Ielling olhers finish a
commenl or queslion.
SIov dovn lhe conversalion, for
examIe, by moving from an
audio-conference lo a discussion
forum.
Redesign aclivilies lo require
refIeclion.
Ioinl oul lhe emolionaI nalure of
resonses and requesl a ralionaI
argumenl.
uIIying An individuaI Iearner
dominales olhers in
conversalions and aclivilies.
The Iearner may use crilicism,
sarcasm, or |usl vhining lo
gel his or her vay.
Ask lhe offender lo lhrollIe back.
Requesl a change of
communicalion slyIe: Iislening
more, vailing Ionger for olhers lo
resond, and encouraging fuIIer
resonses from olhers.
Soaboxing The Iearner reealedIy
engages in seIf-romolion.
Inslances range from bIalanl
sam lo sublIe resume-
queslions in vhich lhe Iearner
refaces commenls vilh a
slalemenl of quaIificalions
and credenliaIs.
Ioinl oul lhe behavior and requesl
lhe Iearner lo change.
Lel Iearners rale lhe vaIue of
messages and of olher Iearners
anonymousIy.
SociaI Ioafing
(AIso knovn
as sccia|
niicnniking)
The Iearner does lhe
minimum necessary and
Ieaves lhe hard vork lo
olhers. The Iearner misses
deadIines and faiIs lo kee
commilmenls lo lhe leam.
The Iearner's vork is sIoy,
fiIIed vilh facluaI errors, and
imIausibIe oslings.
Make grades deendenl on
conlribulions lo lhe leam.
Have Iearners rale conlribulions of
olher leam members.


IersonaI
confIicls
Learner A conslanlIy
disagrees vilh Iearner , rales
's conlribulions Iov, and
comIains aboul .
Ioinl oul lhe allern of behavior lo
lhe Iearner and ask for lhe reasons.
Consider reconfiguring lhe leam lo
remove lhe confIicl.
Sabolage The Iearner acls lo disrul
Iearning. Common forms of
sabolage incIude:
# DeIiberaleIy osling
misinformalion.
# ailing lhe lroIIs, lhal is,
making commenls
designed lo rovoke an
emolionaI resonse from
olhers.
# Misquoling olhers in
reIies.
Learn lhe reasons for lhe behavior.
Is lhe Iearner erhas fruslraled
vilh lhe sIov ace of lhe course,
resenlfuI al having lo lake a
required course, or unconvinced of
lhe vaIue of sociaI Iearning` Or,
erhas lhe Iearner is menlaIIy iII.
Try changing lhe erson's roIe
vilhin lhe leam or Iel lhe Iearner
lry aIlernalive vays of Iearning.

Bad team behavior
Teams, Iike individuaIs, can engage in unroduclive behavior. Such behavior can be hard
lo nolice as il requires lime lo manifesl and requires carefuI allenlion lo allerns of
inleraclion.
In generaI, lhe soIulion is lo oinl oul lhe robIem and ask lhe leam lo correcl il. Some
robIems, hovever, may require changing oIicies or grading crileria. Here are some
suggesled soIulions lo secific robIems:
No inilialion
of nev
members
Nev leam members receive a
brisk inlroduclion and are Iefl
lo calch u on lheir ovn.
Nev leam members are nol
given secific roIes.
They are nol incIuded in
messages or lheir queslions are
ignored.
Inlervene lo inlegrale lhe nev
member inlo lhe leam.
Charge lhe leam lo creale a
rocess for inducling nev
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Loss of lrusl Mosl of lhe leam Ioses failh in a
fev of lhe leam members.
These members are shunned.
Their ideas go ignored and
lheir queslions unansvered.
IrivaleIy, ask leam members lhe
cause of lhe robIem.
Reconfigure lhe leam or requesl a
change of roIes.
Once lrusl is Iosl, il is hard lo
regain. Hovever, an aoIogy for
rior offenses can oflen heI.
Iragmenlalion The leam divides inlo cIiques,
faclions, secls, lribes, or cIubs
lhal communicale and acl
indeendenlIy.
ReshuffIe leams.
Reassign leam dulies.
Lel each fragmenl be a breakoul
grou.
Require vhoIe-leam aclivilies.
Debale ralher
lhan
discussion
Communicalions resembIe
argumenls more lhan
conversalions. Iev Iearners
change lheir iniliaI oinions on
any issue.
Ioinl oul lhe differences belveen
debale and discussion. Shov
Iearners hov lo be oen lo nev
oinions.
Revard discussions vhere
Iearners can shov lhey changed
lheir minds or exlended lheir
iniliaI ideas.
Log-|ams

Learners make IillIe rogress
on crilicaI issues. UnresoIved
issues may lrigger emolionaI
oulbursls.
Sidesle lhe disrulive issue by
asking lhe leam lo brainslorm
hov lo resoIve difficuIl issues
Iike lhis one.
Groulhink Iverybody sincereIy agrees.
Discussions are shorl. When
romled, Iearners can give
onIy shaIIov reasons for lheir
agreemenl.
Require more research lo idenlify
ro and con argumenls. Have lhe
leam slage a debale.
Increase erseclives among
leam members by having lhe
grou brainslorm vilh eoIe
from differenl cuIlures, Iife
hislories, or rofessionaI dulies.


IaIse
agreemenl
(AIso caIIed
lhe A|i|cnc
para!cx)
The leam decides in a vay
conlrary lo lhe unexressed
viev of mosl leam members.
In|ecl aclivilies lhal require
members lo exress lheir
oinions before Iearning lhe
oinions of olhers.
Rehrase queslions or reslale
issues in a vay lhal rovokes
genuine discussion.
Require Iearners lo debale lhe
issue.
Chil-chal Tendency lo discuss issues on
vhich everyone agrees and
everyone is knovIedgeabIe
ralher lhan confronl difficuIl
crilicaI issues.
Idenlify crilicaI issues and in|ecl
aclivilies lhal require discussing
lhese issues.
AIso check for robIems lhal
vouId kee eoIe from
seaking oul.
TaIenl gas The leam makes obvious
mislakes. Some aclivilies
succeed fuIIy vhiIe olhers faiI
comIeleIy. Discussions shov
bIind sols and obvious
misinformalion.
Add addilionaI laIenl lo lhe
leam. Or have lhe leam conducl
research lo fiII gas.
UncIear
mission
The leam's aclivilies and
discussions bear IillIe on lhe
iniliaI goaI of lhe ro|ecl. The
scoe of discussion ever
videns. The leam makes IillIe
rogress lovard lhe goaI.
Have lhe leam discuss and
reslale ils mission. Ask lhe leam
lo evaIuale vhelher asl vork
conlribuled lo lhe reslaled goaI.
No Ieadershi The leam makes IillIe rogress,
reealedIy misses deadIines, or
Iurches from Iog|am lo Iog|am.
Members exhibil oor lime
managemenl.
Ioinl oul lhe robIem. Remind
lhe leam lhal il is resonsibIe for
ils ovn Ieadershi. Have lhe
leam discuss lhe robIem and
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Lack of
crealivily
The leam offers no originaI
soIulions, mereIy reIicales
earIier soIulions.
Discussions seIdom encourage
or even menlion lhe need for
innovalion.
Members shov IillIe ride in
lhe vork.
SIov dovn lhe ace of aclivilies
lo aIIov lime for refIeclion and
insiralion.
Add research aclivilies lo
acquainl lhe leam vilh a vider
variely of ideas and soIulions.
Require and revard noveIly,
imaginalion, or |usl uniqueness.
No coIIeclive
memory
The leam makes lhe same
mislakes over and over again.
The leam does nol recognize
allerns, generaIize from one
case lo anolher, or slale
concIusions in abslracl lerms.
Add aclivilies lo require
generaIizing and abslracling
resuIls: Where eIse mighl lhis
aIy` Whal have ve discovered
earIier lhal mighl aIy here`
SIov dovn lhe ace and
encourage Iearners lo refIecl on
vhal lhey are Iearning.
Require lhe leam lo roduce a
bIog, recording vhal lhey have
Iearned.

GRADE FAIRLY IN SOCIAL LEARNING
As designers of sociaI Iearning, ve musl ul in Iace rocesses lo assess leams and olher
grous, assess individuaIs vilhin lhe grous, and convince lhose individuaIs lhal lhe
assessmenl rocess is fair.
To lhal end, our rocesses of evaIualing Iearners and Iearning musl accounl for lhe
differences belveen sociaI and soIilary Iearning. Ior inslance, sociaI Iearning encourages
Iearners lo lake risks, seak oul, admil mislakes, and change osilions. In convenlionaI
assessmenl regimens, lhese aclions can Iover Iearners' grades.
Learners may vorry, correclIy or incorreclIy, lhal lheir grades viII suffer in sociaI
Iearning. In some environmenls, such as lradilionaI schooIing and |ob aIicalions, grades
do maller. And even if grades do nol maller lo leachers, adminislralors, or emIoyers,
lhey may sliII maller a Iol lo Iearners.


Assess against objectives
Don'l forgel lhal sociaI Iearning, Iike aII olher forms of Iearning, shouId evaIuale againsl
Iearning ob|eclives. Thal is, did Iearners accomIish lhe designaled ob|eclives sel al lhe
beginning of lhe ro|ecl`
AIso remember lhal sociaI Iearning ro|ecls may have lvo differenl lyes of ob|eclives: lo
Iearn X or lo Iearn hov lo Iearn X. Ior examIe, ob|eclives may be based on acquiring a
sub|ecl skiII or acquiring a coIIaboralion skiIIor bolh. If lhe goaI is lo acquire
coIIaboralion skiIIs, do nol assess |usl sub|ecl skiIIs and vice versa.
Use available evidence
SociaI Iearning Ieaves a lrack record of Iearners' aclions and efforls, such as:
# Number and liming of osls and submissions.
# Texl and olher media of osls.
# Rouling of aII messages: Who communicaled vilh vhom`
# Conlribulions: originaI ideas, subslanlive commenls, suggeslions, or |usl lrivia.
# Iallerns of inleraclion: brainslorming, conversalion, debale.
# MaleriaIs crealed and Iinked.
AII lhe evidence necessary lo form and |uslify a |udgmenl is readiIy avaiIabIe.
Ways to assess learners
SociaI Iearning has evoIved severaI vays lo evaIuale leams and individuaIs. Consider
lhem carefuIIy lo see vhich vork besl for your sociaI Iearning. Or use lhem as a slarling
oinl lo brainslorm even more effeclive vays lo gauge Iearning.
# Grnup cva!uatinn nI individua!s. Iach member of lhe grou rales olher members. The
individuaI's grade is lhe sum or average of ralings by olhers. Grou evaIualions are
simIe lo adminisler, bul require some care. Many feeI lhis lechnique evaIuales
ouIarily ralher lhan Iearning and lhal il encourages lrying lo make friends ralher
lhan lo heI olhers Iearn. CIiques may form and agree lo osiliveIy evaIuale each
olher. To head off lhese robIems, give secific crileria for evaIualing olhers, require
reasons and evidence lo suorl ralings, and monilor lhe fairness of lhe rocess. You
robabIy shouIdn'l use grou evaIualions as lhe onIy assessmenl for individuaIs.
# Rating nI pnsts and mcssagcs. The grou or a neulraI oulside exerl ranks messages
osled by Iearners. Rankings use crileria generaled, discussed, and aroved by lhe
grou. If lhe grou does lhe evaIualion, lake care lo avoid ralings lhal revard
messages exressing agreemenl bul nol lhose oinling oul gas and mislakes.
# Grnup tcst. Ior skiIIs aIied as a leam, lhe grou lakes a lesl as a grou. They can
discuss ansvers. The chaIIenge is lo ansver queslions as quickIy as ossibIe.


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# Grnup task. The grou is given a lask lhal requires coIIaboralive aIicalion of
Iearning. They are evaIualed on hov successfuIIy and quickIy lhey erform lhe lask.
This assessmenl is vaIid onIy if lhe lesl accuraleIy measures accomIishmenl of lhe
ob|eclive.
# Qucstinn pnn!. Learners submil queslions lo a ooI. The firsl erson lo ansver lhe
queslion correclIy gels oinls. The queslioner gels oinls if a secified range of
Iearners gel lhe ansver righl.
# Eva!uatinn tn critcria. Wilh Iearners, eslabIish ob|eclive rubrics lo evaIuale vork in
leam aclivilies. Crileria can incIude lhe nalure, number, and liming of osls.
# App!icatinns nI ski!!s. ConcIude vilh a searale non-leam aclivily lhal requires
Iearners lo aIy vhal lhey shouId have Iearned. The aclivily can be a raclicaI iece
of vork, a resenlalion, or a erformance lesl. Learners mighl, for examIe, be lasked
vilh crealing and deIivering a resenlalion summarizing lhe sub|ecl, shoving a reaI-
vorId aIicalion of il, or leaching il.
Set criteria for messages and posts
If messages and osls are lo be used lo assess Iearning, sel ob|eclive crileria for evaIualion.
A faciIilalor may suggesl crileria, and lhe leam shouId lhen discuss, refine, and ubIish
lhe crileria. Here are some crileria lo slarl vilh:
Critcrinn Hnw tn cva!uatc mcssagcs and pnsts
Subslance Is lhe message subslanliaI or lriviaI` Does il add vaIue lo lhe
conversalion` Or does il |usl chime in, by saying somelhing Iike
Me loo! or I disagree`
Timing When did lhe osl occur` Was il lhe firsl one lo conlribule an idea
or surface a concern` Was a reIy so quick lhal il vas a refIex
resonse ralher lhan a refIeclive anaIysis` Was lhere a fIurry of
submissions immedialeIy before a deadIine`
OriginaIily Does lhe osl offer a nev idea lo lhe conversalion` Is il lhe firsl lo
conlribule suorling evidence, an aIlernalive inlerrelalion, or an
eIeganl reslalemenl`
Tone Is lhe osl rofessionaI and heIfuI` If a disagreemenl, is lhe
slalemenl oIile and direcl` Or is lhe osl fiIIed vilh vhining,
sarcasm, and olher emolionaI Ianguage`
Iersuasiveness Does lhe message offer evidence and Iogic lo suorl a cIaim or
oinion` Is lhe evidence from reIiabIe sources`


Or, forego individual assessment
One aroach may be lo honeslIy admil lhe difficuIly of assessing individuaIs engaged in
comIex sociaI Iearning aclivilies and |usl make lhe course ass-faiI. If lhe leam as a vhoIe
succeeds, aII Iearners ass.
If individuaI assessmenl is required, mix individuaI and grou aclivilies. Assess based on
individuaI and grou aclivilies, bul incIude lhe scores of grou aclivilies onIy if lhey
increase lhe individuaI's grade. ObviousIy lhis does nol vork vhen grading on a curve.
Remind Iearners lhal assessmenl occurs naluraIIy as arl of sociaI rocesses. Ior feedback
on lheir individuaI vork, lhey can Iook lo ralings and rankings by olhers, commenls in
discussion, success or faiIure in aclivilies, and aII lhe feedback lhey receive from olher
Iearners.
EXTEND CONVENTIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR SOCIAL LEARNING
Use lhe lechnoIogies and lechniques of sociaI Iearning lo add delh and dynamics lo
convenlionaI e-Iearning aclivilies. Lel Iearners erform aclivilies as a leam. HeI
individuaIs lo creale and share conlenl vilh lhe grou. Ingage lhe grou in vibranl
decisions and engaging coIIaboralion. Use sociaI media lo rovide advice and feedback lo
Iearners.
Extend Absorb activities for social learning
To make convenlionaI Absorb aclivilies more sociaI, encourage and enabIe Iearners lo:
# Expcricncc prcscntatinns, stnrics, and rcadings thrnugh sncia! mcdia lhal encourage
commenls, discussion, and feedback. Irovide immediale feedback lhrough a back
channeI.
# Cnntrn! a prcscntatinn nr nthcr absnrbcd cxpcricncc as a grnup. The grou can ause
for discussion and coIIaboraliveIy decide vhere lo go nexl in non-Iinear resenlalions
and lours.
# Prnvidc cnntcnt tn absnrb. Learners can creale conlenl individuaIIy or as a leam. Or
lhey may vork as a leam lo consoIidale ieces crealed by individuaIs. Learners can
calure absorbabIe conlenl from olhers in lheir rofessionaI nelvorks.
# Cnmmcnt nn absnrbcd cnntcnt. Invile Iearners lo reslale, summarize, oulIine, rale,
reviev generaIize, or crilique lhe conlenl. Have Iearners ubIish noles lhey look,
suggesl aIicalions, suggesl beller aIlernalives (safer, fasler, more efficienl, elc.), drav
concIusions, and reveaI vhal lhey Iearned.
# Link cnntcnt tn rc!atcd rcsnurccs lhal go deeer, offer conlrary ideas, beller exress
lhe same ideas, reveaI lhe research or olher basis for an idea, exlend lhe conlenl vilh


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visuaIs or olher media, Iocale ilems on mas and saleIIile vievs, and suIy exlernaI
commenlary (even if onIy Wikiedia).
# Discuss what thcy absnrb. Lel Iearners ask queslions, assess vaIidily and credibiIily,
oinl oul mislakes and ambiguilies, offer correclions, debale concIusions, and
brainslorm aIicalion.
# Edit and annntatc dncumcnts. Lel Iearners imrove verbaI exression, by aIlering
grammar, seIIing, unclualion, elc. Incourage lhem lo embed commenls, udale
facluaI conlenl, highIighl key oinls, Iink lo suorling evidence and reIaled
resources, add nev alhvays, roduce a summary or abslracl, and lransIale lo anolher
Ianguage (or add sublilIes).
Extend Do activities for social learning
To make convenlionaI Do aclivilies more sociaI, encourage and enabIe Iearners lo:
# Gct advicc on hov lo do lhe aclivily. Lel lhem ask lheir leam or exlended sociaI
nelvork. Have lhe grou brainslorm, discuss, and vole on lhe correcl aroach lo
lake.
# Gct Iccdback. Have olher Iearners rale and rank erformance, demonslrale beller
lechniques, and suggesl aIlernalive slralegies.
# Dn activitics as a tcam. Subdivide vork and combine resuIls. Discuss and agree on
aclions or choices. Togelher Ian risky or comIex aclions.
# Engagc in mu!ti-pcrsnn aclivilies.
# 5harc what thcy !carn: insighls, discoveries, difficuIlies, slralegies, lechniques, and
aIicalions.
# Ana!yzc rcsu!ts. Have lhe grou discuss resuIls and drav concIusions. Incourage
Iearners lo comare exeriences lo nolice differences and commonaIilies. Have lhe
grou generaIize and abslracl lo derive underIying lheories, rinciIes, formuIas, and
ruIes.
# Turn thc activity intn a gamc. Lel Iearners comele using crileria of lime, seed,
quanlily, slyIe, or score.
# Crcatc Dn activitics Inr nthcrs. Have individuaIs and grous creale games, uzzIes,
and olher chaIIenges for each olher. Lel leams or individuaIs conlribule queslions or
chaIIenges lo a ooI used in a quiz-shov game. InvoIve lhe grou in selling and
revieving crileria for success.
Extend Connect activities for social learning
To make convenlionaI Connecl aclivilies more sociaI, encourage and enabIe Iearners lo:
# 5harc rcsu!ts nI Cnnncct activitics, such as ciled examIes, slories, research findings,
and originaI vork.


# Crcatc cnntcnt used for Connecl aclivilies, for examIe |ob aids.
# PcrInrm thc activity as a grnup, for examIe, carrying oul originaI vork, aIying a
|ob aid, or asking queslions.
# Cnnduct grnup Cnnncct activitics of brainslorming, roIe-Iaying, and comarison.
# Usc thc grnup as suppnrt or backu in Connecl aclivilies. If Iearners are slumed or
fruslraled, lhey can consuIl lhe grou.
# Discuss and rcvicw wnrk generaled in Connecl aclivilies, such as originaI vork,
research, or slories.
USE PROVEN SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
Though onIine sociaI Iearning is reIaliveIy nev, cerlain lyes of sociaI Iearning aclivilies
have roven effeclive and versaliIe. Some are simIe and olhers are comIex. Some are
narrovIy focused rocedures and olhers are broad lechniques.
Share what you learn
One of lhe simIesl vays lo inlroduce sociaI Iearning is lo have Iearners share vhal lhey
have Iearned.

Here is an examIe of a
simIe Whal I Learned
discussion lhread vhere a
Iearner reorls an insighl
and olhers commenl on il.

Iorum crealed in MoodIe.
Learners can share by making eriodic osls lo a bIog, micro-bIog, odcasl, or discussion
forum. The choice viII deend on lhe nalure of Iearning, lhe Iearner's lechnicaI abiIilies,


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and lhe amounl of lime avaiIabIe. A bIog or discussion lhread is a good choice because
bolh are easy lo sel u and use. The crilicaI fealure needed is lhe caabiIily for Iearners lo
commenl on each olher's oslings.
Iosls shouId reorl vhal lhe erson has |usl Iearned. Iosls can incIude insighls,
discoveries, summaries, reslalemenls, hyolheses, informed oinions, ideas vaIidaled and
invaIidaled, conneclions made and broken, reversaIs of oinion, refinemenls of rior
ideas, aIicalions of Iearning, and emolions exerienced in Iearning. The onIy crilerion is
vhelher lhe osl viII heI feIIov Iearners.
Iosls shouId ansver queslions feIIov Iearners inslincliveIy ask:
# Whal did you Iearn`
# Why is il vaIuabIe lo you`
# Hov may il benefil olhers`
# Hov did you Iearn il`
Ior sociaI Iearning, Iearners shouId read, digesl, and commenl on lhe osls of feIIov
Iearners. Commenls shouId conlribule lo lhe Iearning of lhe grou. As such, Iearners
shouId forego lhe oinlIess Me loo! and Huh` commenls and inslead conlribule lo
lhe conversalion vilh commenls such as:
# Hov I vouId reslale il.
# Whal il means for me.
# Hov I came lo lhe same concIusion.
# Hov I came lo a differenl concIusion.
Back channel for presentations
SociaI media can rovide a back channeI for Iive onIine or face-lo-face resenlalions. A
back channeI can lurn lhe resenlalion inlo a conversalion. The audience can use lhe back
channeI lo convey queslions, commenls, suggeslions, and insighls lo lhe resenler.

Hov does a back channeI vork` A back channeI mighl Iel
Iearners ask queslions vhiIe someone is demonslraling an
aIicalion or draving on lhe vhileboard. The queslions do
nol disrul lhe erson doing lhe demonslralion and do nol
require a lvo-vay audio channeI. The erson conducling lhe
demonslralion eriodicaIIy checks for messages. Or an
assislanl does, so lhe resenler is nol dislracled.
Such back channeIs oflen occur sonlaneousIy in lhe chal
vindov of an onIine meeling looI. They can aIso be
imIemenled easiIy by a searale chal looI or by hash-lagged
messages vilhin a micro-bIogging looI such as Tviller.


TooIs Iike IoverIoinl Tviller TooIs by SAI Web 2.0 and TodaysMeel can disIay back
channeI messages righl on lhe IoverIoinl sIides used by lhe resenler.

Here a resenler incIudes lhe
back channeI righl al lhe
bollom of lhe sIides of a
resenlalion.

SIide buiIl in Microsofl IoverIoinl. The
Tviller licker vas crealed vilh
IoverIoinl Tviller TooIs by SAI Web
2.0.
A back channeI is more lhan a lechnicaI means lo convey messages. Ior effeclive use, il
musl incIude a rolocoI foIIoved by resenler and audience aIike.
Have a good reason for the back channel
Use lhe back channeI lo make Iearning beller, nol |usl lo shov off lechnicaI fIuency or lo
gel by vilh an inferior resenlalion. Some vaIuabIe uses for lhe back channeI are lo:
# Ask qucstinns. The back channeI can be used lo coIIecl queslions, vhich lhe resenler
can ansver al lhe nexl IogicaI break or al lhe end of lhe resenlalion. Or, Iearners can
|um in and ansver lhe queslions as lhey occur.
# Cnrrcct nr prcvcnt misundcrstandings. An assislanl can use lhe back channeI lo
cIarify lhe seech of an accenled or inarlicuIale seaker.
# 5pc!! nut dctai!s. An assislanl can define lechnicaI lerms, seII oul abbrevialions,
rovide synonyms for unusuaI vords, and rovide URLs or search lerms for
references.
# Cnmmunicatc in a sccnnd !anguagc. A back channeI can be used for a lransIalor lo
rovide sublilIes in a second Ianguage shared by a significanl fraclion of lhe audience.
# Prnvidc an nngning summary. OccasionaI summaries can heI Iearners consoIidale
searale oinls made by lhe resenler.
A back channeI can be dislracling lo lhe resenler and lo many in lhe audience. Weigh
carefuIIy lhe olenliaI benefils and dravbacks using a back channeI.
Decide how to display the back channel
Think carefuIIy aboul hov you vanl lo disIay lhe back channeI. Here are some
suggeslions:


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II . Thcn .
Some audience-members have a hislory
of making embarrassing or derogalory
commenls.
DisIay lhe back channeI lo an assislanl
vho fiIlers messages before assing lhem
on lo lhe resenler.
The resenler is easiIy dislracled by
incoming commenls.
DisIay messages on a searale screen or
hidden vindov lhal lhe resenler can
consuIl eriodicaIIy.
Members of lhe audience are easiIy
dislracled by commenls and may
engage in debales aboul lhem.
DisIay lhe back channeI lo lhe seaker
onIy.
Messages are Iimiled lo |usl a fev
vords, a Ia headIines on a nevs
rogram. (And lhe resenler agrees.)
DisIay messages as a nevs-cravI aIong
lhe bollom of lhe screen.
Messages are comIele senlences. (And
lhe resenler agrees.)
DisIay lhe messages in a scroIIing vindov
aIongside lhe resenlalionif sace
ermils.

Do nothing to embarrass or hinder the presenter
The back channeI can rove dislracling and inlimidaling lo some resenlers.
# AIvays gel lhe resenler's arovaI lo use a back channeI. Lel lhe resenler knov of
your inlenlions veII in advance.
# ScheduIe raclice sessions lo vork oul lhe besl vay lo sel u lhe back channeI.
# Warn lhe resenler lo avoid lhings IikeIy lo lrigger dislracling commenls, such as
unusuaI coIors on sIides, bad |okes, conlroversiaI commenls, and confusing grahics.
# Take care of lhe lechnoIogy for lhe resenler. Do nol require resenlers lo inslaII and
configure seciaI soflvare or lo modify lheir resenlalions.
# Offer assislance, for examIe, someone lo monilor lhe back channeI, lo consoIidale
queslions and commenls, and lo kee lhe lechnoIogy vorking.
Spell out proper behavior for commenting
Announce and enforce a oIicy lo ensure lhal commenls conlribule lo beller Iearning and
imrove lhe exerience for Iearners and for lhe resenler. Here are some generaI
guideIines.
# Make onIy heIfuI commenls: Ask reIevanl queslions, suggesl examIes, or cile
sources. Use osls lo heI olhers Iearn.
# Iosl nolhing lo embarrass or dislracl lhe resenler: No vhining or nilicking.


# Make onIy one oinl er osl. Kee lhe osl shorl and lo lhe oinl.
# Do nol debale during lhe resenlalion. Defer discussion unliI afler lhe resenlalion.
HoId Iearners accounlabIe for lheir commenls. Lel lhem vole during reIay: "Was lhis
commenl heIfuI`"
Take action quickly
Take aclion quickIy if Iearners vander off loic in lheir commenls or slarl lo heckIe lhe
resenler. If ossibIe, make lhe back channeI feed rivale. Then, fiIler commenls for lhe
allenlion of lhe resenler. Track dovn lhe offending osler and counseI rivaleIy afler lhe
evenl. Insisl lhal lhe osler aoIogize lo aII allendees for lhe oor behavior.
If you cannol make lhe back channeI rivale, lhen lurn off lhe back channeI for lhe
duralion of lhe resenlalion. IeriodicaIIy, ask Iearners if lhey have queslions by raising
lheir hand or lhrough some olher mechanism suorled in lhe meeling looI. Oen chal
lo aIIov Iearners lo ask lheir queslions. IiIler lhe queslions for immediale ansver or for
Ialer consideralion on a discussion forum lhread.
Brainstorming activities
rainslorming is a common arl of mosl crealive aclivilies. rainslorming is lhe rocess of
generaling Iols of nev ideas. In a brainslorming session, lhe Ieader oses a robIem for
vhich arlicianls suggesl soIulions. The goaI is lo roduce as many ideas as ossibIe. In
brainslorming, no ideas are re|ecled or crilicized.

Meeling conducled vilh Adobe Connecl.
This examIe of brainslorming is from a cIass for archilecls and buiIding conlraclors on
hov lo remodeI homes. The urose of lhe session is lo shov Iearners hov crealive


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lhinking can heI lhem vork vilhin a lighl budgel. The session slarls as an onIine
meeling using a vhileboard (. 436) and a chal vindov (. 418) vhere Iearners raidIy
suggesl ideas.
The brainslorming session shifls lo a discussion forum (. 425). Here ve see lhe
rainslorming aclivily lhread and lhe resonses osled lo il.

Discussion forum rovided by The Learning Manager.
When to use brainstorming
rainslorming can be laughl as a vaIuabIe skiII in ils ovn righl. Il is an imorlanl asecl
of leamvork, robIem soIving, and crealive lhinking. rainslorming can aIso be usefuI
anyvhere Iearners need lo soIve robIems in an originaI vay.
How brainstorming works
rainslorming sessions can lake severaI forms. One common form invoIves bolh
synchronous and asynchronous evenls. In an onIine meeling, lhe leacher resenls lhe
queslion lo ansver or robIem lo soIve. IndividuaI Iearners, using chal or audio-
conferencing, conlribule ansvers as fasl as lhey can lhink of lhem unliI eilher lhe fIov of
ideas sIovs or lhe lime aIIocaled lo lhe Iive hase of lhe aclivily exires.
The leacher lhen lransfers lhe brainslorming from chal lo a discussion forum in vhich
Iearners conlinue adding ideas al lheir ovn ace. Al lhe end of lhe aIIolled lime, lhe
leacher grades arlicianls based on lhe quanlily, nol lhe quaIily, of lhe ideas lhey
conlribuled.
Best practices for brainstorming
rainslorming is a simIe aclivily vilh greal olenliaI lo molivale Iearners and deveIo
crealivily. To achieve lhis olenliaI, consider some of lhese ideas:
Usc mnrc mcdia. If you have lhe caabiIily, use olher media. Audio-conferencing (. 420)
seeds lhe rocess, as many eoIe find lying sIovs lheir roduclion of ideas. If you use
audio, remember lo record lhe session and osl a lyed lranscril or summary lo lhe
discussion forum. A shared vhileboard (. 437) Iels Iearners conlribule ideas by skelching


or asling in lheir dravings or cIi arl. Ior visuaI sub|ecls, a vhileboard is eseciaIIy
vaIuabIe.
5kip thc nn!inc mccting. If Iearners are famiIiar vilh brainslorming, you may vanl lo
conducl lhe vhoIe brainslorming session in a discussion forum. This is a good aIlernalive
if il is difficuIl lo gel aII Iearners logelher al lhe same lime. Some brainslorming
arlicianls find il hard lo be crealive vhen il is four hours asl lheir bedlime.
5ct a cnntcxt. You can give lhe brainslorming a more reaIislic fIavor by silualing il in a
Iife-Iike scenario. TeII a slory of a reaI robIem. Ask Iearners lo relend lhey are characlers
in lhe slory. Have lhem offer soIulions from lhe erseclive of lheir characlers.
EnInrcc thc primc ru!c nI brainstnrming. Make sure aII arlicianls undersland lhe one
and onIy ruIe of brainslorming: Thcrc arc nn bad idcas. Imhasize lhal arlicianls
cannol crilicize ideas, bul can add beller ideas. Remind arlicianls lhal lhey score oinls
for lhe number (nol quaIily!) of ideas.
Ask thnught-prnvnking qucstinns. Ask oen-ended queslions lhal can have many
ansvers. Ior examIe: Whal if X` Hov do ve make X beller` Why shouId ve do Y`
Kccp idcas I!nwing. Irime lhe um vilh a fev ideas of your ovn. IeriodicaIIy reslale
lhe queslion in a nev vay. Reverse lhe queslion. Ior examIe, afler asking hov lo make
somelhing beller, ask hov lo make il vorse.
Team-task activities
Team-lask aclivilies are good lo leach leamvorkor any skiII lhal is racliced by a grou
ralher lhan |usl an individuaI. Such leamvork aclivilies require Iearners lo vork as a
coordinaled leam lo soIve a singIe, comIex robIem. Team members communicale using
onIine meelings and discussion forums in order lo comIele lheir assigned lasks.

In lhis examIe, arlicianls
are given lhe lask of rearing
a business Ian for a nev
venlure.

horlon.com/eId/.


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In leam-lask aclivilies, lhe leacher assigns a lask and heIs Iearners organize lhemseIves
inlo searale leams. Teams vork indeendenlIy, roducing successiveIy more refined
versions of lheir vork, vhich lhey submil lo an inlegralion leam. The inlegralion leam
merges lhe vork of lhe olher leams and submils lhe finaI ro|ecl lo lhe leacher for
grading.
When to use team-task activities
Team-lask aclivilies are vaIuabIe lo leach skiIIs lhal Iearners aIy as arl of a leam,
ralher lhan as individuaIs. Team-lask aclivilies are aIso vaIuabIe in leaching leamvork
skiIIs in lheir ovn righl. As more and more vork requires coordinaling vilh dislanl
coIIeagues, leam-lask aclivilies viII become a more common arl of educalion.
Some common leam-lask ro|ecls require Iearners lo creale:
# A financiaI Ian for a nev lye of business.
# A reorl on lhe feasibiIily of a nev roducl.
# Recommendalions on lhe use of a nev medicaI rocedure.
# Iroosed Iavs lo cover nev lechnoIogy.
Variations of team-task activities
Team-lask aclivilies are a broad calegory lhal you can adal for cIasses of various sizes
and for leaching various sub|ecls. Here are a fev suggeslions:
Para!!c! tcams. In a Iarge cIass, have leams vork in araIIeI. Divide lhe cIass inlo Iarge
leams and assign lhe same robIem lo each Iarge leam. Iach Iarge leam musl come u
vilh ils ovn soIulion and osl il on lhe server for olher leams lo see. Afler seeing lhe
soIulions of olher leams, a leam may revise ils ovn soIulion. Al lhe end of lhe aclivily,
each leam musl ick lhe besl soIulion submilled by anolher leam and |uslify ils choice.
Mixcd-!anguagc tcams. Ior Ianguage Iearning, creale leams of nalive and non-nalive
seakers lo soIve a robIem logelher. Teams musl vork in lhe Ianguage being Iearned.
Mnsaic tcams. Take a Iarge book, Web sile, or olher comIex vork made u of somevhal
indeendenl ieces. Divide lhe cIass inlo leams. Assign each leam a arl of lhe vhoIe lo
reviev. Iach leam can furlher subdivide lhe vork by assigning arls lo individuaIs, or aII
lhe members of lhe leam can vork on lhe leam's assignmenl. Then:
# Iach leam reares a summary of ils arl and a crilicaI reviev of il.
# An ber-leam assembIes lhe ieces and vriles a reviev of lhe vhoIe.
# IndividuaI members commenl on lhe consoIidaled reviev, and lhe ber-leam
revises il.


Best practices for team-task activities
Makc c!car thc grading critcria. WiII grades be avarded lo lhe cIass as a vhoIe, lo
searale leams, or lo individuaIs` Some Iearners may feeI uncomforlabIe lhal IargeIy
unseen coIIeagues delermine lheir grades.
Prnvidc a suggcstcd timc!inc for rogress on lhe ro|ecl. Lacking face-lo-face conlacl,
Iearners may nol feeI fuIIy obIigaled lo comIele lheir share of vork on lime.
Cha!!cngc, but dn nnt nvcrwhc!m. The goaI of a leamvork aclivily musl be arorialeIy
chaIIengingnol loo difficuIl and nol loo easy. If Iearners have nol vorked in virluaI
leams before, lhey viII require aboul lvice as much lime lo comIele an assignmenl as
lhey vouId vorking logelher in a cIassroom.
Ior more advice on leam Iearning, see Iromole leam Iearning on age 490.
Role-playing scenarios
ChiIdren Iearn much aduIl behavior by Iaying al being an aduIl. Likevise, aduIls can
Iearn much by Iaying lhe roIe of someone eIse.
In a roIe-Iaying scenario, lhe leacher slales a goaI and assigns Iearners roIes in achieving
lhal goaI. Learners research lheir roIes. They lhen coIIaborale via onIine meelings and
discussion forums lo Iay oul lheir roIes lo achieve lhe goaI.

In lhis examIe, arlicianls simuIale
lhe meeling of lhe lovn ArchilecluraI
Reviev Commillee lo consider
roosed renovalions lo a home in an
hisloric dislricl.


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Iach Iearner is assigned a secific roIe
lo Iay. Iach roIe has secific dulies
and molivalions.

Learners have access lo delaiIed
reference maleriaIs, |usl as lheir reaI
counlerarls vouId.

Learners musl comIele a series of
aclivilies in lheir roIes and submil
maleriaIs for olhers lo examine.

Crealed in Microsofl IoverIoinl and converled for Web
deIivery using ArlicuIale Iresenler. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.


When to use role-playing scenarios
RoIe-Iaying is a vaIuabIe vay lo leach sublIe, inlerersonaI skiIIs and lo reveaI lhe
hidden comIexily of many human endeavors. Here are some common uses of roIe-
Iaying aclivilies:
# Iorce someone lo viev evenls from a differenl erseclive. Give an environmenlaI
aclivisl lhe roIe of a reaI-eslale deveIoer. And vice versa.
# AIIov someone lo exerience evenls onIine lhal lhey vouId nol exerience in reaI Iife.
Ior examIe, Iel a man exerience sexuaI harassmenl as a voman.
# Demonslrale lhe many erseclives necessary for a comIex underlaking. Have a
managemenl leam guide a ro|ecl from iniliaI idea lo successfuI roducl.
# Teach inlerersonaI skiIIs. HoId a commillee meeling lo find an effeclive comromise
among comeling ideas, grous, and individuaIs.
Variations of role-playing scenarios
RoIe-Iaying scenarios can be used lo mimic aII lhe differenl silualions lhal bring
individuaIs inlo conlacl and ossibIy confIicl. Here are some forms lhal make good
Iearning aclivilies:
Bchavinr critiquc. Teach Iearners lhe correcl behavior for a arlicuIar silualion. Then
modeI and crilique bad behavior. Assign someone lhe roIe of demonslraling
inaroriale behavior. Assign lhe resl of lhe cIass lhe roIe of reacling lo lhe bad
behavior.
Cnurt tria!. Iul a concel, hisloricaI figure, or organizalion on lriaI. Assign roIes of |udge,
accused, roseculor, defense allorney, vilnesses, and |ury.
Bnard mccting. SimuIale a meeling of lhe board of direclors of a cororalion, universily,
hosilaI, or olher organizalion. Assign each arlicianl secific goaIs, alliludes, and
ersonaIily. SeII oul knovn and secrel reIalionshis among lhose al lhe meeling. Give
lhe meeling an agenda and a lime Iimil.
Murdcr mystcry. Teach invesligalive skiIIs by having Iearners Iay roIes in a murder
invesligalion. Iach member receives a roIe. Ior each roIe lhere are ubIicIy knovn facls
lhal everyone has access lo and rivaleIy knovn facls lhal onIy lhe roIe-Iayer knovs.
RoIe-Iayers can be asked or lricked inlo reveaIing lhese hidden facls. Iach roIe-Iayer
aIso has secrel molivalions. RoIe-Iayers are eilher susecls or invesligalors. Invesligalors
musl soIve lhe myslery by inlervieving lhe susecls, examining arlifacls, and exchanging
noles. If a murder myslery does nol fil your silualion, subslilule one of lhese
invesligalions:
# Iinding hidden lreasure.
# Learning lhe cause of an airIane crash.
# Discovering lhe cure for a disease.


