Strenfth of Material, Mechanical Design

Strength of Materials Prof. M. S.
Sivakumar
Axial Deformations
Introduction
Free body diagram - Revisited
Normal, shear and bearing stress
Stress on inclined planes under axial loading
Strain
Mechanical properties of materials
True stress and true strain
Poissons ratio
Elasticity and Plasticity
Creep and fatigue
Deformation in axially loaded members
Statically indeterminate problems
Thermal effect
Design considerations
Strain energy
Impact loading
Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Strength of Materials Prof. M. S. Sivakumar
1.1 Introduction
An important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the deformations
caused by the loads applied to a structure. Clearly it is important to avoid deformations so
large that they may prevent the structure from fulfilling the purpose for which it is intended.
But the analysis of deformations may also help us in the determination of stresses. It is not
always possible to determine the forces in the members of a structure by applying only the
principle of statics. This is because statics is based on the assumption of undeformable,
rigid structures. By considering engineering structures as deformable and analyzing the
deformations in their various members, it will be possible to compute forces which are
statically indeterminate. Also the distribution of stresses in a given member is
indeterminate, even when the force in that member is known. To determine the actual
distribution of stresses within a member, it is necessary to analyze the deformations which
take place in that member. This chapter deals with the deformations of a structural
member such as a rod, bar or a plate under axial loading.
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1.2 Free body diagram - Revisited

The first step towards solving an engineering problem is drawing the free body diagram of
the element/structure considered.
Removing an existing force or including a wrong force on the free body will badly affect the
equilibrium conditions, and hence, the analysis.
In view of this, some important points in drawing the free body diagram are discussed
below.
Figure 1.1
At the beginning, a clear decision is to be made by the analyst on the choice of the body to
be considered for free body diagram.
Then that body is detached from all of its surrounding members including ground and only
their forces on the free body are represented.
The weight of the body and other external body forces like centrifugal, inertia, etc., should
also be included in the diagram and they are assumed to act at the centre of gravity of the
body.
When a structure involving many elements is considered for free body diagram, the forces
acting in between the elements should not be brought into the diagram.
The known forces acting on the body should be represented with proper magnitude and
direction.
If the direction of unknown forces like reactions can be decided, they should be indicated
clearly in the diagram.

After completing free body diagram, equilibrium equations from statics in terms of forces
and moments are applied and solved for the unknowns.
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1.3 Normal, shear and bearing stress

1.3.1 Normal Stress:
Figure 1.2
When a structural member is under load, predicting its ability to withstand that load is not
possible merely from the reaction force in the member.
It depends upon the internal force, cross sectional area of the element and its material
properties.
Thus, a quantity that gives the ratio of the internal force to the cross sectional area will
define the ability of the material in with standing the loads in a better way.
That quantity, i.e., the intensity of force distributed over the given area or simply the force
per unit area is called the stress.
P
σ= 1.1
A
In SI units, force is expressed in newtons (N) and area in square meters. Consequently,
the stress has units of newtons per square meter (N/m2) or Pascals (Pa).
In figure 1.2, the stresses are acting normal to the section XX that is perpendicular to the
axis of the bar. These stresses are called normal stresses.
The stress defined in equation 1.1 is obtained by dividing the force by the cross sectional
area and hence it represents the average value of the stress over the entire cross section.

Figure 1.3
Consider a small area ∆A on the cross section with the force acting on it ∆F as shown in
figure 1.3. Let the area contain a point C.
Now, the stress at the point C can be defined as,
∆F
σ = lim 1.2
∆ A → 0 ∆A
The average stress values obtained using equation 1.1 and the stress value at a point from
equation 1.2 may not be the same for all cross sections and for all loading conditions.
1.3.2 Saint - Venant's Principle:
Figure 1.4

Consider a slender bar with point loads at its ends as shown in figure 1.4.
The normal stress distribution across sections located at distances b/4 and b from one and
of the bar is represented in the figure.
It is found from figure 1.4 that the stress varies appreciably across the cross section in the
immediate vicinity of the application of loads.
The points very near the application of the loads experience a larger stress value whereas,
the points far away from it on the same section has lower stress value.
The variation of stress across the cross section is negligible when the section considered
is far away, about equal to the width of the bar, from the application of point loads.
Thus, except in the immediate vicinity of the points where the load is applied, the stress
distribution may be assumed to be uniform and is independent of the mode of application
of loads. This principle is called Saint-Venant's principle.
1.3.3 Shear Stress:

The stresses acting perpendicular to the surfaces considered are normal stresses and
were discussed in the preceding section.
Now consider a bolted connection in which two plates are connected by a bolt with cross
section A as shown in figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5
The tensile loads applied on the plates will tend to shear the bolt at the section AA.
Hence, it can be easily concluded from the free body diagram of the bolt that the internal
resistance force V must act in the plane of the section AA and it should be equal to the
external load P.
These internal forces are called shear forces and when they are divided by the
corresponding section area, we obtain the shear stress on that section.

V
τ= 1.3
A
Equation 1.3 defines the average value of the shear stress on the cross section and the
distribution of them over the area is not uniform.
In general, the shear stress is found to be maximum at the centre and zero at certain
locations on the edge. This will be dealt in detail in shear stresses in beams (module 6).
In figure 1.5, the bolt experiences shear stresses on a single plane in its body and hence it
is said to be under single shear.
Figure 1.6
In figure 1.6, the bolt experiences shear on two sections AA and BB. Hence, the bolt is
said to be under double shear and the shear stress on each section is
V P
τ= = 1.4
A 2A
Assuming that the same bolt is used in the assembly as shown in figure 1.5 and 1.6 and
the same load P is applied on the plates, we can conclude that the shear stress is reduced
by half in double shear when compared to a single shear.
Shear stresses are generally found in bolts, pins and rivets that are used to connect
various structural members and machine components.
1.3.4 Bearing Stress:

In the bolted connection in figure 1.5, a highly irregular pressure gets developed on the
contact surface between the bolt and the plates.
The average intensity of this pressure can be found out by dividing the load P by the
projected area of the contact surface. This is referred to as the bearing stress.

Figure 1.7
The projected area of the contact surface is calculated as the product of the diameter of
the bolt and the thickness of the plate.
Bearing stress,
P P
σb = = 1.5
A t×d
Example 1:
Figure 1.8

A rod R is used to hold a sign board with an axial load 50 kN as shown in figure 1.8. The
end of the rod is 50 mm wide and has a circular hole for fixing the pin which is 20 mm
diameter. The load from the rod R is transferred to the base plate C through a bracket B
that is 22mm wide and has a circular hole for the pin. The base plate is 10 mm thick and it
is connected to the bracket by welding. The base plate C is fixed on to a structure by four
bolts of each 12 mm diameter. Find the shear stress and bearing stress in the pin and in
the bolts.
Solution:
Shear stress in the pin = τ pin

V
= =
P
=
(
50 × 103 / 2 )= 79.6 MPa
A 2A π ( 0.02 )2 / 4
Force acting on the base plate = Pcosθ= 50 cos300 = 43.3 kN
Shear stress in the bolt, τ bolt =

P
=
( )
43.3 × 103 / 4
4A π ( 0.012 )2 / 4
= 95.7 MPa
Bearing stress between pin and rod, σb =

P
=
50 × 103 ( )
b × d ( 0.05 ) × ( 0.02 )
= 50 MPa
Bearing stress between pin and bracket = σb =

P/2
=
50 × 103 / 2( )
b × d ( 0.022 ) × ( 0.02 )
= 56.8 MPa
Bearing stress between plate and bolts = σb =

P/4
=
(
43.3 × 103 / 4 )
t × d ( 0.01) × ( 0.012 )
= 90.2 MPa
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1.4 Stress on inclined planes under axial loading:

When a body is under an axial load, the plane normal to the axis contains only the normal
stress as discussed in section 1.3.1.
However, if we consider an oblique plane that forms an angle with normal plane, it
consists shear stress in addition to normal stress.
Consider such an oblique plane in a bar. The resultant force P acting on that plane will
keep the bar in equilibrium against the external load P' as shown in figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9
The resultant force P on the oblique plane can be resolved into two components Fn and Fs
that are acting normal and tangent to that plane, respectively.
If A is the area of cross section of the bar, A/cos is the area of the oblique plane. Normal
and shear stresses acting on that plane can be obtained as follows.
Fn= Pcosθ
Fs = -Psinθ (Assuming shear causing clockwise rotation negative).
P cos θ P
σ= = cos 2 θ 1.6
A / cos θ A
P sin θ P
τ=− = − sin θ cos θ 1.7
A / cos θ A
Equations 1.6 and 1.7 define the normal and shear stress values on an inclined plane that
makes an angle θ with the vertical plane on which the axial load acts.
From above equations, it is understandable that the normal stress reaches its maximum
when θ = 0o and becomes zero when θ = 90o.

But, the shear stress assumes zero value at θ = 0o and θ = 90o and reaches its maximum
when θ = 45o.
The magnitude of maximum shear stress occurring at θ = 45o plane is half of the maximum
normal stress that occurs at θ = 0o for a material under a uniaxial loading.
P σ
τmax = = max 1.8
2A 2
Now consider a cubic element A in the rod which is represented in two dimension as
shown in figure 1.10 such that one of its sides makes an angle with the vertical plane.
Figure 1.10
To determine the stresses acting on the plane mn, equations 1.6 and 1.7 are used as such
and to knows the stresses on plane om, θ is replaced by θ + 90o.
Maximum shear stress occurs on both om and mn planes with equal magnitude and
opposite signs, when mn forms 45o angle with vertical plane.
Example 2:
A prismatic bar of sides 40 mm x 30 mm is axially loaded with a compressive force of 80
kN. Determine the stresses acting on an element which makes 300 inclination with the
vertical plane. Also find the maximum shear stress value in the bar.

Figure 1.11
Solution:
Area of the cross section, A = 40 x 30 x 10-6 = 1.2 x 10-3 m2
P
Normal stress on 300 inclined plane, σ = cos 2 θ
A
−80 × 103
= × cos 2 30o = −50 MPa
−3
1.2 × 10
−P 80 × 103
Shear stress on 300 plane, τ = sin θ cos θ = × sin 300 × cos 300
−
A 1.2 × 10 3
= 28.9 MPa [Counter clockwise]

−80 × 103
Normal stress on 1200 plane, σ = cos 2 1200 = −16.67 MPa
−3
1.2 × 10
80 × 103
Shear stress on 1200 plane, τ = × sin1200 × cos1200 = −28.9 MPa [Clock wise]
−3
1.2 × 10
P 80 × 103
Maximum shear stress in the bar, τmax = =
2A 2 × 1.2 × 10−3
= ± 33.3 MPa
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1.5 Strain
The structural member and machine components undergo deformation as they are brought
under loads.
To ensure that the deformation is within the permissible limits and do not affect the
performance of the members, a detailed study on the deformation assumes significance.
A quantity called strain defines the deformation of the members and structures in a better
way than the deformation itself and is an indication on the state of the material.
Figure 1.12
Consider a rod of uniform cross section with initial length L0 as shown in figure 1.12.
Application of a tensile load P at one end of the rod results in elongation of the rod by δ .
After elongation, the length of the rod is L. As the cross section of the rod is uniform, it is
appropriate to assume that the elongation is uniform throughout the volume of the rod. If
the tensile load is replaced by a compressive load, then the deformation of the rod will be a
contraction. The deformation per unit length of the rod along its axis is defined as the
normal strain. It is denoted by ε
δ L − L0
ε= = 1.9
L L
Though the strain is a dimensionless quantity, units are often given in mm/mm, µm/m.

Example 3:
A circular hollow tube made of steel is used to support a compressive load of 500kN. The
inner and outer diameters of the tube are 90mm and 130mm respectively and its length is
1000mm. Due to compressive load, the contraction of the rod is 0.5mm. Determine the
compressive stress and strain in the post.
Solution
Force, P = −500 ×103 N (compressive)

π
Area of the tube, A = ⎡⎢( 0.13) − ( 0.09 ) ⎤⎥ = 6.912 × 10−3 m 2
2 2
4⎣ ⎦
P −500 × 103
Stress, σ = = = −72.3MPa (compressive)
A 6.912 × 10−3
δ −0.5
Strain, ε = = = −5 × 10−4 (compressive)
L0 1000
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1.6 Mechanical properties of materials

A tensile test is generally conducted on a standard specimen to obtain the relationship
between the stress and the strain which is an important characteristic of the material.
In the test, the uniaxial load is applied to the specimen and increased gradually. The
corresponding deformations are recorded throughout the loading.
Stress-strain diagrams of materials vary widely depending upon whether the material is
ductile or brittle in nature.
If the material undergoes a large deformation before failure, it is referred to as ductile
material or else brittle material.
Figure 1.13
In figure 1.13, the stress-strain diagram of a structural steel, which is a ductile material, is
given.
Initial part of the loading indicates a linear relationship between stress and strain, and the
deformation is completely recoverable in this region for both ductile and brittle materials.
This linear relationship, i.e., stress is directly proportional to strain, is popularly known as
Hooke's law.
σ = Eε 1.10
The co-efficient E is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus.
Most of the engineering structures are designed to function within their linear elastic region
only.

After the stress reaches a critical value, the deformation becomes irrecoverable. The
corresponding stress is called the yield stress or yield strength of the material beyond
which the material is said to start yielding.
In some of the ductile materials like low carbon steels, as the material reaches the yield
strength it starts yielding continuously even though there is no increment in external
load/stress. This flat curve in stress strain diagram is referred as perfectly plastic region.
The load required to yield the material beyond its yield strength increases appreciably and
this is referred to strain hardening of the material.
In other ductile materials like aluminum alloys, the strain hardening occurs immediately
after the linear elastic region without perfectly elastic region.
After the stress in the specimen reaches a maximum value, called ultimate strength, upon
further stretching, the diameter of the specimen starts decreasing fast due to local
instability and this phenomenon is called necking.
The load required for further elongation of the material in the necking region decreases
with decrease in diameter and the stress value at which the material fails is called the
breaking strength.
In case of brittle materials like cast iron and concrete, the material experiences smaller
deformation before rupture and there is no necking.
Figure 1.14
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1.7 True stress and true strain

In drawing the stress-strain diagram as shown in figure 1.13, the stress was calculated by
dividing the load P by the initial cross section of the specimen.
But it is clear that as the specimen elongates its diameter decreases and the decrease in
cross section is apparent during necking phase.
Hence, the actual stress which is obtained by dividing the load by the actual cross
sectional area in the deformed specimen is different from that of the engineering stress
that is obtained using undeformed cross sectional area as in equation 1.1
True stress or actual stress,
P
σact = 1.11
A act
Though the difference between the true stress and the engineering stress is negligible for
smaller loads, the former is always higher than the latter for larger loads.
Similarly, if the initial length of the specimen is used to calculate the strain, it is called
engineering strain as obtained in equation 1.9
But some engineering applications like metal forming process involve large deformations
and they require actual or true strains that are obtained using the successive recorded
lengths to calculate the strain.