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# Localing a missing erson.
Whn am I? Iach Iearner icks and researches a differenl veII-knovn erson from lhe
fieId of sludy. Iach Iearner lhen vriles a seech from lhis erson's vievoinl and in lhis
erson's slyIe. Learners osl lheir seeches lo a discussion forum. Learners commenl on
each olher's seeches from lhe erseclive of lhe erson being imersonaled. Learners
defend lhe osilions laken by lheir characlers. Al lhe end, each Iearner musl guess lhe
idenlily of lhe olher imersonaled characlers.
Best practices for role-playing scenarios
RoIe-Iaying scenarios can be enlerlaining, energizing, and hugeIy educalionaIor, lime-
consuming and fruslraling. The difference is carefuI design of lhe silualion and
assignmenl of lhe roIes.
Introduce the scenario fully
SeII oul lhe delaiIs of lhe scenario. Whal is lhe generaI silualion and vhal robIem does
il ose for Iearners` Whal roIes musl Iearners Iay` Ior each roIe, vhal are lhe
molivalions and behaviors` Hov is success defined and hov viII lhe aclivily be scored`
Irovide aII lhe documenls and olher sources of informalion lhal vouId be avaiIabIe in lhe
reaI silualion. These can be abbrevialed, bul shouId conlain enough delaiI lo Iel Iearners
carry oul lheir roIes.
Assign roles related to the subject
In leam assignmenls, give Iearners roIes lhal reIale lo lhe sub|ecl or melahor of lhe
assignmenl. Iick roIes rich vilh inlerreIalionshis and oorlunilies for confIicl and
cooeralion.
Ior examIe, lhe aclivily invoIving lhe ArchilecluraI Reviev Commillee had lhe
foIIoving roIes:
Hnmcnwncrs }usl vanl lo buiId an addilion lo lheir home. Iriorily is gelling more
sace for lhe Ieasl exense. Have a nev baby on lhe vay, so lime is
of lhe essence.
Architcct Wanls lo gel lhe commillee lo arove Ians aIready dravn. If Ians
are re|ecled, lhe archilecl viII Iose lhe commission. ReaIIy needs lhe
|ob.
Bui!ding
cnntractnr
Wanls lo comIele lhe |ob as quickIy and inexensiveIy as ossibIe.
Does nol vorry much aboul archilecluraI urily. Does vorry aboul
cash fIov and comIeling lhe |ob before vinler vealher sels in.


City histnrian Concerned vilh mainlaining lhe archilecluraI urily of lhe hisloric
neighborhood. CIassic bureaucral vilh a fragiIe ego. Resenls lhe
over of lhe cily allorney.
Hcad nI
cnmmittcc
AIso concerned vilh archilecluraI urily. Has no formaI archilecluraI
lraining. }usl a busybody vilh Iols of lime on his hands.
City attnrncy Insisls lhal buiIding codes be foIIoved scruuIousIy and does nol
care lhal codes are somevhal vague and lhal lhey confIicl vilh lhe
guideIines of lhe ArchilecluraI Reviev Commillee. Considers lhe cily
hislorian undisciIined and nol loo inleIIigenl.
Ncighbnrs Concerned lhal lhe nev addilion viII bIock lheir viev of lhe
mounlains or shade lheir back yards. GeneraIIy gel aIong vilh lhe
homeovners bul are |eaIous lhal lhe homeovners can exand and
lhey cannol.
If you cannol use roIes associaled vilh lhe sub|ecl of lhe aclivily, you can aIvays use
generic roIes lhal Iearners shouId find famiIiar (. 495).
Match role to personality and skills
Assign roIes carefuIIy. Imhasize osilive, crealive roIes ralher lhan negalive, crilicaI
roIes. e eseciaIIy carefuI vhom you assign lo over osilions, such as Manager, }udge,
and Crilic. Consider lhe ersonaIily of Iearners. Do lhey have lhe righl mix of humiIily
and asserliveness` Can lhey handIe lhe over` Are lheir sociaI skiIIs adequale`
AIso consider lhe basic skiIIs of Iearners. If a roIe requires exlensive vriling, ick someone
vho can vrile cIearIy and quickIy. If a roIe requires ubIic seaking, ick someone vilh
seaking exerience and skiIIs.
Have learners use their role names in messages
Ior cIass aclivilies, have Iearners in e-maiI, chal sessions, and discussion forums osl lheir
messages using lhe names of lheir roIes (Teacher, Tech Suorl, or }uror 4), ralher lhan
lheir ersonaI name.
Comparison activities
The comarison aclivily is a varianl on lhe decision aclivily (. 208). Il Iels Iearners
comare lheir decisions lo lhose of olher Iearners or see hov olher Iearners did an
anaIogous iece of vork.


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Here is a comarison
aclivily vhere lhe
Iearner can see hov
olher Iearners
erformed lhe same
aclivily.

uiIl using Adobe
Dreamveaver and Aclive
Server Iages.
Oflen lhe comarison is a greal source of insiralion. Il Iels Iearners reinlerrel lhe
aclivily in a more usefuI manner. Il is aIso an imorlanl source of feedback in Iearner-Ied
e-Iearning, vhere lhere is no leacher lo crilique lhe vork, and in asynchronous e-Iearning
vhere lhere are nol enough Iearners al lhe same oinl in lhe course for a grou crilique.
Group-critique activities
The grou-crilique is lhe sociaI form of lhe originaI-vork aclivily (. 207). Grou criliques
have Iearners heI olher Iearners lo refine lheir vork. Grou-crilique aclivilies lake
advanlage of discussion forums or olher sociaI media lo heI Iearners Iearn from olher
Iearners. In lhe simIesl form of grou crilique, a Iearner reares an individuaI ansver
lo a queslion, osls il for olhers lo crilique, and lhen revises il before submilling lhe finaI
version.


This examIe shovs lhe assignmenl for a
grou-crilique aclivily.

Learners are asked lo seIecl lheir besl
iclures, submil lhem lo lhe discussion
forum, viev lhe holograhs of olher
Iearners, crilique lhese holograhs, and
finaIIy lo submil a beller version of lheir
originaI holograhs.

Crealed in Microsofl IoverIoinl and converled for Web
deIivery using Adobe Iresenler. Viev examIe al
horlon.com/eId/.
A lyicaI grou-crilique aclivily vorks Iike lhis: Iirsl, lhe leacher assigns an originaI-
vork aclivily for Iearners lo erform. IndividuaI Iearners lhen osl lheir reIiminary
vork lo a discussion forum, vhere feIIov Iearners can ask queslions, crilique, and suggesl
changes. Learners can lhen revise lheir vork and resubmil il for anolher round of crilique.
In lhe end, lhe leacher evaIuales Iearners based on lhe finaI quaIily of lheir vork and on
lhe heIfuIness of lheir commenls lo olhers.
You can vary lhe basic grou crilique by changing hov lhe crilique is erformed, vhal is
criliqued, and vhal kinds of commenls are soIiciled.
Grou criliques leach Iearners lo give and accel crilicism. Use lhem lo:
# Teach Iearners lo refine lheir vork by incororaling lhe ideas of olhers.
# Condilion Iearners lo accel and fiIler lhe crilicism of lheir eers.
# Teach Iearners lo offer heIfuI crilicism.
# OffIoad from lhe leacher much of lhe vork of evaIualing and criliquing Iearners.


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The vaIue of grou criliques deends on lhe quaIily of lhe commenls offered by lhe
grou. Ior besl resuIls, guide arlicianls in offering raclicaI, encouraging commenls.
Monilor and moderale criliques. And be reared lo |um in if lhe commenls degenerale
inlo ersonaI allacks. Remind revievers lhal arl of lheir grade deends on lhe
heIfuIness of lheir commenls.
ENCOURAGE MEANINGFUL DISCUSSIONS
OnIine discussions are a slaIe of sociaI Iearning, virluaI cIassroom courses, and olher
forms of e-Iearning. OnIine discussions are one of lhe mosl evoIved forms of sociaI
Iearning.
Discussion forums deveIoed from lhe sociaI and rofessionaI exchanges lhal look Iace
in Inlernel Iisl-servers and nevsgrous. These inleIIecluaI valering hoIes allracled
individuaIs vilh Iike inleresls bul dislanl Iocalions lo a free exchange of ideas. And
Iearning look Iace.
The use of discussion aclivilies in e-Iearning buiIds on lhis informaI exchange, bul adds an
efficienl slruclure. Here's hov an onIine discussion mighl be used in formaI educalion:

Learning slarls as lhe leacher osls an assignmenl lo lhe grou. The assignmenl may
incIude URLs or hyerIinks lo assigned readings, queslions lo ansver individuaIIy, and
grou aclivilies. Assignmenls may aIso incIude allached reading and olher necessary
maleriaIs.
Learners read lhe assignmenl. They may vork on il individuaIIy or in leams before
osling lheir comIeled soIulions back lo lhe discussion forum vhere lhe leacher and
olher Iearners can see il, discuss il, and evaIuale il. A lyicaI course mighl consisl of 6 lo
12 such assignmenls.


Design discussion activities
OnIine discussions are an essenliaI arl of many differenl kinds of Iearning aclivilies. The
aclivily may lake lhe form of a debale or brainslorming. Il may invoIve fev or many
arlicianls. Il may cover facluaI or emolionaI sub|ecls. The success of lhese aclivilies
deends on veII-designed onIine discussions. ul good discussions do nol |usl haen.
They are designed and crafled lo rovoke dee lhoughl and conlinuaI imrovemenl of
ideas and oinions.
Start the discussion
Mosl imorlanl is lhe vay lhe designer Iaunches lhe conversalion. Iach discussion musl
slarl vilh a simIe invilalion lo arliciale. The besl invilalion is a secific assignmenl.
Whal makes a good assignmenl` Here are some lechniques lo use lo creale an assignmenl
lhal enlices Iearners lo arliciale:

Prepare learners to discuss
Discussion aclivilies can be comIex and lime-consuming for Iearners. To ensure you do
nol confuse Iearners or vasle lheir lime, rovide comIele inslruclions for each discussion
aclivily. This examIe reares Iearners lo arliciale in a discussion in vhich lhey viII
crilique lhe vork of lheir cIassmales. Nolice lhe differenl arls of lhis aclivily.

How the activity fits in the
course.
Why am I doing this?


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Allow enough time
OnIine discussions are nol as fasl as face-lo-face conversalions. As a generaI ruIe a 10-
minule face-lo-face conversalion in lhe cIassroom vouId require:
# 20 minules vilh audio-conferencing.
# 30 minules vilh chal.
# One lo lvo days in a discussion forum.
The same conversalion in a one-hour cIass meeling may require a veek or len days in a
discussion forum.
The procedure learners
should follow, stressing the
approach to take when
critiquing the work of their
classmates.
Rules and other constraints.
What if something goes wrong?
How the activity will be graded.


Set up needed threads
When Iearners firsl arrive al a discussion forum, lhey shouId nol find an emly
varehouse. Iul in some vaIIs and a fev rooms. Slarl a fev convenlionaI lo-IeveI
lhreads, such as:
# Intrnductinn. TeII Iearners vhal lhe vhoIe discussion forum is aboul in more delaiI
lhan on lhe veIcome loic. Iul any needed inslruclions here.
# Administrativc suppnrt. Irovide a Iace vhere Iearners can requesl heI vilh any
asecl of lhe course olher lhan conlenl or lechnoIogy.
# Tcchnica! suppnrt. IncIude a lhread for queslions aboul looIs and lechnoIogies used in
lhe course. Slarl by osling lhe lechnicaI requiremenls, inslruclions for oblaining
necessary looIs, and a generaI lroubIeshooling guide.
# Gcncra! cnmmcnts. IIanl a generaI commenl lhread lo coIIecl commenls lhal do nol fil
any exisling lhread. The moderalor can move lhese commenls lo lhe correcl lhread or
use lhem lo slarl a nev lhread.
# 5tudcnt !nungc. Sel aside a discussion area vhere sludenls can laIk lo one anolher on
any sub|eclvhelher reIaled lo lhe course or nol.
Ensure learners have necessary skills
HeI Iearners nev lo your discussion forum Iearn lo inleracl and lo overcome lheir fear of
doing somelhing lhal makes lhem Iook sluid. Teach Iearners lhe essenliaI skiIIs for
onIine discussion. Here is a survivaI kil of discussion skiIIs:
# Rcp!ying tn mcssagcs. Remind Iearners lhal lhey musl cIick lhe Rcp!y bullon for lhe
secific message lhey vanl lo reIy lo.
# Pnsting ncw mcssagcs and starting ncw thrcads. Learners musl undersland lhe
difference belveen Ncw Mcssagc and Rcp!y. Ncw mcssagc adds a message al lhe
same IeveI as lhe currenl message. Rcp!y creales a nev message benealh lhe currenl
message. Nol heeding lhis dislinclion resuIls in langIed lhreads of messages vilh no
cIear conlexl in vhich lo inlerrel messages.
# Writing a c!car sub|cct for lhe message. Ior reIies, lhe defauIl is |usl lo add Re: in
fronl of lhe originaI sub|ecl Iine. Require Iearners lo reIace lhis vilh a meaningfuI
sub|ecl. Olhervise you have messages lhal begin Re: Re: Re: ..
# Editing pnsts. Teach Iearners lo correcl smaII errors in lheir messages. They may nol
knov lhey can cIick an Edit bullon lo revise lhe message. Warn Iearners lhal il is nol
oIile lo make changes afler a reIy in a vay lhal makes lhe reIy Iook faIse or siIIy.
The oIile vay is lo add a message oinling oul lhal lhe originaI submission has been
revised and erhas lhanking lhose vho suggesled imrovemenls.


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Moderate discussion activities
In a nc!craic! discussion forum lhe leacheror someone eIsevalches over lhe
exchange of messages. The rimary duly of lhe moderalor is lo ensure lhal Iearners have
roduclive discussions vilh olher Iearners. Moderalors erform lvo main lasks. Iirsl,
lhey musl sel u lhe discussion forums and lhreads. Second, lhey musl oversee lhe
conversalions lhal lake Iace lhere.
Pick the right moderator
NormaIIy, lhe leacher or faciIilalor for lhe course is aIso lhe moderalor of lhe course's
discussion forums. Hovever, lhe requiremenls for a moderalor are differenl from lhose
for a leacher or faciIilalor. The leacher may be loo busy lo lake on bolh |obs. And, in sociaI
Iearning, lhe grou may be indeendenl enough lo eIecl lheir ovn discussion moderalor.
A good moderalor is knovIedgeabIe, suorlive, and arlicuIale.
# Thc mndcratnr shnu!d bc wc!!-inInrmcd and nn thc ba!!. The moderalor musl
undersland lhe sub|ecl maller, lhe comuler syslem, and any soflvare used by lhe
discussion forum or olher arls of lhe cIass. Or have ready access lo lhose vho do.
# Thc mndcratnr must havc a caring naturc. The moderalor musl laclfuIIy endure
insuIls and rude behavior, alienlIy inslrucl fumbIe-fingered lechnohobes,
conlinuaIIy in|ecl enlhusiasm inlo dishearlened souIs, and reealedIy caIm abused and
abusive resondenls.
# Thc mndcratnr must bc a supcrb cnmmunicatnr. The moderalor musl be abIe lo Iislen
deeIy and accuraleIy gauge lhe knovIedge and emolions of olhers. Nol everyone can
do lhis. The moderalor musl be someone vhom olhers describe as laclfuI or
diIomalic. And lhe moderalor musl be abIe lo exress comIex ideas and sublIe
emolions in simIe, unadorned rose.
So vho are lhe |ob candidales`
Moderalors can come from severaI differenl backgrounds. To ick a moderalor, consider
lhe foIIoving candidales:
# Tcachcr. Aboul 90% of lhe lime lhe leacher is lhe moderalor. Make lhis your defauIl
choice.
# Tcaching assistant. Oflen lhe leacher viII deIegale moderalor dulies lo an assislanl or
leacher-in-lraining. Moderaling a discussion forum is a greal vay for a |unior slaff
member lo Iearn aboul Iearners.
# Rcccnt graduatc. Learners vho have comIeled lhe course may be good candidales,
eseciaIIy if lhey are conlinuing in lhe fieId of lhe course and vanl lo slay in louch.


# Outsidc cxpcrt. A raclilioner may nol have lime lo leach a course, bul may be viIIing
lo conlribule by moderaling a discussion forum.
# Tcam mcmbcr. The Iearning leam may lake resonsibiIily for ils ovn discussion by
nominaling a member lo oversee discussion aclivilies.
If you cannol find an ideaI candidale, erhas you shouId sIil u lhe moderalor dulies.
A lechnicaIIy adel assislanl manages lhe lechnoIogy, vhiIe lhe leacher sol-checks
messages, and a Iearner heIs oul for exlra credil.
Welcome learners
Ior each ma|or area of lhe discussion forum, veIcome Iearners lo lhe discussion area and
exIain vhal and vhom il is for. Make lhe veIcome lhe firsl message in lhal area. Here is
lhe oening message for a discussion loic on criliquing holograhs:

Make Iearners feeI veIcome. Invile lhem lo arliciale. HeI Iearners decide vhelher lhey
are in lhe righl discussion forum and lhe righl lhread, eseciaIIy if a course has more lhan
one forum or lhread. Irovide Iinks lo olher discussion forums on lhe sub|ecl of lhe cIass.
Moderate actively but do not dominate
AcliveIy moderale lhe discussion in order lo aclivale Iearning. An aclive moderalor
shouId nol Iead lo assive Iearners. The more acliveIy lhe forum moderalor criliques
oslings, adds commenls, encourages arlicialion, re-vords messages, sarks crealivily,
resoIves imasses, soolhes lemers, chaIIenges assumlions, and Iays deviI's advocale
lhe more aclive Iearners become.


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Inlervene vhen necessary, bul onIy as much as necessary. Do nol nil-ick. Lel ass minor,
firsl-lime Iases. Many limes sociaI ressure viII lake care of lhe robIem. If minor
robIems cro u reealedIy, osl a genlIe generaI reminder. And give il lime lo sink in.
DeIiver oIile requesls asking offenders lo modify lheir behavior. Assume lhey are |usl
careIess or loo busy lo read lhe ruIes. Save high-over inlervenlions for muIliIe-
reealers and for serious robIems. Then ounce.
Keep the conversation lively
The roIe of lhe moderalor may nol be highIy visibIe, bul il is never assive. The
moderalor is Iike lhe mechanic for a comIex iece of machinery, greasing a squeaky arl
here, cIearing a |am lhere, fIiing a bIovn circuil breaker vhen aII molion slos. The
moderalor does vhalever il lakes lo kee lhe discussion forum running al eak efficiency.
We have aII knovn eoIe vho are aIvays al lhe cenler of inleresling conversalions.
Oflen lhey are nol lhe ones vho do lhe mosl laIking, yel lhey do somelhing lo kee olhers
laIking effecliveIy. The discussion-forum moderalor can kee conversalions IiveIy by
using a fev roven lechniques:
# Slarl nev lhreads by osling inleresling, dee queslions.
# Recruil guesls lo add a fresh erseclive or ask originaI queslions.
# Resond lo aII inquiries lhal go unansvered for a fev days.
# Correcl aII misconcelions before lhey roagale.
# Remind arlicianls of lhe ruIes as necessary.
# Creale nev lhreads for inleresling ideas lhal sring u dee vilhin exisling lhreads.
# Wra u lired discussions by summarizing lhem (or assigning lhose dulies lo
Iearners).
Challenge shallow thought
Do nol accel mere oinions. Iroml Iearners lo rovide lhe evidence and IogicaI lhoughl
behind lheir oinions. ChaIIenge oinions by resonding Iike lhis:
I vas inlrigued by your ansver |Quole il.j Can you exIain vhy you feeI so`
Did arlicuIar exeriences, research, or olher evidence Iead you lo lhis oinion`
If everyone eIse agrees vilh an oinion, lake lhe oosile oinion. IIay deviI's advocale.
Learning leams oflen designale one of lheir members lo fiII lhis roIe. Here are some
resonses lo slir u lhoughl:
# OK, lhen ansver me lhis .
# I cIaim lhe oosile. Can you rove me vrong`
# ul vhal if .`
# Suose |usl lhe oosile vere lrue. Whal lhen`


Perform message maintenance
Messages dashed off in hasle can somelimes go aslray. A sIighl misvording can reverse
lhe inlended meaning. To mainlain message quaIily, lhe moderalor shouId:
# Reroule misdirecled messages lo lhe correcl lhread. And inform lhe osler of lhe
change and lhe reason for il.
# Revord uncIear or inaccurale sub|ecl headers.
# Iix (or have lhe sender fix) lragic lyos or accidenlaI misslalemenls.
Reject inappropriate postings
The moderalor shouId re|ecl oslings lhal cIearIy vioIale course oIicies. Iacify or exeI
angry fIamers. Remove messages lhal olher Iearners comIain aboul if you agree lhey are
nol aroriale. If you musl re|ecl a osling:
# IxIain exaclIy vhy you re|ecled lhe osling. Remind lhe submiller of your slandards
for oslings.
# Offer lhe submiller a chance lo re-submil afler secific changes are made.
# Require an aoIogy if lhe osling unduIy insuIled or offended olhers.
# Ioinl oul any vioIalions of a broader oIicy and lhe consequences of vioIaling il.
If messages are posted immediately
In some discussion forums, messages are osled immedialeIy vilhoul lhe moderalor
seeing lhem. In lhis case:
# AIerl arlicianls lo lhis silualion and varn lhem lhal some inaroriale messages
may sIi by.
# Read aII nev messages frequenlIy, and immedialeIy deaI vilh inaroriale ones.
# If an offensive message sIis by, remove il and osl an aoIogy lo lhe grou. AIso
require lhal lhe aulhor of lhe message osl an aoIogy, loo.
# Make Iearners resonsibIe for oIicing discussion. Lel lhem knov lhal you viII assisl
lhem, bul remind lhem lhal il is lhey vho decide vhal is and is nol aroriale.
PROMOTE TEAM LEARNING
The leam is a fundamenlaI sociaI unil in comIex organizalions. In many enlerrises, lhe
leam is vhere mosl of lhe vork gels done. No surrise, lhen, lhal leam Iearning is a
rominenl arl of sociaI Iearning.
A leam is a seciaI kind of sociaI grou. Il is nol an arbilrary grou of eoIe saddIed
vilh a singIe vork assignmenl. A leam incIudes individuaIs vorking logelher lo ursue a


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common goaI or lo reaIize a shared vision. A leam is more lighlIy uniled lhan a schooI
cIass or a business commillee.
Ior sociaI Iearning, lvo lyes of leams are imorlanl:
# Work leams vhose rimary urose is lo do vork bul vho aIso have lo Iearn in order
lo do lhal vork.
# Learning leams vhose rimary goaI is lo Iearn bul vho do reaIislic vork in order lo
Iearn.
Team Iearning is eseciaIIy effeclive vhen Iearning occurs in lhe same leam lhal viII
aIy Iearning. The mosl vaIuabIe lhing a leam Iearns is hov lo aIIocale vork and
decision-making among leam members. Team Iearning aIso vorks for leaching a skiII lhal
viII be aIied as a leam, nol individuaIIy.
efore going furlher, ve shouId acknovIedge lhal lhe lerm ican |carning is |usl a
melahor. UIlimaleIy leams Iearn as individuaIs, and lheir coIIeclive behaviors become
lhe behavior of lhe leam. We musl nol forgel our resonsibiIily lo educale each of lhese
individuaIs.
Meet the requirements of a successful team
In Iearning leams, as in vork leams, success deends on lhe membershi and rocesses of
lhe leam. Whal, lhen, are lhe characlerislics of a successfuI leam`
# 5harcd gna!. AII members vork logelher lo accomIish a iece of vork or lo meel a
Iearning ob|eclive. The goaI can be Iarge and comIex, bul musl be shared by aII
members of lhe leam.
# Right sizc. The leam musl have enough members lo rovide aII lhe needed caabiIilies
and lo share lhe vorkIoad. Il musl be smaII enough lo coordinale ils ovn aclivilies. Ior
sociaI Iearning, leams of 4 lo 7 are raclicaI. Larger leams are difficuIl for dislanl
members.
# Expcrtisc nr acccss tn it. CoIIecliveIy lhe membershi musl have lhe needed skiIIs and
knovIedge. Or il musl have access lo resources lhal fiII any gas.
# Authnrity tn qucstinn and innnvatc. Wilhin lhe leam, Iearners musl feeI free lo
queslion, secuIale, crilique, admil mislakes or uncerlainly, and seak lheir minds.
# Timc tn Inrm and npcratc. Teams require significanl lime lo form, malure, and
oerale. True leams are rare in shorl courses.
# Abi!ity tn rcach cnnscnsus. Consensus is nol resignalion. Il is nol one oinion
acquiesced lo by aII. Il is nol reduclion lo Iovesl common denominalor. Il is a Iea lo a
nev idea beller lhan any iniliaI ideas.


Form a team from individuals
Team formalion is lhe Iinchin of leam Iearning. efore effeclive Iearning can lake Iace,
lhe grou of seIecled individuaIs musl lransform lhemseIves inlo a lrue leam.
Difficulties in team formation
Team formalion faces lhree main hurdIes:
# Timc. The lransformalion from grou lo leam lakes significanl lime. Time senl
forming lhe leam is lime nol senl Iearning.
# Distancc. Lacking face-lo-face conlacl, leam members have Iimiled vays lo gel lo
knov each olher.
# Divcrsity. To be effeclive, leam members musl ossess a vide range of laIenls,
knovIedge, and erseclives. Hovever, lhis same diversily can Iead lo confIicl.
Required steps of team formation
To become a leam, a grou of eoIe musl:
# Gel lo knov each olher veII enough lo decide vho shouId erform differenl vork
assignmenls and lo deveIo lrusl in vork done by leammales.
# Agree on a common goaI, mission, or vision.
# Assign iniliaI roIes lo leam members.
# Devise and subscribe lo slandards of rofessionaI behavior and vork resuIls.
# Idenlify gas of laIenl or knovIedge and decide hov lo fiII lhem, for examIe, by
conducling research or by recruiling nev members.
# Agree on iniliaI leam rocesses and rocedures.
Align goals of team members
Team members musl share a common goaI. Ior a Iearning leam, lhe goaI is lyicaIIy
assigned by lhe faciIilalor. Ior a vork leam, lhe goaI may be assigned by a higher IeveI
manager. In some cases, lhe leam may be given a generaI or vague direclion and asked lo
define ils ovn goaI.
In any case, leam members musl subscribe lo lhal goaI by aIigning lheir individuaI goaIs
lo lhe goaI of lhe leam. They may aIso need lo reslale lhe goaI in lerms meaningfuI lo lhe
vhoIe leam.
In selling and aIigning goaIs, a fev leam aclivilies may heI:
# Cnnsn!idatc intcrprctatinns. Team members individuaIIy Iisl vhal lhey vanl lo
accomIish as arl of lhe leam. Olher members lry lo say hov lhose ilems aIign vilh
lhe assigned overaII goaI. The leam comes lo a consensus as lo vhal lhe leam's goaI
viII be.


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# RcIinc thc gna!. In a grou discussion, have each leam member slale hov his or her
goaI resembIes lhe assigned goaI and hov il differs. Team members lhen refine lhe
goaI slalemenl so lhal il can beller aIy lo lhe grou as a vhoIe.
# 5cc thc big picturc. In leam Iearning, Iearners may focus on immediale needs or a
Iooming deadIine. To heI lhem focus on lhe big iclure, have Iearners submil
examIes of lhings lhal seemed imorlanl a fev years ago bul are nol imorlanl nov.
These may incIude incidenls or fads in ouIar cuIlure, such as sIang exressions,
ceIebrilies, or cIolhing. Then ask for simiIar ilems in lhe fieId of inquiry, such as
lheories, ersonaIilies, or looIs. Ask lhe leam lo drav u guideIines lo redicl vhal
viII Iasl and vhal viII nol.
Learn who can do what
To vork as a leam, Iearners musl form accurale oinions of lhe laIenls, skiIIs, knovIedge,
and characler of feIIov leam members. This can be hard. Modesl and shy individuaIs may
dovnIay lheir caabiIilies. Olhers, fearing comarison, may exaggerale lheir
caabiIilies. Many are unavare of lheir ovn slrenglhs.
Forego traditional icebreaker activities
Avoid aclivilies vhere leam members Iearn irreIevanl delaiIs aboul feIIov Iearners, such
as lheir favorile coIor, lheir middIe name, or lheir favorile movie slar.
Such aclivilies don'l reveaI anylhing dee aboul lhe erson. They vasle lime in leam
formalion lhal couId be senl Iearning aboul lhe exerlise of leam members. And, slarling
vilh an obviousIy lriviaI aclivily signaIs lhe unimorlance of lhe aclivily and erhas lhe
vork lhe leam viII do.
Explicitly reveal individual expertise
Irovide vays Iearners can Iearn aboul each olher. Have lhem osl reIevanl informalion
aboul lhemseIves, for examIe:
# CredenliaIs, such as degrees, Iicenses, and cerlificalions.
# Work samIes, incIuding lhose from hobbies.
# iograhy, resume, or curricuIum vilae.
# Queslionnaire lo eIicil reIevanl informalion, such as: Irior |obs, side |obs, hobbies,
voIunleer vork, arlislic crealions, inleresls, lraveI, avards, educalion, Ianguages
soken, sorls and hysicaI aclivilies, and organizalionaI membershis.
# SeIf-cIassificalion aclivily. Using lask-reIevanl crileria, such as exerlise crilicaI for a
secific roIe on lhe leam, have lhe members cIassify lhemseIves aIong a scaIe or inlo
defined subgrous.


# SeIf-assessmenl. Ior each crilicaI area of exerlise, ask each leam member lo idenlify
lhe Ieading exerl in lhe vorId and lo say hov he or she is Iike lhal erson.
# Differences from lhe slereolye. Have members idenlify a vay lhey have been
slereolyed in lhe asl and lo Iisl vays lhey differ from lhal slereolye. Remind
arlicianls lhal slereolyes aIy lo rofessions (engineer, accounlanl, and saIesman)
loo.
# Iavoriles. Ask Iearners lo idenlify ilems lhey admire. These shouId be in calegories
reIevanl lo lhe sub|ecl of Iearning. Ior examIe, ask leam members lo idenlify lheir
favorile non-ficlion book, documenlary fiIm, businesserson, or scienlisl.
# UnderuliIized abiIilies. Have Iearners idenlify laIenls, skiIIs, areas of knovIedge lhal
lhey ossess bul seIdom gel lo aIy.
But not too much information
Do nol require Iearners lo reveaI informalion lhal couId embarrass lhem, dislracl olhers,
or Iead lo oinlIess confIicl. If designing a course for eoIe from cuIlures vilh vhich you
are nol famiIiar, do some research on confIicls vilhin lhal cuIlure. Take care before
requiring Iearners lo reveaI lheir:
# ReIigion, denominalion, or secl.
# IoIilicaI affiIialion or vievs.
# Membershi in conlroversiaI organizalions.
# Race, elhnic grou, or lribaI affiIialion.
# SexuaI reference.
As lhe leam malures, Iearners viII begin lo lrusl each olher and viII naluraIIy reveaI more
inlimale delaiIs.
Have team members learn about each other
Once leam members have reveaIed lheir exerlise, consider assigning lhe leam lhe lask of
assessing lhe exerlise of feIIov leam members. Here are some aclivilies lo heI lhem do
lhal:
# Matrix rating. Have each leam member rale his or her slrenglhs and veaknesses in
crilicaI leam skiIIs. Then have leam members rale each olher. ConsoIidale and
summarize ralings so each erson sees hov lhey raled lhemseIves and hov olhers
raled lhem.
# Makc !ist nI gn-tn pcnp!c. Have each erson Iisl lhe kinds of decisions lhe leam viII
have lo make and vhich leam member's advice vouId heI mosl in making lhal
decision.
# Cnmpi!c an cxpcrtisc cata!ng. Agree on leam members lo serve as exerls and
checkers in each domain.


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# Match cxpcrtisc and mcmbcr. Have members rivaleIy add lheir exerlise lo a Iisl.
Then Iel members ask queslions of each olher lo lry lo malch lhe exerlise lo lhe
correcl leam member (or members).
# Tcam-mcmbcr bingn. Have lhe leam fiII in a bingo card lo idenlify one common ilem
belveen each lvo members, such as a skiII, inleresl, or background exerience.
Adopt team roles
Lel lhe leam define and fiII roIes. A roIe on a leam incIudes a cIusler of dulies. To kee lhe
leam smaII, each member may have lo fiII muIliIe roIes.
Here are some cuslomary leam roIes:
Rn!c Dcscriptinn
Cnnrdinatnr Idenlifies necessary lasks and deendencies among lhem. ScheduIes
and lracks aclivilies. Suggesls assignmenls.
Cnmprnmisc
Iindcr
Suggesls vays lo resoIve confIicls. Can eilher suggesl a nev idea or
a rocess of delermining vhich of lvo comeling ideas is beller.
Dcvi!'s
advncatc
Guards againsl groulhink. Argues unouIar and unfounded
osilions. ChaIIenges any hasly consensus. Idenlifies ossibIe Iong-
lerm or uninlended consequences of any roosaIs.
Grnup-
prnccss
mnnitnr
Observes inlerersonaI communicalion, decision-making, confIicl
resoIulion, and olher asecls of leam oeralion. Ioinls oul vhere
lhe leam can oerale beller or vhere il is vioIaling ils ovn
slandards of conducl.
Mnra!c
bnnstcr
Monilors leam moraIe and inlervenes vhere Iov moraIe Iimils leam
erformance. Works lo reengage lhose vho may have vilhdravn or
lo counseI lhose vho are loo aggressive.
Discussinn
mndcratnr
Monilors discussion aclivilies. Takes sles vhen discussions slaII,
slray off loic, or become combalive.
Jnurna!ist Documenls lhe leam's oeralions. Wriles a bIog summarizing
discoveries, obslacIes, and rouline oeralions of lhe leam.
5ummarizcr Crafls concise summaries, abslracls, oulIines, and concIusions lhal
condense exlensive dala and comIex maleriaI.


Judgc RuIes on lhe reIevance and arorialeness of maleriaI. As a Iasl
resorl, sellIes disules for vhich no comromise or olher resoIulion
can be found.
Lawycr Idenlifies and commenls on IegaI issues raised by aclivilies or
roosaIs.
Liaisnn with
nutsidc
cxpcrts
Coordinales discussions, inlervievs, symosia, and olher
communicalions vilh oulside exerls. Insures lhal aII conlacls are
rofessionaI and courleous.
Wnrd-
wrang!cr
Wriles lhe lexl for formaI reorls. May aIso conlribule lexl lo
resenlalions.
Picturc-
makcr
Ireares holograhs, dravings, diagrams, and charls needed for
reorls and resenlalions.
Prcscntatinn-
makcr
Creales and deIivers formaI resenlalions lo oulsiders. May incIude
lexl, grahics, and olher media from feIIov leam members.
Editnr Idils, enhances, and oIishes lhe vork of olhers. Does nol crilicize,
bul does offer beller aIlernalives.
Quantitativc
ana!yst
Ierforms or verifies malhemalicaI caIcuIalions. Comules slalislics.
Creales sreadsheels needed by lhe leam.
Rcscarchcr Tracks dovn sources of reIevanl informalion. ResoIves facluaI
disules.
Tcchnn!ngist Recommends, acquires, and configures comulers, nelvorks,
mobiIe devices, and olher looIs needed by lhe leam. Teaches leam
members lo use lhese lechnoIogies.
Thcnry-
Inrmcr
Deduces rinciIes, lrends, concels, and lheories from concrele
dala. GeneraIizes ideas so lhey can aIy more videIy. HeIs olhers
see lhe big iclure.
Thcnry-tcstcr Devises vays lo IogicaIIy and convincingIy verify roosed lheories
and hyolheses.

Pick a leader, at least to start
A IeaderIess leam is Iike a rudderIess shi, il can onIy drifl and sin. If a Ieader does nol
emerge lhrough lhe rocess of leam formalion, a lemorary Ieader musl be chosen. The


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leam may choose a leam Ieader al random or may decide lo rolale Ieadershi lhrough
members. In any case, a lemorary Ieader shouId be chosen lo gel lhe leam moving.
Team processes
Once lhe leam is formed and is ready lo begin Iearning or reaI vork, il viII need rocesses
lo guide ils oeralions. To reach ils goaI, lhe leam musl devise rocedures, oIicies, and
rocesses lo:
# Recruil nev members.
# Iniliale lhem inlo lhe grou, lhal is, lo inlroduce lhem lo each leam member, lo bring
lhem u lo dale on lhe leam's rogress, and lo assign lhem a meaningfuI roIe.
# Reviev and inlegrale vork done by searale leam members.
# IIan lhe nexl hase of vork and aIIocale il among leam members.
# DeaI vilh unexecled evenls.
In addilion, lhe leam may need lo revisil any of lhe decisions il made during leam-
formalion.
Set norms of behavior
The leam shouId sel and enforce ils ovn slandards of conducl. One vay is lo charl a
malrix of reaclions. Have lhe leam brainslorm lo conslrucl a Iisl of common leam
behaviorsosilive and negalive. Then survey ils members anonymousIy lo see hov
each member feeIs aboul each behavior: Does lhe behavior heI or hinder rogress` Hov
slrongIy do lhey feeI, ro or con, aboul lhe behavior` DisIay resuIls anonymousIy. Have
Iearners discuss lhe imIicalions and lhen derive secific norms of behavior.
Team warm-up activities
Warm-u aclivilies are simIe lasks lhal heI leam members gel lo knov each olher
beller, buiId lrusl among members, lesl leam rocesses and norms of behavior, and
deveIo Ieadershi and communicalions rocesses.
Warm-u aclivilies require Iearners lo vork logelher on meaningfuI lasks. Here are some
lyicaI varm-u ro|ecls:
# Crcatc a tcam symbn!. As a leam, devise a symboI lhal reresenls sub|ecl-reIevanl
exerlise ossessed by lhe leam. The symboI can be an acronym, a orlmanleau vord,
or a Iogo.
# P!an a prn|cct. Decide hov lo carry oul a comIex, bul veII-underslood ro|ecl in lhe
fieId of inquiry, for examIe, lo Ian a haIf-hour TV documenlary on some issue or
asecl of lhe sub|ecl. IIanning lhe ro|ecl viII require vorking logelher lo idenlify lhe
goaI and slarling oinl, defining necessary lasks, researching deendencies and olher
requiremenls, sequencing lasks, and revising lhe Ian.