L
dL ⎛ L ⎞
True strain = ∫ L = ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L0 ⎠
1.12
L0
True strain is also called as actual strain or natural strain and it plays an important role in
theories of viscosity.
The difference in using engineering stress-strain and the true stress-strain is noticeable
after the proportional limit is crossed as shown in figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15
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1.8 Poissons ratio
Figure 1.16
Consider a rod under an axial tensile load P as shown in figure 1.6 such that the material
P
is within the elastic limit. The normal stress on x plane is σ xx = and the associated
A
σ
longitudinal strain in the x direction can be found out from ε x = xx . As the material
E
elongates in the x direction due to the load P, it also contracts in the other two mutually
perpendicular directions, i.e., y and z directions.
Hence, despite the absence of normal stresses in y and z directions, strains do exist in
those directions and they are called lateral strains.
The ratio between the lateral strain and the axial/longitudinal strain for a given material is
always a constant within the elastic limit and this constant is referred to as Poisson's ratio.
It is denoted by ν .
lateral strain
ν=− 1.13
axial strain
Since the axial and lateral strains are opposite in sign, a negative sign is introduced in
equation 1.13 to make ν positive.
Using equation 1.13, the lateral strain in the material can be obtained by
σ xx
ε y = ε z = −νε x = −ν 1.14
E
Poisson's ratio can be as low as 0.1 for concrete and as high as 0.5 for rubber.
In general, it varies from 0.25 to 0.35 and for steel it is about 0.3.
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1.9 Elasticity and Plasticity

If the strain disappears completely after removal of the load, then the material is said to be
in elastic region.
The stress-strain relationship in elastic region need not be linear and can be non-linear as
in rubber like materials.
Figure 1.17
The maximum stress value below which the strain is fully recoverable is called the elastic
limit. It is represented by point A in figure 1.17.
When the stress in the material exceeds the elastic limit, the material enters into plastic
phase where the strain can no longer be completely removed.
To ascertain that the material has reached the plastic region, after each load increment, it
is unloaded and checked for residual strain.
Presence of residual strain is the indication that the material has entered into plastic
phase.
If the material has crossed elastic limit, during unloading it follows a path that is parallel to
the initial elastic loading path with the same proportionality constant E.
The strain present in the material after unloading is called the residual strain or plastic
strain and the strain disappears during unloading is termed as recoverable or elastic strain.
They are represented by OC and CD, respectively in figure.1.17.
If the material is reloaded from point C, it will follow the previous unloading path and line
CB becomes its new elastic region with elastic limit defined by point B.

Though the new elastic region CB resembles that of the initial elastic region OA, the
internal structure of the material in the new state has changed.
The change in the microstructure of the material is clear from the fact that the ductility of
the material has come down due to strain hardening.
When the material is reloaded, it follows the same path as that of a virgin material and fails
on reaching the ultimate strength which remains unaltered due to the intermediate loading
and unloading process.
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1.10 Creep and fatigue

In the preceding section, it was discussed that the plastic deformation of a material
increases with increasing load once the stress in the material exceeds the elastic limit.
However, the materials undergo additional plastic deformation with time even though the
load on the material is unaltered.
Consider a bar under a constant axial tensile load as shown in figure 1.18.
Figure 1.18
As soon as the material is loaded beyond its elastic limit, it undergoes an instant plastic
deformation ε 0 at time t = 0.
Though the material is not brought under additional loads, it experiences further plastic
deformation with time as shown in the graph in figure 1.18.
This phenomenon is called creep.
Creep at high temperature is of more concern and it plays an important role in the design
of engines, turbines, furnaces, etc.
However materials like concrete, steel and wood experience creep slightly even at normal
room temperature that is negligible.
Analogous to creep, the load required to keep the material under constant strain
decreases with time and this phenomenon is referred to as stress relaxation.
It was concluded in section 1.9 that the specimen will not fail when the stress in the
material is with in the elastic limit.

This holds true only for static loading conditions and if the applied load fluctuates or
reverses then the material will fail far below its yield strength.
This phenomenon is known as fatigue.
Designs involving fluctuating loads like traffic in bridges, and reversing loads like
automobile axles require fatigue analysis.
Fatigue failure is initiated by a minute crack that develops at a high stress point which may
be an imperfection in the material or a surface scratch.
The crack enlarges and propagates through the material due to successive loadings until
the material fails as the undamaged portion of the material is insufficient to withstand the
load.
Hence, a polished surface shaft can take more number of cycles than a shaft with rough or
corroded surface.
The number of cycles that can be taken up by a material before it fractures can be found
out by conducting experiments on material specimens.
The obtained results are plotted as σ − n curves as given in figure 1.19, which indicates the
number of cycles that can be safely completed by the material under a given maximum
stress.
Figure 1.19
It is learnt from the graph that the number of cycles to failure increases with decrease in
magnitude of stress.

For steels, if the magnitude of stress is reduced to a particular value, it can undergo an
infinitely large number of cycles without fatigue failure and the corresponding stress is
known as endurance limit or fatigue limit.
On the other hand, for non-ferrous metals like aluminum alloys there is no endurance limit,
and hence, the maximum stress decreases continuously with increase in number of cycles.
In such cases, the fatigue limit of the material is taken as the stress value that will allow an
arbitrarily taken number of cycles, say 108 cycles.
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1.11 Deformation in axially loaded members

Consider the rod of uniform cross section under tensile load P along its axis as shown in
figure 1.12.
Let that the initial length of the rod be L and the deflection due to load be δ . Using
equations 1.9 and 1.10,
δ σ P
=ε= =
L E AE
1.15
PL
δ=
AE
Equation 1.15 is obtained under the assumption that the material is homogeneous and has
a uniform cross section.
Now, consider another rod of varying cross section with the same axial load P as shown in
figure 1.20.
Figure 1.20
Let us take an infinitesimal element of length dx in the rod that undergoes a deflection
dδ
d δ due to load P. The strain in the element is ε = and dδ = εdx
dx
The deflection of total length of the rod can be obtained by integrating above equation, δ = ∫ εdx
L
Pdx
δ= ∫ EA(x) 1.16
0

As the cross sectional area of the rod keeps varying, it is expressed as a function of its
length.
If the load is also varying along the length like the weight of the material, it should also be
expressed as a function of distance, i.e., P(x) in equation 1.16.
Also, if the structure consists of several components of different materials, then the
deflection of each component is determined and summed up to get the total deflection of
the structure.
When the cross section of the components and the axial loads on them are not varying
along length, the total deflection of the structure can be determined easily by,
n
Pi Li
δ=∑ 1.17
i =1 A i E i
Example 4:
Figure 1.21
Consider a rod ABC with aluminum part AB and steel part BC having diameters 25mm and
50 mm respectively as shown figure 1.21. Determine the deflections of points A and B.

Solution:
PAB L AB 10 × 103 × 400

Deflection of part AB = =−
A AB E AB π × (0.025) 2 / 4 × 70 × 109
= −0.1164 mm
PBC L BC 35 × 103 × 500

Deflection of part BC = =−
A BC E BC π × (0.05) 2 / 4 × 200 × 109
= −0.0446 mm
Deflection point of B = −0.0446 mm
Deflection point of A = (−0.1164) + ( −0.0446 )
= −0.161mm
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1.12 Statically indeterminate problems.

Members for which reaction forces and internal forces can be found out from static
equilibrium equations alone are called statically determinate members or structures.
Problems requiring deformation equations in addition to static equilibrium equations to
solve for unknown forces are called statically indeterminate problems.
Figure 1.22
The reaction force at the support for the bar ABC in figure 1.22 can be determined
considering equilibrium equation in the vertical direction.
∑ Fy = 0; R-P=0
Now, consider the right side bar MNO in figure 1.22 which is rigidly fixed at both the ends.
From static equilibrium, we get only one equation with two unknown reaction forces R1 and
R2.
- P + R1 + R 2 = 0 1.18
Hence, this equilibrium equation should be supplemented with a deflection equation which
was discussed in the preceding section to solve for unknowns.
If the bar MNO is separated from its supports and applied the forces R1 ,R 2 and P , then
these forces cause the bar to undergo a deflection δMO that must be equal to zero.

δMO = 0 ⇒ δMN + δ NO = 0 1.19
δ MN and δ NO are the deflections of parts MN and NO respectively in the bar MNO.
Individually these deflections are not zero, but their sum must make it to be zero.
Equation 1.19 is called compatibility equation, which insists that the change in length of the
bar must be compatible with the boundary conditions.
Deflection of parts MN and NO due to load P can be obtained by assuming that the
R1l1 R l
material is within the elastic limit, δMN = and δ NO = 2 2 .
A1E A2 E
Substituting these deflections in equation 1.19,

R1l1 R 2 l2
- =0 1.20
A1E A 2 E
Combining equations 1.18 and 1.20, one can get,
PA1l2
R1 =
l1A 2 + l2 A1
1.21
PA 2 l1
R2 =
l1A 2 + l2 A1
From these reaction forces, the stresses acting on any section in the bar can be easily
determined.
Example 5:
Figure 1.23

A rectangular column of sides 0.4m × 0.35m , made of concrete, is used to support a
compressive load of 1.5MN. Four steel rods of each 24mm diameter are passing through
the concrete as shown in figure 1.23. If the length of the column is 3m, determine the
normal stress in the steel and the concrete. Take Esteel = 200 GPa and E concrete = 29 GPa.
Solution:
Ps = Load on each steel rod
Pc = Load on concrete
From equilibrium equation,
Pc + 4Ps = P
Pc + 4Ps = 1.5 × 103..........(a)
Deflection in steel rod and concrete are the same.
δconcrete = δsteel
Pc × 3 Ps × 3
=
( 0.4 ) × (0.35) × 29 × 10 9 π
× (0.024) 2 × 200 × 109
4
Pc = 44.87Ps ................(b)
Combining equations (a) and (b),
Ps = 30.7kN
Pc = 1378kN
P 1.378 × 106
Normal stress on concrete= c = = 9.84MPa
Ac (0.4)(0.35)
P 30.7 × 103
Normal stress on steel= s = = 67.86MPa
As π 2
(0.024)
4
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1.13 Thermal effect

When a material undergoes a change in temperature, it either elongates or contracts
depending upon whether heat is added to or removed from the material.
If the elongation or contraction is not restricted, then the material does not experience any
stress despite the fact that it undergoes a strain.
The strain due to temperature change is called thermal strain and is expressed as
εT = α(∆T) 1.22
where αis a material property known as coefficient of thermal expansion and ∆T indicates
the change in temperature.
Since strain is a dimensionless quantity and ∆T is expressed in K or 0C, α has a unit that is
reciprocal of K or 0C.
The free expansion or contraction of materials, when restrained induces stress in the
material and it is referred to as thermal stress.
Thermal stress produces the same effect in the material similar to that of mechanical
stress and it can be determined as follows.
Figure 1.24
Consider a rod AB of length L which is fixed at both ends as shown in figure 1.24.
Let the temperature of the rod be raised by ∆T and as the expansion is restricted, the
material develops a compressive stress.

In this problem, static equilibrium equations alone are not sufficient to solve for unknowns
and hence is called statically indeterminate problem.
To determine the stress due to ∆T, assume that the support at the end B is removed and
the material is allowed to expand freely.
Increase in the length of the rod δT due to free expansion can be found out using equation
1.22
δT = εT L = α (∆T)L 1.23
Now, apply a compressive load P at the end B to bring it back to its initial position and the
deflection due to mechanical load from equation 1.15,
PL
δT = 1.24
AE
As the magnitude of δT and δ are equal and their signs differ,
δT = −δ
PL
α(∆T)L = −
AE
P
Thermal stress, σT = = −α (∆T)E 1.25
A
Minus sign in the equation indicates a compressive stress in the material and with
decrease in temperature, the stress developed is tensile stress as ∆T becomes negative.
It is to be noted that the equation 1.25 was obtained on the assumption that the material is
homogeneous and the area of the cross section is uniform.
Thermoplastic analysis assumes significance for structures and components that are
experiencing high temperature variations.

Example 6:
Figure 1.25
A rod consists of two parts that are made of steel and aluminum as shown in figure 1.25.
The elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion for steel are 200GPa and 11.7 x
10-6 per 0C respectively and for aluminum 70GPa and 21.6 x 10-6 per 0C respectively. If the
temperature of the rod is raised by 500C, determine the forces and stresses acting on the
rod.
Solution:
Deflection of the rod under free expansion,
δT = α(∆T)L
( ) (
= 11.7 × 10−6 × 50 × 500 + 21.6 × 10−6 × 50 × 750 )
= 1.1025 mm
Restrained deflection of rod = 1.1025 - 0.4 = 0.7025 mm
Let the force required to make their elongation vanish be R which is the reaction force at
the ends.

⎛ RL ⎞ ⎛ RL ⎞
−δ = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ AE ⎠steel ⎝ AE ⎠Al
π
Area of steel rod = [ 0.05] = 1.9635 × 10−3 m 2
2
4
π
Area of aluminium rod = [ 0.03] = 0.7069 × 10−3 m 2
2
4
⎡ 500 750 ⎤
−0.7025 = R ⎢ + ⎥
⎣1.9635 × 10−3 × 200 × 109 0.7069 × 10−3 × 70 × 109 ⎦
Compressive force on the rod, R = − 42.076 kN
P −42.76 × 103
Compressive stress on steel, σ = = = −21.8MPa
A 1.9635 × 10−3
P −42.76 × 103
Compressive stress on steel, σ = = = −60.5MPa
A 0.7069 × 10−3
Top

1.14. Design considerations:

A good design of a structural element or machine component should ensure that the
developed product will function safely and economically during its estimated life time.
The stress developed in the material should always be less than the maximum stress it
can withstand which is known as ultimate strength as discussed in section 1.6.
During normal operating conditions, the stress experienced by the material is referred to as
working stress or allowable stress or design stress.
The ratio of ultimate strength to allowable stress is defined as factor of safety.
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety = 1.26
Allowable stress
Factor of safety can also be expressed in terms of load as,
Ultimate load
Factor of safety = 1.27
Allowable load
Equations 1.26 and 1.27 are identical when a linear relationship exists between the load
and the stress.
This is not true for many materials and equation 1.26 is widely used in design analysis.
Factor of safety take care of the uncertainties in predicting the exact loadings, variation in
material properties, environmental effects and the accuracy of methods of analysis.
If the factor of safety is less, then the risk of failure is more and on the other hand, when
the factor of safety is very high the structure becomes unacceptable or uncompetitive.
Hence, depending upon the applications the factor of safety varies. It is common to see
that the factor of safety is taken between 2 and 3.
Stresses developed in the material when subjected to loads can be considered to be
uniform at sections located far away from the point of application of loads.
This observation is called Saint Venant’s principle and was discussed in section 1.3.
But, when the element has holes, grooves, notches, key ways, threads and other
abrupt changes in geometry, the stress on those cross-sections will not be uniform.

These discontinuities in geometry cause high stresses concentrations in small regions of
the material and are called stress raisers.
Experimentally it was found that the stress concentrations are independent of the material
size and its properties, and they depend only on the geometric parameters.
Figure 1.26
Consider a rectangular flat plate with a circular hole as shown in figure 1.26.
The stress distribution on the section passing through the centre of the hole indicates that
the maximum stress occurs at the ends of the holes and it is much higher than the average
stress.
Since the designer, in general, is more interested in knowing the maximum stress rather
than the actual stress distribution, a simple relationship between the σmax and σave in
terms of geometric parameters will be of practical importance.
Many experiments were conducted on samples with various discontinuities and the
relationship between the stress concentration factor and the geometrical parameters are
established, where
σmax
Stress concentration factor, K = 1.28
σave

P
Hence, simply by calculating the average stress, σave = , in the critical section of a
A
discontinuity, σmax can be easily found and by multiplying σave with K.
The variation of K in terms of r/d for the rectangular plate with a circular hole is given in
figure 1.26.
It is to be noted that the expression in equation 1.28 can be used as long as σmax is within
the proportional limit of the material.
Example 7:
Figure 1.27
A rectangular link AB made of steel is used to support a load W through a rod CD as
shown in figure 1.27. If the link AB is 30mm wide, determine its thickness for a factor of
safety 2.5. The ultimate strength of steel may be assumed to be 450 MPa.
Solution:
Drawing free body diagram of the link and the rod,
Taking moment about C,