# 5urvivc aItcr thc Ia!!. Have lhe leam imagine lhal a gIobaI calaslrohe has Iefl onIy
lhe members of lhe leam aIive. Whal Ieadershi scheme and roIes vouId be needed`
Whal Iavs`
# Crcatc a pnsitinn app!icatinn. As a leam come u vilh queslions lo quaIify someone
lo |oin lhe leam or lo fiII a roIe.
# P!ay a gamc tngcthcr. IIay a game or soIve a uzzIe as a leam. Ior examIe, lhe leam
couId conducl a simuIalion of a business rocess, assembIe a |igsav uzzIe of a
sub|ecl-reIevanl diagram, or comIele a crossvord uzzIe invoIving vocabuIary in lhe
fieId. Members shouId discuss each move before making il. Any game viII do so Iong
as il requires lhoughl or anaIysis.
# Cnmpnsc a pncm. As a leam, vrile a oem lhal summarizes (or Iamoons) an ilem of
inleresl in your fieId of inquiry. The form can be a shorl oem, Iimerick (rhyme
scheme: aabba), haiku (3 Iines, 17 syIIabIes), bumer slicker, or adverlising |ingIe.
Fade out support
In unfamiIiar silualions, even lhe mosl indeendenl Iearners desire slruclure and
guidance. Irovide Ieadershi al lhe beginning, bul fade oul slruclure and lransfer
Ieadershi lo lhe grou as soon as lhe grou begins lo funclion as a leam.
Design activities for teams
A leam aclivily is more lhan a muIli-erson aclivily or a singIe-erson aclivily erformed
by a grou. In designing leam aclivilies or adaling soIo aclivilies, ensure lhal Iearners
accomIish lhe inlended Iearning ob|eclives.
# C!ariIy thc nb|cctivcs (yes, IuraI!). Team aclivilies can be comIex and lime-
consuming so use lhem lo accomIish muIliIe reIaled ob|eclives. Ob|eclives can
incIude secific sub|ecl-reIaled skiIIs as veII as generaI coIIaboralion skiIIs.
# 5upp!y writtcn instructinns Inr a!! activitics. Or record lhem so Iearners can Iay
lhem back Ialer. Irovide enough informalion for Iearners lo gel slarled. Secify lhe
resuIls required. CIearIy slale lime Iimils and olher requiremenls.
# Ensurc that tcam mcmbcrs cn!!cctivc!y havc thc cxpcrtisc ncccssary tn accnmp!ish
thc nb|cctivcs. Or, rovide access lo lhe exerlise.
# Makc thc activitics cha!!cnging and Iun. The besl vay is lo make lhem resembIe
robIems in lhe rofession lo vhich lhe Iearner asires.
# A!!nt cnnugh timc Inr tcam prnccsscs tn wnrk. TyicaIIy leam aclivilies lake lhree lo
len limes as Iong as an anaIogous soIo aclivily.


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# Rcquirc cn!!abnratinn tn accnmp!ish thc gna!. Learners shouId send lhe ma|orily of
lime vorking logelher. Design lhe aclivily lo rovoke lhe kinds of mislakes from
vhich lhe leam can Iearnones lhal slymie individuaIs bul vhich lhe leam as a vhoIe
can overcome.
# Rcquirc an nbscrvab!c rcsu!t that can bc nb|cctivc!y cva!uatcd. Thal vay, Iearners
knov vhelher lhe leam mel lhe goaI.
# Makc intcrna! tcamwnrk visib!c Inr ana!ysis. Archive discussions and chals. Record
audio- and video-conferences.
# Fair!y cva!uatc individua!s. Decide hov lo delermine vhelher lhe leam accomIished
ils ob|eclive and hov much each member conlribuled.
Engage in open inquiry
Team Iearning is olenliaIIy simIe, fIexibIe, and educalionaIIy effeclive. Il is fIexibIe
enough lo vork for a variely of sub|ecls.
In an advanced form of leam Iearning, caIIed sncia! inquiry, Iearners robe more deeIy
inlo difficuIl sub|ecls lhan anyone has before. As a leam, Iearners go beyond exisling
guideIines and eslabIished knovIedge. They advance inlo areas vhere lhere are no
slandards lo leII lhem if lhey are on lhe righl lrack. The goaI is crealing nev knovIedge,
rocedures, and rocesses.
This lye of oen-ended inquiry requires advanced leamvork skiIIs vhere Iearners musl
readiIy Iel go of exisling ideas in order lo discover and rove beller ideas. This does nol
require nev rocedures bul advanced communicalions skiIIs and emolionaI conlroI. Team
members musl:
# Listcn nb|cctivc!y, eseciaIIy lo crilique of lheir ideas. They musl nol refIexiveIy
defend or advocale lheir ovn ideas.
# Ana!yzc thc Iau!ts of lheir ovn osilion. They musl admil vhen lhey do nol knov.
# 5trivc tn synthcsizc beller ideas or al Ieasl more ideas.
# Lcarn Irnm Iai!urc ralher lhan bIame olhers. The leam as a vhoIe musl forgel aboul
bIame and simIy move forvard lo beller ideas.
# Raisc va!id cnnccrns aboul ideas of olhers and slale cIearIy lheir reasons for concern.
They musl queslion olhers in a vay lhal encourages lhem lo anaIyze lheir oinions.
# Admit tn cmntinns lriggered by olhers' ideas and anaIyze lhe reason for lhe reaclion.
AIlhough lhese aclions are heIfuI for any form of leamvork, lhey become necessary for
inquiries vhere lhere are no leachers, exerls, or besl raclices lo guide lhem.


IN CLOSING
Summary
# SociaI Iearning invoIves Iearning by inleracling vilh feIIov Iearners, lhe leacher,
exerls, and olher rofessionaIs.
# SociaI Iearning occurs in a vide variely of forms, bul some rocesses are common,
nameIy, discussions, feedback, coIIaboralion, and Iearner-crealed maleriaIs.
# Use sociaI Iearning lo leach coIIaboralion and lo lackIe difficuIl sub|ecls lhal Iack
eslabIished crileria.
# Ingineer Iearning by sequencing allerns of inleraclion lhal creale silualions vhere
Iearners Iearn from each olher and from exerls.
# efore icking soflvare for sociaI Iearning, Iisl lhe sociaI caabiIilies you need, such as
largeling, fiIlering, and broadcasling messages, hoIding synchronous and
asynchronous discussions, sharing crealed maleriaIs, voling, and managing
coIIaboralive leams.
# IaciIilale sociaI aclivilies lo encourage leams lo lake resonsibiIily for lheir ovn
Iearning. Monilor and inlervene lo correcl bad behavior.
# Discussions are lhe IifebIood of sociaI Iearning. Irovide lechnoIogy, rocedures, and
guidance lo roduce roduclive conversalions.
For more
VirluaI cIassroom Iearning is an aIicalion of sociaI Iearning. See Chaler 10 for heI
designing lhis lye of sociaI Iearning.
Ior secific ideas on Iearning aclivilies for sociaI Iearning, see lhe Design . for sociaI
Iearning seclions in Chalers 2, 3, and 4

501

Mobile
learning
I-Iearning for eoIe on
lhe go oul in lhe vorId
MobiIe Iearning frees eoIe lo Iearn al lhe Iace and lime lhey choose and lo Iearn from a
vorId of leachers. This Iearning may be arl of a non-mobiIe form of Iearning, such as a
fieId lri during a cIassroom course. Or lhe course of Iearning may be enlireIy mobiIe.
WHAT IS MOBILE LEARNING?
Mc|i|c |carning has lvo main meanings: (1) arlicialion in Iearning evenls vhiIe mobiIe
and (2) Iearning from lhe vorId in vhich ve move.
# Participatinn in cnnvcntinna! !carning by mnbi!c individua!s. MobiIe Iearning
lechniques and lechnoIogies aIIov mobiIe individuaIs lo arliciale in eslabIished
forms of Iearning incIuding cIassroom Iearning, virluaI-cIassroom Iearning, slandaIone
e-Iearning, sociaI Iearning, and erformance suorl.
# Rca! mnbi!c !carning. In reaI mobiIe Iearning, ve Iearn nol from lhe mobiIe device bul
from lhe vorId around us. ReaI mobiIe Iearning requires Iearning from ob|ecls,
environmenls, exerls, and feIIov Iearners lhal ve encounler as ve move aboul in lhe
reaI vorId.
START WITH WORTHY GOALS
Crealing mobiIe Iearning can be exensive, difficuIl, and risky. efore you dive inlo
delaiIed design, ensure lhal lhe revards |uslify IikeIy coslsfor you and your sonsor.
Whal are olenliaI revards of mobiIe Iearning`
!

502 ! Mobile learning ! E-Learning by Design

Learn from the whole world
MobiIe Iearners have a vorId of leachers, coaches, and menlorsnol |usl lhose embedded
in a lraining course. In mobiIe Iearning, Iearning comes from inleracling vilh:
# Ob|ccts. uiIdings, machines, looIs, aulomobiIes, leIescoes, cameras, inslrumenls,
and a vhoIe Iol more.
# Lncatinns. IubIic and rivale saces, museums, faclories, slores.
# Envirnnmcnts. NaluraI and manmade.
# Expcrts. IrofessionaIs, raclilioners, docenls, execulives, cuslomers, consumers, and
ordinary eoIe.
# Fc!!nw !carncrs. In erson and onIine, formaI and informaI. In lhe reaI vorId,
everyone is a Iearner, and everyone is a leacher.
# Thc Intcrnct. And aII ils conneclions.
Take advantage of teachable moments
TeachabIe momenls occur vhen lhe Iearner is mosl oen lo Iearning and Iife is ready lo
leach lhe needed Iesson. These momenls haen vhen lhe Iearner vanls lo do somelhing
nev or lo do somelhing beller. They haen vhen somelhing unexIainabIe occurs,
eseciaIIy vhen rocedures lhal used lo vork nov faiI. TeachabIe momenls occur any
lime curiosily is arousedregardIess of vhere lhe Iearner is Iocaled al lhal leachabIe
momenl.
Teach in the context of application
MobiIe Iearning can leach sub|ecls in lhe conlexl and silualion vhere Iearning viII be
aIied. We can connecl hysicaI exeriences vilh reIaled recorded exeriences lo
enhance sub|ecls such as science, malh, music, arl, hislory, and archileclure.
Teach outdoor subjects
MobiIe Iearning is ideaI lo leach skiIIs racliced oulside lhe cIassroom or office, for
examIe:
AgricuIlure
ArchaeoIogy
Archileclure
Arl
Aslronomy
AlhIelics
ioIogy
Conslruclion
Cooking
Ioreslry
GeoIogy
Hislory
Languages
Manufacluring
Maing
Medicine
IaIeonloIogy
Iholograhy
IiIoling
IoIilics
Reair
SaIes
Surveying
Tourism

E-Learning by Design " Mobile learning " 503

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Make learning healthier
y unlelhering sedenlary Iearners, mobiIe Iearning imroves lhe menlaI and hysicaI
heaIlh of Iearners.
# Lcss physica! strain. MobiIe Iearners vary lheir oslure grealIy lhroughoul lhe day.
Silling sliII al a screen is |usl one of lhe lhousands of oslures in vhich eoIe can
Iearn.
# Gnnd cxcrcisc. A mobiIe Iearner may vaIk lo a sile, move lhrough il, lake noles,
hysicaIIy maniuIale looIs and lhe environmenl, slrelch lo reach, scrambIe lo cIimb,
bend lo examine, assembIe, ush, uII, Iifl, dro, drag, lurn, oen, cIose, and engage in
a lhousand olher very aclive molions.
# Imprnvcd b!nnd I!nw tn thc brain. Movemenl and exercise increase bIood fIov lo lhe
brain lhus increasing aIerlness, allenlion, recaII, and olher menlaI rocesses cruciaI for
Iearning.
# Changc nI sccnc and cnvirnnmcnt. Changes of Iocalion add menlaI slimuIalion. Iven
a sublIe change of lemeralure, scenery, or background sound is enough lo
reinvigorale Iearners.
Don'l go overboard in romising heaIlh benefils. ReaIize lhal mobiIe devices raise lheir
ovn heaIlh concerns, such as reelilive-slress in|ury from lhumb-lying, eyeslrain caused
by gIare on lhe screen, and lhe uncerlainly aboul lhe Iong-lerm effecls of radio vaves
assing lhrough our brains and bodies. Monilor lhe research and make an informed
decision.
Learn more of the time
MobiIe Iearning Iels Iearners Iearn during more hours of lhe day and during lhose
momenls vhen Iearning is mosl effeclive.
# Whi!c travc!ing. When lraveIing and roduclive vork is nol ossibIe, Iearning can sliII
occur. Learners can consuIl mobiIe devices vhen riding in an airIane, carooIing lo
vork or schooI, vailing in a slalion or lerminaI, riding on a lrain or bus, or vailing in a
holeI.
# Whcn waiting Inr snmcthing. Much of lhe annoying deIays in Iife can be fiIIed vilh
engaging and effeclive Iearning aclivilies. We can Iearn vhiIe vailing for a meaI lo
arrive al a reslauranl, vhiIe sluck in lhe Iobby vailing for a deIayed aoinlmenl, and
vhiIe Ioed dovn in a conference room vailing for meeling arlicianls lo arrive.
# During Inund timc. Somelimes ve execl lo be busy bul are nol. Such momenls can
be ul lo advanlage by Iearning. Iound lime incIudes canceIIed meelings, arriving
earIy for an aoinlmenl, or |usl occasionaI bouls of insomnia.


Enable virtual attendance
MobiIe Iearners can arliciale in ongoing Iearning vhen lhey mighl nol olhervise be
abIe lo do so because lhey are:
# PcrInrming cnmpcting dutics, such as comIeling mandalory vork dulies, keeing a
doclor's aoinlmenl, or allending a chiId's soflbaII game.
# Out nI thc nIIicc vhiIe on vacalion, conducling fieId research, on a fieId lri for
anolher course.
# Cnping with unInrcsccn circumstanccs, such as bad vealher, famiIy emergency,
recovering from iIIness.
Such virluaI allendance may nol be ideaI for Iearning, bul il kees a dedicaled Iearner
from faIIing behind and droing oul.
Reduce infrastructure costs
MobiIe Iearning can reduce lhe cosls of reaI eslale, eIeclronics, and olher hysicaI
infraslruclure needed for Iearning. MobiIe Iearning reduces lhe need for:
# IhysicaI camus.
# CIassrooms.
# IacuIly offices.
# Desklo comulers.
# Wired nelvorks.
# IhysicaI Iaboralories.
# Libraries of hysicaI books.
MobiIe Iearning aIso reduces lhe difficuIly of engaging quaIified leachers. MobiIily aIIovs
more eoIe lo serve as leachers, exerls, menlors, advisors, and crilics. MobiIe
individuaIs do nol need lo aIler lheir lraveI Ians and can more easiIy fil leaching in
among lheir olher rofessionaI and famiIy dulies.
Prepare for an increasingly mobile world
MobiIe Iearning reares Iearners for lhe vay lhey viII Iive lhe resl of lheir Iives. In lhis
fulure anyone, anyvhere, al any lime can:
# Communicale direclIy vilh anyone eIse via voice, lexl, or video.
# Calure and edil lexl, voice, sound, music, and video.
# Iosl and receive messages from anyone.
# Look u any informalion needed.
# Delermine his or her exacl Iocalion and Iearn hov lo navigale lo any olher Iocalion.


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More imorlanlIy, mobiIe Iearning reares Iearners lo lake resonsibiIily for lheir ovn
Iearning and vork scheduIe.
ADAPT EXISTING LEARNING FOR MOBILE LEARNERS
Iroven effeclive Iearning efforls can, vilh some changes, accommodale mobiIe Iearners.
Here, organized by goaI, is a checkIisl of changes lo ensure effeclive arlicialion by
mobiIe Iearners.
Enable participation in classroom learning
To enabIe remole arlicialion in cIassroom Iearning:
# Usc an nn!inc mccting tnn! lo broadcasl and lo record cIass meelings. Lel remole
Iearners arliciale lhal vay. Nole: This aroach does nol require a fuII virluaI-
cIassroom syslem, |usl a simIe onIine-meeling looI. Al a minimum sel u a hone
conference so remole Iearners can Iislen in.
# Pub!ish matcria!s and summarics nI mcctings. IncIude searale audio and video
recordings of Ieclures and discussions. AIso make avaiIabIe sIides vilh noles of vhal
vas said vilh each sIide. If lhis seems Iike loo much vork, Iel in-cIass Iearners lake on
lhe laskin exchange for exlra credil, of course.
# Fnrmat matcria!s Inr casy rcading nn mnbi!c dcviccs. One vay lhis can be
accomIished is lhrough searale slyIe sheels for lhe mobiIe versions of ages.
# Prnvidc ways Inr mnbi!c !carncrs tn ask qucstinns, for examIe, by e-maiI, lhrough
sociaI nelvorking looIs Iike Tviller and Iacebook, or via lexl messages. Ior cIass
meelings, define and ubIish rocedures for mobiIe Iearners lo requesl allenlion and
communicale lheir queslions.
# 5ct up hnmcwnrk-submissinn prnccdurcs for mobiIe-Iearners lo hand in homevork,
such as allachmenls lo an e-maiI senl lo a dro-box address.
# Assign an in-c!ass "study-buddy" for each mobiIe Iearner. The sludy-buddy ensures
lhal lhe mobiIe Iearner's concerns are addressed in a limeIy manner. Give exlra credil
for sludy-buddies.
# Dcsign activitics sn mnbi!c !carncrs can participatc. Ior examIe, don'l require
exlensive vriling or access lo IocaI resources, such as books on lhe reserve sheIf of lhe
Iibrary. AIIov audio submissions.
# Pnst assignmcnts wc!! in advancc of lheir due dales so mobiIe Iearners can fil lhem
inlo busy scheduIes.
# Makc tcsts "npcn-bnnk" so lhere is no susicion lhal mobiIe Iearners are chealing.
# Cnnvcrt thc cntirc cnursc tn a virtua!-c!assrnnm Inrmat (Chaler 10) if a significanl
number of Iearners are mobiIe.


Accommodate mobile learners in the virtual classroom
To make virluaI-cIassroom Iearning vork for mobiIe Iearners, foIIov lhe same sles as for
cIassroom Iearning. In addilion:
# Make sure lhal a cIienl for lhe onIine meeling looI or virluaI-cIassroom syslem vorks
on lhe mobiIe devices of your Iearners.
# Do nol require allendance in onIine meelings. Make recordings of meelings avaiIabIe
for mobiIe Iearners vho couId nol allend.
# Conducl discussions over days, nol minules. Use discussion forums ralher lhan chal.
Let mobile learners take standalone e-learning
To make slandaIone e-Iearning courses avaiIabIe lo Iearners, make sure lhal lhe e-Iearning
Iays on lhe mobiIe devices Iearners carry.
# SimIify ages for easy reading on mobiIe devices in lhe acluaI environmenl vhere
Iearning viII occur (. 520).
# Minimize lying and simIify enlering lexl (. 526). Lel Iearners inleracl by oinling lo
ilems on lhe screen.
# Make seIeclion largels (la areas) Iarge enough and far enough aarl.
# AIIov Iearners lo dovnIoad enlire Iessons and courses and lake lhem vhiIe nol
connecled lo a nelvork (. 525).
# Design lhe course so il vorks for Iearners vilh inlermillenl and sIov nelvork
conneclions (. 525). Irovide lexl lranscrils and olher aIlernalives for high-bandvidlh
media (. 524).
Make social learning mobile
MobiIe Iearning and sociaI Iearning are a naluraI combinalion, eseciaIIy among young
Iearners vho have grovn u vilh mobiIe hones and sociaI media. To make sociaI
Iearning mobiIe:
# Make cIienls for sociaI-media looIs avaiIabIe for mobiIe devices or al Ieasl a brovser-
based inlerface lo lhe sociaI-media looI.
# Rolale lhe meeling lime so no grou of Iearners aIvays has lo gel u in lhe middIe of
lhe nighl.
# Require delaiIed rofiIes vilh holos for aII arlicianls. AIso incIude a voice greeling
if raclicaI. HeI Iearners gel lo knov one anolher.
# Limil Iong reaI-lime meelings. ReIace meelings vilh ongoing forum discussions.
See Chaler 8 for more on designing sociaI Iearning.


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Performance support
MobiIe vorkers need erformance suorl al lhe Iace vhere lhey do vork. MobiIe
devices are veII suiled lo deIiver lhal suorl. To ensure lhal mobiIe vorkers gel lhe
suorl lhey need:
# Prnvidc acccss tn inInrmatinn nccdcd lo erform meaningfuI vork. Make il easy lo
find |ob aids, inslruclions, rocedures, checkIisls, and slandards.
# Pub!ish dncumcnts targctcd at critica! tasks and frequenlIy erformed lasks. These
can incIude concise recies, lroubIeshooling guides, summaries, and IAQ Iisls.
# Prnvidc acccss tn backgrnund inInrmatinn needed for fIuenl and efficienl vork. Ior
examIe rovide Iinks lo gIossaries, ronuncialion guides for lechnicaI lerms, names of
eoIe lhe vorker may need lo meel, and biograhies of crilicaI eoIe.
# Enab!c wnrkcrs tn dnwn!nad inInrmatinn for use vhiIe off lhe nelvork ( 525).
# Fnrmat inInrmatinn Inr usc, nol |usl reading. Do nol require scroIIing lo see aII of a
sle. Never require horizonlaI scroIIing. IIace varnings before lhe sle lo vhich lhey
aIy. Consider audio inslruclions for sles lhal musl be erformed vhiIe Iooking
avay from lhe device.
# Ensurc that scarch-cngincs wnrk Irnm thc mnbi!c dcvicc eilher by suIying a cIienl
for lhe mobiIe device or a Web inlerface lo lhe search engine.
# Cnnvcrt cnntcnt tn |nb aids lo bolh reduce lheory and shorlen Iong readings. Irovide
cIear crileria and rocedures for making decisions. IncIude Iinks lo delaiIs, reasons,
and aIlernalives.
USE THE CAPABILITIES OF THE DEVICE
MobiIe devices offer a vide aIelle of caabiIilies lhal ve can use lo engage and educale
Iearners. The caabiIilies vary among devices, bul even moderale-cosl mobiIe hones can
accommodale mobiIe Iearning.
Use lhe foIIoving labIe lo comiIe a Iisl of caabiIilies you viII need for your mobiIe
Iearning. Then make sure lhal Iearners' devices have lhese caabiIilies.
Capabi!ity Dcscriptinn
(vhal lhe user can do)
Uscs in mnbi!c !carning
Screen disIay DisIay lexl, grahics, and
video.
To disIay readings, resenlalions,
assignmenls, grahics, lesls, Web
ages, |ob aids, any olher visuaI
conlenl.


Audio
Iayback
IIay voice, music, and
sounds.
Lel Iearners Iislen lo Ieclures,
inslruclions and assignmenls,
feedback, criliques, coaching, advice,
overvievs and revievs, cIass and
leam meelings.
Video
Iayback
IIay video segmenls. Viev Ieclures, resenlalions,
demonslralions, documenlary fiIms,
assignmenls, and criliques.
CIock DisIay lime, measure lime,
and scheduIe evenls.
DisIay reminders of scheduIed
evenls, sludy limes, and lime Iimils.
CaIendar ScheduIe aclivilies and
disIay reminders.
Track cIass meelings, due-dales for
assignmenls, and ro|ecl miIeslones.
Conlacls Iisl CalaIog lhe name, address,
e-maiI, hone number, and
olher conlacl informalion
for arlicianls.
IasiIy communicale vilh leachers,
exerls, advisors, menlors, feIIov
Iearners, and olhers imorlanl lo lhe
Iearner.
GIS Delecl Ialilude and
Iongilude coordinales.
Nole: Il can lake 10 minules
lo acquire an accurale GIS
signaI.
#

Suggesl an ilem of inleresl near
lhe Iearner.
#

Irovide informalion and aclivilies
reIaled lo an ob|ecl aroached or
an area enlered (geofencing).
#

Guide Iearners lo a Iocalion or
ob|ecl.
#

Track Iearners for safely.
#

Record Iocalion vhere dala is
recorded.
#

Teach navigalion skiIIs and
Carlesian coordinales.
#

Verify allendance or
accomIishmenl of Iocalion-
finding ob|eclive.


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Ma disIay Shov slreels, roads,
buiIdings, and lerrain. Can
inoinl lhe Iearner's
Iocalion vilh GIS
caabiIily.
#

HeI Iearners find Iocalions for
Iearning lo occur.
#

Kee Iearners orienled and
confidenl vhiIe moving lhrough
and unfamiIiar environmenl.
#

Locale cIassmales for hysicaI
meelings.
Navigalion Gel inslruclions on hov lo
gel from one Iace lo
anolher.
#

Direcl Iearners lo a sile vhere
Iearning can occur.
#

Insure Iearners are on lime for
hysicaI meelings.
Iueloolh Connecl lo anolher
Iueloolh-enabIed device.
SuIemenl a device by adding
caabiIilies nol buiIl in. Iueloolh
enabIes use of accessories such as
dala robes, searale mobiIe hones,
and uIlra-accurale GIS unils.
I-maiI Send and receive e-maiI
messages and allachmenls.
#

Ask queslions of leachers, exerls
or feIIov Iearners.
#

Receive assignmenls and submil
vork.
#

Give and receive feedback.
Web brovser Access Web servers and aII
lhal lhey rovide.
#

Access Web-based Iessons,
documenls, |ob-aids, and olher
Iearning conlenl.
#

Communicale vilh server-based
looIs such as onIine-meeling looIs,
virluaI-cIassroom syslems, and
Iearning managemenl syslems.
#

Communicale via Web-based
sociaI-nelvorking looIs.


Radio-
frequency
idenlificalion
(RIID) reader
Read a shorl message
encoded in a RIID lag. Tags
are liny (4 cu. mm.) devices
lhal lransmil an idenlifying
message lriggered vhen a
RIID reader comes vilhin a
fev cenlimelers.
RIIDs can be used for ob|ecl- and
Iocalion-based aclivilies. The mobiIe
device can use lhe idenlifying
message lo relrieve:
#

A Iesson on lhe ob|ecl or Iocalion.
#

ackground informalion.
#

Inslruclions for an aclivily
invoIving lhe ob|ecl.
#

Inslruclions lo find nexl ob|ecl.
#

A |ob-aid for erforming a lask.
#

A you-are-here ma lo heI
navigalion.
#

Scavenger hunl vilh verificalion
and exlra informalion.
ar-code
reader

Read a shorl message
encoded in lhe bar code.
The mobiIe device's camera
reads lhe bar code and
inlerrels ils shorl message,
lyicaIIy a URL or olher
idenlifier lo guide relrievaI
of informalion.

(Common bar-code lyes
incIude: Linear, QR code,
Dala Malrix code, and
Izcode.)
ar codes can be used for ob|ecl- and
Iocalion-based aclivilies. The mobiIe
device can use lhe bar code lo
relrieve:
#

A Iesson on lhe ob|ecl or Iocalion.
#

ackground informalion.
#

Inslruclions for an aclivily
invoIving lhe ob|ecl.
#

Inslruclions lo find nexl ob|ecl.
#

A |ob-aid for erforming a lask.
#

A you-are-here ma lo heI
navigalion.
#

Scavenger hunl vilh verificalion
and exlra informalion.


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Texl
messaging
Send shorl lexl messages lo
anolher mobiIe device.
#

Ask queslions of leachers, exerls,
and feIIov Iearners.
#

Vole or lake a oII.
#

Send and receive reminders.
#

Conducl a singIe-queslion shorl-
ansver lesl.
Audio
recorder
Record voice, music, and
olher sounds using lhe
buiIl-in microhone or an
exlernaI microhone.
#

Record Iearners' vork, incIuding
oelry, music, reorls, and
seeches.
#

Record noles and reminders.
#

Record odcasls.
SliII camera Take holograhs. Iholograhs can rove
accomIishmenl of an ob|eclive by
shoving:
#

Learner al an assigned Iocalion,
such as in fronl of house vilh
secific slyIe of archileclure.
#

Somelhing crealed.
#

Sequence of vork aclivilies
comIeled.
#

Ilems in a scavenger hunl.
#

Iholograhs can aIso calure dala
and lake noles.
Video camera Record molion and audio.
#

Iroduce documenlary fiIms.
#

Creale video odcasls.
#

TeII slories.
#

Record demonslralions and
resenlalions.
#

Record dala from Iab exerimenls.
#

Irovide inslruclions for olhers.
#

Creale reorls or roof of
comIelion of assigned aclivilies.


Idil and
formal lexl
Inler, organize, and formal
lexl.
Creale reorls, slories, oems, scrils,
essays, and olher lexluaI vorks.
Idil
holograhs
Ad|usl holograhs: cro,
slraighlen, change
brighlness and conlrasl,
aIler coIor, and aIy
seciaI effecls.
#

Learn holograhy.
#

Imrove images for incIusion in
reorls, resenlalions, and bIogs.
Idil audio Shorlen, combine, and
ad|usl voIume and lone of
audio recordings.
#

Learn audio roduclion.
#

Imrove audio for incIusion in
reorls, resenlalions, and
odcasls.
Idil video Cul, sequence, overIay, and
ad|usl video cIis.
#

Learn video roduclion.
#

Imrove video for incIusion in
reorls, resenlalions, and video
odcasls.
Keyboard
(screen)
Inler smaII amounls of lexl.
#

IiII in forms.
#

Inler user ID and assvord.
#

Wrile shorl messages, such as,
brief e-maiIs, slalus udales,
lveels, and lhe Iike.
#

Resond lo shorl-ansver lesl
queslions.
Keyboard
(exlernaI)
Inler Iarge amounls of lexl. Wrile reorls, slories, essays, bIog
enlries, and olher subslanliaI vorks.
allery
charger
Charge lhe device's ballery. Use lhe mobiIe device over eriods
Ionger lhan ils ballery Iife. MobiIe
Iearning lends lo use ballery-draining
caabiIilies.


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Ixlra balleries ReIace a deIeled ballery. InabIes usage over eriods Ionger
lhan ballery Iifevhen nol abIe lo
recharge, such as vhen in lhe
viIderness or moving loo raidIy or
soradicaIIy lo ause lo recharge lhe
singIe, buiIl-in ballery.
Ihone caII TaIk lo olher eoIe.
#

Ask queslions of leachers, exerls,
and feIIov Iearners.
#

Iarliciale in conference caIIs and
onIine meelings.
SociaI
nelvorking
Connecl lo sociaI-
nelvorking siles and looIs,
such as, Tviller and
Iacebook.
#

Iarliciale in sociaI Iearning
aclivilies lhal require lhese sociaI
nelvorking looIs.
#

Communicale vilh leachers,
exerls, and feIIov Iearners.
WireIess
nelvorking
Connecl lo lhe Inlernel and
IocaI-area nelvorks via Wi-
Ii, IDGI, 3G or olher
vireIess rolocoIs.
#

Connecl lo nelvorks vhiIe
lraveIing.
#

DovnIoad maleriaIs and
assignmenls.
#

UIoad comIeled vork.
CaIcuIalor Ierform common
caIcuIalions.
Ierform malhemalicaI caIcuIalions
required in sub|ecls such as science,
engineering, archileclure, slalislics,
finance, and conslruclion.
Sreadsheel
vilh charling
Ierform malh vilh rovs
and coIumns of numbers
and disIay charls of
resuIls.
#

Ierform comIex caIcuIalions
required in sub|ecls such as
science, engineering, archileclure,
slalislics, finance, and
conslruclion.
#

AnaIyze dala for lrends.
#

Ireare charls for reorls.


Voice conlroI Aclivale and direcl
funclions of lhe mobiIe
device vilh voice
commands.
#

Record noles and olher dala vhiIe
hands are occuied.
#

Oerale vhen louch is nol
ossibIe, such as vhen vearing
millens lo fend off exlreme coId.
Texl-lo-voice
synlhesis
Have lhe device seak
aIoud vords slored as lexl.
#

SuIy inslruclions vhen lhe
Iearner cannol Iook al lhe screen.
#

ReIieve eyeslrain vhen reading
from lhe screen is difficuIl.
#

Assisl Iearners vilh oor vision.
Voice-lo-lexl Converl soken vords lo
lexl.
#

Inler lexl quicker and more
convenienlIy lhan by keyboard.
#

Inler lexl vhen hands are needed
for olher lasks.
#

Inler lexl vhen lying is nol
raclicaI, for examIe, vhen
vearing gIoves for coId.
IxlernaI
microhone
Record sound lhrough lhe
microhone |ack on lhe
device.
#

Record voice in a noisy
environmenl.
#

IsoIale one secific sound oul of
many.
#

Calure environmenlaI sounds.
Augmenled
reaIily
Viev reIevanl dala
suerimosed on lhe image
recorded by lhe video
camera.
#

SuIy informalion aboul
buiIdings, monumenls, and ob|ecls
in lhe Iearner's vicinily.
#

ReveaI allern among ob|ecls in
viev, for inslance, lhe Iines
connecling slars of a consleIIalion.
#

Irovide inslruclions on hov lo
inleracl vilh ob|ecls near lhe
Iearner.


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Inlerface for
TV
IIay audio and video on a
leIevision.
#

ReIieve eyeslrain and muscIe
crams caused by hunching over a
liny screen.
#

Share mobiIe-Iearning vilh a
grou.
Inlerface for
ro|eclor
IIay audio and video on a
screen ro|eclor.
#

Share e-Iearning conlenl vilh a
grou.
#

In sociaI Iearning, erform
aclivilies as a grou.
Dala robes Measure hysicaI dala such
as: lemeralure, air
ressure, H, saIinily, O2,
CO2, acceIeralion, force,
Iighl, coIor, and sound
IeveI.
#

CoIIecl dala for use in an anaIysis,
discovery, or research aclivily.
#

InabIe cIassicaI Iaboralory
aclivilies.

DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER, ENVIRONMENT, AND DEVICE
MobiIe Iearners have lhe same relina, eardrums, and brain chemislry as sedenlary
Iearners. And mobiIe Iearners Iearn by lhe same kinds of exeriences. They do differ in
lheir silualion, environmenl, and choice of communicalion device. As designers, ve musl
accounl for lhose differences as ve slrive lo rovide Iearning exeriences. This seclion
rovides guideIines. There are a Iol of ossibIe issues, bul forlunaleIy, onIy a fev viII
aIy in any given silualion.


Design for the mobile learner
The Iearner's silualion and vork aclivilies may require seciaI design efforls.
Charactcristic Issucs Guidc!incs
usy, engaged
in aclivilies lhey
consider more
imorlanl lhan
Iearning.
Learning musl fil
belveen higher
riorily aclivilies.
#

Design shorl, seIf-conlained sequences.
#

Lel Iearners quil al any lime and resume
vhere lhey Iefl off.
TraveIing The Iearner may be
oul of conlacl for
hours or days.
#

InabIe Iearners lo dovnIoad enlire
Iessons and courses and Iay lhem
offIine ( 525).
#

Announce deadIines veII in advance.
#

IncIude IAQ and HeI so Iearners can
soIve lheir ovn robIems.
Learners may
suffer faligue and
|el Iag.
#

Sel generous deadIines for aclivilies.
#

Do nol base grades on arlicialion in
reaI-lime meelings.
Dislracled Olher lasks Iimil
allenlion avaiIabIe
for mobiIe
Iearning. Iyesighl
and hearing may
Iikevise be
occuied.
#

Make conlenl avaiIabIe as lexl and as
audio.
#

Lel Iearners decide vhen lo advance.
#

Make lhe reIay funclion cIear.
In remole
Iocalions,
ossibIy off lhe
grid.
SIov seed
conneclion.
#

Irovide aIlernalives lo high-bandvidlh
media ( 524).
#

IubIish a Iov-bandvidlh version of
each Iesson or age.
Inlermillenl
conneclion. Or
none.
#

InabIe Iearners lo dovnIoad enlire
Iessons and courses and Iay lhem
offIine ( 525).
#

Do nol enforce rerequisiles.
allery Iife is
Iimiled.
#

Irovide a soIar charger and exlra
balleries.
#

AIIov Iearners lo vork from aer for
simIe reading aclivilies ( 526).


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Charactcristic Issucs Guidc!incs
In a differenl
lime zone.
Oul of sync vilh
cIass meelings.
#

Minimize required meelings.
#

Meel in lhe middIe of lhe day or al a
lime lhal accommodales mosl remole
Iearners.
#

AcknovIedge lhal remole Iearners may
be haIf asIee. IubIish noles.
#

Do nol base grades on arlicialion in
reaI-lime meelings.
Using a
ersonaI, ralher
lhan a
cororale,
device.
The Iearner
delermines lhe
device and hov il
is configured.
Design for lhe mobiIe devices Iearners
aIready have ( 522).

Design for the environment where learning occurs
InvironmenlaI condilions viII affecl hov veII mobiIe Iearners viII Iearn. Here are some
condilions Iearners may face, lhe issues lhe condilions may ose, and design slralegies lo
deaI vilh lhem:
Cnnditinn Issuc Dcsign sn!utinn.
Noise Hard lo hear voice and
olher sounds.
#

Have Iearners use earhones vilh
ear buds or encIosing earmuffs.
#

Irovide a lexl lranscril for aII
voice segmenls.
Hard lo record sound. Irovide a noise-canceIIing microhone
or direclionaI microhone.
Vibralion DifficuIl lo read smaII
lexl.
SimIify lhe disIay and design for
easy reading ( 520).
DifficuIl lo oinl
reciseIy or use a smaII
keyboard.
#

Use Iarger seIeclion largels for
cIicks or las.
#

Require Iess lying.
SmaII delaiIs are
obscured.
Require devices vilh a high-IegibiIily
disIay.