25 × 550 − FBA sin 600 × 500 = 0

FBA = 31.75 kN
Tension along link AB, FBA = 31.75 kN.
Ultimate stress
F.O.S =
allowable stress
450 × 106
Allowable stress in link AB, σa = = 180 MPa
2.5
Tensile force
Stress in link AB, σ =
Area
31.75 × 103
180 ×106 =
0.03 × t
Thickness of link AB, t = 5.88
t ≈ 6 mm
Top

1.15. Strain energy:

Strain energy is an important concept in mechanics and is used to study the response of
materials and structures under static and dynamic loads.
Within the elastic limit, the work done by the external forces on a material is stored as
deformation or strain that is recoverable.
On removal of load, the deformation or strain disappears and the stored energy is
released. This recoverable energy stored in the material in the form of strain is called
elastic strain energy.
Figure 1.28
Consider a rod of uniform cross section with length L as shown in figure 1.28.
An axial tensile load P is applied on the material gradually from zero to maximum
magnitude and the corresponding maximum deformation is δ.
Area under the load-displacement curve shown in figure 1.28 indicates the work done on
the material by the external load that is stored as strain energy in the material.
Let dW be the work done by the load P due to increment in deflection dδ. The
corresponding increase in strain energy is dU.
When the material is within the elastic limit, the work done due to dδ,
dW = dU = Pdδ
The total work done or total elastic strain energy of the material,
δ
W = U = ∫ Pdδ 1.29
0

Equation 1.29 holds for both linear elastic and non-linear elastic materials.
If the material is linear elastic, then the load-displacement diagram will become as shown
in figure 1.29.
Figure 1.29
The elastic strain energy stored in the material is determined from the area of triangle
OAB.
1
U= P1δ1 1.30
2
P1L
where δ1 = .
AE
Since the load-displacement curve is a straight line here, the load P1 can be expressed in
terms of stiffness and deflection as P1 = kδ1 . Then equation 1.30 turns out to be,
1
U= kδ12 1.31
2
Work done and strain energy are expressed in N-m or joules (J).
Strain energy defined in equation 1.29 depends on the material dimensions.
In order to eliminate the material dimensions from the strain energy equation, strain energy
density is often used.
Strain energy stored per unit volume of the material is referred to as strain energy density.
Dividing equation 1.29 by volume,

ε
Strain energy density, u = ∫ σdε 1.32
0
Equation 1.32 indicates the expression of strain energy in terms of stress and strain, which
are more convenient quantities to use rather than load and displacement.
Figure 1.30
Area under the stress strain curve indicates the strain energy density of the material.
For linear elastic materials within proportional limit, equation 1.32 gets simplified as,
1
Strain energy density, u = σ1ε1 1.33
2
σ
Using Hook’s law, ε1 = 1 , strain energy density is expressed in terms of stress,
E
σ12
u= 1.34
2E
When the stress in the material reaches the yield stress σy , the strain energy density
attains its maximum value and is called the modulus of resilience.
σ 2
Modulus of resilience, u R = Y 1.35
2E

Modulus of resilience is a measure of energy that can be absorbed by the material due to
impact loading without undergoing any plastic deformation.
Figure 1.31
If the material exceeds the elastic limit during loading, all the work done is not stored in the
material as strain energy.
This is due to the fact that part of the energy is spent on deforming the material
permanently and that energy is dissipated out as heat.
The area under the entire stress strain diagram is called modulus of toughness, which is a
measure of energy that can be absorbed by the material due to impact loading before it
fractures.
Hence, materials with higher modulus of toughness are used to make components and
structures that will be exposed to sudden and impact loads.
Example 8:
Figure 1.32

A 25 kN load is applied gradually on a steel rod ABC as shown in figure 1.32. Taking
E=200 GPa, determine the strain energy stored in the entire rod and the strain energy
density in parts AB and BC. If the yield strength of the material is σy=320MPa, find the
maximum energy that can be absorbed by the rod without undergoing permanent
deformation.
Solution:
σ2AB
Strain energy density in part AB, u AB =
2E
2
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ 25 × 103 ⎥
=
9 ⎢π ⎥
u AB
2 × 200 × 10 ⎢ ( 0.024 )2 ⎥
⎣4 ⎦
= 7.63 kJ/m3
σ2BC
Strain energy density in part BC, u BC =
2E
2
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ 25 × 103 ⎥
=
9 ⎢π ⎥
u BC
2 × 200 × 10 ⎢ ( 0.016 )2 ⎥
⎣4 ⎦
= 38.65 kJ/m3
Strain energy in the entire rod,
U = u ABVAB + u BC VBC
⎡Π ⎤ ⎡Π ⎤
= 7.63 ×103 × ⎢ ( 0.024 ) ×1⎥ + 38.65 ×103 × ⎢ ( 0.016 ) × 0.8⎥
2 2
⎣4 ⎦ ⎣4 ⎦
U = 9.67J
The load that will produce yield stress in the material,
Π
P = σ y A BC = 320 × 106 × ( 0.016 )2
4
P = 64.3kN
Maximum energy that can be stored in the rod,

1 ⎢⎡⎛ P ⎞ ⎤
2 2
⎛ P ⎞
U= ⎜ ⎟ × V +
AB ⎜ ⎟ × VBC
⎥
2E ⎢⎝ A AB ⎠ ⎝ A BC ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
P 2 ⎡ L AB L BC ⎤
= ⎢ + ⎥
2E ⎣ A AB A BC ⎦
( ⎡
) ⎤
2
64.3 ×103⎢ 1 0.8 ⎥
= ⎢ + ⎥
2 × 200 ×109 ⎢ Π ( 0.024 )2 Π ( 0.016 )2 ⎥
⎣4 4 ⎦
= 63.97J
Top

1.16 Impact loading

A static loading is applied very slowly so that the external load and the internal force are
always in equilibrium. Hence, the vibrational and dynamic effects are negligible in static
loading.
Dynamic loading may take many forms like fluctuating loads where the loads are varying
with time and impact loads where the loads are applied suddenly and may be removed
immediately or later.
Collision of two bodies and objects freely falling onto a structure are some of the examples
of impact loading.
Consider a collar of mass M at a height h from the flange that is rigidly fixed at the end of a
bar as shown in figure 1.33.
As the collar freely falls onto the flange, the bar begins to elongate causing axial stresses
and strain within the bar.
Figure 1.33
After the flange reaching its maximum position during downward motion, it moves up due
to shortening of the bar.
The bar vibrates in the axial direction with the collar and the flange till the vibration dies out
completely due to damping effects.
To simplify the complex impact loading analysis, the following assumptions are made.

The kinetic energy of the collar at the time of striking is completely transformed into strain
energy and stored in the bar.
But in practice, not all the kinetic energy is stored in the material as some of the energy is
dissipated out as heat and waves.
Hence, this assumption is conservative in the sense that the stress and deflection
predicted by this way are higher than the actual values.
The second assumption is that after striking the flange, the collar and the flange move
downward together without any bouncing.
This assumption is reasonable provided the weight of the collar is much larger than that of
the bar.
The third assumption is that the stresses in the bar remain within linear elastic range and
the stress distribution is uniform within the bar.
But, in reality, the stress distribution is not uniform since the stress waves generated due
to impact loading travel through the bar.
Using the principle of conservation of energy, the kinetic energy of the collar is equated to
the strain energy of the bar.
Assuming the height of fall h is much larger than the deformation of rod, and using
equation 1.34,
1 σ2 V
Mv 2 = max 1.36
2 2E
where v is the velocity of the collar at strike ( v = 2gh ) and V is the volume of the material.
The maximum stress in the bar due to the impact load of mass M,
Mv 2 E 1.37
σmax =
V
From above equation, it becomes clear that by increasing the volume of material, the effect
of impact loading can be minimized.
Expressing strain energy in terms of deflection in equation 1.36,
1 δ2 EA
Mv 2 = max
2 2L

Mv 2 L 1.38
δmax =
EA
If the load of the collar is applied gradually on the bar i.e., under static loading, the static
deflection δst will be,
MgL
δst =
EA
Substituting this in equation 1.38, relationship between the static deflection δst and the
impact deflection δmax is obtained.
δmax = 2hδst 1.39
To represent the magnification of deflection due to impact load compared to that of static
deflection for the same load, impact factor is used.
δ max
Impact factor = 1.40
δst
σ
Alternately, the impact factor can be obtained from the ratio max .
σst
The relationship between the stress σst developed in the bar due to static loading and the
impact loading stress σmax is determined as follows.
Eδst
σst = Eεst =
L
Eδmax
σmax = Eε max =
L
E
σmax = 2hδst
L
2hEσst
σmax = 1.41
L
Now, the effect of suddenly applied loads on materials or structures that forms a special
case of impact loading is discussed.

In figure 1.33, if the collar is brought into contact on the top of the flange and released
immediately, it is referred to as suddenly applied load.
The maximum stress produced in the bar due to suddenly applied load can be determined
by replacing h by δmax in equation 1.41
σmax = 2σst 1.42
Hence, the stress developed in a material due to suddenly applied load is twice as large as
that of gradually applied load.
Example 9:
Figure 1.34
A 50 kg collar is sliding on a cable as shown in figure 1.34 from a height h = 1m. Its free
fall is restrained by a stopper at the end of the cable. The effective cross-sectional area
and the elastic modulus of the cable are taken to be 60 mm2 and 150GPa respectively. If
the maximum allowable stress in the cable due to impact load is 450MPa, calculate the
minimum permissible length for the cable and the corresponding maximum deflection. Also
find the impact factor.
Solution:
Mv 2 E
Maximum stress due to impact load, σmax =
V

Velocity, v = 2gh = 2 × 9.81 × 1 = 4.43 m/s
50 × ( 4.43) × 150 × 109

2
450 × 10 =
6
( 60 × 10−6 ) × L
Minimum permissible length for the cable, L = 12.1 m
MgL
Static deflection, δst =
EA
50 × 9.81 × 12.1
=
150 × 109 × 60 × 10−6
= 0.656 mm
Maximum deflection, δmax = 2hδst
= 2 × 1000 × 0.656
= 36 mm
δ 36
Impact factor, = max =
δst 0.656
= 55
Top

Stresses
Stress at a point
Stress Tensor
Equations of Equilibrium
Different states of stress
Transformation of plane stress
Principal stresses and maximum shear stress
Mohr's circle for plane stress

Introduction
2.1 stress at a point
Figure 2.1
Consider a body in equilibrium under point and traction loads as shown in figure 2.1.
After cutting the body along section AA, take an infinitesimal area ∆A lying on the surface
consisting a point C.
The interaction force between the cut sections 1 & 2, through ∆A is ∆F. Stress at the point
C can be defined,
∆F
σ = lim 2.1
∆ A → 0 ∆A
∆F is resolved into ∆Fn and ∆Fs that are acting normal and tangent to ∆A.
∆Fn 2.2
Normal stress, σ n = lim
∆A→0 ∆A
∆Fs
Shear Stress, σs = lim 2.3
∆A →0 ∆A
Top

2.2 stress Tensor
Figure 2.2
Consider the free body diagram of an infinitesimally small cube inside the continuum as
shown in figure 2.2.
Stress on an arbitrary plane can be resolved into two shear stress components parallel to
the plane and one normal stress component perpendicular to the plane.
Thus, stresses acting on the cube can be represented as a second order tensor with nine
components.
⎡σ xx σ xy σ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ = ⎢ σ yx σ yy σ yz ⎥ 2.4
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ σzx σzy σ zz ⎦⎥
Is stress tensor symmetric?
Figure 2.3

Consider a body under equilibrium with simple shear as shown in figure 2.3.
Taking moment about z axis,
( ) ( )
M z = τ yx d x d z d y − τ xy d y d z d x = 0
τ xy = τ yx
Similarly, τxz = τzx and τ yz = τzy .
Hence, the stress tensor is symmetric and it can be represented with six
components, σ xx , σ yy , σzz , τxy , τxz and τ yz , instead of nine components.
⎡σ xx σ xy σ xz ⎤ ⎡ σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σ = ⎢ σ yx σ yy σ yz ⎥ = ⎢ τ xy σ yy τ yz ⎥ 2.5
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ σzx σ zy σ zz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ τ xz τ yz σ zz ⎥⎦
Top

2.3 Equations of Equilibrium
Figure 2.4
Consider an infinitesimal element of a body under equilibrium with sides dx × dy × 1 as
shown in figure 2.4.
Bx, By are the body forces like gravitational, inertia, magnetic, etc., acting on the element
through its centre of gravity.
∑ Fx = 0 ,
⎛ ∂σ xx ⎞ ⎛ ∂τ yx ⎞
⎜ σ xx +
⎝ ∂x ⎠
( )
dx ⎟ d y ×1 − σ xx ( dy × 1) + ⎜ τ yx +
dy
dy ⎟ ( dx × 1) − τ yx ( dx × 1) + Bx ( dx × dy × 1) = 0
⎝ ⎠
Similarly taking ∑ Fy = 0 and simplifying, equilibrium equations of the element in
differential form are obtained as,
∂σ xx ∂τ yx
+ + Bx = 0
∂x ∂y
2.6
∂τxy ∂σ yy
+ + By = 0
∂x ∂y
Extending this derivation to a three dimensional case, the differential equations of
equilibrium become,

∂σ xx ∂τ yx ∂τzx
+ + + Bx = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂τ xy ∂σ yy ∂τzy
+ + + By = 0 2.7
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂τ xz ∂τ yz ∂σzz
+ + + Bz = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
When the right hand side of above equations is not equal to zero, then, they become
equations of motion.
Equations of equilibrium are valid regardless of the materials nature whether elastic,
plastic, viscoelastic etc.
In equation 2.7, since there are three equations and six unknowns (realizing τxy = τyx and
so on), all problems in stress analysis are statically indeterminate.
Hence, to solve for the unknown stresses, equilibrium equations are supplemented with
kinematic requirements and constitutive equations.
Top

2.4 Different states of stress

Depending upon the state of stress at a point, we can classify it as uniaxial(1D),
biaxial(2D) and triaxial(3D) stress.
2.4.1 One dimensional stress(Uniaxial)
Figure 2.5
Consider a bar under a tensile load P acting along its axis as shown in figure 2.5.
Take an element A which has its sides parallel to the surfaces of the bar.
It is clear that the element has only normal stress along only one direction, i.e., x axis and
all other stresses are zero. Hence it is said to be under uni-axial stress state.
Now consider another element B in the same bar, which has its slides inclined to the
surfaces of the bar.
Though the element has normal and shear stresses on each face, it can be transformed
into a uni-axial stress state like element A by transformation of stresses (will be discussed
in section 2.5).
Hence, if the stress components at a point can be transformed into a single normal stress
(principal stress as will be discussed later), then, the element is under uni-axial stress
state.

Is an element under pure shear uni-axial?
Figure 2.6
The given stress components cannot be transformed into a single normal stress along an
axis but along two axes. Hence this element is under biaxial / two dimensional stress state.
2.4.2 Two dimensional stress (Plane stress)
Figure 2.7
When the cubic element is free from any of the stresses on its two parallel surfaces and
the stress components in the element can not be reduced to a uni-axial stress by
transformation, then, the element is said to be in two dimensional stress/plane stress state.
Thin plates under mid plane loads and the free surface of structural elements may
experience plane stresses as shown below.