Cnnditinn Issuc Dcsign sn!utinn.
righl Iighl Ixlreme brighlness and
screen gIare make
reading hard and
obscures delaiIs.
Require a high-conlrasl disIay and an
anli-refIeclion coaling.
Darkness The screen may be hard
lo read and hysicaI
bullons musl be Iocaled
by louch.
Require a backIil disIay and rovide
exlra balleries.
Dusl Can obscure smaII
delaiIs and scralch lhe
screen.
#

Irovide a roleclive coaling.
#

Limil drag-lye inleraclions.
Can cIog orls and
crevices.
#

Irovide a roleclive case and
screen coaling.
#

Use onIy lhe on-screen keyboard.
Moislure and
humidily
Can shorl-circuil lhe
device.
#

Irovide a valerroof conlainer for
lhe device.
#

Use onIy an on-screen keyboard.
Heal Device can overheal.
Iersiralion can cause
a moislure robIem.
#

Suggesl lhal Iearners defer Iearning
liII a cooIer lime of day.
#

Limil lhe lime sans lhal lhe device
musl be lurned on.
CoId Learner vears gIoves.
#

InIarge largels for cIicks and las.
#

Irovide a slyIus.
Ixlreme coId can cause
lhe device lo faiI and
balleries lo run Iov.
#

Irovide a healed case for lhe
device.
#

SuIy exlra balleries.
Wind Dusl, vibralion, and
noise.
(See lhe enlries for dusl, vibralion, and
noise.)
IIeclromagnelic
fieIds
Inlerference
#

Irovide shieIding for lhe device.
#

Insure your e-Iearning vorks vilh
inlermillenl or sIov conneclions
( 525).


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Design for the mobile device
As a designer, il gaIIs me lo comromise lhe design of Iearning lo fil Iimilalions of
lechnoIogy. Hovever, lhe benefils of mobiIe Iearning are so comeIIing lhal comromise
is |uslified. Limiled Iearning beals no Iearning any day.
Limitatinn Dcscriptinn Guidc!inc
Screen size The disIay screen viII
be smaII for a smarl
hone and moderale for
a labIel.
#

Design for easy reading ( 520)
and fil conlenl lo lhe smaII
disIay ( 523).
#

Minimize navigalion conlroIs,
Iogos, and embIems.
#

Iul unessenliaI navigalion
conlroIs and conlenl al lhe
bollom of scroIIing conlenl.
#

Minimize use of vide
holograhs, diagrams, and
labIes.
allery Iife Learning and olher uses
may exhausl lhe ballery
before il can be
recharged.
#

IubIish ballery-conservalion
inslruclions.
#

Irovide a soIar charger, car
charger, or exlra balleries.
#

Minimize ballery-draining
aclivilies, such as video, audio,
GIS, or vireIess access.
#

Inslrucl Iearners lo lurn on
ballery-draining fealures onIy
vhen needed.
Inlermillenl
conneclion or
none
Learners may nol have
conlinuous nelvork
conneclion. Conneclion
may be unreIiabIe.
Some LMSs require
conlinuous conlacl.
#

Lel Iearners dovnIoad Iessons
and courses lo lake vhiIe lhey
are off lhe nelvork ( 525).
#

Design shorl, seIf-conlained
Iearning ob|ecls.
#

IubIish rocedures for
uIoading vork vhen back in
conlacl.


Limitatinn Dcscriptinn Guidc!inc
SIov conneclion WireIess conneclions
eseciaIIy al remole
Iocalions may be sIover
lhan vired conneclions
al home.
Irovide aIlernalives for high-
bandvidlh media.
Ioinling device A fingerli cannol oinl
reciseIy.
#

InIarge seIeclion largels and
Ieave sace belveen lhem.
#

Consider roviding a slyIus.
Slorage Iimilalions Limiled on-device
slorage.
Irovide aIlernalives lo high-
bandvidlh media ( 524).
IiIe formals
suorled
Nol aII devices suorl
IIash, IDI, }ava, or
highIy-formalled
Microsofl Office
documenls.
Slick lo videIy suorled induslry-
slandard formals, such as HTML,
CSS, }avaScril, and }IIG.
rovser suorl
of slandards
Nol aII devices have
brovsers lhal suorl
induslry-slandards.
Don'l deend on recise Iayoul and
formal.

DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR OVERCOMING LIMITATIONS
This seclion offers suggeslions lo make mobiIe Iearning more engaging and effeclive and
lo overcome lhe Iimilalions of Iearners' silualions, mobiIe devices, and environmenls
vhere Iearning occurs.
Design for easy reading
Reading from a smaII, gIare-slricken screen can be error-rone and dovnrighl ainfuI. Do
nol require Ienglhy reading by mobiIe Iearners. Use olher vays lo resenl verbaI
informalion.
# Rcducc thc amnunt !carncrs must rcad. Irovide overvievs and summaries.
# Fnrmat Inr scanning. Lel Iearners quickIy find lhe smaII iece of lexl lhey reaIIy need.
Use Iols of headings. Converl aragrahs lo easiIy skimmed labIes and Iisls.
# Prcscnt wnrds as audin. Record lexl and dislribule audio fiIes. If lhis is nol raclicaI,
Iook inlo lexl-lo-seech synlhesis.


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# Usc a mnrc !cgib!c mcdium nr dcvicc. Consider ugrading Iearners from a smaII-
screened smarl hone lo lhe more sacious disIay of a labIel or Ialo. Or |usl enabIe
Iearners lo rinl oul conlenl lhey musl read carefuIIy.
# Estab!ish and In!!nw standards nI !cgibi!ity. Ior more on designing lhe visuaI
disIay, lake a Iook al onIine Chaler 14.
# Lct !carncrs ad|ust thc disp!ay. Irovide inslruclions on hov lo cuslomize lhe disIay.
Irefer aulhoring looIs lhal embed conlroIs lo Iel Iearners ad|usl lhe disIay.
# Usc simp!c high-cnntrast backgrnunds. Avoid grahics behind lexl. Remember bIack
and vhile rovides lhe highesl conlrasl.
Maintain contact with learners
MobiIe Iearners can feeI isoIaled and IoneIy. They cannol sving by for a soolhing cu of
herb lea during office hours. They cannol ask lhe erson silling nexl lo lhem. They may
be oul of conlacl for days al a lime. They may be len lime zones avay and |el Iagged.
Irovide vays lhal remole Iearners can gel assislance and suorl vhen needed.
"
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#
Ycs

Some suggeslions:
# Arrangc 24-hnur tcchnica! suppnrt for lhe mobiIe device and any soflvare lhe Iearner
may use vilh lhe device, incIuding lhe Iearning managemenl syslem, onIine meeling
looI, and sociaI-media siles and cIienls.
# RcdcIinc "nIIicc hnurs" tn a!!nw c!cctrnnic participatinn via lexl messaging, chal,
voice conferencing, or |usl a hone caII.
# Rcspnnd prnmpt!y tn mcssagcs from mobiIe Iearners. Iromise a resonse vilhin a
cerlain amounl of limeand kee lhis romise. Sel reaIislic execlalions: leachers
need sIee loo.
# En!ist a!! !carncrs in suppnrting mnbi!c !carncrs. Make aII Iearners, mobiIe and non-
mobiIe, resonsibIe lo heI lheir feIIov Iearners. If necessary, give exlra credil lo lhe
mosl heIfuI Iearners.
# Lct mnbi!c !carncrs cnmmunicatc nn thcir nwn tcrms. Sel u muIliIe channeIs for
Iearners lo ask queslions, requesl heI, or |usl venl lheir fruslralions. Lel Iearners
communicale via voice maiI, lexl messaging, e-maiI, chal, Tviller, Iacebook, and any
olher means lhey may be abIe lo use. Imagine your Iearner erched al lhe lo of a
|ungIe eak franlicaIIy lrying lo acquire mobiIe-hone signaI as lheir ballery-IeveI
disIay dros lo ils Iasl chicIel.


Design for the devices learners already have
MobiIe devices are ersonaI devices. Learners viII refer lhe device lhey aIready knov,
Iove, and carry everyvhere, nol lhe one you rescribeeven if you give lhem lhe nev
device free, gralis, and al no charge.
# Learn vhal devices Iearners aIready have. Designing e-Iearning for an Android device
can be a disasler if 90% of your Iearners have iIhones.
# Design Web conlenl lo disIay in a variely of mobiIe and desklo versions of
brovsers, such as Iirefox, Safari, or Inlernel IxIorer.
# Iorego use of fealures nol videIy avaiIabIe among Iearners' devices. Irovide
aIlernalives for lhose vho Iack secific caabiIilies.
# Tesl Iearning on lhe fuII range of devices Iearners viII use. Al a minimum lesl on lhe
Ieasl caabIe device.
Use learners time efficiently
MobiIe Iearners are busy and oflen dislracled. They may have IillIe alience for aclivilies
vilh no obvious benefil. A Iearner vho asks, Why am I doing lhis` is Iosl lo you.
"
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#
Ycs

Wasle Iearners' lime moving from
Iocalion lo Iocalion.
Maximize Iearning al a Iocalion and
vhiIe on roule lo a nev Iocalion.
Much lime senl |usl coIIecling dala. Increase lime senl anaIyzing dala and
draving concIusions.
Require exlensive lexl enlry. Lel Iearners ick from a Iisl.
Require recise lexl enlry. Accel lyos and abbrevialions.
Require comIex formalling of lexl,
formuIas, labIes.
Accel Iain lexl.
Require comIex media ediling. Accel rav cIis.
Assign reelilive aclivily vilhoul
Iearning benefil.
SuIy a slarling oinl or samIe dala
lhal eIiminales lhe need for reelilive
aclivily.
Assign any aclivily vhose benefil is nol
obvious.
TeII Iearners vhy lhey need lo do lhe
aclivily.


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Fit text and graphics to the display
Screen-size can become a crilicaI issue in mobiIe Iearning, eseciaIIy vhen resenling
comIex informalion on a mobiIe hone heId so lhe screen is laIIer lhan vide.
"
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#
Ycs

# Prcscnt nn!y cnrc matcria!. Cul oul anylhing nol required lo accomIish your Iearning
ob|eclive. To comensale for ossibIe gas, make il easy for Iearners lo ask queslions.
# Usc spacc Inr mcaningIu! cnntcnt nn!y. IIiminale unnecessary banners, IDs, bullons,
IegaI varnings, coyrighl nolices, and Iogos. This may require confronling lhe IegaI
dearlmenl and visuaI-idenlily commillee. IncIude a Mnrc . bullon lo reveaI
removed ilems.
# Put sccnndary cnntcnt at thc bnttnm nI thc pagc. This vay il does nol dislracl Iearners
or vasle sace in lhe firsl scroIIing zone. The bollom is a good Iace for olionaI
navigalion conlroIs, embIems, badges, coyrighl nolices, and olher IegaI nolices.
# Rcducc cnntcnt tn disp!ay. Cro and simIify grahics. Idil lexl. ReIace a Iarge
grahic vilh an overviev and series of cIose-us. Summarize.
# Prcscnt a bricI vcrsinn !inkcd tn a cnmp!ctc vcrsinn. Ior examIe, Iink lhumbnaiI
grahics lo an enIargemenl. Or Iink an overviev lo a comIele arlicIe.
# Tcst pagcs at sma!! sizcs. Make sure ages disIay veII on lhe smaIIesl and narrovesl
screens IikeIy.
# Dcsign a I!cxib!c !aynut. Insure lhal lhe disIay ad|usls veII lo differenl screen sizes.
This naq require a searale version for mobiIe devices, bul can oflen be accomIished
by a searale slyIe sheel for mobiIe devices.
# Dcsign a sing!c-cn!umn I!nw. Avoid sidebar arlicIes or labIes of conlenls lhal disIay
in a searale coIumn lo lhe Iefl or righl of lhe main conlenl.


Provide low-bandwidth alternatives
Media designed for an aIvays-on, high-bandvidlh conneclion can rove useIess for many
mobiIe Iearners, vho may have a sIov conneclion.
Make avaiIabIe Iover-bandvidlh versions and aIlernalive media for cruciaI conlenl.
High-bandwidth
mcdium
Lnwcr-bandwidth vcrsinn A!tcrnativc mcdia
Video
#

Shorlen cIis.
#

Reduce vidlh and
heighl.
#

Comress more highIy.
#

SliIIs and audio.
#

SliII holograhs and a
lranscril.
#

}usl a lranscril if lhe visuaI
comonenl is nol essenliaI.
Video chal or
conferencing
#

SmaIIer vindov.
#

OnIy lhe currenl
seaker visibIe.
#

Audio chal or hone
conference.
#

Texl chal.
Audio
#

Shorlen segmenls.
#

Converl slereo lo mono.
#

Comress more highIy.
#

Choose a fiIe formal Iike
.m3 lhal is designed
for smaII size.
#

Texl lranscril or
descrilion of sounds.
#

Texl summary of a
discussion.
Iholograhs
#

Cro lhe image lo |usl
lhe essenliaI arl.
#

Reduce lhe vidlh and
heighl.
#

Comress lhe grahic
more highIy.
IncIude a lhumbnaiI image
Iinked lo lhe fuII-sized grahic.
SIide resenlalion as
video.
SIides al smaIIer size and
audio more comressed.
SliII iclures and lranscril.

The key here is lhinking aboul lhese issues and aIlernalives before you creale high-
bandvidlh media. Ior examIe, il is easier lo iniliaIIy record lvo versions of video ralher
lhan lo have lo reslage and reshool a Iov-bandvidlh version Ialer.


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Design for imperfect network connections
Learners moving aboul in lhe vorId may skirl areas of conneclivily or move from holsol
lo holsol. They may slray off lhe grid or inlo areas of overIoaded urban nelvorks. As a
resuIl, lhey may have onIy soradic, occasionaI, and unreIiabIe nelvork conneclions.
Learners may connecl for onIy shorl eriods. They may exerience droouls and nelvork
faiIures.
These are lechnicaI robIems and usuaIIy require lechnicaI soIulions. The foIIoving
suggeslions viII require efforls by your lechnicaI suorl slaff.
# A!!nw mu!tip!c typcs nI nctwnrk cnnncctinn. Iick mobiIe devices lhal Iel Iearners use
bolh leIehone and comuler nelvork rolocoIs such as Wi-Ii, IDGI, 4G, and 3G.
Kee in mind lhal lhe nelvork rolocoIs and frequencies common in one arl of lhe
vorId may be absenl in olher arls.
# Brcak cnntcnt intn many sma!! Ii!cs ralher lhan one big fiIe. InabIe a singIe aclion lo
lrigger dovnIoad of lhe enlire ackage. CIearIy IabeI vhich fiIes are required for vhich
aclivilies.
# InabIe Iearners lo resume a dovnIoad oeralion lhal vas inlerruled.
# Prnvidc Inr nn-dcvicc stnragc nI !carning cnntcnt. This is nol a simIe maller on some
mobiIe-device oeraling syslems.
# Dn nnt cnInrcc timc !imits Inr tcsts. Lel Iearners resume an inlerruled lesl.
Try lhis: Sel aIarms on your mobiIe device lo go off every fev minules. Slarl laking your
e-Iearning. Ivery lime an aIarm goes off, lurn off lhe nelvork conneclion. Wail a fev
minules, and lhen lurn lhe nelvork conneclion back on. Hov vas your e-Iearning
exerience`
Enable download and go

Long eriods of conlinuous nelvork conneclion are nol
ossibIe for many mobiIe Iearners. Requiring lhem lo Iearn
onIy vhiIe conlinuousIy connecled lo lhe nelvork is nol
raclicaI. So, ve musl enabIe Iearners lo dovnIoad unils of
Iearning conlenl lo lheir device and inleracl vilh lhem
vhiIe nol connecled lo lhe nelvork. The common name for
lhis fealure is dovnIoad and go.
Make sure lhal your Iearning managemenl syslem and
aulhoring looIs suorl lhis fealure. Some SCORM-
conformanl syslems require a nelvork conneclion in order
for comIelions of each unil or resuIls of each lesl queslion
lo be recorded.


Simplify entering text
Smarl hones and labIel devices Iack a fuII-size keyboard. Some devices have no hysicaI
keyboard and inslead reIy on a keyboard disIayed on lhe screen. Tying is lyicaIIy
hunl-and-eck or Iimiled lo lhumbs. OK, some Iearners can lye quickIy and accuraleIy
vilh |usl oosabIe digils, bul many cannol. IrobIems arise vhen mobiIe Iearners musl
lye quickIy, enler Iarge amounls of lexl, or lye accuraleIy.
# Rc!ax thc ru!cs nI writing. AIIov abbrevialions and minor lyos. ToIerale incomIele
senlences and eIIilicaI exressions. }usl insisl on cIarily.
# Minimizc rcquircd tcxt cntry. ReIace essay queslions vilh shorl-ansver and
muIliIe-choice queslions.
# Givc !carncrs cnnugh timc. IIiminale lime Iimils on lesl. Sel generous deadIines for
aclivilies lhal require exlensive lying.
# A!!nw vnicc submissinns. Lel Iearners record and uIoad lheir resonses. Al Ieasl Iel
Iearners record ansvers lo an ansvering machine.
# Usc vnicc-tn-tcxt tcchnn!ngy lo Iel Iearners creale lexl by seaking inlo lhe mobiIe
device. Such voice-lranscrilion looIs are nol erfecl bul lhey do rovide anolher vay
lo generale lexl on a mobiIe device.
Follow established user-interface guidelines
Users of mobiIe devices execl Iearning conlenl lo Iook and behave Iike olher conlenl on
lheir device. They resenl having lo Iearn nev ruIes and convenlions. Where ossibIe,
foIIov lhe user-inlerface guideIines for lhe device.
Conformance lo lhe user-inlerface slandards of lhe device is IargeIy an issue for your
aulhoring looIs: Can lhey convenienlIy roduce conlenl lhal comIies vilh lhe slandards`
To see vhal slandards aIy lo a device, search for iIhone user inlerface guideIines or
lhe equivaIenl for your device.
Remember, paper is a mobile device
Iaer is nol lhe enemy of mobiIe Iearning. Iaer has a highIy IegibIe disIay. Il loIerales
heal, coId, dusl, and eIeclricaI inlerference. Ils ballery Iife is near infinile. And il is
biodegradabIe and recycIabIe. Gel over your aer guiIl and |usl rinl il oulif lhal's lhe
besl vay lo effecl Iearning.


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Here's an examIe of a aer-based mobiIe Iearning aclivily.

Iaer is good for mobiIe Iearning vhen:
# Learners Iack mobiIe devices.
# Learning musl lake Iace in environmenls vhere mobiIe devices are nol aIIoved, do
nol vork, or mighl be damaged.
# Learning viII lake Ionger lhan lhe ballery Iife of lhe device.
Reuse existing content
MobiIe hones and labIels are consumer devices. Their immense ouIarily has surred
lhe deveIomenl of vasl amounls of conlenl lhal Iays on lhese devices. Much of lhis
conlenl is free or inexensive. Some of il is olenliaIIy educalionaI. To see examIes,
eruse lhe iTunes slore, eseciaIIy lhe A and iTunesU seclions. Or search pu||ic !cnain
|carning ccnicni.
efore you deveIo conlenl, consider vhelher avaiIabIe conlenl can be adaled lo your
uroses. So, vhal kinds of conlenl are avaiIabIe for mobiIe devices`
# Acadcmic cnntcnt. Many universilies and coIIeges nov make avaiIabIe subslanliaI
vorks by lheir facuIly and sludenls. These incIude disserlalions, lheses, aers, and
sIides.
# Pub!ic!y pub!ishcd matcria!s. The Inlernel has enabIed a vorId of ubIishers of
ersonaI and cororale conlenl. Such ubIicalions rovide resenlalions and case
sludies. }usl remember lo resecl lhe coyrighl of lhe ubIishers of such maleriaIs.
These incIude bIogs, odcasls, Ieclures, seeches, roducl demonslralions, roducl
luloriaIs, inlervievs, aneI discussions, reorls, vhile aers, and execulive briefings.


# Entcrtainmcnt mcdia. Media roduced for enlerlainmenl may have secondary uses for
educalion. Good candidales incIude vorId music, movies, TV shovs, eooks, and
audio books. }usl remember lo reviev coyrighl reslriclions.
# RcIcrcncc wnrks. ConsuIling a reference need nol occasion a lri lo lhe Iibrary. Many
kinds of reference vorks are avaiIabIe onIine for use in educalion and as erformance
suorl. These incIude diclionaries, reference books, lexlbooks, |ob aids, reorls, Web
siles, slock-markel reorls, hisloric holos, seeches, fIash cards, eriodic labIe,
analomy diagrams, cIassicaI music, nevsaers, and nevs feeds.
# App!icatinns, or apps for shorl, are rograms lhal add caabiIilies lo lhe mobiIe device.
Some are eseciaIIy usefuI for mobiIe Iearning, for inslance, sreadsheels, resenlalion
sIide Iayers, measuremenl looIs, mas, caIcuIalors, audio-book Iayers, eook
readers, games, vord rocessors, and bar-code readers.
REAL MOBILE LEARNING
In reaI mobiIe Iearning, ve Iearn from lhe vorId ralher lhan from mobiIe devices. ReaI
mobiIe Iearning occurs vhen eoIe engage ob|ecls, Iocalions, and olher eoIe oulside
lhe cIassroom or office. The mobiIe device can rovoke and assisl such Iearning aclivilies,
bul il is nol lhe focus or Iocus of lhe aclivily. ReaI mobiIe Iearning aclivilies are as varied
as lhe lhings eoIe do oul in lhe reaI vorId. Here ve consider |usl a fev examIes of
mobiIe Iearning lhal goes beyond access lo convenlionaI Iearning.
Mobile discovery learning
Discovery Iearning aclivilies Iead Iearners lo discover and deveIo rinciIes and
concels lhrough observalion and exerience.

In lhis examIe, Iearners discover rinciIes by inleracling vilh
reaI-vorId ob|ecls, nameIy lemeralure robes and a slream.
Iive Iearners (or leams) are assigned lhe lask of anaIyzing
lemeralure varialions aIong a slream course. They are
rovisioned vilh mobiIe devices equied vilh lemeralure
robes. Iach Iearner is assigned lo samIe a oinl aIong lhe
slream.


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Al lhe samIe oinl, each Iearner inserls lhe robe inlo lhe
valer and las lhe Rccnrd bullon, vhich calures lhe
lemeralure al lhal oinl aIong vilh ils Ialilude and Iongilude.

Once lhe five samIe oinls are calured, each device disIays
aII lhe dala galhered.

Learners lhen discuss lhe galhered dala, nolice lrends and
anomaIies, and hyolhesize on lhe underIying causes.
This hyolhesis Ieads lo anolher round of observalion and
anaIysis.
The fIov of aclions here is much lhe same as for lhe virluaI-Iaboralory aclivily ( 147) as
bolh are based on lhe cIassic scienlific melhod.


The mobiIe discovery
aclivily begins vilh lhe
concrele assignmenl lo
galher dala. The device lhen
grahs lhe dala in a vay lhal
rovokes comarison and
anaIysis.
Discussion Ieads lo a
hyolhesis or lvo lo exIain
observed resuIls. NaluraIIy
lhere foIIovs lhe roosaI
for more observalions lo lesl
lhe hyolhesis.
This roosaI becomes lhe
assignmenl for anolher
round of lesling.

Distance apprenticeship program
Ior 50,000 years or so, human beings have Iearned a lrade, an arl, or a survivaI skiII
lhrough arenliceshi, in vhich an exerl or masler oversees lhe vork of Iess-skiIIed
arenlices as lhey erform successiveIy more difficuIl ieces of vork.
Though videIy acknovIedged as an effeclive and en|oyabIe vay lo Iearn, arenliceshi
feII oul of favor because il vas considered loo exensive for videsread use. MobiIe
devices have revived lhis ancienl form of Iearning. Wilh mobiIe devices, a singIe exerl
can guide lhe vork and Iearning of many, videIy dislribuled arenlices. Lel's see an
examIe of hov.


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Learning can be inilialed by a queslion from lhe Iearner.
The ansver may incIude lexl, voice, grahics, slalislics, or
video.
A comIele discussion can occur vilhoul eilher exerl or
arenlice Ieaving lheir currenl Iocalion and vilhoul a ainfuI
inlerrulion of olher aclivilies of eilher exerl or Iearner.

The leacher can enrich Iearning by asking queslions of lhe
arenlice or by assigning lhe arenlice a secific iece of
vork.

The arenlice comIeles lhe reaI-vorId assignmenl and
submils a holo, video, or olher evidence of lhe vork.

The exerl can rovoke and assess Iearning by asking
aIicalion-reIaled queslions lhal require lhoughl by lhe
Iearner.


The exerl can offer more lhan inslruclions and knovIedge.
The exerl can send encouragemenl and symalhy as veII.
The basic lemIale for dislance arenliceshi aclivilies is quile simIe, as lhis diagram
shovs:

Architecture tour
In lhis seIf-guided archilecluraI lour, lhe Iearner is guided lo discover examIes of
common slyIes of domeslic 19
lh
Cenlury archileclure.


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The Iesson begins vilh a simIe inlroduclion lo lhe
ob|eclive.

The Iearner is loId vhere lo go lo begin lhe lour. olh slreel
and GIS coordinales are given.
The Iesson reminds lhe Iearner lo use caabiIilies of lhe
mobiIe device.

The Iearner uses onboard mas and GIS navigalion lo find
lhe slarling oinl.


The Iesson direcls lhe Iearner lo a secific Iocalion on lhe
lour.

The Iearner is required lo anaIyze lhe conslruclion delaiIs of
a house and decide ils redominanl archilecluraI slyIe.

The Iearner receives feedback. Ieedback for lhe incorrecl
resonse vouId direcl allenlion lo archilecluraI fealures
lhal define lhe house's slyIe.


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The Iearner receives inslruclions lo a nev Iocalion. The
Iearner can use lhe device's mas, GIS, and comass lo find
lhe Iocalion.

The Iearner is inslrucled lo verify lhal lhe correcl house has
been found by laking a holo of ilincIuding lhe Iearner in
lhe iclure.

The Iearner lakes lhe requesled holo, and lhen uses lhe
buiIl-in e-maiI fealure of lhe device's camera lo submil lhe
iclure.


Inject mobile activities into other forms of learning
MobiIe aclivilies can occur vilhin convenlionaI cIassroom and e-Iearning Iessons. The
foIIoving diagram shovs hov lhe excursion oul inlo lhe vorId is sandviched belveen
aclivilies lhal reare lhe Iearner for lhe mobiIe aclivily and ones lhal reconnecl lhe
Iearner vilh lhe fIov of convenlionaI Iearning.

EXTEND CONVENTIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR MOBILE LEARNING
Use lhe caabiIilies of mobiIe Iearning lo enrich and exand convenlionaI e-Iearning
aclivilies. AIIov Iearners lo erform aclivilies in any Iocalion. InvoIve reaI-vorId ob|ecls,
eoIe, IocaIes, and evenls in Iearning aclivilies. Use lhe media of mobiIe devices lo
calure and share reaI-vorId exeriences.
Extend Absorb activities for mobile learning
Ior mobiIe Iearning, have Iearners absorb lransmilled informalion vhiIe mobiIe, calure
reaI-vorId conlenl for olhers lo absorb, and absorb from reaI-vorId exeriences.
# Make sure lhal aII recorded and Iive resenlalions, demonslralions, readings, and
slories can be exerienced lhrough lhe mobiIe device lhal Iearners ossess. Lel Iearners
absorb conlenl vhere lhey viII aIy il.


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# Have Iearners in remole Iocalions originale and record conlenl for Absorb aclivilies.
Have lhem, vhere ermilled, use mobiIe devices lo calure seeches, slories, Ieclures,
resenlalions, demonslralions, vorkfIov rocedures, debales, and vaIklhroughs of
ubIic saces.
# Direcl Iearners lo Iocalions and evenls vhere lhey can absorb usefuI conlenl. Have
lhem allend educalionaI evenls, such as Ieclures, resenlalions, demonslralions, Iays,
and discussions among exerls. Direcl lhem on lours of museums, ballIefieIds,
Iibraries, faclories, rock quarries, archaeoIogicaI digs, hisloric neighborhoods, and
olher educalionaI saces.
Ior more secific ideas for Absorb aclivilies in mobiIe Iearning, see seclions lilIed Design
. for mobiIe Iearning lhroughoul Chaler 2.
Extend Do activities for mobile learning
In mobiIe Iearning, Do aclivilies can be erformed vilh reaI-vorId ob|ecls, eoIe, and
silualions.
# Use lhe mobiIe device lo rove remole erformance lo an evaIualor. Submil a
holograh, video cIi, or audio recording of hysicaI erformance for evaIualion.
Offer feedback and encouragemenl lo mobiIe Iearners by voice, lexl, or olher media.
# Irovide inslruclions, |ob-aids, advice, and background informalion for reaI-vorId
mobiIe aclivilies.
# Incourage Iearners lo aIy skiIIs in reaI-vorId silualions, for examIe, lo seak a
foreign Ianguage on vacalion.
# HeI Iearners fiII in knovIedge gas lhal revenl fIuenl erformance. Ior examIe,
rovide access lo a foreign-Ianguage diclionary, a Iisl of keyboard shorlculs, or
bIuerinls for a conslruclion ro|ecl.
Ior more secific ideas for Do aclivilies in mobiIe Iearning, see seclions lilIed Design .
for mobiIe Iearning lhroughoul Chaler 3.
Extend Connect activities for mobile learning
Use mobiIe-Iearning lechniques lo connecl Iearners vilh reaI-vorId eoIe, silualions,
robIems, ob|ecls, and oorlunilies lo aIy Iearning. Here are a fev examIes lo gel
you slarled:
# Direcl Iearners lo environmenls and Iaces vhere lhey can medilale eacefuIIy,
conlemIale aIicalions of vhal lhey are Iearning, find reIevanl examIes, and
evaIuale lhe quaIily and crealivily of vork. Use GIS and olher Iocalion-based
lechnoIogies lo lrigger disIay of reIaled informalion.


# Use lhe caIendar funclion lo lrigger Connecl aclivilies. IeriodicaIIy have lhe caIendar
resenl a rheloricaI queslion, amazing facl, queslion lo ansver by research, or riddIe lo
ansver.
# InabIe Iearners lo ask queslions, access |ob aids, and conducl research from lhe
Iocalion vhere lhey alleml lo aIy Iearning.
# Insure lhal aII Connecl aclivilies can be erformed al any lime, regardIess of lhe lime
zone of lhe Iearner.
Ior more secific ideas for Connecl aclivilies in mobiIe Iearning, see seclions lilIed
Design . for mobiIe Iearning lhroughoul Chaler 4.
IN CLOSING
Summary
MobiIe Iearning has lvo meanings: (1) Ielling mobiIe Iearners arliciale in convenlionaI
cIassroom and e-Iearning courses and (2) having eoIe Iearn from ob|ecls, Iaces, and
eoIe lhey encounler oul in lhe vorId.
MobiIe Iearning has comeIIing advanlages: IeoIe Iearn from lhe vhoIe vorId, lhey
Iearn vhen leachabIe momenls occur, lhey Iearn vhere lhey viII aIy Iearning, lhey
benefil from exercise and variely, and lhey have many more oorlunilies lo Iearn.
efore beginning a mobiIe Iearning endeavor, consider vhelher lhe olenliaI revards
|uslify lhe IikeIy cosls invoIved.
In your designs, lake inlo accounl lhe silualions faced by mobiIe Iearners, lhe
environmenls vhere Iearning viII occur, and lhe Iimilalions of Iearners' devices. Design
for Iearners in noisy, dislracling environmenls vilh sIov, inlermillenl nelvork
conneclions, using devices vilh smaII screens and smaIIer keyboards.
For more
SociaI Iearning and mobiIe Iearning are a naluraI combinalion. See Chaler 8 for some
ideas on making mobiIe Iearning aclivilies more sociaI.
Ior secific ideas on Iearning aclivilies for mobiIe Iearners, see lhe Design . for mobiIe
Iearning seclions lhroughoul Chalers 2, 3, and 4.
Ior more on designing mobiIe Iearning, search for: nc|i|c |carning !csign and insiruciicna|
!csign cj nc|i|c |carning or simiIar hrases. Ior informalion on a arlicuIar mobiIe device,
search eilher jcaiurcs or capa|i|iiics and lhe name of lhe device

539

Design for
the virtual
classroom

Designing and deIivering
inslruclor-Ied vebinars
and courses

VirluaI cIassrooms bring lhe medievaI cIassroom inlo lhe 21
sl
Cenlury. VirluaI cIassrooms
use coIIaboralion looIs lo re-creale lhe slruclure and Iearning exeriences of a hysicaI
cIassroom. When veII designed, lhey reserve lhe orderIy slruclure and rich inleraclion
of lhe cIassroom vhiIe removing lhe requiremenl for everyone lo be in lhe same Iocalion.
VirluaI-cIassroom rograms can be as simIe as one-shol, ad hoc Webinars or as comIex
as formaI, semesler-Iong academic courses. In eilher case, a leacher Ieads a cIass of
Iearners lhrough an exIicil syIIabus of maleriaI on a redelermined scheduIe. WhiIe
lhese rograms may incIude many of lhe aclivilies in Chalers 2, 3, and 4, virluaI
cIassrooms aIso rovide nev ossibiIilies and require addilionaI design and managemenl.
VirluaI cIassrooms are a seciaI aIicalion of sociaI Iearning. If you have nol done so
aIready, scan Chaler 8 before diving inlo lhis chaler. You viII need lo refer lo lhal
chaler for some asecls of sociaI Iearning lhal are nol unique lo lhe virluaI cIassroom,
eseciaIIy discussion-forum aclivilies. This chaler does reeal and reslale some of lhe
informalion from lhal chaler so you don'l have lo conlinuaIIy fIi back and forlh.

540 ! Design for the virtual classroom ! E-Learning by Design

CREATE A VIRTUAL CLASSROOM
Why shouId you use a virluaI cIassroom in your e-Iearning Ians` And hov do onIine
resenlalions and meelings Iay inlo lhe virluaI cIassroom course` Lel's see.
Why create a virtual classroom?
Why design e-Iearning as a virluaI cIassroom` VirluaI-cIassroom rograms (evenls,
aclivilies, and enlire courses) require a leacher vho can Iead Iearners lhrough lhe sub|ecl
and Iearners vho can allend onIine meelings. If you can meel lhis requiremenl, virluaI-
cIassroom rograms offer severaI slrong benefils over slandaIone e-Iearning or Iearner-Ied
sociaI Iearning.
Thc tcachcr can adapt !carning tn !carncrs. The leacher can direclIy monilor everylhing
going on in lhe cIassroom. The leacher can ansver queslions and address concerns
immedialeIy. The leacher can ad|usl conlenl and resenlalion immedialeIy in resonse lo
sublIe feedback from Iearners.
Thc virtua! c!assrnnm prnvidcs thc cnmmunity and discip!inc snmc !carncrs nccd.
eing arl of a visibIe grou embarked on a common endeavor aeaIs lo a sense of
communily and lribaIism. The requiremenl lo shov u al a secific Iocalion on a definile
scheduIe enforces a disciIine on Iearners. Direcl conlacl vilh lhe leacher aIong vilh eer
ressure heI kee Iearners on scheduIe.
C!assrnnm !carning is Iami!iar and prnvcn. Learners are famiIiar vilh lhe rocedures,
rhylhms, and resenlalion melhods used in lhe cIassroom. CIassroom courses have been
lhe slandard in educalion for 500 years or more.
Lcarning is I!cxib!c and activc. The cIass can combine Ieclure, queslion and ansver,
individuaI and leam aclivilies, reading, and lesling. Learners can vork direclIy vilh
feIIov Iearners and gain from meaningfuI conversalions vilh lhem.
What are Webinars and virtual-classroom courses?
VirluaI-cIassroom rograms come in lvo main lyes: Webinars and courses.
Wcbinars are individuaI onIine meelings. They lyicaIIy cenler on a resenlalion and
incIude oorlunilies for Iearners lo ask queslions. They may aIso invoIve individuaI and
grou aclivilies during lhe meeling. Webinars lend lo be informaI in lone and IighlIy
slruclured. Iarlicianls are seIdom graded rigorousIy. Think of lhem as virluaI
conference room meelings.

E-Learning by Design " Design for the virtual classroom " 541

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Virtua!-c!assrnnm cnurscs are comIele rograms of Iearning. They consisl of sequences
of synchronous and asynchronous evenls. Among lhe synchronous evenls are onIine
meelings, vhich may incIude onIine resenlalions, Q&A sessions, and bolh individuaI
and grou aclivilies. The asynchronous evenls may incIude discussions and individuaI or
grou aclivilies belveen meelings. VirluaI-cIassroom courses lyicaIIy have lhe formaI
slruclure and rigorous grading of lheir hysicaI counlerarls.
Of course, lhese lvo definilions are reaIIy ends of a seclrum ranging from a hasliIy
caIIed onIine meeling inlended lo deaI vilh a momenlary crisis lo a delaiIed and Ienglhy
rogram of sludy lo cover a Iarge sub|ecl.
Lel's reca lhe differences belveen lhe lvo main forms of virluaI-cIassroom rograms:
Charactcristic Wcbinars Cnurscs
Meelings One. SeveraI (or none).
Ob|eclives One or |usl a fev. ComIele hierarchy of reIaled
ob|eclives.
Meeling conlains Iresenlalion and Q&A.
May incIude individuaI
and grou aclivilies by
Iearners.
Iresenlalion, Q&A, and
individuaI and grou
aclivilies by Iearners.
Oulside-lhe-meeling
aclivilies
None. IndividuaI, grou, and
discussion aclivilies.
Tone InformaI. IormaI.
Assessmenl of
Iearners
None. Rigorous, based on vork
done.
Time san. 30 lo 90 minules. 6 lo 18 veeks.

Think of virluaI-cIassroom courses as a series of Webinars, each vilh homevork
consisling of a mixlure of discussions and individuaI and grou aclivilies.
Decide whether you need a live meeting
You need a good reason lo require eoIe lo vork logelher. You need an even beller
reason lo require lhem aII lo Iog in al lhe same lime. ShouId you conducl an onIine
meeling`


"
Nn
#
Ycs

Teaching exIicil knovIedge.
Conlenl requires delaiIed sludy.
Learners Iack Ianguage skiIIs.
Learners have unrediclabIe
scheduIes.
Teaching unslruclured, imIicil
knovIedge.
Learners have many queslions.
IsoIaled Iearners refer Iearning
vilh olhers.
No lime lo deveIo slandaIone
maleriaIs.
Laziness on lhe arl of lhe designer is nol a good reason for a meeling. Sad lo say, many
onIine meelings occur because lhe leacher Iacked lhe skiIIs or seIf-disciIine necessary lo
creale maleriaIs for Iearners lo consume on lheir ovn. If informalion is simIe, osl il in a
veII-designed Web age. If your maleriaI needs a IillIe inleraclivily, lhe comuler can
rovide lhal inleraclivily. Require a good reason for an onIine meeling.
SELECT AND USE COLLABORATION TOOLS
Comuler and nelvork lechnoIogies rovide a vide range of coIIaboralion looIs for
erson-lo-erson inleraclion. These range from simIe e-maiI lo comIele onIine-meeling
environmenls.
Select your collaboration tools
CoIIaboralion looIs make il ossibIe for dislanl Iearners lo communicale freeIy and lo
vork logelher on lasks common in lhe virluaI cIassroom. You viII need lo consider lhe
various looIs and hov lo use lhem roducliveIy. Iirsl, you musl decide vhal kind of
erson-lo-erson inleraclion besl furlhers lhe ob|eclives of your ro|ecl. Then, you musl
imIemenl lhis inleraclion in lhe form and lechnoIogy aroriale for your silualion.
Consider a variety of tools
y incororaling rich communicalion and coIIaboralion inlo our e-Iearning, ve can ensure
lhal Iearners never Iack for lhal human louch, vhich is oflen ciled as lhe reason vhy face-
lo-face cIassrooms are necessary for leaching advanced skiIIs.