Figure 2.8
Top

2.5 Transformation of plane stress

Though the state of stress at a point in a stressed body remains the same, the normal and
shear stress components vary as the orientation of plane through that point changes.
Under complex loading, a structural member may experience larger stresses on inclined
planes then on the cross section.
The knowledge of maximum normal and shear stresses and their plane's orientation
assumes significance from failure point of view.
Hence, it is important to know how to transform the stress components from one set of
coordinate axes to another set of co-ordinates axes that will contain the stresses of
interest.
Figure 2.9
Consider a prismatic element with sides dx, dy and ds with their faces perpendicular to y, x
and x' axes respectively. Thickness of the element is t.
σx 'x ' and τx'y' are the normal and shear stresses acting on a plane inclined at an angle θ
measured counter clockwise from x plane.
Under equilibrium, ∑ Fx ' = 0

σx 'x ' .t.ds − σxx .t.d y .cos θ − σ yy .t.d x .sin θ − τxy .t.d y .sin θ − τ yx .t.d x .cos θ = 0
dy dx
Dividing above equation by t.ds and using = cos θ and = sin θ ,
ds ds
σx 'x ' = σxx cos 2 θ + σ yy sin 2 θ + 2τ xy sin θ cos θ
Similarly, from ∑ Fy' = 0 and simplifying,
x 'y' = ( σyy − σxx ) sin θ cos θ + τxy ( cos2 θ − sin 2 θ )

Using trigonometric relations and simplifying,
σ xx + σ yy σ xx − σ yy
σ x 'x ' = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
2.8
τ x 'y' =
(
− σ xx − σ yy ) sin 2θ + τ
xy cos 2θ
2
Replacing θ by θ + 900, in σ x 'x ' expression of equation 2.8, we get the normal stress along
y' direction.
σ y'y' = − cos 2θ − τ xy sin 2θ 2.9
2 2
Equations 2.8 and 2.9 are the transformation equations for plane stress using which the
stress components on any plane passing through the point can be determined.
Notice here that,
σ xx + σ yy = σ x 'x ' + σ y'y' 2.10
Invariably, the sum of the normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes at a
point has the same value. This sum is a function of the stress at that point and not on the
orientation of axes. Hence, this quantity is called stress invariant at that a point
Top

2.6 Principal stresses and maximum shear stress

From transformation equations, it is clear that the normal and shear stresses vary
continuously with the orientation of planes through the point.
Among those varying stresses, finding the maximum and minimum values and the
corresponding planes are important from the design considerations.
By taking the derivative of σ x 'x ' in equation 2.8 with respect to θ and equating it to zero,
dσ x 'x '
dθ
( )
= − σ xx − σ yy sin 2θ + 2τ xy cos 2θ = 0
2τxy
tan 2θp = 2.11
σ xx − σ yy
Here, θp has two values θp1, and θp2 that differ by 900 with one value between 00 and 900
and the other between 900 and 1800.
These two values define the principal planes that contain maximum and minimum
stresses.
Substituting these two θp values in equation 2.8, the maximum and minimum stresses, also
called as principal stresses, are obtained.
2
σ xx + σ yy ⎛ σ xx − σ yy ⎞ 2
σ max,min = ± ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy 2.12
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The plus and minus signs in the second term of equation 2.12, indicate the algebraically
larger and smaller principal stresses, i.e. maximum and minimum principal stresses.
In the second equation of 2.8, if τx 'y' is taken as zero, then the resulting equation is same
as equation 2.11.
Thus, the following important observation pertained to principal planes is made.
The shear stresses are zero on the principal planes
To get the maximum value of the shear stress, the derivative of τx 'y' in equation 2.8 with
respect to θ is equated to zero.
dτx 'y'
dθ
( )
= − σ xx − σ yy cos 2θ − 2τ xy sin 2θ = 0

tan 2θs =
(
− σ xx − σ yy ) 2.13
2τ xy
Hence, θs has two values, θs1 and θs2 that differ by 900 with one value between 00 and 900
and the other between 900 and 1800.
Hence, the maximum shear stresses that occur on those two mutually perpendicular
planes are equal in algebraic value and are different only in sign due to its complementary
property.
Comparing equations 2.11 and 2.13,
1
tan 2θp = − 2.14
tan 2θs
It is understood from equation 2.14 that the tangent of the angles 2θp and 2θs are negative
reciprocals of each other and hence, they are separated by 900.
Hence, we can conclude that θp and θs differ by 450, i.e., the maximum shear stress planes
can be obtained by rotating the principal plane by 450 in either direction.
A typical example of this concept is given in figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10

The principal planes do not contain any shear stress on them, but the maximum shear
stress planes may or may not contain normal stresses as the case may be.
Maximum shear stress value is found out by substituting θs values in equation 2.8.
2
⎛ σ xx − σ yy ⎞ 2
τmax = ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy 2.15
⎝ 2 ⎠
Another expression for τmax is obtained from the principal stresses,
σ max − σ min
τmax = 2.16
2
Example: (Knowledge in torsion and bending is necessary)
Figure 2.11
A gear with a shaft is used to transmit the power as shown in figure 2.11. The load at the
gear tooth is 1kN. The diameter of the gear and the shaft are 40 mm and 20 mm
respectively. Find the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress on an element,
which you feel important on the shaft.
Solution:
The critical element of design interest lies on the top of the shaft, near to the bearing.

Transfer the load from the end of the gear to the centre of the shaft as a force-couple
system with 1kN force and 20 N-m couple clockwise.
M ( )
1 × 103 × ( 0.125 )
Bending stress, σmax = y=
4
I Π ( 0.02 ) / 64
= 159 MPa
T 20 × ( 0.01)
Shearing stress, τxy = r= = 12.7Mpa
4
J Π ( 0.02 ) / 32
From equation 2.11, the principal plane,
2 × 12.7
tan 2θp =
(159 − 0 )
θp1 = 4.50 ; θp2 = 90 + 4.50 = 94.50
Using equation 2.8, the principal stresses,

(159 + 0 ) (159 − 0 )
σmax =
2
+
2
( ) (
cos 2 × 4.50 + 12.7 sin 2 × 4.50 )
= 160 MPa
(159 + 0 ) (159 − 0 )
σmin =
2
+
2
( ) (
cos 2 × 94.50 + 12.7 sin 2 × 94.50 )
= -1 MPa
Alternatively, using equation 2.12,
⎛ 159 + 0 ⎞ ⎛ 159 + 0 ⎞ 2
σmax = ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ + (12.7 )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 160 MPa
σmin = -1 MPa
160 + 1
Maximum Shear Stress, τmax = = 80.5 MPa
2
The principal planes and the stresses acting on them are shown below.
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2.7 Mohr's circle for plane stress

The transformation equations of plane stress 2.8 can be represented in a graphical form
which is popularly known as Mohr's circle.
Though the transformation equations are sufficient to get the normal and shear stresses on
any plane at a point, with Mohr's circle one can easily visualize their variation with respect
to plane orientation θ.
Besides stress plots, Mohr's circles are used to plot strains, moment of inertia, etc., which
follow the same transformation laws as do stresses.
2.7.1 Equations of Mohr's circle

Recalling transformation equations 2.8 and rearranging the terms
⎛ σ xx + σ yy ⎞ σ xx − σ yy
σ x 'x ' − ⎜ ⎟= cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
2.17
⎛ σ xx − σ yy ⎞
τ x 'y' = − ⎜ ⎟ sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
⎝ 2 ⎠
A little consideration will show that the above two equations are the equations of a circle
with σ x 'x ' and τx 'y' as its coordinates and 2θ as its parameter.
If the parameter 2θ is eliminated from the equations, then the significance of them will
become clear.
Squaring and adding equations 2.17 results in,
2 2
⎡ ⎛ σ xx + σ yy ⎞⎤ 2 ⎡ σ xx − σ yy ⎤ 2
⎢ σ x 'x ' − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + τ x 'y' = ⎢ ⎥ + τ xy 2.18
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
For simple representation of above equation, the following notations are used.
1/ 2
σ xx + σ yy ⎡⎛ σ − σ ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎢ xx yy 2 ⎥
σave = ; r= ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy 2.19
2 ⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Equation 2.18 can thus be simplified as,
( σ x 'x ' − σave )2 + τ2 x 'y ' = r 2 2.20

Equation 2.20 represents the equation of a circle in a standard form. This circle has σ x 'x '
as its abscissa and τx 'y' as its ordinate with radius r.
The coordinate for the centre of the circle is σ x 'x ' = σave and τx 'y' = 0 .
2.7.2 Construction procedure
Figure 2.12
Sign convention: Tension is positive and compression is negative. Shear stresses causing
clockwise moment about O are positive and counterclockwise negative.
Hence, τxy is negative and τ yx is positive.
Mohr's circle is drawn with the stress coordinates σ xx as its abscissa and τxy as its
ordinate, and this plane is called the stress plane.
The plane on the element in the material with xy coordinates is called the physical plane.
Stresses on the physical plane M is represented by the point M on the stress plane
with σ xx and τxy coordinates.