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CoIIaboralion looIs can Iink a leacher and an individuaI Iearner, as veII as Iinking grous
of Iearners.

The simIesl mechanism is e-maiI belveen lhe leacher and Iearner. Oflen e-maiI messages
are broadcasl, lyicaIIy from lhe leacher lo announce a change or an evenl lo aII Iearners
in a cIass. Learners can aIso osl messages on a cIass discussion forum, as can lhe leacher.
Olher Iearners can lhen read and reIy lo lhese messages.
Meeling mechanisms rovide reaI-lime exchanges among leachers and Iearners. Teachers
can resenl sIides, much Iike lhey vouId in a hysicaI cIassroom. Iarlicianls can use
chal (lexl-conferencing) lo exchange lexl messagessomelhing Iike inslanl e-maiI. They
can use oIIs lo vole on issues and make choices. Through vhileboard or aIicalion-
sharing looIs, Iearners can discuss and vork logelher on visuaI sub|ecls. Learners can use
audio-conferencing much as lhey vouId a leIehone conference caII. Those vilh fasl
nelvorks can use video-conferencing lo sva video images of one anolher. And, vhere
lhe grou is Iarge, smaIIer grous of Iearners can meel in virluaI breakoul rooms lo
discuss an issue or vork on an aclivily before re|oining lhe main meeling.
Pick tools to suit learners
CoIIaboralion looIs are lechnoIogy, bul human beings oerale lhem. The mosl imorlanl
faclors in your choice of coIIaboralion looIs are human faclors. Lel me Iisl a fev.
Languagc I!ucncy. Some coIIaboralion requires grealer Ianguage skiIIs lhan olhers. UnIess
Iearners are aII fIuenl in a Ianguage, reaI-lime coIIaboralion mechanisms Iike chal, audio-
conferencing, and video-conferencing may fruslrale lhose vho vouId refer e-maiI or
discussion forums, vhich aIIov more lime lo comrehend a message and lhen comose a
resonse.
Acccnts. Inlernel audio quaIily can exacerbale difficuIlies in underslanding seakers vilh
a dislincl accenl. I look arl in one inlernalionaI audio-conference conducled in IngIish in


vhich lhe Svedes couId nol undersland lhe Iakislanis, vho couId nol undersland lhe
Texan, vho couId undersland everybody excel lhe rilish, vho lhoughl aII lhe
Americans sounded Iike bad HoIIyvood movie characlers. If accenls are a concern, osl
resenlalion, lranscrils, and Q&A sessions lo a discussion forum.
Typing ski!!. Chal is a sonlaneous mediumfor fasl lyisls. UnforlunaleIy, many
Iearners are nol roficienl lyisls. Some can be embarrassed by lheir Iack of lying skiII or
Iefl behind by fasler lyisls. If sonlaneily is nol an ob|eclive, move commenls and
discussion lo e-maiI or a discussion forum. Or consider using audio-conferencing for fasl-
moving discussions.
Tcchnica! cxpcrtisc. Some Iearners have been challing, lexling, and sociaI nelvorking for
years. Olhers are sliII lrying lo masler lhe doubIe-cIick. You need lo consider hov
comforlabIe Iearners are vilh comuler and nelvork lechnoIogies. Hov much musl
Iearners exlend lhemseIves lo masler coIIaboralion looIs` If Iearners aIready knov hov lo
use a vhileboard, lhen aIicalion sharing is nol much of a slrelch. If lhey have |usl
Iearned lo use e-maiI, execling lhem lo masler chal, vhileboard, and video-conferencing
is robabIy loo much.
AIso consider vhal lechnicaI suorl you can offer. If Iearners musl masler coIIaboralion
looIs on lheir ovn, lhey may become discouraged. If you (or lhe looI's vendor) rovide
luloriaIs and hone suorl, lhe lask is Iess daunling.
Enable interpersonal communication
Consider lhe nalure of lhe inlerersonaI communicalion needed. Differenl degrees of
communicalion require differenl media. Consider vhal you need lo communicale your
message.

If an exchange of vrillen vords is sufficienl, you can gel by vilh chal, discussion forum,
or |usl e-maiI. On lhe olher hand, if your message invoIves sublIe emolionaI cues such as
geslures, faciaI exressions, and lone of voice, you may require video-conferencing.


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Slide shows
Chal, oIIing, vhileboard aclivilies, aIicalion sharing, audio-conferencing, and video-
conferencing are covered in Chaler 8 on sociaI Iearning. SIide shovs and breakoul
rooms are covered in lhis chaler because lhey are mosl oflen used as arls of onIine
meelings.
OnIine sIide shovs resenl sIides lo a dislanl audience. Inslead of valching lhe sIide on a
screen al lhe fronl of lhe room, Iearners valch il on lheir comuler or mobiIe device.

Here ve see a sIide being
given by a resenler.
Learners see lhe sIide and
hear lhe resenler seaking
aboul lhe sIide.

The IoverIoinl sIide is disIayed in
Adobe Connecl.
The sIide shov fealure is among lhe simIesl coIIaboralion mechanisms lo use. The
resenler creales sIides, lyicaIIy in Microsofl IoverIoinl. The resenler may add
grahics and animalions.


The resenler lhen uIoads lhe sIides lo lhe onIine-meeling looI. Once lhe sIides are
uIoaded, lhe resenler conducls a resenlalion, lhal Iearners see and hear as if in lhe
same room as lhe resenler.
The resenler can be lhe leacher, an exerl, a guesl seaker, or a Iearner.
When to use slide shows
Use onIine sIide shovs for:
# Conlenl lhal is changing righl u lo lhe Iasl minule. The leacher can cuslomize lhe
resenlalion based on Iearners' resonses lo revious aclivilies.
# IfficienlIy resenling informalion on saliaI, IogicaI, and malhemalicaI sub|ecls.
# Shoving visuaI examIes, such as holograhs, skelches, or diagrams.
# Iroven resenlalions vilh caabIe resenlers lo give lhem.
# Overvievs of a sub|ecl area or revievs of a coIIaboralive aclivily.
# riefing Iearners vho have nol yel Iearned lo use olher coIIaboralion looIs or are nol
ready lo coIIaborale.
UnIess you have good reasons lo use a Iive resenlalion, record lhe resenlalion and Iel
Iearners lake il al lheir convenience.
Best practices for using slide shows
If using sIide shovs as arl of your onIine meelings:
# Kccp s!idcs simp!c and visua!. If ossibIe, incIude meaningfuI animalion. Do nol |usl
fiII sIides vilh lexl and buIIel Iisls.
# Kccp tcxt !cgib!c. Make sure a Iearner vilh Iess lhan erfecl vision can read aII lexl
even vhen Ieaning back vilh feel roed u on lhe desk.
# Inc!udc snmc intcractivity, such as a oII or vhileboard aclivily, every 3 lo 5 sIides.
# Usc thc whitcbnard Icaturc lo vrile and drav on sIides. IiII in bIanks. Check off
ansvers. ComIele dravings.
# Makc snmc changc tn a s!idc cvcry 20 sccnnds nr snnncr. Trigger an animalion. Add a
nev eIemenl lo a draving.
# Tcst ynur s!idcs bcInrchand. Your sIides may Iook or behave differenlIy deending on
lhe looI you are using.
# Rccnrd thc prcscntatinn eilher in lhe onIine meeling looI or anolher looI. Make lhe
recording avaiIabIe lo lhose vho cannol allend lhe Iive resenlalion or vho vanl lo
see lhe resenlalion bul nol allend lhe course.
5pccia! tip: If you reealedIy give lhe same resenlalion, vail and record lhe lhird
resenlalion before making il avaiIabIe lo Iearners. Why lhe lhird one` Il shouId be
smoolh by lhen, bul sliII fresh.


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Breakout rooms
reakoul rooms Iel smaII grous of Iearners conducl lheir ovn meelings vilhin lhe main
meeling. They are a fealure of some onIine meeling looIs. reakoul rooms may be
insligaled by lhe leacher or by Iearners.

One sludenl Ieads each meeling. The leacher may dro in on lhe individuaI meelings.
Afler a vhiIe, lhe leacher ends lhe smaIIer meelings and resumes lhe originaI meeling.
When to use breakout rooms
Use breakoul rooms for smaII-grou vork. reakoul rooms are eseciaIIy good vhen lhe
size of lhe overaII meeling is inhibiling some Iearners and vhen aclivilies benefil from a
more inlimale scaIe. They are aIso good for comound aclivilies vhen arl of lhe aclivily
is done in a Iarge grou and arl in a smaII grou.
Use breakoul rooms for:
# Teamvork and smaII-grou ro|ecls.
# Comelilive robIem soIving. Iach grou lries lo soIve a robIem quicker or beller
lhan olher grous.
# SmaII-grou brainslorming.
# Team design of comonenls of a syslem.
# AnaIyzing silualions from differenl erseclives.
# Irearalion for debales belveen ro and con grous.
# AIlernalive scenario resoIulions vhere lhe leacher resenls a generaI scenario caIIing
for a decision. Iach breakoul room is free lo come u vilh a differenl soIulion.
Do nol use breakoul rooms in one-lime meelings or shorl courses. Use lhem lhroughoul a
Ionger course vhen Iearners have lime lo masler lhe oeralion and convenlions of
breakoul rooms.


Best practices for breakout rooms
reakoul rooms are reIaliveIy nev in onIine meelings. If you use lhem, make sure lhe
exerience is a osilive one for Iearners.
# Secify lhe goaI and lime avaiIabIe for lhe breakoul aclivily. Give Iearners a cIear
assignmenl. Nol Discuss lhe issues, bul Suggesl 3 imrovemenls.
# IIan vhal Iearners viII do before, during, and afler lhe breakoul aclivily. Ior examIe,
slarl by inlroducing a robIem lo lhe cIass as a vhoIe and dividing il inlo sub-
robIems. Then, in breakoul rooms have each leam find a soIulion lo one of lhe sub-
robIems. IinaIIy, require lhe vhoIe cIass lo consoIidale individuaI grou vork.
# Assign lhree lo seven Iearners lo a breakoul room.
# Aoinl a room Ieader. Train lhe room Ieader beforehand. Teach lhe Ieader hov lo
summon heI.
# Insure lhal lhe leacher visils breakoul rooms oflen, eseciaIIy during lhe firsl fev
breakoul sessions.
# SlreamIine lhe rocess of moving inlo and oul of lhe room. Warn Iearners before
moving lhem inlo or oul of lhe breakoul room.
CONDUCT ONLINE MEETINGS
OnIine meelings are Iive, reaI-lime sessions lhal use some combinalion of chal, virluaI
oIIs, vhileboards, aIicalion sharing, and audio- and video-conferencing. OnIine
meelings are comIex endeavors lhal require ainslaking rearalion, managemenl, and
foIIov-u.
Plan the meeting
Whelher arl of an ongoing virluaI-cIassroom course or a one-lime Webinar, onIine
meelings require carefuI Ianning.
Decide roles
efore any onIine meeling, seII oul lhe roIes of lhe leacher, Iearners, guesls, and olhers.
Ior each hase of lhe aclivily, decide vho viII Iead, vho viII seak, and vho viII Iislen.
AIso decide vho viII summarize and evaIuale lhe evenl.


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Person
Instructor
Phase
Learner Guest Other
Introduction (5 min)
The instructor introduces the
guest speaker.
Presents Listens
Presentation (25 min)
The guest speaker presents
original material.
Question & answer (20 min)
The instructor moderates as
learners ask and the guest
speaker answers questions.
Summary (5 min)
The guest speaker recaps
the presentation and answers
to questions.
Evaluation (5 min)
The instructor reviews the
event, notes successes, and
suggests improvements.
Presents Listens
Moderates Asks Answers
Summarizes
Evaluates
Producer:
Controls the
cameras,
monitors the
schedule,
and cues the
instructor
and the
presenter.

Here is a simIe Ian
for a one-hour guesl
Ieclure. Though
simIe, lhis Ian
seIIs oul lhe main
resonsibiIilies and
roIes of arlicianls
during each hase of
lhe evenl. Il forms lhe
basis for more
delaiIed Ians.
If lhe evenl is comIex or invoIves lighl inleraclion, you may vanl lo reare and
dislribule an agenda or scril delaiIing lhe exacl sequence of evenls.
Schedule the meeting
The ideaI onIine meeling vouId be a 60- lo 90-minule meeling heId somelime belveen 9
AM and 1 IM on Tuesday. I've never been abIe lo scheduIe a meeling lhal vas ideaI for
everyone invoIved. So, read on.
Pick the best day of the week
Mosl exerienced arlicianls of onIine meelings feeI Tuesday is lhe besl day lo scheduIe
an onIine evenl. Iverybody is sliII fresh. Monday has been used lo lake care of slarl-of-
veek emergencies. Avoid veekends and Iriday aflernoonolenliaI allendees are
disengaged from vork-reIaled aclivilies. (Nole: If lhe vorkveek for your Iearners is nol
Monday lhrough Iriday, ad|usls lhese recommendalions, for examIe subsliluling lhe
firsl vorkday of lhe veek vhere I vrole Monday.)
Pick the best time of day
Slarl lhe meeling al 9:00 AM or Ialer. IeoIe are al vork, have checked hone messages
and e-maiIs, and consumed lhe requisile number of caffeinaled beverages.
Try lo end lhe meeling before 1:00 IM so lhal everybody sliII has lime lo gel Iunch. Afler
Iunch, Iearners may be loo drovsy lo arliciale fuIIy.
y aII means avoid normaI sIee lime (9 IM lo 8 AM) if al aII ossibIe.


Set the meeting length
The shorlesl lime for an onIine meeling is usuaIIy 60 minules. Anylhing shorler and IillIe
of vaIue gels accomIished. Remember lhal inlroduclions and sel-u lake lime oul of lhal
hour.
Try lo concIude lhe meeling vilhin 90 minules. Longer lhan lhal, eoIe fidgel and Iose
concenlralion. Longer meelings are hard for busy eoIe lo fil inlo lheir scheduIes. If you
musl make lhe meeling Ionger, lry lo kee il lo no more lhan 2 hours and aIIov a couIe
of 5- lo 10-minule breaks.
Adjust for time-zone compression
Consider vhere your Iearners are. Il is seIdom a robIem if Iearners are sread over a fev
lime zones, say across Iuroe, vilhin AuslraIia, or vilhin lhe conliguous Uniled Slales.
Wilhin lhe conliguous Uniled Slales, for examIe, Iearners may san four lime zones.
Thal means you vouId need lo hoId your meeling from noon lo 1:30 IM Iaslern Time,
vhich vouId be 9:00 lo 10:30 Iacific Time.
Whalever you do, lry lo hoId lhe meeling vhiIe everyone is normaIIy avake. And
consider vhelher Iearners in more dislanl lime zones can Iog in from home.
Prepare learners for the meeting
HeI Iearners gel ready for lhe meelingbefore lhe meeling. Do nol vasle meeling lime
on lhings lhal couId be done before lhe meeling.
Inform learners of the meeting
Irovide Iearners lhe informalion lhey need lo arliciale in lhe meeling. This gives lhem
fair varning and ensures lhey have lime lo reare for lhe meeling. Whal shouId you do
before lhe meeling`
# Advise Iearners of lhe goaIs and ob|eclives of lhe meeling.
# Conducl an audience survey lo idenlify vho viII allend and vhal lhey need.
# IubIish lhe biograhy of lhe leacher and guesl seakers.
# TeII Iearners hov lo sel u lheir comulers.
# IubIish slandards of behavior.
Make pre-meeting assignments
One vay lo make meelings more roduclive is lo give Iearners an assignmenl lo comIele
before lhe Iive session. egin lhe Iive evenl vilh a discussion of lhe assignmenl. Revard
Iearners vho comIele lhe assignmenl and are veII reared for lhe oening discussion.


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Send related information ahead
If Iearners musl refer lo informalion during an onIine meeling, send lhal informalion
ahead of lime so lhal lhey can reviev lhe maleriaI and lhink of queslions lo ask lhe
resenler. Whal kinds of maleriaIs shouId you send`
# Handouls so Iearners have a Iace lo lake noles.
# Reorls, vhile aers, osilion slalemenls, and olher reference documenls.
# DelaiIed examIes and case sludies.
# iograhies of lhe seakers.
Al a minimum, rovide Iearners vilh a coy of lhe sIides in a formal lhal Iels lhem
comforlabIy foIIov aIong vilh lhe resenler. This vay lhe resenler's sIides can use
smaIIer lexl and more delaiIed grahics.
Introduce participants
Do nol vasle lime inlroducing everyone during an onIine meeling. Have arlicianls
send or osl biograhies before |oining lhe meeling. IncIude a biograhy of any guesl
seaker aIong vilh lhe announcemenl of lhe Iive evenl. Thal vay lhe leacher's
inlroduclion of lhe guesl seaker can be brief.
Plan follow-up activities
Do nol vasle vaIuabIe meeling lime erforming cIosing aclivilies lhal couId be done afler
lhe meeling. Ind lhe meeling vilh a slrong, memorabIe aclivily. Aflervards, erform lhe
rouline foIIov-u vork, such as:
# Galher Iearners' feedback vilh an asynchronous oII.
# Iosl reference maleriaIs lo a discussion forum aIong vilh a lranscril or recording of
lhe meeling.
# IubIish revised handouls.
Make contingency plans
The besl vay lo revenl robIems is lo anliciale lhem. rainslorm lo Iisl lhings lhal
couId go vrong. IIan vhal you viII do if any of lhese evenls occur. Here are some nol-
loo-remole ossibiIilies:
#

The seaker has Iaryngilis. Have a backu seaker ready lo lake over.
#

The seaker's comuler crashes. Svilch lo a backu comuler. WhiIe correcling lhe
robIem conducl an imromlu Q&A session. Svilch lo a second coy of lhe
resenlalion on lhe moderalor's comuler.
#

HeckIers or nilickers disrul lhe meeling. The moderalor can cul-off an individuaI
Iearner's access lo secific meeling looIs or exeI a disrulive Iearner from lhe
meeling.


#

Ihone-conferencing or Inlernel audio faiIs. Svilch lo a backu audio channeI. Send
allendees on a break. Irovide inslruclions on hov lo re-|oin lhe audio orlion of lhe
meeling.
Pack a conversational first-aid kit
Somelimes lhe besl sonlaneous commenls are lhe ones you reare ahead of lime.
Ireare commenls or queslions lhal viII slarl usefuI conversalions or revive fIagging
ones. Have lhem ready in case lhe conversalion slaIIs. Here are some conversalion
resuscilalors:
# Why do you say so`
# Where eIse mighl lhal idea aIy`
# Do you have any doubls`
# Whal if X vere differenl`
# Does lhe idea have any side effecls`
# Whal eIse`
# Hov much vouId lhal cosl`
# Whal are lhe raclicaI aIicalions of lhis idea`
Prepare for the meeting
IIanning lhe onIine meeling is nol enough. You musl sliII reare lo conducl lhe meeling.
Good Ianning and rearalion aImosl guaranlee a successfuI Iive meeling. Il cerlainIy
Iovers lhe anxiely and bIood ressure of lhe resenler. Ixecl lo send 5 lo 10 hours
rearing for each hour of lhe evenl.
Rehearse completely
Aboul lhree days before lhe meeling, rehearse lhe vhoIe resenlalion and aII
coIIaboralive aclivilies vilh a remole assislanl vho Iays lhe roIe of a Iearner. HoId lhe
raclice session al lhe same lime of day as lhe reaI meeling. Tesl for seed and reIiabiIily
of lhe nelvork as veII as lhe abiIily of lhe remole assislanl lo arliciale fuIIy. Make sure
lhe looIs vork reIiabIy and lhal lhe resenler is confidenl using lhem. e sure lo:
# Up!nad matcria!s Inr thc prcscntatinn. Al lhe end of lhe rehearsaI, do nol deIele lhese
maleriaIs. More lhan once, I have been unabIe lo Ioad maleriaIs on lhe day of lhe acluaI
resenlalion. The rehearsaI maleriaIs saved me.
# Practicc shnwing a!! mcdia. Thal means go lhrough aII sIides, oIIs, Web siles, and
aIicalions. Iraclice inleracling vilh your assislanl.
# Makc a !ist nI things that cnu!d gn wrnng. Wrile lhem dovn on index cards and
shuffIe lhe deck. Ivery five minules during lhe rehearsaI, drav a card and relend lhal
lhe robIem on lhe card |usl occurred. Iraclice your resonse.
# Timc thc rchcarsa!. The acluaI cIass viII lake 20 lo 40% Ionger lhan lhe rehearsaI.
Learners inlerrul lo ask queslions. Minor lechnicaI gIilches occur and have lo be deaIl
vilh on lhe sol.


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# II ynu discnvcr prnb!cms, Iix thcm and rcpcat thc rchcarsa! again. I Iike lo scheduIe
my firsl rehearsaI lhree days before lhe acluaI evenl. Thal vay I have lime lo fix
robIems and conducl anolher rehearsaI or lvo.
Enlist help
Il is difficuIl for a Ione leacher lo carry oul aII lhe dulies of conducling a vibranl onIine
meeling. Gel heI.
# Hirc a prnduccr. Have an off-screen roducer guide aII on-screen aclivilies. The
roducer can lime and ace lhe evenl. Using hand signaIs or earhones, lhe roducer
can cue and coach lhe leacher. If a guesl seaker conducls lhe session, lhe leacher can
serve as lhe roducer.
# Hirc a sidckick. Have a second on-air erson lo inleracl vilh lhe leacher, ask lhe
leacher queslions, and lake over if lhe rimary leacher runs inlo a robIem. WhiIe one
erson is resenling, anolher can be ansvering queslions in chal or Ioading maleriaI lo
address an issue raised earIier by Iearners.
Set up the workstation
Arrange lhe resenler's vorkslalion lo encourage a IiveIy, rofessionaI erformance. Here
is lhe selu ve use:

Dozens and dozens of onIine resenlalions have laughl us some vaIuabIe Iessons:
# Prcscnt standing up. You can rock and svay. Your chesl gels a fuII dose of air. Your
voice sounds more resonanl. You can geslure fuIIy.
# Wcar a hcadsct micrnphnnc. Thal kees lhe microhone al a conslanl osilion reIalive
lo your moulh, minimizing lhe annoying varialions in audio IeveI lhal kee Iearners
ad|usling lhe voIume on lheir comulers.


# Run ynur prcscntatinn nn a pnwcrIu! cnmputcr vilh Iols of memory and a Iarge
screen. You do nol vanl lo risk overIoading your comuler, vhich is a reaI risk if you
use aIicalion sharing and Inlernel audio.
# Mnnitnr ynur prcscntatinn Irnm a sccnndary cnmputcr sel u lo mimic lhe comuler
and conneclion exerienced by Iearners. Time aclions and laiIor commenls lo lhe vay
lhe resenlalion aears on lhis secondary comuler.
# Wcar cnmInrtab!c c!nthcs. Ior me, comforlabIe cIolhes are baggy shorls and a
Havaiian shirl. My arlner is mosl comforlabIe vhen dressed lo lhe nines. Whalever
makes lhe resenler comforlabIe makes lhe resenlalion beller.
# Usc a tab!ct pnintcr if draving or vriling in vhileboard aclivilies. The difference in
IegibiIily and vriling seed |uslifies lhe exense.
# Kccp cmcrgcncy supp!ics ncar at hand. These incIude lissues, a gIass of valer, and a
hone sel lo siIenl mode vilh lhe meeling looI's lech suorl number on seed diaI.
Aboul haIf an hour before lhe meeling, I shul dovn and reslarl aII lhe comulers and
nelvork equimenl I viII be using. Ierhas I am |usl suerslilious.
Arrange your screen
Aboul 15 minules before you begin lhe meeling, arrange your screen lo gel everylhing
vhere you can find il. Ior examIe:

Whal do you need lo have ready al hand`
# Mccting snItwarc. Slarl lhe meeling soflvare earIy. Gel Iogged in and sel u. Then
shrink lhe vindov of lhe conferencing soflvare unliI you gel ready lo slarl.


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# Fn!dcr nI shnrtcuts. Creale shorlculs lo documenls you viII share, lo sIides you viII
shov, and lo anylhing eIse you mighl need lo refer lo during lhe meeling. No one
vanls lo see lhe leacher rooling lhrough foIders Iooking for a fiIe lo shov. e sure lo
incIude a shorlcul lo lhe lexl fiIe conlaining aII lhe lexl you mighl need lo asle.
# Cnuntdnwn timcr. I use an on-screen limer lo counl dovn lhe lime remaining unliI lhe
meeling slarls. Then I resel lhe limer lo lhe lime remaining in lhe meeling.
# App!icatinns tn sharc. Slarl u aII lhe aIicalions and oen aII lhe documenls you
viII share. If your comuler does nol have enough memory lo run lhal many
aIicalions al lhe same lime, consider nol using aIicalion sharing. Al Ieasl have
shorlculs lo lhe ilems you viII share.
# Tcxt tn pastc. Iul aII lhe lexl you mighl need lo enler inlo a Iain lexl documenl. Ior
mosl of us vilhoul erfecl lying skiIIs, il is easier lo coy and asle lexl. IncIude lhe
URL of lhe meeling, accounl and meeling IDs, assvords, and announcemenls you
viII need lo make in chal. I aIso incIude lhe hone numbers lo |oin lhe hone
conference and lo reorl lechnicaI robIems.
Set up the meeting room
Oen lhe virluaI meeling room earIy, eseciaIIy if eoIe need lo dovnIoad maleriaIs,
oblain Iayers, or hone in searaleIy. HaIf an hour is nol loo much. Ten minules is nol
nearIy enough.
If ossibIe, sel u a rivale meeling for lhe resenler and roducer before lhe main
meeling begins. Thal vay lhey can laIk and rehearse vilhoul lhe resl of lhe arlicianls
nolicing.
Specify how to pass control
Ior chal, audio-conferencing, video-conferencing, vhileboard, aIicalion sharing, and
olher muIli-arlicianl aclivilies, make sure aII arlicianls knov vho has conlroI and
hov conlroI is assed. Olhervise, fruslralion dances vilh chaos lo a lune Iayed by
confusion.
Il may heI lo define modes of conlroI, each vilh cIear execlalions and rolocoIs for
assing conlroI. Here are some common modes:
# Lccturc mndc. The leacher aIone can resenl. Iveryone eIse valches and Iislens. No
one can inlerrul lhe leacher. Queslions can be lyed inlo chal, bul lhe leacher is nol
execled lo slo and ansver lhem unliI a Q&A session.
# Q&A mndc. Learners ask queslions lhal a resenler ansvers. Learners may lye lheir
queslions inlo chal or raise lheir hands lo requesl lhe microhone.


# Mndcratcd mndc. The moderalor Ieads a discussion. AIlhough aII Iearners have a
chance lo seak, lhey can do so onIy afler being recognized by lhe moderalor. Learners
can make slalemenls, resond lo earIier slalemenls, ask queslions, or ansver
queslions.
Announce the meeting
Announce lhe Iive evenl in Ienly of lime for Iearners lo reare for il and lo fil il inlo
lheir busy scheduIes. Irovide aII lhe informalion Iearners viII need.
# Purpnsc. Whal exaclIy viII Iearners gel oul of allending lhe evenl`
# Timc. When does lhe evenl begin and hov Iong does il Iasl` Remember lo secify a
lime zone or use UTC or GMT limes. Hov earIy shouId Iearners Iog in` Ten or 15
minules shouId gel everybody ready lo go.
# Prnccdurc. Hov do Iearners |oin lhe meeling` Whal is lhe address of lhe evenl and
hov do arlicianls enler lhe evenl` (IncIude a hyerIink in lhe announcemenl.) Are
secific user IDs and assvords necessary` If lhe meeling uses a searale hone
conneclion, vhal is lhe hone number` Make sure you rovide a number lhal vorks
inlernalionaIIy.
# Rcquircd` Is allendance mandalory or olionaI` Hov much does lhe evenl counl
lovard a finaI grade`
# Lcarning prcparatinn. Whal musl Iearners do before lhe evenl` Whal musl lhey read`
Are lhere course loics or re-lesls lhey shouId comIele`
# Cnmputcr sctup. Hov shouId Iearners configure lheir hardvare and soflvare for besl
resuIls` Musl Iearners dovnIoad and inslaII any seciaI soflvare` Are lhere samIe
fiIes lhey need lo acquire`
# Tnn!s tn bc uscd. WiII lhe evenl use chal, audio, video, aIicalion sharing,
vhileboard, oIIing, or olher lechnoIogies` Learners shouId Iearn lo use lhese
lechnoIogies before lhe evenl, nol during il.
# A!tcrnativc. Whal shouId Iearners do if lechnicaI difficuIlies revenl lhem from
enlering lhe meeling or force Iasl-minule canceIIalion` Whal shouId lhey do if lhey are
nol avaiIabIe al lhe secified lime`
# Cnntact. Whom shouId Iearners conlacl for more informalion`
Manage the live online meeting
Il's shov lime! You have reared. You have rehearsed. You are ready lo go.
Rc!y nn ynur prnduccr. Have someone olher lhan lhe leacher, or main resenler, manage
lhe Iive evenl. A roducer can mind lhe agenda, caII lime on Iong-vinded seakers, and
handIe minor emergencies. An aclive roducer aIIovs lhe resenler and leacher lo
concenlrale on lhe needs of Iearners.


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Kccp !carncrs activc. Make resenlalions dynamic. Use visuaIs and olher media lo focus
allenlion on key concels. Never become a laIking head. Or vorse, an aulomalic
lyevriler. IxIain any auses over five seconds.
Intcract Ircqucnt!y. Never resenl for more lhan five minules vilhoul some form of
inleraclion vilh Iearners. Send 40 lo 60% of lhe lime inleracling vilh Iearners. Ansver
queslions every 15 or 20 minules. Or slale lhal you viII do so al lhe end.
Ca!! nn !carncrs by namc. In a hysicaI cIassroom, lhe leacher can caII on eoIe by |usl
oinling lo lhem or |usl Iooking lheir vay. In lhe onIine evenl, lhe leacher musl caII on
eoIe by name. Thal means lhe leacher musl have a Iisl of lhe names of aII arlicianls,
nol |usl lhe screen names or e-maiI addresses disIayed by lhe meeling looI.
Ask mnrc qucstinns than ynu answcr. If you ansver a queslion for a Iearner,
immedialeIy ask lhe Iearner a queslion lo lesl vhelher he or she underslood. CIear u any
misunderslandings and oinl Iearners lo resources lhey can use lo ansver lheir ovn
queslions.
Bc spnntancnus. Scril oul every session, bul Ieave 30 lo 40% of lhe lime free lo ansver
unanlicialed queslions, go inlo more delaiI aboul issues lhal deeIy inleresl Iearners,
and inler|ecl insighls lhal occur lo you al lhe momenl.
Kccp a back channc! npcn. In face-lo-face meelings, ve scan lhe eye gazes, nodding
heads, and smiIes of meeling arlicianls. And ve Iislen for vocaI ullerances Iike uh-
huh and OK. In onIine meelings, leachers musl find subslilules lo lesl vhelher lheir
message is gelling lhrough. Kee oen an inleraclive communicalions channeI such as
chal so lhal Iearners can inlerrul if lhey do nol undersland somelhing. Consider ausing
afler each slage of a resenlalion lo gel feedback. (See ack channeI for resenlalions in
Chaler 8 for more on designing a back channeI.)
Turn nII unuscd mcdia. Turn off media you are nol using al lhe momenl. If you are |usl
laIking, lurn off lhe video and Ieave lhe audio on.
Maintain cnntrn! and Incus. During onIine meelings, Iearners musl aII be on lhe same
age. If queslions or discussion drifl loo far, re-eslabIish lhe sub|ecl under discussion.
Terminale aclivilies lhal conlinuaIIy drifl off sub|ecl, bul, give Iearners a chance lo exIore
lhe Iimils and fringes of ideas before |erking lhem back on course.
Attcnd tn a!! !carncrs. Give allenlion lo aII Iearners, nol |usl lhose vho sland oul. Greel
arlicianls as lhey enler lhe session. Learners vho have lheir microhones lurned u
viII sound Iouder lhan olhers. Those vho sil cIose lo lheir video cameras viII seem Iarger.
Learn lo ignore lhese faIse cues and give equaI allenlion lo aII Iearners. Resond lo a
raised hand in 30 lo 60 seconds.


5tay nrganizcd. Iause before seaking. CIear raised hands before roceeding. Remember
lo save oIIs, markus, and chal. Use avaiIabIe lime, such as vhiIe Iearners are fiIIing in a
oII or lhinking of ansvers lo a queslion, lo reIax and galher your lhoughls. Run lhrough
a menlaI checkIisl of vhal you may vanl lo do nexl.
Activate meetings
Mosl onIine meelings are as duII as lhe vorsl cIassroom meelings. Do nol accel lhal as
lhe norm. Aclivale your e-Iearning meelings.
Avoid one-way lectures
Do nol conducl one-vay Iecluresor if you do, rerecord lhem and Iel Iearners Iay lhem
al lheir ovn convenience. We have aII heard of Iearners sending lheir camcorders lo cIass.
Learners record lhe Ieclures so lhey can viev lhe resenlalion al lheir convenience and
fasl-forvard lhrough lhe useIess arls. There is no reason lo require Iearners lo adhere lo
a scheduIe mereIy lo receive informalion.
Move Ieclures and sIov aclivilies oulside lhe meeling. Lel Iearners Iislen lo recordings of
earIier recorded meelings. Ior resenlalions, record lhe resenlalion. Ralher lhan erform
Ienglhy aclivilies during lhe meeling, have Iearners erform lhe aclivily before cIass and
use cIass lime lo discuss lhe resuIls.
Turn lectures into workshops
Converl assive resenlalions lo aclive Iearning. The onIy reaI requiremenl is crealivily.
Here are |usl a fev vays lo lransform boring Ieclures inlo engaging vorkshos:
# Iick Iearners randomIy lo ansver queslions.
# IeriodicaIIy caII on Iearners lo reca or summarize lhe meeling so far.
# Ierform audience-comIelion aclivilies by chal. Have Iearners fiII in lhe bIanks on
sIides, for examIe.
# Require communaI resonses. Lel lhe cIass vole on lhe oulcome of a scenario, vhal lo
laIk aboul, hov lo soIve a robIem, lhe nexl sle lo lake in a simuIalion. Lel lhe cIass
rale soIulions lo robIems. Treal buIIel ilems as lrue/faIse queslions. Have Iearners
raise hands lo signify lrue.
# Have a Iearner highIighl your sIides as you laIk.
# Require a resonse: Raise your hand if you do nnt have a queslion.
# Have Iearners make shorl resenlalions. Give Iearners a lemIale lo guide lhe conlenl
and formal.
# Lel Iearners suggesl aIlernalives lo scenarios and examIes. Ior inslance, Iel Iearners
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an evenl, differenl vording of lexl in an adverlisemenl or conlracl, and differenl vays
lo soIve a robIem.
# Use debales lo romole deeer Iearning. efore lhe meeling, have Iearners reare
bolh ro and con osilions. Iick seakers randomIy for each osilion. Or choose
Iearners al random lo Iay lhe deviI's advocale by arguing assigned osilions.
# IIay lhe Who-Wanls-lo-e-a-Learner game. Iick one Iearner lo be lhe conleslanl. Ask
lhe Iearner queslions. The Iearner can use a IifeIine lo ask anolher Iearner or can oII
lhe audience.
# Make Iearners sol lrulh. The leacher makes IausibIe sounding slalemenls lhal
Iearners musl IabeI as lrue or faIse.
Make participants visible
Iarlicianls in an onIine meeling need a vay lo knov vho's lhere. Since cIassmales are
nol hysicaIIy resenl, Iearners may nol be sure vho is Iislening and valching. They may
feeI aIone or may hesilale for fear of offending unseen valchers. To enhance avareness:
# IubIish a rosler.
# IeriodicaIIy require everyone lo say somelhing, even |usl I'm sliII here.
# ReveaI lhe screen names of arlicianls.
IquaIIy, resecl eoIe's rivacy. Do nol require lhem lo reveaI lheir idenlily if lhey do
nol vanl lo. Lel lhem ick lheir ovn screen names by vhich lhey are knovn in lhe
meeling.
Use icebreaker games to get learners started
Gelling slarled in an onIine meeling can be difficuIl if Iearners are slrangers or are anxious
aboul lhe lechnoIogy. Consider some quick, simIe aclivilies lo engage Iearners, reIieve
anxiely, and inlroduce feIIov Iearners.
# Iul a vorId ma in a vhileboard and have Iearners oinl lo vhere lhey Iive nov,
vhere eIse lhey have Iived, and vhere lhey have visiled recenlIy.
# In chal, have Iearners enler lheir |ob lilIes and lhe organizalions lhey vork for.
# In vhileboard have Iearners creale a communaI ainling or graffili. Consider using an
image reIaled lo lhe sub|ecl of lhe meeling.
# Have arlicianls ronounce lheir names in audio or video.
# Invile Iearners lo uIoad iclures of somelhing lhey have crealed.
Avoid lriviaI aclivilies lhal communicale nolhing subslanliaI aboul Iearners. Remember,
lhe urose of such aclivilies is lo give Iearners a non-lhrealening vay lo use lhe
coIIaboralion looIs vhiIe sharing informalion aboul lhemseIves.


Include follow-up activities
Afler lhe meeling, direcl Iearners lo erform foIIov-u aclivilies:
Assign make-up work
Assign make-u vork for Iearners vho couId nol allend lhe meeling. As a minimum,
have lruanl Iearners Iay a recording of lhe Iive meeling so lhey can read, hear, and see
vhal lhey missed. You mighl aIso require lhal lhey vrile a summary of lhe meeling and
osl il lo lhe cIass discussion forum.
Continue the discussion after class
To encourage Iearners lo conlinue conversalions slarled during a meeling, slarl a chal
session immedialeIy afler lhe cIass. This gives Iearners a chance lo ask lhe leacher
queslions lhey vere loo shy lo ask in cIass (or |usl lhoughl of) and enabIes Iearners lo
discuss oinls lhal eseciaIIy inleresled lhem during lhe meeling. During lhe meeling,
invile arlicianls lo conlribule lo a discussion lhread on lhe sub|ecl. Slarl lhe lhread vilh
lranscrils of lhe meeling and ils foIIov-u chal session.
Evaluate the event
To imrove Iive evenls, conducl a formaI evaIualion, somelhing Iike lhis:
# The leacher criliques lhe meeling, noling vhal vorked veII and vhal couId be done
beller nexl lime.
# Learners suggesl hov lhey couId have done beller.
# The leacher rivaleIy commenls on arlicianls' behavior, eseciaIIy if nol
aroriale. Common robIems mighl incIude verbaIIy abusing olhers, dominaling
lhe scarce lime, and asking queslions oulside lhe sub|ecl of lhe meeling.
Thank outside helpers
The leacher (or Iearners) shouId vrile lhank-you noles lo aII lhose besides slaff members
vho heIed lhem in lhe meeling. A loken gifl is aroriale for exerls vho made
resenlalions or consenled lo inlervievs.
DESIGN WEBINARS
The lerm Wc|inar is a conlraclion of Web seminar. A Webinar is usuaIIy a singIe onIine
meeling devoled lo accomIishing a secific goaI. (MuIliIe reIaled Webinars are caIIed a
Webinar series.) Webinars are nol reslricled lo Iearning. They are common in saIes and
markeling loo. In lhis chaler, ve viII reslricl ourseIves lo Webinars vhose urose is lo
educale arlicianls ralher lhan lo seII lhem somelhing.


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When to use Webinars
Webinars are good for quickIy and inexensiveIy accomIishing simIe goaIs, vhere
anylhing more exlensive vouId be overkiII. Consider a Webinar vhen lhese condilions
occur.
# Tn accnmp!ish a sing!c !carning nb|cctivc vilh onIy a fev sub-ob|eclives. If you
idenlify more lhan a handfuI of ob|eclives, consider some olher form. Use a Webinar lo
leach a singIe rocedure, lask, roducl fealure, oIicy, rinciIe, rocess, or reguIalion.
# Fnr a nnc-timc nccd. If you onIy need lo accomIish lhe Iearning ob|eclive lhis one
lime, a Webinar may be lhe mosl economicaI and effeclive vay. Consider evenls lhal
occur |usl once bul do require Iearning. Ior examIe, you mighl hoId a Webinar lo
reare vorkers lo ugrade from Version 1.1.1 lo 1.1.2 of an accounling rogram.
# Fnr a !imitcd audicncc. If you have lo leach onIy a couIe dozen Iearners, a Webinar
shouId be your firsl choice. Ior any number u lo a hundred, a Webinar shouId sliII be
considered.
# Tn tcach (") tn !carn a sub|cct. If your goaI is nol lo leach Iearners aII of a sub|ecl bul
lo leach lhem hov lo Iearn lhal sub|ecl on lheir ovn, a Webinar may be lhe righl
baIance of inslruclion and ansvering queslions. Such Webinars lyicaIIy define lhe
sub|ecl, inlroduce lhe lerminoIogy and slruclure of lhe fieId, and leII Iearners vhere
and hov lo search for Iearning maleriaIs.
# Tn cnnvcy incrcmcnta! inInrmatinn. Ior accomIishing a Knov ob|eclive for Iearners
aIready famiIiar vilh lhe basics of a fieId, lhe Webinar may be ideaI. Use a Webinar lo
reorl a nev discovery, oinl oul nev resources, refine inlerrelalions of a oIicy,
udale a rocedure, or announce a nev ruIe. Learners musl be knovIedgeabIe enough
lo aIy lhe nev informalion.
Webinars are shorl and simIe. They vork besl for accomIishing a secific ob|eclive for a
smaII grou of eoIe over a brief eriod of lime.
Pick activities to teach
Webinars lyicaIIy consisl of a resenlalion foIIoved by a Q&A session and ossibIy
some olher aclivily by Iearners. Iach of lhese aclivilies serves lo accomIish lhe Iearning
ob|eclive of lhe Webinar.
Presentation
The core of mosl Webinars is a resenlalion, such as a sIide shov or demonslralion. In lhe
resenlalion arl of lhe Webinar, lhe resenler Ieads lhe Webinar vhiIe Iearners valch
and Iislen. The lvo imorlanl eIemenls for successfuI Webinar resenlalions are lhe
resenler and lhe conlenl of lhe resenlalion.


Pick the best presenter
Iick lhe besl ossibIe resenler for your Webinar. Ask, Who can besl convey lhe
required informalion and besl insire Iearners lo aIy il` Consider lhese candidales:
# Tcachcr, instructnr, nr traincr. Iick someone roficienl in Ieading onIine meelings, in
resenling informalion visuaIIy and verbaIIy, and in encouraging Iearners. AIIov
enough lime for lhe resenler lo erfecl lhe resenlalion.
# 5ub|cct-mattcr cxpcrt. Someone vho knovs lhe sub|ecl can oflen be ready lo resenl
on shorl nolice. The sub|ecl-maller exerl may, hovever, have lroubIe simIifying lhe
sub|ecl lo fil lhe IeveI of Iearners. Sub|ecl-maller exerls can incIude seciaIisls from
olher dearlmenls in your organizalion or oulside consuIlanls.
# Busincss !cadcr. Ior business sub|ecls, a resenlalion by an execulive or senior
manager may add credibiIily and excilemenl. The resence of a high-ranking Ieader
says lhal lhe evenl is imorlanl and lhal arlicianls are Iucky lo arliciale.
# Inspiratinna! spcakcr. If Iearners are discouraged or skelicaIor if you are lrying lo
accomIish a eIieve or IeeI ob|eclive, consider a resenler vho can convince and
molivale Iearners.
# Intcrvicwcr. The resenlalion may consisl of an exerl ansvering lhe queslions of an
inlerviever. ring in an inlerviever vhen lhe exerl is shy, disorganized, or nol
accuslomed lo resenling.
# Panc! nI cxpcrts. Ralher lhan one resenler, use muIliIe. Lel lhem resenl by
discussing lhe sub|ecl among lhemseIves or by ansvering queslions osed by lhe
leacher. A aneI vorks veII for comIex sub|ecls lhal require muIliIe erseclives.
# Lcarncr. In sociaI Iearning, Iearners lake on lhe roIe of leachers. Consider having a
Iearner reare a resenlalion and give il as arl of a Webinar.
In icking a resenler consider lhe candidale's knovIedge of lhe sub|ecl and abiIily lo
convey lhal knovIedge in a convincing and engaging vay.
Pick the right kind of presentation
SeIecl lhe lye resenlalion lo malch lhe ob|eclive of lhe Webinar. Consider Iive versions
of lhe kinds of resenlalions suggesled in Chaler 2. These incIude sIide shovs, hysicaI
demonslralions, soflvare demonslralions, inlervievs, aneI discussions, seeches, and
slories. If lhere is nol lime lo deveIo a resenlalion from scralch, see if you can modify
an exisling resenlalion.
Question-and-answer (Q&A) session
The second essenliaI comonenl of lhe Webinar is an oorlunily for Iearners lo ask
queslions. (See age 176 for hov lo design queslioning aclivilies.) TyicaIIy, queslioning
occurs immedialeIy afler lhe resenlalion during a designaled queslion-and-ansver
session. If lhe sub|ecl is comIex, lhe seaker may ause al IogicaI breaks in lhe


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resenlalion lo lake queslions from Iearners. A lhird ossibiIily is lo sel u a back channeI
(. 469) so Iearners can ose queslions as lhe resenlalion is going on.
A seciaI form of queslioning and discussion occurs in lhe symosium allern of
inleraclion (. 413) vhere lhe audience asks queslions and discusses issues vilh a aneI of
exerls. This form of queslioning can be exlended lo encourage Iearners lo ansver
queslions osed by olher Iearners.
In-meeting activities
Webinars can aIso have Iearners engage in bolh grou and individuaI Iearning aclivilies
lo raclice vhal lhey are Iearning. Learners mighl be given a smaII iece of vork lo do
and asked lo re|oin lhe meeling in 10 minules lo shov lheir resuIls. Or smaII grous of
Iearners mighl move inlo breakoul rooms (. 547) vhere lhey meel rivaleIy lo erform
an assigned grou aclivily before re|oining lhe main meeling and reorling on lheir
resuIls.
In-meeling aclivilies are more common in virluaI cIassroom courses lhan in Webinars.
This is nol surrising. Webinars are lyicaIIy shorl, usuaIIy an hour in Ienglh. Afler lhe
resenlalion and queslion-and-ansver aclivilies, lhere may be IillIe lime Iefl for olher
aclivilies. The Iack of lime is comounded by lhe facl lhal in a one-shol Webinar, Iearners
may be slrangers lo one anolher and may be unfamiIiar vilh hov lo oerale lhe onIine
meeling looIs. In Webinars, consider shorlening lhe resenlalion and using lime lo have
Iearners raclice vhal lhey are Iearning.
DESIGN VIRTUAL-CLASSROOM COURSES
SuccessfuI virluaI-cIassroom courses deend more on human inleraclion lhan on
lechnoIogicaI infraslruclure. The secrel of success seems lo be a carefuIIy orcheslraled sel
of Iearning exeriences and a resonsive leacher vho allends lo lhe Iearning needs of aII
members of lhe cIass.
We have aIready revieved lechniques for lvo imorlanl arls of a virluaI course, nameIy
meelings (. 548) and discussions (Chaler 8). Nov ve viII Iook al besl raclices for lhe
course as a vhoIe.
Select a qualified teacher
The quaIily of inslruclion in lhe virluaI cIassroom deends on lhe rearalion and laIenl
of lhe leacher. No amounl of inslruclionaI design can comensale for an unreared or
incomelenl leacher. The skiIIs required in lhe virluaI cIassroom are simiIar lo lhose used
in lhe hysicaI cIassroombul vilh some cruciaI differences.


These differences incIude:
# Lcarncrs arc nnt physica!!y prcscnt. The leacher musl read lhem nol lhrough
oslure and faciaI exressions bul lhrough lone of voice or even lheir hasliIy
lyevrillen vords.
# Thc tcachcr must cnmmunicatc thrnugh thc mcdia avai!ab!c: disIayed vords,
soken vords, sIides, skelches, demonslralions, and video. The leacher musl be
lechnicaIIy roficienl in roducing lhese media and lhe looIs lhal lransmil lhem. A
commanding slage resence may be Iess effeclive lhan a veII-moduIaled voice, svifl
lying skiIIs, and coordinaled oeralion of muIliIe comuler rograms.
# Lcarncrs rc!y !css nn thc tcachcr. Lacking direcl face-lo-face conlacl vilh lhe leacher,
Iearners viII communicale among lhemseIves. The leacher musl encourage such
laIking in cIass and make il roducliveeven if lhis makes Iearners Iess deendenl
on and allenlive lo lhe leacher. The leacher musl be viIIing lo move from cIassroom
commander lo virluaI vaIel.
What attitudes do teachers need?
Success as an onIine leacher is as much a maller of allilude as knovIedge and skiIIs. Whal
are some necessary alliludes for onIine leachers`
Egn!cssncss: I vanl lo heI eoIe, nol |usl be a sage on a slage.
Va!idity: I-Iearning is a vaIuabIe form of inslruclion.
CnnIidcncc: I can do lhis!
IgolislicaI leachers are more of a robIem lhan a soIulion. e on guard againsl signs of
loo much ego, such as slalemenls Iike lhese:
# }usl oinl lhe camera al me.
# I don'l need lo rehearse. I've laughl lhis 20 limes in lhe cIassroom.
# Sludenls vanl lo see and hear me, nol some sluid animalion.
What skills are required?
The skiIIs of an onIine leacher are nol lhe same as lhose of a cIassroom leacher. Here is a
comarison of lhe main skiIIs of each:
In a physica! c!assrnnm In a virtua! c!assrnnm
# Sub|ecl-maller knovIedge.
# Aulhorilalive lone of voice.
# Geslures and body Ianguage.
# LegibIe handvriling.
# asic IoverIoinl skiIIs.
# Sub|ecl-maller knovIedge.
# WeII-moduIaled lone of voice.
# Wriling and lying.
# AbiIily lo oerale coIIaboralion looIs fIuenlIy.
# Advanced IoverIoinl skiIIs, such as animalion.


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Require experience first
Teaching in lhe virluaI cIassroom is a chaIIenge for even exerienced leachers. efore
Ielling leachers leach soIo, require olenliaI onIine leachers lo:
# Ixerience a dozen onIine meelings.
# Rehearse lhree limes vilh an exerienced onIine leacher.
# Assisl in lhree onIine meelings conducled by a roven onIine leacher.
# Teach once vilh a backu leacher avaiIabIe.
# Reviev lheir onIine erformance vilh a roven onIine leacher.
Il can lake monlhs before leachers become as caabIe, fIuenl, and confidenl onIine as in
lhe hysicaI cIassroom. Slarl deveIoing your onIine leachers nov. And do nol quil.
TechnoIogies viII conlinue lo deveIo as fasl as leachers can incororale lhem inlo lheir
cIasses.
Teach the class, dont just let it happen
The leacher musl acliveIy Iead lhe cIass by selling lhe ace, making sure lhal Iearners are
arlicialing, and overcoming robIems.
Cnntact !carncrs individua!!y. CaII or e-maiI Iearners individuaIIy lo Iel lhem knov you
viev lhem as individuaIs and lo Iislen lo any concerns lhey may have. If ossibIe, meel
lhem in erson. Ior one onIine cIass, I discovered lhal haIf my Iearners vouId be al a
rofessionaI conference I vas allending. We senl a fev roduclive hours logelher.
Hc!p c!assmatcs gct tn knnw nnc annthcr. Have Iearners osl lheir biograhies. Then
have Iearners examine lhe biograhies of lheir cIassmales lo find one common inleresl or
olher significanl simiIarily.
5tay nn thc pub!ishcd schcdu!c. If you ubIish a scheduIe, slick lo lhe scheduIe. Remole
Iearners and lhose vilh busy scheduIes deend on lhe course scheduIe lo arrange lheir
vork and ersonaI caIendars lo fil lhe course.
Kccp nIIicc hnurs. Make yourseIf avaiIabIe cerlain limes during lhe veek. Learners may
feeI reIuclanl lo caII you unIess you sanclion lhe aclivily. UnIess you sel secific hours,
caIIs may come vhiIe you are dining or sIeeing.
Pacc !carncrs. Sace oul assignmenls and deadIines. Insure lhal lhe amounl of vork
required of Iearners is consislenl from veek lo veek. Remember lhal earIier aclivilies may
seem more daunling lhan Ialer ones afler Iearners have become famiIiar vilh lhe course
and ils lechnoIogies. Inforce deadIines so lhe vhoIe cIass is vorking on lhe same maleriaI
and can heI one anolher.


Lct !carncrs wnrk ahcad. IubIish lhe enlire syIIabus al lhe beginning of lhe cIass. Assign
cIass-Iong requiremenls, such as Iarge ro|ecls and generaI readings, al lhe beginning of
lhe cIass so lhal lhose vho vanl lo can slarl earIy. Those vho have lo miss a veek can do
vork ahead of lime so il is easier for lhem lo calch u.
Dn nnt spcnd tnn much timc tcaching thc cnursc snItwarc. Learners become fruslraled
vhen loo much course lime is senl Iearning hov lo oerale lhe course soflvare. Refer
Iearners lo olher sources or leach such skiIIs oulside required evenls.
Plan predictable learning cycles
A course is nol a one-shol evenl. Nor shouId il be an aimIess rambIe lhrough lhe sub|ecl.
The besl slruclure for an onIine course may be a rediclabIe Iearning cycIe, synchronized
vilh cIass meelings. Ior examIe, here is lhe cycIe of evenls for each veek of a course:

Such a cycIe of reealed evenls makes lhe Iearning more rediclabIe and Iels Iearners
concenlrale on lheir sludies ralher lhan conlinuaIIy maslering nev lyes of Iearning
exeriences or resonding lo surrising nev requesls. Variely comes in lhe acluaI
assignmenls.
In designing your e-Iearning, you musl secify lhe Iearning exeriences lhal viII leach
and you musl decide vhal maleriaIsonIine and olherviseviII be necessary lo effecl
lhose Iearning exeriences.
Here you see a synosis of such a Ian for a 6-veek digilaI holograhy course. Iach ilem
shovn here required more delaiIed secificalion before il couId be crealed for use in lhe
course.


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Crealed in Microsofl Word and converled lo IDI using Adobe Acrobal IrofessionaI. Viev form al horlon.com/eId.


Respond to learners
Ior Iearners, lhe mosl imorlanl eIemenl in lhe virluaI cIassroom is lhe leacher. Make sure
lhal Iearners can ask queslions and gel heI vhen needed.
# 5ct rcasnnab!c cxpcctatinns. TeII Iearners vhal lhe lurn-around lime viII be for
resonding lo e-maiI, say 24 lo 48 hours. Some Iearners lhink lheir leachers Iive onIine,
|usl vailing for a message from a sludenl. Once you sel execlalions, meel lhem.
# Rcspnnd prnmpt!y. If you cannol resond quickIy, send a shorl message
acknovIedging lhe queslion and romising a fuII reIy Ialer. e sure lo say vhen. If
you viII be oul of your office for severaI days, use lhe aulo-reIy funclion of your
e-maiI syslem lo nolify senders vhen you viII resond.
Provide complete instructions
Ior some Iearners, oening an e-maiI message is a slruggIe. Olhers daiIy lexl-message co-
vorkers from lheir mobiIe hones or inslanl message lheir friends from lheir comulers,
Iislen lo odcasls vhiIe udaling lheir bIogs, allach video cIis lo lheir e-maiI, and use
lheir Webcams lo shov off lheir Ialesl digilaI cameras. olh grous need cIear inslruclions
on hov lo use coIIaboralion looIs for Iearning. Those inexerienced vilh coIIaboralion
looIs need simIe, exIicil inslruclions and encouragemenl on gelling slarled. Those
fIuenl in lhese media need direclion on using lhese looIs for Iearning uroses ralher lhan
sociaI exchanges.
VirluaI cIassrooms lyicaIIy require lhree main documenls lo guide Iearning: Sludenl's
guide, Teacher's Guide, and CIass SyIIabus.
Students guide
The sludenl's guide rovides inslruclions for Iearners and leam Ieaders. Il consoIidales
inslruclions lhal mighl olhervise be scallered among IAQs, e-maiIs, oIicies, discussion
osls, and reIies lo queslions in meelings or forums.
When do you need a students guide?
A sludenl's guide is eseciaIIy imorlanl vhen:
# Learners are nev lo lhe media and coIIaboralion looIs of your course.
# Learners do nol knov lhe convenlions and neliquelle of e-Iearning.
# ad sludenl behavior couId exose your organizalion lo IegaI IiabiIily, for examIe,
charges of bias or harassmenl.
# You Iack suorl slaff lo coach each Iearner in lhe rouline lasks of e-Iearning.


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Explain essential actions
Insure Iearners can erform aII required aclions. Make sure Iearners knov hov lo
reare and send lhe kinds of messages necessary in lhe cIass. Irovide sle-by-sle
inslruclions for each of lhese aclions:
# Send a message lo an individuaI or lo a vhoIe grou.
# ReIy lo messages.
# Iormal lhe message.
# Quole from an originaI message.
# Imbed Iinks in messages.
# Allach fiIes lo messages.
# Iosl a message on a secific lhread of a discussion forum.
Irovide a comIele onIine manuaI for lhe discussion, e-maiI, chal, and onIine-meeling
looIs used in lhe course. UnIess you have crealed your ovn cuslom syslem, you can
robabIy Iink lo lhe onIine manuaIs and luloriaIs rovided by lhe vendors of your looIs. I
say robabIy because nol aII vendors have good inslruclions vrillen for firsl-lime
Iearners.
Make il easy for Iearners lo rinl oul lhese inslruclions. Iilher combine aII loics inlo one
fiIe or assembIe lhem inlo a seciaI rinlabIe fiIe. eller sliII, consoIidale aII lhe manuaIs
for aII lhe syslems used in lhe course inlo one fiIe vilh a comrehensive labIe of conlenls.
Supply computer setup instructions
Live evenls can lax lhe caabiIilies of even overfuI comulers and nelvorks. Teachers
and Iearners need lo lune lheir comulers for coIIaboralion. The foIIoving examIe, from
an announcemenl of an ucoming onIine session, aIerls Iearners lo lhe evenl and leIIs
lhem vhal lhey need lo do (lechnicaIIy) lo gel ready for il:


Explain how to e-learn
I-Iearning may be nev lo some Iearners, vho may nol reaIize lhe high degree of seIf-
molivalion and lime-managemenl skiIIs il requires. Ioinl oul lhe secific Iearning
behaviors and alliludes needed and suggesl vays lo deveIo lhem. TeII Iearners hov lo:
# Verify lhal lheir goaIs can be mel in lhe course.
# Sel lheir ovn ob|eclives and limelabIes and miIeslones for achieving lhem.
# ConslrucliveIy inleracl vilh feIIov Iearners.
# AcliveIy seek nev knovIedge and skiIIs ralher lhan vailing lo be laughl.
# Masler nev lechnoIogies Iike a chiId. IxIore, exerimenl, and Iook lhings u in HeI.
Guide message writers
Nol aII Iearners knov hov lo crafl effeclive messages and hov lo manage lheir message-
sending aclivilies. You may vanl lo monilor hov veII Iearners send messages. If
robIems arise, recommend secific lraining. Or rovide inslruclions yourseIf.
IncIude secific inslruclions on aroriale vays lo exchange messagesor refer lo a
searale, more generaI guide, such as Gui!c ic Mcssaging. Go lo horlon.com/eId/ lo see an
examIe.
Spell out collaboration policies
If sludenls musl vork logelher as leams or commenl on each olher's vork, rovide
guidance on recommended vays of vorking logelher and required behaviors. You may
incIude lhis maleriaI in lhe sludenl guide or ubIish a searale guide. Go lo
horlon.com/eId/ lo see an examIe.
Teachers guide
The leacher's guide rovides inslruclions for lhe leacher, discussion moderalor, meeling
roducer, and guesl seaker.
The leacher's guide leIIs inslruclors and faciIilalors hov lo sel u lhe course, conducl
onIine meelings, moderale discussions, and erform olher aclivilies. Il shouId aIso cover
lhe dulies of olhers invoIved in adminislering and deIivering lhe course, such as lhe
roducer of onIine meelings, guesl seakers, and leaching assislanls.
When do you need a teachers guide?
Creale a leacher's guide vhen lhose conducling lhe cIass are nev lo some asecl of lhe
cIass. Creale a guide vhen:
# Teachers or exerls musl leach a course lhey did nol design and deveIo.
# Teachers are nev lo onIine leaching, lo lhe sub|ecl maller, or lo lhe secific course.
# Teachers mighl olhervise lry lo ving il.
# Learning occurs mainIy in feedback from lhe leacher.


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Explain how to set up the course
The leacher's guide shouId rovide direclions for selling u a nev offering of lhe course.
TeII leachers hov lo:
# Regisler Iearners and olher arlicianls. This viII incIude selling u roIes and
assigning securily riviIeges.
#

Announce lhe course lo Iearners and lo olher arlicianls.
#

UIoad course resources.
#

Iosl biograhies for lhe leacher and olhers resonsibIe for lhe course.
#

WeIcome Iearners by e-maiI or hone.
#

IubIish a sludenl's guide, messaging oIicy, and coIIaboralion guide.
When raclicaI incIude modeIs, examIes, and lemIales lhal lhe leacher can use as a
slarling oinl in crealing required maleriaIs.
Explain how to conduct the course
Conducling a course is more lhan leaching. Il requires many aclivilies. Some are mundane
and olhers comIex. TeII leachers hov lo:
#

Monilor Iearners' erformance, behavior, and alliludes.
#

Moderale discussion forums.
#

Inlervene vilh unmolivaled Iearners and lhose behaving badIy.
#

Grade Iearners. This may require delaiIed rubrics for scoring comIex aclivilies.
# Give feedback. Some feedback can be anlicialed, and some can foIIov guideIines and
oIicies.
Explain how to set up meetings
Iach meeling requires carefuI rearalion. Make sure leachers can:
#

Ad|usl lhe syIIabus and remind Iearners of meelings.
#

Udale maleriaIs. Revise assignmenls. Ireare or revise sIides. Define nev oIIs.
#

UIoad maleriaIs.
# IubIish a delaiIed meeling agenda. Send a generaI scheduIe lo Iearners and a more
delaiIed one lo roducers, guesl seakers, and so forlh.


Explain how to conduct meetings
The leacher musl conducl meelings smoolhIy and efficienlIy for Iearners accuslomed lo
lhe fIavIess roduclion of nelvork laIk shovs.
The leacher musl knov hov lo erform aII lhe basic funclions of aII lhe necessary
coIIaboralion mechanisms, such as audio-conferencing, sIide shovs, aIicalion sharing,
chal, oIIs, and vhileboards. The leacher musl knov hov lo use lhese looIs in a vay lhal
invoIves Iearners and rovokes lhoughl.
The leacher's guide cannol reIace lhe resenler's guide ubIished by lhe vendor of lhe
meeling looI, bul il can summarize lhe mosl imorlanl oeralions.
Explain how to moderate discussions
If discussion Iays an imorlanl roIe in lhe course, lhe leacher musl eslabIish discussion
lhreads, kick off lhe discussion, and kee il going. Make sure leachers knov hov lo:
# IslabIish slandard lhreads such as Inlroduclion, Adminislralive Suorl, TechnicaI
Suorl, GeneraI Commenls, and Sludenl Lounge.
# IslabIish lhreads lo suorl individuaI meelings and Iearning aclivilies.
# Ansver queslions from Iearners.
# Iosl resources, such as reference maleriaIs and lemIales, needed for Iearners lo
comIele aclivilies.
Syllabus
Ior virluaI cIassroom courses, lhe syIIabus is lhe skeIelon lhal arlicuIales lhe course. Il is
lhe mosl imorlanl age in an onIine course. Il serves as bolh menu and home age. Il
Iays oul lhe scheduIe, requiremenls, and aclivilies of lhe vhoIe course. Il is lhe one Iace
vhere Iearners can find aII lhe requiremenls of lhe course. The syIIabus may be Iong, bul
il shouId be cIearIy organized and allracliveIy formalled.
When do you need a syllabus?
Having laughl dozens of onIine cIasses, I cannol imagine a silualion in vhich a syIIabus is
nol lhe mosl vaIuabIe documenl in a course. Il gives sludenls a safe home base from
vhich lo slarl. They knov lhal lhe syIIabus viII direcl lhem lo everylhing necessary lo
ass lhe course. The syIIabus can aIso rovide an overviev of lhe course and sel lhe
conlexl for aclivilies. Il shovs hov lhe course is organized and hov each comonenl fils
inlo lhal vhoIe. Il ansvers lhe queslion, Where am I` The syIIabus serves as a veII-
organized course menu. HyerIinks connecl Iearners direclIy lo aII arls of lhe course.
What the syllabus should contain
Here is a samIe lhal conlains mosl of lhe eIemenls needed for an effeclive syIIabus. The
noles lo lhe righl IabeI lhe conlenl and suggesl aIlernalives.


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Tit!c and idcntiIying
inInrmatinn

Links tn cach wcck's cvcnts
and tn nthcr matcria!s
ecause lhe syIIabus may be
quile Iong, incIude a IocaI labIe
of conlenls vilh enlries Iinked
lo seclions of lhe age.

Ob|cctivcs
Remind Iearners vhal lhe
course is aII aboul.

Abnut thc cnursc
Link lo maleriaIs aboul lhe
course lhal lhe Iearner may
need lo refer lo before or vhiIe
laking lhe course.

Wcck idcntiIicr

Evcnts, rcadings, and activitics

Evcnts are reaI-lime meelings.
They can incIude video-
conferences, chal sessions, and
olher Iive evenls.


|Weeks 3 and 4 are simiIarj

Rcadings are maleriaIs Iearners
musl read or viev. They may
incIude IocaI or Inlernel
maleriaIs. Some may be simIe
Web ages, vhiIe olhers are
eIaborale muIlimedia
roduclions.

Activitics are lhings eoIe do.
Aclivilies may have deadIines,
bul Iearners can generaIIy
comIele aclivilies on lheir ovn
scheduIe. Aclivilies incIude
lesls.

In Ivenls or Aclivilies, incIude
miIeslones or inlermediale
roducls for a muIli-veek
ro|ecl.

Rccurring cvcnts
Lisl evenls and aclivilies lhal
occur each veek, such as cIass
meelings, Ieclures, chals and
olher scheduIed meelings, and
Iab sessions.

Rcsnurccs
Lisl resources Iearners may find
usefuI vhiIe laking lhe course.

Nntcs
IncIude any noles, caulions,
varnings, or olher maleriaI lhal
you need lo bring lo lhe
allenlion of Iearners.


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Best practices for a syllabus
I have seen courses saved by a revision of lhe syIIabusil is lhal imorlanl. Give lhe
humbIe syIIabus lhe allenlion il deserves.
Makc thc sy!!abus cnmprchcnsivc. Lisl aII aclivilies, resources, suorl conlacls, and
adminislralive requiremenls. Link lo menlioned documenls and forum lhreads. IncIude
hone numbers and e-maiI addresses of facuIly and suorl slaff. And remember lo lesl
aII Iinks, e-maiI addresses, and hone numbers.
Organizc thc cnursc intn bitc-sizcd chunks. If Iearners are given lhe comIele sel of
course maleriaIs from lhe slarl, lhe very mass of lhe maleriaIs may discourage or
overvheIm lhem. Use lhe syIIabus lo divide lhe mass of course maleriaIs inlo
underslandabIe ieces, sorl lhe ieces inlo IogicaI calegories, arrange lhe ieces inlo
meaningfuI Iearning sequences, and sel an aroriale scheduIe for maslering lhem.
Iven if you do nol incIude a formaI syIIabus, al Ieasl suggesl a sequence and scheduIe for
consuming lhe maleriaIsand cIearIy dislinguish high-riorily required maleriaIs from
olionaI ones.
5pcciIy cxact datcs. When does lhe veek end and begin` e carefuI aboul inlernalionaI
differences and lime-zone shifls.
Weeks begin just past midnight Monday morningGMT!
If raclicaI, fiII in acluaI dales ralher lhan |usl saying Week 1, Week 2, elc.
Link tn cvcrything. Do nol require Iearners lo go searching for maleriaIs menlioned in lhe
syIIabus. Link lo lhe maleriaIs so lhal Iearners can |um lo lhem. Ior Ieclures and
conferences, Iink lo lhe meeling sile. Ior aclivilies, Iink lo lhe form Iearners musl fiII in
and submil lo comIele lhe aclivily.
F!ag rcquircd itcms. Use a dislinclive icon for required ilems. IIag any mandalory or
dale-secific aclivilies in lhe syIIabus and course announcemenls. Make cryslaI cIear
vhich ilems affecl lhe finaI grade and vhich do nol. If an ilem is olionaI, bul Iearners
vho erform lhe aclivily can vin exlra oinls, is lhe aclivily reaIIy olionaI`
Simplify tasks for learners
Learning is hard under lhe besl circumslances. Make Iearning as easy as ossibIe. Kee
your course simIe so Iearning is roduclive and efficienl.
Keep the class small
Mosl leachers recommend keeing virluaI cIasses smaII, say 7 lo 10 sludenls. Hovever,
smaII cIass sizes can lhvarl economic goaIs lhal may besl be served by Iarger cIasses. You
musl veigh lhe immediale revenue of a Iarge cIass versus lhe reulalion engendered by
lhe quaIily of Iearning exeriences ossibIe in inlimale grouings.


If you cannol afford a smaII cIass, lake sles lo ensure lhal Iearners are sliII lrealed as
individuaIs. IncIude Iols of smaII-grou aclivily so lhe scoe of lhe cIass does nol
inlimidale Iearners.
Offer a textbook (or equivalent)
One of lhe mosl vaIuabIe comonenls of an onIine course can be an oId fashioned
lexlbook.

In lhis examIe, Iearners are
referred lo lexlbooks lo be
read for secific assignmenls.
A lexlbook is famiIiar lo Iearners. An eIeclronicaIIy accessibIe lexlbook heIs vilh
accessibiIily requiremenls. Screen readers for lhe bIind can seak lhe lexl aIoud. Hearing-
disabIed can read lhe lexlbook lo Iearn vhal lhey couId nol gel from voice in lhe
meelings. And, yes, some Iearners vouId ralher read a veII-organized book lhan slruggIe
vilh lechnoIogy.
Respond promptly and reliably
Make and kee romises lo uncluaIIy resond lo Iearners' e-maiI messages, discussion
forum oslings, lesls, and exercises. Here is such a romise:
I viII check my e-maiI in lhe morning (Taiei lime) and evening on veekdays
onIy. I viII scan forum oslings on Mondays and Thursdays. AII exercises and
lesls lhal are nol aulomalicaIIy scored viII be relurned lo you vilhin lhree
business days.

This examIe Iels Iearners knov hov
soon lo execl a resonse lo lheir
e-maiI messages.


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Sel reaIislic execlalions for reIies from lhe leacher. Afler aII, some leachers may vanl lo
lake lhe veekend off. Some may be nine lime zones avay in a counlry vilh differenl
oIilicaI, business, and reIigious hoIidays.
Teachers vho viII be unavaiIabIe for a Ionger eriod shouId arrange for someone eIse lo
handIe messages vhiIe lhey are avay. Or lhey shouId sel u lheir e-maiI rograms lo
aulomalicaIIy resond lo incoming messages vilh a reIy Iike lhis:
I viII be oul of lhe office unliI 27 }anuary. I viII ansver your message lhen. If
you need an immediale resonse, conlacl adminislralive suorl.
TeII Iearners vhere you viII osl crilicaI announcemenls and hov oflen lhey are
resonsibIe for checking lhem. e reasonabIe. Giving Iess lhan 48 hours' nolice is seIdom
sufficienl.
Deal with problem learners
Mosl Iearners diIigenlIy ursue lheir educalion. Some, hovever, exhibil disrulive
behavior, |usl as in cIassroom courses. The oorlunilies for bad behavior are magnified
by lhe over of lechnoIogy. Take sles lo ensure lhal a fev angry or confused Iearners do
nol ruin lhe exerience for olhers.
Give fair warning
Make cIear lo Iearners vhal behavior is accelabIe and vhal behavior is nol accelabIe.

This orlion of a coIIaboralion
oIicy allemls lo head off bad
behavior by Iaying dovn cIear
ruIes for vhal kind of
behavior is execled.
AIlhough such ruIes do nol
revenl bad behavior, lhey do
ensure lhal lhere is no
queslion aboul vhelher such
behavior is accelabIe.


Deal with bad behavior
ad behavior is as rare in onIine courses as in lhe cIassroombul olenliaIIy more
disrulive. Here are some roven lechniques for deaIing vilh misbehaving Iearners.
# P!an rcspnnscs Inr cnmmnn bad bchavinrs. Anliciale robIems and have a
consislenl, lhoughl-oul resonse ready.
# Pub!ish a standard Inr bchavinr. Many Iearners may nol knov lhe convenlions and
execlalions for onIine Iearning. Inforce oIicies consislenlIy.
# Cnn! nII Iirst. Never resond in anger. Do nol assume a Iearner's behavior is baseIess.
Ask vhy. Ierhas lhe Iearner vas ignoranl of lhe ruIes or |usl unabIe lo use lhe
lechnoIogy as execled. Ierhas lhe Iearner is |usl lrying lo gel your allenlion.
# Prngrcssivc!y rcspnnd tn bad bchavinr. IoIileIy remind firsl-lime vioIalors. IrivaleIy
counseI serious or reeal offenders. If lhese Iearners' bad behavior conlinues, do nol
recognize lhem. Iock lheir chal. IinaIIy, exeI incorrigibIes.
# Distinguish intc!!cctua! disagrccmcnt Irnm abusivc bchavinr. Teach Iearners lo
disagree rofessionaIIy and oIileIy. And leach lhem lo resond lo Iegilimale crilicism.
Handle common problems
Here are some common robIems encounlered in coIIaboralive aclivilies and some
suggeslions on hov lo handIe lhem. Ior more suggeslions for handIing robIems in sociaI
Iearning, read Inlervene in cases of bad behavior in Chaler 8.
Prnb!cm Dcscriptinn 5n!utinn
Latccnmcrs Some Iearners |oin meelings and
discussions Iale and insisl lhal
lhe enlire rocess slarl aII over
again.
Slarl meelings on lime. Do nol
re-slarl for Ialecomers. Ioinl oul
lhal lheir lardiness is disrulive.
e reared for some inleresling
excuses.
Dnminating Some Iearners may lry lo
dominale lhe conversalion by
inlimidaling olhers or by lrying
lo ansver every queslion.
In rivale e-maiI ask lhe sender
lo osl queslions for olhers lo
ansver. Al lhe same lime,
encourage olhers lo |oin in.


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5pamming Sending seIf-serving messages,
such as adverlisemenls and saIes
ilches, lo lhe vhoIe grou.
Yank lhe message and remind
lhe sender lhal il vioIales course
oIicies. Make sure your oIicy
is secific. Is il OK for one
sludenl lo send a resume lo
anolher vho is a olenliaI
emIoyer` Can sludenls recruil
olher sludenls for ermanenl or
arl-lime vork`
E-mai! bnmb Iosling messages designed lo
disrul a grou by rovoking
angry resonses. Commenls on
aborlion, gun conlroI, oIilicaI
correclness, sexuaI references,
or nalionaIilies are aII
guaranleed lo vreck a
discussion forum for a veek.
Remove lhe message and varn
lhe submiller. Require an
aoIogy. Remind olher Iearners
hov much lime lhey vasled
commenling on such messages.
Nitpicking Iarlicianls find fauIl vilh lhe
vork of olhers bul never offer
soIulions. They may conlinuaIIy
oinl oul lyos and smaII
grammalicaI errors. Such
nilicking dislracls everyone
from lhe sub|ecl of lhe
e-Iearning.
Remind nilickers lo focus on
higher-IeveI issues. Discover
vhy lhey nilick. If lhey Iack
knovIedge lo crilique al a
higher IeveI, recommend
rerequisile courses.
5!nppincss Learners are Iazy and
inconsiderale of olhers. They
forgel lo mule lheir hones or
give meaningfuI sub|ecls lo lheir
messages. They faiI lo read
inslruclions and vrile
incomrehensibIe slream-of-
consciousness enlries. They
reIy vilhoul reading revious
osls.
Ioinl oul lhal Iearners have a
resonsibiIily lo feIIov Iearners.
Shov hov sIoy Iearners are
vasling lhe lime of olhers.
Inslilule a nealness-counls
oIicy in grading aclivilies.


P!agiarism Learners submil lhe vork of
olhers as lheir ovn. TyicaIIy
Iearners viII |usl coy maleriaI
from lhe Web for an aclivily lhal
shouId require originaI vork.
Use a Web-based service, such
as Turnilin (lurnilin.com), lo
sol Iagiarismand Iel
Iearners knov lhal you do. Ior
lhe firsl offense, exIain lhe
oIicy.
eller sliII: revork lhe aclivily
so il cannol be ansvered by
simIy coying informalion.
Cnpyright
vin!atinns
Learners submil maleriaI ovned
by olhers. SimiIar lo Iagiarism
excel lhal Iearners are vioIaling
Iavs, nol |usl elhics.
Warn Iearners and require
reIacing lhe maleriaI and
redoing lhe aclivily. AIso foIIov
lhe sles for Iagiarism.
F!aming Making abusive and emolionaI
allacks on someone eIse.
If lhe allack is miId, Iel lhe
grou deaI vilh il firsl. Sle in
as necessary. Require an
aoIogy and varn lhe sender.

Follow up after the course
The microhones are aII lurned off and lhe screen-savers are Iaying, bul Iearning can
conlinue. Learning shouId nol slo al lhe end of lhe course|usl vhen Iearners are
beginning lo aIy vhal lhey have Iearned. Use coIIaboralion looIs lo Iel leachers and
Iearners slay in louch and lo monilor hov successfuIIy knovIedge gained in lhe course is
aIied on lhe |ob and in subsequenl courses.
Mainlain communicalion vilh Iearners afler lhe cIass ends. Incourage aIumni lo share
success slories, ask for heI, and offer heI lo olhers. Make il easy and inexensive for
Iearners lo slay in louch.
# Kee discussion forums oen or sel u aIumni-onIy forums.
# Mainlain a rosler of aIumni vho are viIIing lo share lheir conlacl informalion. Make il
avaiIabIe onIy lo olher aIumni.
# Conducl aIumni-onIy meelings lo discuss hov lhey are aIying ideas from lhe
course.
# Lel aIumni sil in on fulure offerings of lhe course.
# Invile aIumni lo serve as seciaI lulors, menlors, or leaching assislanls.


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IN CLOSING
Webinars and virluaI cIassroom courses use comuler and nelvork lechnoIogies lo
imIemenl lhe slruclure and aclivily of convenlionaI cIassroom courses.
Summary
# Use a Webinar lo accomIish one simIe Iearning ob|eclive, lo meel a one-lime need, or
lo leach a singIe grou of Iearners.
# Use a virluaI cIassroom course vhen a leacher is necessary lo molivale Iearners,
monilor lheir rogress, and ansver lheir queslions immedialeIy. Or vhen lhe
disciIine rovided by a famiIiar slruclure and eer ressure is necessary lo molivale
Iearners.
# IubIish a comrehensive syIIabus Iisling aII lhe evenls, aclivilies, and readings of lhe
course. Link lo Web ages, forms, and olher required resources. Likevise, incIude
Iinks lo lhe rosler, oIicies, requiremenls, grading crileria, discussion forum, and olher
resources of lhe course.
# AcliveIy conducl lhe cIass. The leacher shouId conlacl arlicianls direclIy, kee lhem
on scheduIe and focused on lhe course, and manage coIIaboralive aclivilies.
# IIan Iive evenls carefuIIy. Ahead of lime, assign roIes, aIIocale lime, seII oul a
rolocoI for assing conlroI, rehearse lhe evenl, and send maleriaIs needed during lhe
evenl.
# Kee Iive evenls IiveIy. Vary lhe resenlalion. Require Iearners lo arliciale.
# IoIIov lhese To 10 besl raclices for virluaI leachers:
1. Ireare veII: Do nol lry lo ving il.
2. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse . and lhen reIax.
3. Less resenlalion, more aclivalion.
4. Check your ego al lhe door.
5. Molivale, molivale, molivale.
6. QuickIy deaI vilh buIIies, bigols, and bullheads.
7. Insisl on rofessionaI, aduIl Iearning behaviors.
8. Incourage sludenls lo Iearn from each olher.
9. ScheduIe for lhe convenience of your Iearners.
10. Monilor Iearners. Or have someone eIse do so.


For more
Ior more ideas on hov lo leach acliveIy in lhe virluaI cIassroom, consider using some of
lhe aclivilies exIained in Chalers 2, 3, and 4. Iven lhe asynchronous ones can be
adaled for use by a leacher.
To find more on designing and deIivering virluaI-cIassroom courses, search lhe Web for
combinalions of lhese lerms: tiriua| c|assrccn, cn|inc ncciing, and sqncnrcncus c-|carning.
AIso search under lhe names of individuaI coIIaboralion looIs, such as app|icaiicn snaring,
uniic|car!, ti!cc-ccnjcrcncing. e sure lo lry aIlernalive seIIings, eseciaIIy for comound
lerms.
Ior onIine meelings, you viII need an onIine meeling looI. There are many lo choose
from. Here are a fev ouIar ones lo gel you slarled.
# Adobe Connecl (vvv.adobe.com).
# IIIuminale (vvv.eIIuminale.com).
# GoToWebinar (vvv.golomeeling.com).
# Live Meeling (office.microsofl.com).
# WebIx (vvv.WebIx.com).
VirluaI schooI looIs rovide an enlire ackage for meelings, discussion, and olher
coIIaboralive aclivilies, aII slruclured as a famiIiar schooI or camus.
# MoodIe (vvv.moodIe.org).
# .LRN (vvv.dolIrn.org).
# Iackboard (vvv.bIackboard.com).
# Desire2Learn (vvv.desire2Iearn.com).
# eCoIIege (vvv.ecoIIege.com).

583

Conclusion

The fulure of e-Iearning

I-Iearning is nol |usl a change of lechnoIogy. Il is arl of a redefinilion of hov ve as a
secies lransmil knovIedge, skiIIs, and vaIues lo younger generalions of vorkers and
sludenls. I viII end lhis book by daring lo make a fev rediclions of hov e-Iearning and
lhe funclions il serves viII conlinue lo deveIo.
HOW WE WILL LEARN
Where we are headed
The nev modeIs Iead us lo some inleresling nev visions of hov educalion viII be
acquired in lhe fulure. One scenario goes Iike lhis:

584 ! Conclusion ! E-Learning by Design

Learners viII have access lo miIIions or biIIions of knovIedge moduIes. Some viII be Web
ages vilh simIe lexl and grahics. Olhers may incIude muIlimedia simuIalions. Some
may consisl of couons for a video-conference vilh a human exerl.
When Iearners have a need for knovIedge, lhey viII engage in a diagnoslic rocedure.
This diagnosis may be erformed in a fev nanoseconds by an aIgorilhm in lheir
comulers. Or lhis diagnosis may invoIve laking an exam or fiIIing oul a queslionnaire lo
assess lheir currenl knovIedge IeveI reIalive lo lheir needed IeveI. Il may invoIve vorking
vilh a counseIor or advisor over a eriod of days.
The resuIl of lhis diagnosis viII be a requesl lo a dalabase conlaining miIIions or biIIions
of knovIedge moduIes. The needed moduIes viII be rounded u and herded inlo a
slruclure comrising a Iesson or documenl cuslom-laiIored lo lhe needs of lhe individuaI
vho requesled il.
This cycIe of requesling and receiving knovIedge may lake Iace dozens of limes a day.
The cuslom sel of exeriences may lake minules or monlhs lo consume. The resuIl,
lhough, viII be a shifl from mass-manufaclured lo handcrafled educalion.
How we will get there
As inleresling as vhere ve are going is lhe |ourney ve viII lake lo gel lhere. Here are
some rediclions of sociaI and lechnoIogicaI changes ve can execl:
# I-Iearning viII fade avay. I-Iearning has enlered lhe mainslream. In many fieIds,
e-Iearning has become lhe defauIl vay lo conducl lraining or lo rovide educalion.
Iev areas are unavare of ils benefils. The queslion of vhelher lo use e-Iearning viII be
reIaced by a decision of vhal lyes of Iearning exeriences besl accomIish goaIs. The
emhasis viII drifl back lo Iearning. And e-Iearning viII be aII lhe slronger.
# Advances viII come more and more from grassrools designers, deveIoers, and
Iearners. The success of ro|ecls Iike Wikiedia shovs lhe ossibiIily for consumers of
informalion lo creale lheir ovn documenls. Many smaII organizalions have found
success in cuslomizing oen-source looIs lo meel lheir ovn needs. Communilies of
designers share lechniques, lis, and insiralion.
# I-Iearning viII grov by incororaling lechnicaI and sociaI rogress. Nev roducls,
lrends, and innovalions from fieIds Iike enlerlainmenl and mass communicalion viII
conlinue lo be adaled for use in educalion. }usl as audio CDs Ied lo CD-ROMS and
lhe Inlernel lo Web-based lraining, loday mobiIe hones, videogames, and sociaI
nelvorking are conlribuling nev ossibiIilies lo e-Iearning. So loo viII lhe
lechnoIogicaI advances and sociaI fads of lhe fulure.

E-Learning by Design " Conclusion " 585

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WHAT HAS TO HAPPEN
Ior e-Iearning lo conlinue lo advance, and nol slagnale, raclilioners musl conlinue lo
innovale and inslilulions musl embrace lhe benefils lhal e-Iearning offers.
# DigilaI nalives or lhe digilaIIy fIuenl musl achieve osilions of over in aII inslilulions
from shiing cIerk lo chairman of lhe board, from IocaI schooI-board member lo
universily chanceIIor, and from cily counciI lo . (I aImosl vrole While House, bul
lhen I remembered lhe incidenl vhere Iresidenl-eIecl Obama's insislence on
conlinuing lo use his Iackberry caused a anic among lhe Secrel Service and While
House lechnicaI slaff.)
# Designers musl insisl on fundamenlaI inslruclionaI design and nol |usl cram conlenl
inlo aulhoring looIs. Al every slage, ve musl ask, Why am I doing lhis` Hov does il
heI my Iearners lo Iearn`
# Designers musl accel sociaI Iearning, mobiIe Iearning, and Iearning games as vaIid
forms of e-Iearning, deIoy lhem vhere lhey vork besl, and slrive lo design lhem veII.
And designers musl be oen lo nev ideas vhiIe avoiding chasing fads for ouIarily's
sake.
# We musl redefine Iearning as adding lo eoIe's caabiIilies ralher lhan cramming
informalion inlo lheir Iong-lerm memory. The focus musl shifl from vhal eoIe
knov lo vhal lhey can doaII lhe lhings lhey can accomIish aIone and aII lhe lhings
lhey can accomIish vilh everylhing lhey can access eIeclronicaIIy, incIuding reference
maleriaIs and sociaI nelvorks.
SECRETS OF E-LEARNING DESIGN
I've lucked four secrels here. You found lhem because you have ersisled lhrough a very
Iong book or eIse vere smarl enough lo fIi lo lhe Iasl age. These secrels are seciaI
insighls, nol commonIy knovn or videIy racliced. They rovide Ieverage oinls vhere a
IillIe efforl has far-reaching resuIls. They can form lhe basis for a successfuI career in
e-Iearning design. They reresenl areas vhere your crealivily and ersislence are
revarded and vhere you can make significanl rogress.
The firsl secrel is lo leach vhal Iearners need lo Iearn in lhe vay lhey mosl naluraIIy
Iearn. To do so, ve can lesl reaI Iearners in reaI silualions. A lechnique for doing lhis is
exIained in lhe Aendix, righl afler lhis chaler.
The second secrel is lo define cIear Iearning ob|eclives. Here lhe lerm secrel is a bil ironic
as aII inslruclionaI design melhodoIogies reach lhis bul fev ro|ecls raclice il. The key
is nol |usl lo define ob|eclives as a check-off ilem in a Iisl of lasks, bul aIso lo ul lhe

586 ! Conclusion ! E-Learning by Design

ob|eclives lo vork lo guide and inform every decision on lhe ro|ecl. CIear ob|eclives are
Iike GIS navigalion for your ro|ecl.
The lhird secrel buiIds on lhe firsl lvo. Il is lo focus on lhe righl ob|eclives. Too many
ro|ecls mereIy leach eoIe lo recile facls and figures or lo foIIov role rocedures.
Today, eoIe can Iook u informalion and simIe rocedures. Today ve need lo leach
eoIe lo creale lhings and lo make difficuIl decisions. And lo do so, ve oflen have lo
allend lo vhal eoIe beIieve and feeI, nol |usl vhal lhey knov.
The finaI secrel is in lhe over of lesling. OnIy a smaII ercenlage of e-Iearning loday
incororales vaIid lesling. A mere recilaI of facls is seIdom vaIid lesling. VaIid lesling
requires erformance of lhe acluaI Iearning ob|eclive (remember secrels 2 and 3!). VaIid
lesling measures Iearning. Il can more reciseIy largel Iearning aclivilies. Il rovides
Iearners vilh vilaI feedback and designers vilh an assessmenl of lhe effecliveness of lheir
e-Iearning. The over of lesling is amIified vhen ve deveIo lesls before conlenl. Thal
vay lesls make ob|eclives more concrele and secific so lhey can beller guide lhe
deveIomenl of Iearning aclivilies and media.
JUST THE BEGINNING
We are |usl al lhe beginning of e-Iearning. We are using Version 1,364,287.4.6 of cIassroom
Iearning. Il is highIy refined and efficienl. We are onIy on Version 2.0 of e-Iearning. Il is
crude, buggy, and fuII of Iimilalions. ul every day il gels beller. Crealive designers are
|usl nov varming u.
I can'l vail lo see vhal you do.

587

Appendix
Essentialism
Teach |usl vhal eoIe need lo Iearn
IssenliaIism caIIs on us lo leach lhe essence of any sub|ecl ralher lhan unimorlanl,
dislracling, and eriheraI delaiIs. y leaching essenliaIs, ve enabIe Iearners lo masler lhe
sub|ecl quickIy and sureIy.
ESSENTIAL ESSENTIALISM
Al aII slages of design, you musl ask yourseIf, Whal do Iearners need lo Iearn`
AnaIyzing Iearners' needsas veII as lheir olenliaI and Iimilalionsrequires carefuI
sludy. The mosl efficienl and reIiabIe melhod of idenlifying |usl vhal you need lo leach is
lo lesl olenliaI Iearners in lhe environmenl in vhich lhey musl aIy Iearning.

Over lhe years, I have refined lhis rocess lo a simIe, quick, and inexensive rocedure.
You galher a air of lesl sub|ecls lo simuIale lhose vho need lhe skiIIs, knovIedge, and
alliludes you are charged vilh conveying. You ul lhem in lhe environmenl in vhich
lhey musl erform lasks lhal require lhose same skiIIs, knovIedge, and alliludes. You
give lhe lesl sub|ecls no lraining or olher resources lhey vouId nol have in lhe reaI

588 ! Appendix: Essentialism ! E-Learning by Design

environmenl. Hovever, you do bring in a sub|ecl-maller exerl vho can ansver any
queslions lhe lesl sub|ecls may have.
You begin lhe lesl by assigning lhe air a reaIislic lask. The lesl sub|ecls roceed unliI
lhey feeI lhe need for heI. Al lhal oinl, lhey may ask a queslion. The exerl ansvers lhe
queslion bul does nol voIunleer informalion. The lesl sub|ecls lhen arahrase lhe
exerl's ansver lo make sure lhey underslood. The sub|ecls roceed unliI lhey need heI
again. Throughoul lhe lesl, you calaIog lhe heI required by lhe lesl sub|ecls.
Underslanding hov Iearners lhink aboul lhings and hov lhey refer lo lhem (as shovn by
lhe lesl sub|ecls) viII rove usefuI in deveIoing knovIedge roducls for lhem.
Il reaIIy is lhal simIe.
SET UP THE TEST
To erform an essenliaIisl anaIysis, you viII need five main ingredienls:
# Tcst sub|ccts vho reresenl your Iearners. These lesl sub|ecls shouId have lhe same
abiIilies and molivalions as your inlended Iearners.
# Tasks lhal require vhal you are charged vilh leaching. These lasks shouId require
accomIishing lhe lo Iearning ob|eclive of your ro|ecl.
# Envirnnmcnt lhal simuIales vhere Iearners viII aIy Iearning. Selling u lhe
environmenl may require lhe hysicaI sace, furnilure, and looIs avaiIabIe in lhe reaI
silualion. The environmenl may aIso incIude olher eoIe lo Iay roIes in erforming
lhe lask, eseciaIIy lasks erformed in a sociaI selling.
# 5nurccs nI inInrmatinn lhal are accessibIe in lhe reaI silualion. In lhe lesl, lesl sub|ecls
may need access lo aII lhe resources lhey couId use in lhe reaI vorId lo ansver
queslions and overcome obslacIes. These sources may incIude roducl documenlalion,
a simuIaled heI Iine, hone access lo friends and co-vorkers, and access lo a sociaI
nelvork of olenliaI advisors.
# Expcrt vho can ansver queslions. The exerl musl knov hov lo erform lhe lask and
ansver queslions aboul lhe lask.
SUPERVISE THE TEST
Direcling lhe lesl requires a Iighl hand and a valchfuI eye. Tesl sub|ecls musl feeI in
conlroI so lhey acl naluraIIy. Here are lhe sles lo foIIov in conducling lhe lesl:
1. Prcparc thc tcst sub|ccts. Make lhe lesl sub|ecls comforlabIe and confidenl. Inlroduce
yourseIf and lhe exerl. Have sub|ecls inlroduce lhemseIves. Give lesl sub|ecls a IillIe
lime lo gel lo knov each olher. IamiIiarize lhem vilh lhe hysicaI environmenl of lhe

E-Learning by Design " Appendix: Essentialism " 589

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lesl and lhe resources lhey can caII on during lhe lesl. Remember lo gel vrillen
ermission lo record lhe lesl.
2. Exp!ain thc ru!cs. The ruIes of essenliaIisl lesling are simIe and fev:
a. Tcst sub|ccts can do vhalever lhey feeI necessary lo accomIish lhe goaI.
b. Expcrts can ansver queslions bul musl nol voIunleer informalion.
c. Thc tcst cnnductnr shouId nol inlrude, excel vhen necessary lo kee lhe lesl on
lrack.
3. Assign thc task. IxIain lhe goaI of lhe lask cIearIy lo lhe lesl sub|ecls. Ansver any
queslions lhey have aboul lhe goaI bul do nol give any hinls lhey vouId nol receive
in lhe reaI lask. Remind lhem of any reslriclions, such as a lime Iimil. Wish lhem Iuck
and begin lhe lesl.
4. Mnnitnr thc tcst. Observe as lhe lesl sub|ecls roceed lovard lhe goaI. When lhey
encounler a robIem, lhey viII lry lo find a soIulion. Lel lhem. If lhey ask a queslion
of lhe exerl, make sure lhe exerl ansvers fuIIy, bul does nol voIunleer informalion
nol asked for.
5. Cnnc!udc thc tcst. When lhe lesl sub|ecls reach lhe goaIand recognize lhal lhey
have mel lhe goaIcaII a haIl lo lhe lesl, slo recording, and lhank everybody
invoIved.
The roIes of lhe lesl sub|ecls, exerl, and lesl conduclor are furlher exIained in lhe
foIIoving seclions.
The role of test subjects
The foIIoving is lhe briefing given lo lesl sub|ecls before a lesl.
Tcst sub|ccts
Your roIe in lhis lesl is lo be yourseIf. y doing so you viII heI us design lhe mosl
effeclive Iearning ossibIe. Kee lhese oinls in mind:
# Ynu arc in chargc. In lhe lesl, nolhing qcu do is vrong. There is no vay qcu can faiI.
# Accnmp!ish thc gna! by vhalever alh you and your arlner see fil. If lhere are any
reslriclions, such as vhal looI lo use or hov Iong you have lo comIele lhe lask,
lhese viII be seIIed oul lo you before lhe lesl begins. Olher lhan lhese secific
Iimils, you are free lo accomIish lhe lask by vhalever melhod you refer.
# Gct hc!p whcn ynu nccd it. IeeI free lo seek informalion by vhalever means seem
mosl naluraI lo you. You can discuss lhe issue vilh your arlner. You can |usl guess
or can aIy a lriaI-and-error slralegy. You can Iook u informalion in documenls
resenl in lhe lesl environmenl or search onIine. You can use lhe rovided hone lo
caII friends, famiIy, or co-vorkers. You can access any sociaI nelvork or rofessionaI
nelvork lo vhich you beIong. You can aIso ask lhe exerl. There is no


recommended
melhod of gelling heI. }usl do vhal vorks for you.
# Ask thc cxpcrt nn!y iI ynu want tn. The exerl is viIIing lo ansver any queslion
you oseor lo vail alienlIy in lhe background.
# Ta!k thrnugh thc cxpcrt's answcr. If you ask a queslion of lhe exerl, Iease discuss
lhe ansver vilh your arlner lo make sure you bolh undersland lhe ansver lo mean
lhe same lhing.

The role of the expert
The foIIoving is lhe briefing given lo exerls before a lesl.
5ub|cct-mattcr cxpcrt
Thank you for agreeing lo arliciale in lhis lesl. Your roIe, as a sub|ecl-maller exerl,
is lo resond lo requesls for heI from lhe lesl sub|ecls. As you arliciale, Iease kee
lhese ruIes in mind:
# Dn nnt intcrrupt thc tcst sub|ccts. Iven if you feeI lhe lesl sub|ecls are doing
somelhing vrong, do nol give assislance unliI lhey exIicilIy ask for heI. The onIy
excelion is if lhey seem aboul lo in|ure lhemseIves or damage exensive
equimenl.
# Dn nnt vn!untccr inInrmatinn. Ansver queslions fuIIy, bul never go beyond lhe
scoe of lhe queslion. If in doubl, cul your ansver shorl and vail lo see if lhe lesl
sub|ecls ask anolher queslion.
# Listcn Inr imp!icd qucstinns. Do nol require lhe lesl sub|ecls lo hrase queries as
grammalicaIIy correcl queslions. A queslion is any overl sign lhal lhe lesl sub|ecls
are asking for secific heI. Il can be an incomIele senlence, for examIe, And lhen
ve .. Il can be a simIe requesl for confirmalion, for examIe, Then ve ress lhe
I|ecl bullon, righl`
# Cnunt tn thrcc bcInrc answcring any qucstinn. Oflen, in lhal shorl deIay, lhe
sub|ecls viII discover lhe ansver for lhemseIves. The deIay reveaIs vhal lhey a|ncsi
knov.
# Answcr in thc mnst natura! way pnssib!c. The besl ansver may be a simIe nod or
geslure. The ansver does nol have lo be in vords, you can drav a iclure or
demonslrale a rocedure.


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Role of the test conductor
The foIIoving is lhe briefing given lo lhe lesl conduclor before a lesl:
Tcst cnnductnr
Thank you for agreeing lo arliciale in lhis lesl. Your roIe, as a lesl conduclor, is lo
engineer a successfuI lesl. As you direcl lhe lesl, kee lhe foIIoving suggeslions in
mind:
# Makc tcst sub|ccts cnmInrtab!c. Inlroduce yourseIf lo lhe lesl sub|ecls and lhen
inlroduce lhem lo each olher and lo lhe exerl. IamiIiarize lhem vilh lhe lesl
environmenl. IxIain lhe urose of lhe lesl and emhasize lhal lhe lesl sub|ecls are
nol being evaIualed or graded. Give lhe lesl sub|ecls lime lo reIax and feeI al home.
# Exp!ain thc task Iu!!y. Slale lhe goaI and Iel lhe lesl sub|ecls ask queslions. Ansver
fuIIy aboul lhe goaI, bul do nol give any hinls aboul hov lo achieve il.
# Mnnitnr thc tcst nncc it bcgins. Observe lhe robIem-soIving slralegies of lhe lesl
sub|ecls. Kee in mind lhal lhey may be nervous al firsl. ResuIls viII be vaIid once
lhe lesl sub|ecls reIax lheir oslure and slarl seaking in incomIele senlences.
# Intcrrupt nn!y whcrc ncccssary, for inslance:
! Tesl sub|ecls are aboul lo do somelhing dangerous.
! The exerl voIunleers informalion nol requesled by lhe lesl sub|ecls.
! The exerl faiIs lo resond lo a, erhas sublIe, requesl for heI.
! The exerl cannol ansver a queslion bul you can.

ANALYZE TEST RESULTS
Ior each lesl you erform, carefuIIy reviev lhe resuIls and drav concIusions. AnaIysis
usuaIIy requires lhree sles: 1. Record vhal lhe lesl sub|ecls needed lo Iearn. 2. Idenlify
hov lhey referred lo Iearn. 3. Infer rinciIes lo guide your design.
Record needed learning
The firsl sle of anaIyzing resuIls is lo record needed Iearning. Thal is, vhal abiIilies,
knovIedge, beIiefs, and feeIings vere necessary for success` And, vhal vere nol
necessary`
Slarl by Iisling lhree lhings:
# Whal lesl sub|ecls nccdcd tn knnw as shovn by lhe queslions lhey asked of lhe exerl.
# Whal lesl sub|ecls Iigurcd nut nn thcir nwn, for examIe, by lriaI and error, by
discussion, or by onIine searches.


# Whal lhe lesl sub|ecls did nnt nccd tn knnweven lhough exerls and designers
redicled lhey vouId.

Here are lhe resuIls of a singIe lesl vhere
lesl sub|ecls vere chaIIenged lo sel lhe
dale and lime on a muIli-funclion digilaI
valch.
Iirsl, vhal did lhe lesl sub|ecls acluaIIy need lo knov, as demonslraled by lheir
queslions` They needed lo knov hov lo enler lhe ad|uslmenl mode. They vere confused
aboul vhich disIay vas dale and vhich vas lime. They vere unavare of lhe
requiremenl lo exil lhe ad|uslmenl mode afler making a change. Thal's il.
Whal did lhey figure oul on lheir ovn` They uzzIed oul lhe formal of dale and lime
vilhoul loo much efforl. And, once lhey gol inlo ad|uslmenl mode, lhey figured oul hov
lo make ad|uslmenls on lheir ovn.
We aIso vanl lo nole lhe lhings lhey did nol need lo knoveven lhough ve exerl
inslruclionaI designers lhoughl lhey vouId. One issue lhal never arose vas lhe concel of
modes. Il |usl never vas an issue. Ierhas olher devices had laughl lhe concel fuIIy. The
second surrise vas lhal lhe lesl sub|ecls did nol need lo knov hov lo exil ad|uslmenl
mode, |usl lhal il vas required for lhem lo do so. This is a sublIe dislinclion, bul one lhal
can seII success for faiIure for lhe unvary designer.
OK, vhal do ve do vilh lhis anaIysis` As a broad slralegy, ve shouId leach lhe lhings
lhal lhe lesl sub|ecls reaIIy needed lo knov. Ior lhe lhings lhey figured oul on lheir ovn,
ve can rovide onIine documenls in case some Iearners are nol as ercelive or
ersislenl. The lhings lhal lhey did nol need lo knov can be omilled.

As a refinemenl of our observalions, ve
can reslale Iearning needs in lerms of
lyes of Iearning ob|eclives.
Subsequenl lesls vouId, of course, add
addilionaI ob|eclives.


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Identify the learning approach
The nexl IeveI of anaIysis Iooks al lhe Iearning aroach laken by lhe lesl sub|ecls and
vhal il imIies for hov ve leach simiIar Iearners.

Iirsl, ve ask vhal kind of heI did lhe lesl sub|ecls need` Did lhey need concels,
comIele rocedures, individuaI facls, alliludes, or somelhing eIse` In lhis case, you
mighl say lhey needed rocedures, bul a carefuI reviev of lhe video shoved lhal lhey
never asked for vhoIe sle-by-sle rocedure, onIy secific facls or individuaI sles.
The nexl queslion is in vhal order did lesl sub|ecls do lasks` In lhis case lhey sel lhe lime
firsl and lhen venl on lo sel lhe dale, lhough nol requesled lo erform oeralions in lhis
order. This is significanl since lhe maker of lhe valch assumed users vouId sel lhe dale
before selling lhe lime.
When did lesl sub|ecls ask queslions` Was il before lrying a sle, vhen slumed, afler
faiIing al a sle, or al some olher evenl or silualion` In lhis case lhey asked queslions onIy
vhen slumed or afler faiIing al a queslion. This shovs lhey vanled lo Iearn by lrying il
oul on lheir ovn.
Hov did lhe lesl sub|ecls refer lo Iearn` Where does lheir behavior faII aIong a scaIe
from asking queslions lo lriaI and error` In lhis case, lesl sub|ecls Ieaned lovard lhe lriaI-
and-error aroach.
Anolher imorlanl queslion is hov did lesl sub|ecls Iearn as lhey venl aIong` Did lhey
ignore vhal lhey Iearned earIier or did lhey aIy il fuIIy lo subsequenl chaIIenges` In
lhis case, lhey successfuIIy aIied lhe lime-selling rocedure lo sel lhe dale. They vere
Iearning as lhey venl aIong.


IinaIIy, hov did lhe lesl sub|ecls inleracl` Did one erson dominale` Did lhey share
ideas` Or did lhey aIlernale Ieadershi of lhe rocedure` In lhis case lhey shared ideas.
They aIso aIlernaled conlroI, handing lhe valch back and forlh.
Ansvers lo lhese queslions can go a Iong vay lovard icking an inslruclionaI slralegy
lhal is mosl effeclive for Iearners Iike lhese.
Infer design principles
To ul our lesling and anaIysis lo vork, ve need lo infer design rinciIes lo guide
design of our Iearning. The firsl sle is lo comiIe a Iisl of essenliaI Iearning ob|eclives.
Whal exaclIy musl ve leach` In lhis case, lhree main ob|eclives emerge from our anaIysis:
We need lo leach Iearners hov lo gel slarled. We do nol need lo leach much, |usl lhe firsl
fev sles. Afler lhal Iearners can figure oul subsequenl sles on lheir ovn. The nexl
Iearning ob|eclive ensures Iearners can correclIy inlerrel lhe overaII formal of lhe
disIay. A finaI ob|eclive is lhal Iearners be abIe lo verify successfuI comIelion of sles so
lhey have confidence in lheir efforls and so lhey do nol reeal sles unnecessariIy. These
ob|eclives are fever and more focused lhan lhe ones suggesled by exerls and designers
before lhe lesl.

Nexl, ve can use our lesl resuIls lo guide us in hov ve deIiver Iearning. ResuIls suggesl
lhal our Iearning rogram shouId be exIoralory and nol didaclicmore Iike a video
game lhan a coIIege Ieclure. Aclivilies mighl benefil by being coIIaboralive, if raclicaI.
Our lesl sub|ecls vorked lhe assigned lask as a leam, nol as individuaIs. Chances are lhey
vouId refer lo Iearn lhal vay loo. We shouId rovide more delaiI al lhe slarl of lasks
and rocedures and Iess once Iearners are undervay. This may mean vioIaling lhe
unvrillen ruIe lhal requires lhe same amounl of lraining for each and every sle in a
rocedure. IinaIIy, ve shouId rovide Iols of lroubIeshooling heI. Learners are IikeIy lo
seek heI onIy afler lhey have made a mess of lhings. We shouId rovide looIs lo gel lhem
unsluck and back on lrack.


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Of course, your lesl resuIls may be differenl, and so loo viII be your anaIysis and lhe
rinciIes you infer from lhal anaIysis. The imorlanl lhing is lo base your educalionaI
slralegy on lhe exerience of reaI Iearners in reaI silualions.
MAKE TESTING BETTER
Though lesling for essenliaIism is simIe, il is sub|ecl lo lhe usuaI conslrainls of scheduIe
and budgel. Il is aIso sub|ecl lo human faiIings and misinlerrelalions. Nol lo vorry. In
lhis seclion, I'II guide you lhrough lhe difficuIlies so you can conducl effeclive lesls on a
lighl scheduIe vilh a Iimiled budgel and an undeveIoed sub|ecl.
Overcome the Hawthorne effect
So, vhal couId go vrong` One robIem vilh usabiIily lesling vas observed before
usabiIily lesling vas even a lerm. This robIem goes by lhe name of lhe Hauincrnc cjjcci
afler a series of exerimenls lhal vere conducled from 1927 lo 1932 by Harvard usiness
SchooI Irofessor IIlon Mayo al lhe Weslern IIeclric Havlhorne faclory in Chicago. The
exerimenls measured changes in lhe rale of roduclion of leIehone reIay svilches by a
leam of vorkers as a resuIl of changes in lhe vork melhod or environmenl.
Workers vere shifled lo iecevork, . and roduclion rose. Workers vere given more
resl breaks, . and roduclion rose. The resl breaks vere Ienglhened, . and roduclion
rose. A hol meaI vas suIied, . and roduclion rose. The vorkday vas shorlened, .
and roduclion rose. Then aII lhe changes vere reversed lo relurn lo lhe originaI
condilions, . and roduclion rose. Huh`
Whal Dr. Mayo discovered had IillIe lo do vilh vorker faligue and nulrilion bul had a
vhoIe Iol lo do vilh vorker sychoIogy. Observing human behavior lends lo modify lhal
behavior. Il is a sychoIogicaI anaIog lo lhe Heisenberg Uncerlainly rinciIe of arlicIe
hysics, vhich slales lhal you cannol measure lhe osilion and momenlum of a
subalomic arlicIe because observing one modifies lhe olher.
Leave the lab-coat behind
Anolher exerimenl, lhis lime conducled by YaIe Universily, aIso underculs lhe basic
remise of lesling. In lhis lesl sub|ecls vere lesled in airs. One sub|ecl vas slraed inlo
a chair vilh eIeclrodes allached lo his body. The olher lesl sub|ecl vas Iocaled in fronl of a
conlroI aneI vilh a diaI indicaling eIeclricaI voIlage and a bullon lo deIiver a shock lo lhe
firsl lesl sub|ecl each lime he missed lhe ansver lo a lesl queslion osed by lhe lesl-
conduclor vearing a slereolyicaI vhile Iab coal. Afler each mislake, lhe second lesl
sub|ecl, lhe one adminislering lhe shocks, vas inslrucled by lhe lesl-conduclor lo increase
lhe voIlage.


The reaI urose of lhe lesl, unknovn lo lhe shock-deIivering lesl sub|ecl, vas lo see hov
far eoIe vouId go in causing ain. Sounds crueI, bul lhe firsl lesl sub|ecl vas |usl an
aclor and vas nol receiving shocks.
The frighlening resuIl vas lhal many of lhe lesl sub|ecls kel raising lhe voIlage and
deIivering shocks as inslrucled by lhe lesl-conducloreven afler lhe firsl lesl sub|ecl vas
screaming in ain or even aeared lo be unconscious.
Whal lhis exerimenl shoved is lhal in Iaboralory lesls, lhe erson conducling lhe lesl
has enormous aulhorily over lhe lesl sub|ecl. Il furlher shovs lhal lesl sub|ecls viII do
lhings in lhe Iaboralory lhal lhey vouId never do in ordinary Iife.
As leslers, ve vhisk lesl sub|ecls u lhe eIevalor lo an inlerior room vilh no oulside
vindovs bul vilh a mirror aIong one enlire vaII. We oinl four video cameras al lhe lesl
sub|ecls and leII lhem lo acl normaI. Yeah, righl.
In such lesls, sub|ecls do nol acl normaIIy. They foIIov onIy aroved rocedures and
foIIov inslruclions IileraIIy. They hide lheir doubls, fearing lhey may aear ignoranl or
Iook fooIish. They vork mighliIy lo Iease lhe lesler.
Test a twosome
One of lhe simIesl and mosl effeclive vays lo overcome lhe difficuIlies osed by lhe
Havlhorne and Lab-Coal effecls is lo lesl vilh airs of lesl sub|ecls.
Having a buddy aIong side grealIy reduces seIf-consciousness. Wilhin a fev seconds lhe
air have forgollen aboul lhe video camera and one-vay mirror and are engrossed in lhe
lask. When lhey are uzzIed, lhey do nol grov siIenl. They ask queslions of one anolher.
They offer hyolheses. They suggesl soIulions lo robIems. They laIk, laIk, and laIk. And
from lhal laIk, you can form a cIearer underslanding of vhal lhey knov and vhal lhey
need lo knov.
Provide all real resources
Irovide lesl sub|ecls vilh aII lhe resources avaiIabIe in lhe reaI vorId, for examIe: books
and manuaIs, bolh on aer and onIine, inlranel and Inlernel, incIuding sociaI
nelvorking siles, and common |ob aids. Likevise, make sure lhe lesl environmenl
incIudes reaIislic vork maleriaIs. If emIoyees receive assignmenls by e-maiI, lhen
rovide such an e-maiI as arl of lhe lesl. If hone suorl is a ossibIe source of
informalion, simuIale a cuslomer-suorl hone Iine. AIso simuIale access lo
knovIedgeabIe co-vorkers, eilher lhrough a simuIaled friend in lhe room or lhrough a
hone Iine lo a vailing coIIeague.


A
p
p
e
n
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i
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:

E
s
s
e
n
t
i
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i
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Reassure test subjects
Ior lhe mosl accurale resuIls, lesl sub|ecls musl behave normaIIy. They viII nol do lhal if
lhey feeI lhey are under lhe microscoe. Reassure your lesl sub|ecls. Remind lhem lhal
lhey are nol being |udged.
Do nol say, We're nol lesling you. They may nol have lhoughl lhal lhey vere being
lesled or lhey may nol beIieve you. Inslead, say somelhing Iike, HeI us find vays lo
imrove our educalionaI rogram. IxIain lhal vhal you are doing is research, nol
lesling erformance.
Do nol say, Don'l vorry. Your boss von'l see lhe resuIls. This |usl inlroduces a nev
vorry. A beller aroach is lo say, We reaIIy vanl our rogram lo vork for eoIe Iike
you. Mosl eoIe Iike having lhings cenlered on lhem.
Watch the video fully
If raclicaI, record lhe lesl on video. Try lo calure lhe lesl sub|ecls' faciaI exressions,
body Ianguage, and geslures. These are even more imorlanl lhan recording lheir
inleraclions vilh equimenl or comuler rograms.
To gel lhe mosl from your lesling, valch lhe video fuIIy. Walch il severaI limes and in
differenl vays. Walch il once casuaIIy |usl lo see vhal is lhere. Then valch il crilicaIIy lo
observe smaII incidenls. Once you lhink you have observed aII lhere is lo observe, valch
lhe video vilh lhe sound off lo nolice molions, such as geslures and faciaI exressions.
Walch again vilh lhe visuaIs off lo nolice lhe lone of voice of lesl sub|ecls. IIay lhe video
in fasl forvard lo nolice allerns of molion, geslures, and shifls in body Ianguage. IIay il
in sIov molion lo nolice lhe recise sequence of evenls and lhe deIays belveen reIaled
evenls.
Look for signs of anxiely, enlhusiasm, uncerlainly, discovery, anger, reIief, and
embarrassmenl. Then lrack dovn lhe sources of lhese emolionaI reaclions.
Conduct enough tests
ObviousIy you vouId nol base an enlire educalionaI rogram on one lesl, bul if
subsequenl lesls reIicale iniliaI resuIls, you vouId have a demonslrabIe ralionaIe for lhe
Iearning ob|eclives you need lo accomIish and lhe ones you can forego.
Hov many lesls musl you erform` Thal deends grealIy on lhe vaslness of your sub|ecl
maller and lhe diversily of your Iearners. There are some break oinls in lhe numbers of
lesls.
One lesl is a Iol beller lhan no lesl. One lesl can raise olenliaI robIems and vard off a
disasler.


Six lesls can be raclicaIIy, lhough nol slalislicaIIy, significanl. A haIf-dozen lesls can
invaIidale bad lheories before you imIemenl lhem and can fIag crilicaI issues lhal require
seciaI handIing or more research.
Wilh a couIe of dozen lesls, you can verify lrends and galher firm evidence lo suorl
your aroach. Tvo-dozen lesls can be slalislicaIIy significanl.
Pick valid test subjects
Your resuIls deend comIeleIy on your choice of lesl sub|ecls. Iick lesl sub|ecls vho
resembIe your evenluaI largel audience. Here are some lis for icking lesl sub|ecls:
# Iick lesl sub|ecls vilh comarabIe background knovIedge and exerience. If you vere
deveIoing a nev comuler rogramming Ianguage, you vouId nol use lesl sub|ecls
vho had never used a comuler. If you vere deveIoing a roducl for use by nevIy
gradualed nurses, you vouId nol lesl il vilh senior surgeons.
# Vary faclors Iike lhe age, gender, and Ianguage skiIIs of lhe lesl sub|ecls. AIso kee in
mind lhal cuIluraI differences may affecl hov a cIass of eoIe Iearns mosl effecliveIy.
# Iair u simiIar eoIe for a lesl. Then air u very differenl eoIe for lhe nexl lesl.
Does lhe airing make a difference`
# Do nol use rofessionaI lesl sub|ecls. Once eoIe have arlicialed in a fev lesls, lhey
are no Ionger reresenlalive of your olenliaI Iearners.
Here's a li for lhose of you deveIoing lraining and documenlalion for a roducl soId lo
your exisling cuslomer base. WaIk over lo your lraining cenler and invile cuslomers lo
arliciale in lesls. If you are vorking on GrolloGIo 2.0, vho beller lhan a user of
GrolloGIo 1.0 lo serve as your lesl sub|ecl.
RECAP: MASTER THE ESSENTIALS OF ESSENTIALISM
Lel's reca. Whal are lhe essenliaIs of essenliaIism`
# Do nol lry lo leach everylhing everybody mighl ossibIy someday need lo knov.
# Teach vhal eoIe do nol knov and cannol figure oul on lheir ovn.
# Iigure oul vhal lo leach by lesling vilh olenliaI Iearners.
# Ior lesling ick, a lask lhal requires vhal you need lo leach.
# Tesl vilh a lvosome.
Kee lhese five oinls in mind and you are veII on your vay lo deIivering essenliaI
Iearning.

599

Index
A
A|i|cnc para!cx, 462
absoIule lesl queslions, 252
Absorb aclivilies, 9, 51, 52, 55, 57, 69, 88,
93, 105, 112, 286, 288, 290, 291
in mobiIe Iearning, 536
in sociaI Iearning, 466
vhen lo use, 68
Acrobal. Scc Adobe Acrobal
Aclive Server Iages. Scc Microsofl
Aclive Server Iages
aclivilies
Absorb, 9, 51, 52, 55, 57, 69, 88, 93, 105,
112, 286, 288, 290, 291
as unils of e-Iearning, 5
brainslorming, 472
case sludy, 152
chanling, 170
cile-examIe, 171
cIassify-ilems, 138
coach-me, 291
coIoring-book, 170
combined, 58, 92, 103, 111, 123, 144,
156, 175, 195, 206, 212
comare-and-conlrasl, 138
comarison, 480
Connecl, 9, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 163, 166,
176, 184, 187, 196, 207, 286, 289, 290,
292
day-in-lhe-Iife, 202
decision, 207, 208
dee-valching, 170
de|a vieving, 171
discovery, 52, 53, 129, 146, 528, 532
discussion, 71, 82, 483
Do, 9, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 88, 130, 146,
157, 286, 289, 291
drama, 70, 81
driII-and-raclice, 131, 132
evaIualion, 172
fieId lri, 52, 53, 112, 153
for loics, 301
games and simuIalions. Scc games
grading, 476
grou-crilique, 481
guided lour, 113
guided-anaIysis, 131, 137
guided-research, 200
hands-on, 131, 133
in sociaI Iearning, 466, 468
|ob aid, 52, 53, 187
|ournaI, 207, 210
Iel-me, 292
meaning quesl, 170
medilalion, 168
mobiIe Iearning, 528
museum, 113, 119
observe-and-commenl, 154
originaI-vork, 52, 54, 207
oulIine ilems, 139
onder, 52, 53, 166
raclice, 52, 53, 129, 130

600 ! Index ! E-Learning by Design

resenlalion, 52, 69
queslioning, 52, 53, 176, 562
reading, 52, 93
recreale famous examIes, 140
research, 52, 53, 196
rheloricaI queslion, 167
roIe-Iaying scenario, 476
scavenger-hunl, 198
scrabook, 202
seIecling, 51, 55, 58
shov-me, 74, 291
simIifying, 59
sloryleIIing, 52, 53, 105
summary, 174
leamvork, 474
virluaI Iaboralory, 147
vork-documenl, 207, 208
aclors, 82
ADDII rocess, 65
Adobe Acrobal
as fiIe formal, 97
examIes crealed vilh, 85, 97, 307, 567
Adobe Calivale, examIes crealed
vilh, 31, 74, 76, 77, 138, 140, 236, 241,
291, 335, 336
Adobe Connecl, examIes crealed vilh,
436, 437, 439, 447, 448, 472, 545
Adobe Dreamveaver, examIes crealed
vilh, 44, 45, 88, 96, 97, 99, 100, 102,
115, 117, 119, 132, 136, 141, 148, 151,
169, 171, 173, 189, 192, 198, 208, 209,
210, 211, 234, 238, 240, 241, 259, 265,
269, 290, 304, 307, 316, 331, 332, 333,
337, 448, 481
Adobe IIash, examIes crealed vilh, 88,
139, 141, 149, 240, 334, 336, 339
Adobe Iresenler, examIes crealed vilh,
91, 148, 200, 225, 287, 289, 316, 336,
474, 482
advenlure games, 334, 364
aII-of-lhe-above choices, 253
amazon.com, 102
animalion
besl raclices for, 72, 545, 546
examIes of use, 71, 287, 545
aIicalion of Iearning, 25, 164, 187
aIicalion sharing, 438, 543
besl raclices for, 440
examIes using, 75, 439
for missing caabiIilies, 439
aIicalion-reIaled lesl queslions, 249,
250
arenliceshi, dislanl, 530
archileclure, examIes leaching, 140,
472, 473, 476, 532
arl, examIes leaching, 141, 240
ArlicuIale Iresenler, examIes crealed
vilh, 46, 107, 325, 477
ask-exerl inleraclion allern, 413
ask-eers inleraclion allern, 414
assessmenls. Scc lesls
as-shovn-above syndrome, 314
audio-conferencing, 420, 543
augmenled resenlalions, 89
aulo-generaled robIems, 133, 272
auloscanning, 120
B
back channeI
in resenlalions, 418, 419, 469, 557
back slory, in games, 349
bad behavior
deaIing vilh, 455, 456, 460, 577
soIulion labIe, 578
bandvidlh. Scc nelvork seed
bar codes in mobiIe Iearning, 510
arnes & NobIe, 102
besl raclices, seIf-derived, 202
bioIogy, examIes leaching, 71, 234, 340
bIending Iearning aroaches, 42
bIogs, 411, 428

E-Learning by Design " Index " 601

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bookmarking, for sociaI Iearning, 442
books24x7.com, 101
borroving conlenl, 80, 84, 91, 191, 193
bollom-u sequencing, 43
brainslorming, 472
rime ruIe of, 474
branching scenarios, 334, 390
breakoul rooms, 543, 547
breakoul sessions, 412, 547
breaklhrough slruclure, 378
buIIying, 459
C
caIcuIalors, 188, 192
borroving, 193
sofl-skiIIs, 193
Calivale. Scc Adobe Calivale
case sludies, 152
vhen lo use, 153
chaIIenging Iearners, 123, 144, 150, 156,
168, 171, 200, 203, 224, 235, 238, 258,
261, 369, 489
chanling aclivilies, 170
characlers for games, 347
chal, 418, 543
for back channeI in resenlalions, 418,
419, 557
for simIe exchanges, 419
checkIisls, 188
chemislry, examIes leaching, 227, 228
chil-chal, 462
circumslances. Scc silualion
cile-examIe aclivilies, 171
cIass size, 419, 575
cIassify-ilems aclivily, 138
cIick-in-iclure lesl queslions, 227
cIoze lesl queslions, 232
coached lask simuIalion, 386
coached lask simuIalions, 291
coaching, 38
coaching, in games, 386
coach-me aclivilies. Scc coached lask
simuIalions
code of conducl, for sociaI Iearning, 455
coIIaboralion mechanisms, 542, 543
coIIaboralive aulhoring, 433
coIIaboralive-documenl inleraclion
allern, 412
coIoring-book aclivilies, 170
combining aclivilies, 58, 92, 103, 111, 123,
144, 156, 175, 195, 206, 212
combining lesl queslions, 260
Ccnnunicaiing |!cas uiin |i|n, Vi!cc, an!
Mu|iinc!ia, 80
comare-and-conlrasl aclivilies, 138
comarison aclivilies, 480
comeliliveness, managing, 345
comosilion lesl queslions, 222, 237
comound lesl queslions, 248
comuler oeralions, examIes leaching,
31, 44, 74, 134, 241, 290, 304, 307, 335
comuler rogramming, examIes
leaching, 233, 264, 331
comuler skiIIs required, 544
condilions, as arl of ob|eclive, 25
Connecl aclivilies, 9, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57,
163, 166, 176, 184, 187, 196, 207, 286,
289, 290, 292
vhen lo use, 164
consislency, 314
conlemIalion. Scc medilalion
conlenl commillee, 16
conlexl scenes in games, 396
conlroI by Iearners, 73, 84, 89, 118, 122,
125, 143, 151, 281
coyrighl ermissions, 81, 84, 580


courses
as Iearning ob|ecls, 48
as unils of e-Iearning, 5, 48
based on games, 396
nol onIy form of e-Iearning, 1
Crincsccnc Ganc, Tnc, 46, 324, 364
crileria for success, as arl of ob|eclive,
25
Criiica| Pain, Using inc, as examIe, 84
crilicaI-incidenl anaIysis, 16
curricuIa
as basis for ob|eclives, 33
cuslomer suorl, examIes leaching,
26, 152
cuslomers, as goaI, 11
cycIic design, 64, 65
D
dashboard, 445
day-in-lhe-Iife aclivily, 202
debale, ralher lhan discussion, 461
decision aclivilies, 207, 208
dee-valching aclivilies, 170
defensiveness, 459
definilions
cIassic formuIa for, 190
Iinking lo reIaled lerms, 192
de|a vieving aclivilies, 171
demonslralions
fealure, 77
nol simuIalions, 326
hysicaI, 70, 72
scenario, 76
soflvare, 70, 74
user-inlerface lours, 76
descrilions for loics, 308, 310
design. Scc a|sc inslruclionaI design
bad modeIs, 4
cycIic, 64, 65
delermines everylhing eIse, 3
|ob aid for, 8
no guaranlee, 5
nol same as deveIomenl, 2
revenling faiIures, 3
rocess for, 8
Ocsigning Kncu|c!gc Prc!ucis, 97, 171,
173, 208, 209, 306
device simuIalions, 336
diaIog, vriling, 82
diaries, ersonaI lraveI, 117
Oici Ganc, Tnc, 337
difficuIly, conlroI for chaIIenge, 372
direcl-observalion siles, 205
disabiIilies, designing for, 85
disasler slories, 109
discovery aclivilies, 52, 53, 61, 129, 146,
528, 532
case sludy, 152
virluaI Iaboralory, 147
vhen lo use, 146
vilh olher aclivilies, 156
discovery Iearning, 61
discovery slories, 109
discussion aclivilies, 71, 82, 483, Scc a|sc
discussion forums
gauging erformance, 283
inaroriale oslings, 490
keeing conversalion IiveIy, 489
mainlenance vork, 490
moderaling, 487, 488
icking moderalors, 487
rearing Iearners, 484
required skiIIs, 486
selling u lhreads, 486
slarling, 484
veIcoming Iearners, 488


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discussion forums, 411, 425, 543, Scc a|sc
discussion aclivilies
dislance arenliceshi, 530
Do aclivilies, 9, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 88, 130,
146, 157, 286, 289, 291
vhen lo use, 130
docking moduIes, 80, 91, 315
documenlary fiIm. Scc informalionaI
fiIms
dominaling, in discussions, 578
dovnIoad and go, 525
drama aclivilies, 70, 81
Dreamveaver. Scc Adobe Dreamveaver
driII and raclice
vhen lo use, 132
driII-and-raclice aclivilies, 131, 132
E
e-consuIlanls, 188, 193
vhen lo use, 194
e-Iearning
defined, 1
design of, 2
lyes of, 2
unils of, 5
IIIuminale, examIes crealed vilh, 75,
422
e-maiI, 543
broadcasl for announcemenls, 427
rivale for immediacy, 417
resonding romlIy, 568, 576
emolions, 32
engineering, examIes leaching, 148,
149, 334
environmenl, of mobiIe Iearners, 517
environmenlaI managemenl, examIes
leaching, 174, 200, 225, 287, 340
environmenlaI simuIalions, 340
essay lesl queslions. Scc comosilion lesl
queslions
essenliaIism, 14
IssenliaIism, 587
anaIyzing resuIls of, 591
idenlifying Iearning aroach, 593
inferring design rinciIes, 594
number of lesls needed, 597
roIe of exerls, 590
roIe of sub|ecls, 589
roIe of lesl conduclor, 591
suervising lesls, 588
lesl environmenl, 596
lesl sub|ecls, 596, 598
essenliaIisl anaIysis, 587
elhics, examIes leaching, 44, 82, 100,
189
|ta|uaiing Training Prcgrans, 164
evaIualion aclivilies, 172
examIes, use in e-Iearning
fealure aclive examIes, 102
needed in resenlalions, 85, 102
IxceI. Scc Microsofl IxceI
exIaining aclivilies and lesls. Scc
inslruclions for Iearners
F
faciIilaling
dulies of faciIilalor, 454
fad-chasing, 5
fealure demonslralions, 77
feedback
afler each queslion, 267
afler human evaIualion, 268
afler lesl is comIele, 267


avoiding vimy feedback, 266
correcling vrong ansvers, 265
deIivering al lhe righl lime, 266
educalionaI, 361
exlreme, 363
exlrinsic, 360
for lesl queslions, 244, 263, 264, 265,
266
from Iearners, 273
in games, 359
inlrinsic, 359
fieId lris, 52, 53, 112, 153
guided lour, 113
museum, 119
vhen lo use, 113
fiIe formals, secifying, 97
fiIe-sharing, 440
fiII-in-lhe-bIanks modeI, 4
fiII-in-lhe-bIanks lesl queslions, 221, 231
fiIm. Scc informalionaI fiIms
fiIlering messages, 450
financiaI goaIs, 11
fIaming, 580
IIash. Scc Adobe IIash
fIirling, 458
foreign moduIes. Scc docking moduIes
foreslry, examIes leaching, 25, 137, 174,
200, 340
fragmenlalion, 461
G
Gagne, Roberl, 17
GAI|NA S|cpc Sia|i|iiq Ana|qsis, 31, 44,
109, 290, 304, 307
games, 2, 36, 52, 53, 129, 157, 323
accomIishing ob|eclives, 342, 391, 392
advenlure, 46, 324, 334, 364
as courses, 396
as lesls, 160
branching scenarios, 334, 390
characlers, 347
defined, 325, 327
designing for Iearning, 342
device simuIalions, 336
environmenlaI simuIalions, 340
examIes of, 46, 324, 331, 332, 333, 334,
335, 337
feedback lo leach, 359
icebreakers, 559
immersive roIe-Iaying, 341
inlervievs, 46, 324, 364
|igsav uzzIes, 333
malhemalicaI simuIalions, 339
micro-vorId, 346, 351
ersonaI-resonse simuIalions, 337
quiz-shovs, 331
simIify Iearning, 380
sloryIine, 349, 392, 395
lask simuIalions, 335
lyes of, 330
vhen lo use, 160, 328, 329
vord uzzIes, 332
Ganii Cnaris, Using, as examIe, 10, 11,
17, 26, 27, 28, 55, 85, 88, 100, 144, 167,
172, 286
Ganll Grou, 10, 11
ga anaIysis, erformance ga, 15
galekeeer lasks, 136, 241
geoIogy, examIes leaching, 80, 117, 119,
120, 137, 138, 198, 236, 259, 470
GIobaI ComIiance, 82
gIossaries, 188
borroving, 191
evoIving, 191


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vhen lo creale, 189
goaIs
idenlifying, 10, 12
of aclivilies, 200
of courses, 8, 12
of games, 344
of organizalions, 10, 12
vhal lo leach, 14
GoogIe
as source of maleriaI, 100, 101, 204
examIes using, 100
GoogIe Docs, 412, 433
governmenl agencies, as resources, 205
GIS in mobiIe Iearning, 508
grades, scaIe of, 278
grading aclivilies, 476
grading, in sociaI Iearning, 463
grahics
besl raclices for, 72, 73, 82, 119, 122,
125, 140, 155, 225, 227, 228, 230, 234,
250, 437, 438, 545, 546
examIes of use, 119, 132, 141, 149,
225, 227, 228, 230, 234, 236, 240, 304,
338, 339, 340, 448
grou-crilique aclivilies, 481
grou-discussion inleraclion allern, 412
groulhink, 461
guessing, discouraging in lesls, 224, 229,
235, 259
guided anaIysis
vhen lo use, 137
guided research, 200
besl raclices forl, 203
vhen lo use, 201
guided lours, 113
vhen lo use, 116
guided-anaIysis aclivilies, 131, 137
H
hands-on aclivilies, 131, 133
vhen lo use, 136
handvriling in meelings, 438
hardvare simuIalions. Scc device
simuIalions
Hauincrnc cjjcci, 595
heaIlh, beller vilh mobiIe Iearning, 503
hero slories, 108
higher-IeveI Iearning, 31, 137, 141, 142,
146, 150, 152, 156, 166, 173, 174, 196,
200, 207, 238, 241, 249, 330, 334, 340,
345, 446, 473, 478
hinls for lesl queslions, 269
home age, 450
HTML
as fiIe formal, 97
examIes leaching, 86, 102, 148, 151
humor, in lesl queslions, 247
hyerIinks
Iimil free-form Iinks, 307
lo reIaled maleriaIs, 192, 305, 306
hyerlexl Iinks. Scc hyerIinks
I
icebreaker games, 559
|||usiraiing Ccnpuicr Occuncniaiicn, 97
informalion archileclure, examIes
leaching, 97, 171, 173, 208, 209, 226,
306, 316
informalion lyes, 23
informalionaI fiIms, 70, 80, Scc a|sc
resenlalions
inslanl messaging. Scc chal
inslruclionaI design, 3, 8, See also design
inslruclions for Iearners, 155, 171, 211,
227, 233, 239, 242, 245, 280, 380
inslruclor's guide, 570


inslruclor-Ied e-Iearning, 153, 539
inslruclors
alliludes required, 564
exerience required, 565
skiIIs required, 564
inleIIecluaI cailaI, as goaI, 11
inleraclion allerns, 410
ask-exerl, 413
ask-eers, 414
coIIaboralive-documenl, 412
combining, 414
grou-discussion, 412
aneI-discussion, 413
osl-and-commenl, 411
resenlalion, 410
queslion-and-ansver, 411
smaII-grou, 412
symosium, 413
luloring, 410
Inlernel resources. Scc Web resources
inlerersonaI communicalion, 544
inlerersonaI skiIIs, examIes leaching,
46, 82, 107, 152, 184, 324, 333, 364
inlerviev games, 46, 324, 364
inlerviev, virluaI, 193
inlroducing loics, 296
inveslmenl, examIes leaching, 26, 138,
339
iSring Iresenler, examIes crealed
vilh, 71, 84, 85, 86, 137, 152, 193, 332,
335
J
|igsav modeI for aclivilies, 475
|igsav uzzIes, 333
|ob aids, 52, 53, 187
caIcuIalors, 188, 192
checkIisls, 188
e-consuIlanls, 188, 193
gIossaries, 188
reference summaries, 188
reIacing courses vilh, 195
vhen lo use, 187
|ob anaIysis, 15
|ournaI aclivilies, 207, 210
|ournaIs as resources, 204
K
keyvords
for loics, 308
keyvords for loics, 309
Kirkalrick, DonaId, 164
KSAs, 23
L
Iab-coal effecl, 595
Iandscae archileclure, examIe
leaching, 531
Ianguage skiIIs required, 543
Ianguages
examIes leaching, 232
leaching, 475
Ieadershi, examIes leaching, 107, 184
Iead-in for lesl queslions, 243, 245, 246
Iearners
adaling e-Iearning lo, 13, 238, 273,
309, 330, 345, 480, 540, 543, 549, 568,
576
anaIyzing needs and abiIilies, 13, 25
chaIIenging, 123, 150, 156, 168, 171,
203, 224, 235, 238, 258, 261, 358, 369,
489
giving conlroI, 73, 84, 89, 118, 122, 125,
143, 151, 281


I
n
d
e
x

mainlaining conlacl vilh, 521
mobiIe Iearners, 516
molivaling, 83, 91, 106, 113, 118, 130,
146, 238, 354, 575, 577
icking looIs lo suil, 543
using lime effecliveIy, 522
Iearning managemenl syslems, 300
Learning Manager, The, 272
Iearning ob|eclives
accomIishing, 47, 55, 285, 342
basis for ob|ecls, 47, 49
cIarifying, 50, 587
connecled lo organizalionaI goaI, 8
crileria for success, 25
delermine aclivilies, 51, 55, 127, 158,
162, 214, 301, 302
delermine game slruclure, 391, 392
delermine Iesson organizalion, 42
delermine lesls, 50, 242, 299, 300
delermine loic inlroduclion, 296, 298
delermine loic lilIe, 294
examIes of, 25
hierarchy of, 9, 26, 28
icking, 22, 31
rerequisiles for, 8, 9, 26, 28, 30
rimary, 17, 18, 19
requiremenls for, 17
secondary, 18, 21
selling, 9, 16, 587
shorlhand for slaling, 27
silualion, 25
secifying silualion for, 24
lyes of, 18
vriling, 16
Iearning ob|ecls
as course conlenl, 5
based on ob|eclives, 9, 47, 49
defined, 47, 48
Ieclures
avoid in discovery aclivilies, 155
avoid in meelings, 558
lurn inlo vorkshos, 558
IegibiIily of mobiIe Iearning, 520
Iessons
as Iearning ob|ecls, 5
Iel-me aclivilies, 292
Library of Congress, 80
Iibrary, onIine, 98, 103
Iinks. Scc hyerIinks
LMS, 300
Iog |ams, 461
Iove slories, 108
M
magazines as resources, 204
Mager, Roberl, 17
make-u aclivilies, 560
managemenl, examIes leaching, 10, 11,
17, 26, 27, 28, 55, 75, 84, 85, 88, 107,
144, 152, 184, 193, 234, 269, 286, 333,
335, 338, 340, 474
mashus, 444
malching-Iisl lesl queslions, 221, 234
Mayo, Irofessor IIlon, 595
meaning-quesl aclivilies, 170
media
in games, 354
use of, 61, 63, 473
media, use of, 91
media-sharing, 440
medicaI elhics, examIes leaching, 44,
100, 189
medilalion aclivilies, 168
meelings
aclivaling, 558
announcing, 556
arranging lhe screen, 554
conlingency Ians, 551
evaIualing, 560
fIoor conlroI, 555
foIIoving u, 551


gauging erformance in, 282
imroving, 548
assing conlroI, 555
Ianning, 548
rearing Iearners, 550
rehearsing, 552
scheduIing, 549, 550
selling u lhe room, 555
selling u lhe vorkslalion, 553
vhen needed, 541
messages
fiIlering, 450
grading crileria, 465
sequences of, 428
soradic broadcasls, 426
meladala, for loics, 50, 307
melahors, in lesl queslions, 247
microscenario, 287
Microsofl Aclive Server Iages, examIe
using, 96, 99, 115, 119, 171, 173, 210,
316, 337, 481
Microsofl Aclive Server Iages, examIes
using, 169
Microsofl IxceI, examIes using, 75, 148,
338
Microsofl IoverIoinl, examIes crealed
vilh, 45, 46, 71, 84, 85, 86, 91, 107, 148,
152, 193, 200, 225, 230, 234, 287, 290,
304, 316, 325, 332, 335, 336, 470, 474,
477, 482
Microsofl Word
as fiIe formal, 97
examIes using, 85, 209, 567
micro-vorId for games, 346, 351
missions, in games, 376
mobiIe Iearning, 501
Absorb aclivilies, 536
adaling exisling Iearning, 505
caabiIilies of devices, 507, 519, 520,
522
comosilion queslions, 238
Connecl aclivilies, 537
convenlionaI aclivilies, 536
defined, 2, 501, 528
designing for, 515
discovery aclivilies, 157
Do aclivilies, 537
examIes of, 117
fieId lris, 126
games, 161
in olher forms, 536
|ob aids, 196
originaI-vork aclivilies, 212
overcoming Iimilalions, 520
onder aclivilies, 176
raclice aclivilies, 145
resenlalions, 93
queslioning aclivilies, 184
quiz-shov games, 331
reading aclivilies, 105
reaI mobiIe Iearning, 528
research aclivilies, 206
scavenger hunls, 198
sloryleIIing, 112, 187
lesls, 283
vhen lo use, 501
MoodIe, examIes crealed vilh, 174, 451,
468
mosaic modeI for aclivilies, 475
molivaling Iearners, 83, 91, 106, 113, 118,
130, 146, 238, 575, 577
molivalion. Scc Iearners, molivaling
museums, 113, 119
besl raclices for, 103, 122
examIes of, 119
inlegraling inlo e-Iearning, 123
IabeIing exhibils, 124
vhen lo creale, 121
music
music, besl raclices for, 140, 168, 431


I
n
d
e
x

N
narralion, 72, 82, 118
navigalion, in lesl queslions, 262
neliquelle, 438
nelvork reIiabiIily, 525
nelvork seed, 79, 81, 423, 524
nevs nelvorks as resources, 205
nevsgrous as resources, 205
nevsaers as resources, 205
nilicking, 579
none-of-lhe-above choices, 253
nulrilion, examIes leaching, 337
O
observe-and-commenl aclivilies, 154
obsoIescence of lesl queslions, 252
onIine meelings. Scc meelings
oen inquiry, 499
oeralionaI imrovemenls, as goaI, 11
originaI-vork aclivilies, 52, 54, 207
decision, 208
|ournaI, 210
vhen lo use, 207
vork-documenl, 208
ouldoor sub|ecls, leaching, 502
oulIine ilems aclivily, 139
overviev, combined vilh summary, 304
P
ack 'em modeI, 4
aneI-discussion inleraclion allern, 413
aer, as mobiIe device, 526
allerns of inleraclion. Scc inleraclion
allerns
erformance suorl, for mobiIe
Iearners, 507
erformance lesl queslions, 222
ermissions. Scc coyrighl ermissions
ersonaI-resonse simuIalions, 337
holograhs
besl raclices for, 73, 82, 125, 140
examIes of use, 82, 107, 117, 119, 152,
236, 336, 437, 439, 448, 545
holograhy, examIes leaching, 72,
192, 422, 437, 439, 447, 448, 482, 484,
545, 567, 573
hrasing
lesl queslions, 223, 231, 232, 243, 244,
245, 246, 249, 250, 258
lilIes of loics, 294, 295
hysicaI cIassroom, use by mobiIe
Iearners, 505
hysicaI demonslralions, 70, 72
hysicaI-cIassroom Iearning, 38
ick-muIliIe lesl queslions, 221, 228
ick-one lesl queslions, 221, 225
Pi|cis Gui!c ic Grcun! |cing, 109
Iagiarism, 580
IausibiIily of lesl ansvers, 256
odcasls
audio, 430
video, 432
oIIs, 543
asynchronous, 448
generic, 449
sonlaneous, 447
synchronous, 448
lyes of, 447
onder aclivilies, 52, 53, 166
cile examIe, 171
evaIualion, 172


medilalion aclivilies, 168
rheloricaI queslion, 167
summary aclivilies, 174
ooIing lesl queslions, 270
orlfoIios, as aIlernalives lo lesls, 282
osl-and-commenl inleraclion allern,
411
IoverIoinl. Scc Microsofl IoverIoinl
IoverIoinl Tviller TooIs by SAI Web
2.0, examIe using, 470
raclice aclivilies, 52, 53, 129, 130
driII and raclice, 132
guided-anaIysis, 137
hands-on, 133
roviding immedialeIy, 88
vhen lo use, 130
raclice, offer abundanl, 367
rerequisiles
idenlifying, 26, 29, 30, 34
of ob|eclives, 9, 28
resenlalion inleraclion allern, 410
resenlalions, 52, 69
augmenling, 89
discussion, 71, 82
drama, 70, 81
informalionaI fiIms, 70, 80
hysicaI demonslralions, 70, 72
sIide shovs, 70, 71, 545
soflvare demonslralions, 70, 74
lyes of, 70
vhen lo use, 69
re-lesling, 51, 278
rinling, designing for, 97, 135, 188, 194,
569
robIem Iearners, 577
roducer, for meelings, 553, 556
rofessionaI associalions, as resources,
204
rofiIe age, 450
rogram oeralion
examIes leaching, 77
rogram oeralion, examIes leaching,
76, 77
rogramming, examIes leaching, 233,
264, 331
Iro|ecl Gulenberg, 101
ro|ecl managemenl, examIes leaching,
10, 11, 17, 26, 27, 28, 55, 84, 85, 88, 100,
144, 234, 269, 286
Q
Q&A. Scc queslioning aclivilies
queslion-and-ansver inleraclion
allerns, 411
queslioning aclivilies, 52, 53, 176, 562
besl raclices for, 177, 179, 180, 181,
182
mechanisms, 181
vhen lo use, 177
queslioning inleraclion allern, 411, 413
queslions. Scc lesl queslions
quiz-shov games, 331
R
randomizing
lesl choices, 271
lesl queslions, 271
RAIRAIRAIAWAI modeI, 4


I
n
d
e
x

raling, in sociaI Iearning, 446
reaclion aers, 154
reading aclivilies, 52, 93
vhen lo use, 94
reaIism, in games, 350
recreale-famous-examIes aclivilies, 140
redesign, 64, 65
reference maleriaIs, slandard, 96
reference summaries, 188
rehearsing meelings, 440
reulalion, as goaI, 11
research aclivilies, 52, 53
guided research, 200
scavenger hunl, 198
research, guided, 196
resources
as aIlernalive lo leaching, 39
as arl of ob|eclive, 25
reuse
of exisling conlenl, 527
of loics, 313
of unils of e-Iearning, 313
Ianning for, 151, 313
RIID in mobiIe Iearning, 510
rheloricaI queslions, 167
Rich Texl Iormal, as fiIe formal, 97
roIe-Iaying games, 341
roIe-Iaying scenarios, 476
generic roIes, 480
malching roIe lo Iearner, 480
sub|ecl-secific roIes, 479
roIes
in games, 350, 359, 380
in meelings, 548
in roIe-Iaying aclivilies, 479
RTI. Scc Rich Texl Iormal
S
sabolage, 460
safari slruclure, 378
San Irancisco earlhquake, as examIe,
80
SAI CryslaI Dashboard Design,
examIes crealed vilh, 148, 338
scajjc|!ing, 369
scavenger hunls, 198
vhen lo us, 199
scenario demonslralions, 76
scenarios
in lesl queslions, 249
microscenarios, 287
scoring lesls
by comuler or human, 220
recording scores, 217
scrambIed-liIes uzzIes, 333
scrabook, as guided research, 202
search faciIily, 40, 100, 120
sequence-lye queslions, 221, 235
sequencing
choices in lesls, 258, 260, 275
Iearning ob|eclives, 42
lesl queslions, 262
sharing fiIes, 440
SheIlon, S. Marlin, 80
shorl-Ieash slralegy, 377
shov-me aclivilies, 74, 291
shuffIing lesl choices, 271
sidekick, for meelings, 553
sidevays sequencing, 43, 46
Simon, Herberl, 197


simuIalions. Scc a|sc, games
coached lask, 386
differ from games, 325
environmenlaI, 340
managemenl, 338
malhemalicaI, 338, 339
soflvare, 335
silualion, as arl of ob|eclive, 24, 25
sIide shovs, 70, 71, 543, 545
smaII-grou inleraclion allern, 412
soaboxing, 459
sociaI bookmarking, 442
sociaI hilchhiking, 459
sociaI inquiry, 499
sociaI Iearning
Absorb aclivilies, 466
Connecl aclivilies, 467
convenlionaI aclivilies, 466
defined, 2, 399, 401
design of, 402
discovery aclivilies, 157
Do aclivilies, 467
fieId lris, 126
for mobiIe Iearners, 506
games, 161
grade fairIy, 463
|ob aids, 196
originaI-vork aclivilies, 212
onder aclivilies, 176
raclice aclivilies, 145
queslioning aclivilies, 183
reading aclivilies, 104
requiremenls for, 406, 408
research aclivilies, 206
simuIalions, 92
soflvare for, 415
sloryleIIing, 112, 187
leam Iearning, 490
lesls, 282
lyes of, 400
vhen lo use, 404
vhere lo use, 40
sociaI Ioafing, 459
sociaI nelvork, 40
lo ansver queslions, 178
soflvare demonslralions, 70, 74
soflvare simuIalions, 335
soflvare, for sociaI Iearning, 415
samming, 579
slandaIone e-Iearning, 2, 36
Slevarl, Thomas, 197
slo-and-lhink queslions, 168
sloryIine, in games, 349, 392, 395
slory-sharing, 52, 53, 105
sloryleIIing, 52, 53, 82, 105
besl raclices for, 110, 186
by Iearners, 52, 53, 184
by leachers, 52, 53, 107
disasler slories, 109
discovery slories, 109
hero slories, 108
in mobiIe Iearning, 112, 187
in sociaI Iearning, 112, 187
Iove slories, 108
lragedy slories, 109
vhen lo use, 106
vilh olher aclivilies, 111, 186
sludenl's guide, 568
sub|ecl Iine in messages, 417, 486
sub|eclive vs. ob|eclive lesl queslions,
220
summarizing loics, 303
summary aclivilies, 174
syIIabus, 572
symosium inleraclion allern, 413
T
lagging for relrievaI, 443
laIenl gas, 462
lardiness, 578
lask simuIalions, 335


I
n
d
e
x

leams
aclivilies for, 474, 476, 480, 497, 498
adminislralion of, 453
aIigning goaIs, 492
bad behavior, 460
exerlise of members, 493
oen inquiry, 499
rocesses, 497
requiremenls for success, 491
roIes of members, 495
leam-lask aclivilies, 474
leamvork aclivilies, 474
lemIales for loics, 319
lesl queslions
absoIule, 252
aIicalion-reIaled, 249, 250
aulomalicaIIy generaling, 272
avoiding lrick queslions, 274
cIick-in-iclure, 227
cIoze, 232
combining, 260
comosilion, 222, 237
comound, 248
discouraging guessing, 224, 229, 235,
259
feedback, 244, 263, 264, 265, 266
fiII-in-lhe-bIanks, 221, 231
Iead-in, 243, 245, 246
make indeendenl, 261
making indeendenl, 261
malching-Iisl, 221, 234
obsoIescence of, 252
erformance, 222
hrasing, 223, 231, 232, 243, 244, 245,
246, 249, 250, 258
ick-muIliIe, 221, 228
ick-one, 221, 225
IausibiIily of choices, 256
ooIing, 270
randomizing choices, 271
randomizing queslions, 271
reveaIing ansvers, 260
rheloricaI, 167
scenarios, 249
sequence-lye, 221, 235
sequencing, 262
sequencing of choices, 258, 260, 275
slandard formal, 243
slo-and-lhink, 168
sub|eclive vs. ob|eclive, 220
lrue/faIse, 221, 222
lyes of, 220
lyes of, 221
vriling effeclive queslions, 243
lesls, 215
aIlernalives lo formaI lesls, 281
based on ob|eclives, 9, 50
crealing, 273
fairness, 237, 273
for loics, 9, 50, 299
games, 160
grading scaIe, 278
imroving, 273
uroses of lesling, 215, 216, 217, 280
recording scores, 217
reorling scores, 263
scoring, 224, 237, 239, 240, 276
selling assing score, 276
liming of, 275
lyes of queslions, 220, 221
vhal measured, 218
lexlbooks, 576
lexl-conferencing. Scc chal
lexl-enlry, simIifying, 526
lexling in mobiIe Iearning, 511
lexl-messaging, in sociaI Iearning, 417
lilIe of loic, 294
lokens, coIIecling, 282
looIs, ick lo suil Iearners, 543
lo-dovn sequencing, 43, 44


loics, 285
aclivilies, 51, 301
analomy of, 293
as Iearning ob|ecls, 5, 285
as recie cards, 313
comonenls of, 294
descrilion, 308, 310
designing for reuse, 313
examIes of, 286
hyerIinks, 305
inlroduclion, 296
keyvords, 308, 309
IogicaI design, 310
meladala, 307
summary, 303
lemIales for, 319
lesls, 299
lilIe, 294
lragedy slories, 109
lranscrils of narralion, 85, 420
lrick queslions in lesls, 274
lriggers for aIicalion of Iearning, 25
lrue/faIse lesl queslions, 221, 222
lrusl, Ioss of, 461
TumbIr, examIes crealed vilh, 184, 429
luloring inleraclion allern, 410
lying skiIIs required, 420, 544
U
U.S. GeoIogicaI Survey, 198
U.S. Library of Congress, 80
unils of e-Iearning, 5
urgency, erceived, 417
usabiIily lesling. Scc IssenliaIism
usage oIicy, 101
user-inlerface guideIines, 526
user-inlerface lours, 76
V
vaIue |udgmenls, lesling, 228
vidcasls. Scc odcasls, video
video
besl raclices for, 73, 79, 81, 82, 84, 155,
422, 423, 544
examIes of use, 72, 80, 422
video-conferencing, 422, 543
virluaI inlerviev, 193
virluaI Iaboralories. Scc virluaI-
Iaboralory aclivilies
virluaI manufacluring, examIes
leaching, 89
virluaI museums. Scc museums
virluaI reaIily, 124
virluaI-cIassroom courses
defined, 2
designing for, 539
inslruclor's guide, 570
Iearning cycIes, 566
seIecling inslruclors, 563
sludenl's guide, 568
syIIabus, 572
leaching acliveIy, 565
vhere lo use, 37
virluaI-Iaboralory aclivilies, 147
voice
besl raclices for, 72, 82, 111, 155, 265,
421, 431, 440, 544, 546
examIes of use, 71, 82, 107, 152
voice over II, 420
voling, in sociaI Iearning, 446
W
varn-and-scorn modeI, 4
Wca|in cj Kncu|c!gc, Tnc, 197
Web resources, 99, 203
Web lours, 118, 543


I
n
d
e
x

Webinars, 540, 560
vhal-I-Iearned discussion, 468
vhileboards, 436, 543
for communaI Iearning, 437
for visuaI Iearning, 436
vikis, 412, 434
vord games, 332
vork aclivilies. Scc originaI-vork
aclivilies
vork-documenl aclivilies, 207, 208
vorId. Scc micro-vorId for games
vriling, examIes leaching, 210, 481

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