Figure 2.13
Stresses on the physical plane N, which is normal to M, is represented by the point N on
the stress plane with σ yy and τ yx .
The intersecting point of line MN with abscissa is taken as O, which turns out to be the
centre of circle with radius OM.
Now, the stresses on a plane which makes θ0 inclination with x axis in physical plane can
be determined as follows. Let that plane be M'.
An important point to be noted here is that a plane which has a θ0 inclination in physical
plane will make 2θ0 inclination in stress plane.
Hence, rotate the line OM in stress plane by 2θ0 counterclockwise to obtain the plane M'.
The coordinates of M' in stress plane define the stresses acting on plane M' in physical
plane and it can be easily verified.
(
σx 'x ' = PO + r cos 2θp − 2θ )
2.21
σx 'x ' = PO + r ⎡⎣cos 2θp cos 2θ + sin 2θp sin 2θ⎤⎦

σ xx + σ yy
Where PO =
2
2
⎛ σ xx − σ yy ⎞ 2
r= ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
⎝ 2 ⎠
σ xx − σ yy
cos 2θp =
2r
τ xy
sin 2θp =
2r
Rewriting equation 2.21,
σ x 'x ' = + cos 2θ + τxy sin 2θ 2.22
2 2
Equation 2.22 is same as equation 2.8.
This way it can be proved for shear stress τx 'y' on plane M' (do it yourself).
Extension of line M'O will get the point N' on the circle which coordinate gives the stresses
on physical plane N' that is normal to M'.
This way the normal and shear stresses acting on any plane in the material can be
obtained using Mohr’s circle.
Points A and B on Mohr's circle do not have any shear components and hence, they
represent the principal stresses,
2
σ xx + σ yy ⎛ σ xx − σ yy ⎞ 2
σmax,min = PO ± r = ± ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The principal plane orientations can be obtained in Mohr's circle by rotating the line OM by
2θp and 2θp+1800 clockwise or counterclockwise as the case may be (here it is counter
clock wise) in order to make that line be aligned to axis τxy =0.
These principal planes on the physical plane are obtained by rotating the plane m, which is
normal to x axis, by θp and θp+900 in the same direction as was done in stress plane.
The maximum shear stress is defined by OC in Mohr's circle,

2
⎛ σ xx − σ yy ⎞ 2
τmax =±r=± ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
⎝ 2 ⎠
( or )
⎛σ − σmin ⎞
τmax = ± ⎜ max ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
It is important to note the difference in the sign convention of shear stress between
analytical and graphical methods, i.e., physical plane and stress plane. The shear stresses
that will rotate the element in counterclockwise direction are considered positive in the
analytical method and negative in the graphical method. It is assumed this way in order to
make the rotation of the elements consistent in both the methods.
Example:
For the state of plane stress given, determine the principal planes, the principal stresses
and the maximum shear stress. Also find the stress components on the element after it is
rotated by 200 counterclockwise.
Solution:
Analytical solution:
2
100 + ( −60 ) ⎡100 − ( −60 ) ⎤ 2
σ max,min = ± ⎢ ⎥ + ( −50 )
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
= 20 ± 94.34 MPa
Maximum principal stress = 114.34 MPa
Minimum principal stress = -74.4 MPa
2 × ( −50 )
Principal planes, tan 2θp =
100 − ( −60 )

θP1 = -160
θP2 = -160+900=740
⎡114.34 - ( -74.34 ) ⎤
Maximum shear stress = ± ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= ± 94.34 MPa
Normal stresses on the element after rotation by 200 counterclockwise
100 + ( −60 ) 100 − ( −60 )

σ x'x' =
2
+
2
( ) (
cos 2 × 200 + ( −50 ) sin 2 × 200 )
= 49.14 MPa
100 + ( −60 ) 100 − ( −60 )
σ y'y' =
2
+
2
( ) (
cos 2 × 1100 + ( −50 ) sin 2 × 1100 )
= -9.14 MPa
⎡100 − ( −60 ) ⎤
τ x 'y' = - ⎢
⎣ 2
0
( )
⎥ sin 40 − 50 cos 40
⎦
0
( )
= -89.72 MPa

II. Graphical Method:
Using the procedure discussed in the previous section, Mohr's circle is constructed as
below.
σmax = PB = 114.34 MPa

σmin = PA = −74.34 MPa
τmax = OC or OD = ± 94.34 MPa
Stresses on the element after rotating by 200 counterclockwise,
σ x'x' = abscissa of PM' = 49.14 MPa

σ y'y' = abscissa of PN' = −9.14 MPa
τ x 'y' = ordinate PM' = 89.72 MPa
Top

Torsion
Introduction
Click here to check the Animation
Basic Assumptions
Assumptions
Torsion Formula
Stress Formula
Stresses on Inclined Planes
Angle of twist
Angle of Twist in Torsion
Maximum Stress
Torsion of Circular Elastic Bars: Formulae
Table of Formulae

Introduction:
Detailed methods of analysis for determining stresses and deformations in axially loaded
bars were presented in the first two chapters. Analogous relations for members subjected
to torque about their longitudinal axes are developed in this chapter. The constitutive
relations for shear discussed in the preceding chapter will be employed for this purpose.
The investigations are confined to the effect of a single type of action, i.e., of a torque
causing a twist or torsion in a member.
The major part of this chapter is devoted to the consideration of members having circular
cross sections, either solid or tubular. Solution of such elastic and inelastic problems can
be obtained using the procedures of engineering mechanics of solids. For the solution of
torsion problems having noncircular cross sections, methods of the mathematical theory of
elasticity (or finite elements) must be employed. This topic is briefly discussed in order to
make the reader aware of the differences in such solutions from that for circular members.
Further, to lend emphasis to the difference in the solutions discussed, this chapter is
subdivided into four distinct parts. It should be noted, however, that in practice, members
for transmitting torque, such as shafts for motors, torque tubes for power equipment, etc.,
are predominantly circular or tubular in cross section. Therefore, numerous applications fall
within the scope of the formulas derived in this chapter.
In this section, discussion is limited to torsion of circular bars only.
Top

Basic Assumptions
a. Plane sections perpendicular to the axis of a circular member before application

of torque remains plane even after application of torque.
b. Shear strains vary linearly from the central axis reaching a maximum value at the outer
surface.
c. For linearly elastic material, Hooke's law is valid. Hence shear stress is proportional to
shear strain.
Top

Torsion Formula
Since shear strains varies linearly across the section,
γ max
γ= R
C
where γ is the shear strains at a point of raidus R, C is the radius of the member.
∴ Torque, T = ∫ τR dA
A
= ∫ GγR dA
A
where τ = G γ, the shear stress at any point at a distance R (Refer Figure 6.1)
Figure 6.1
Hence writing in terms of shear stresses.
R
T= ∫ C τmax RdA
A
τmax
C ∫
= R 2 dA
∫R dA = Ip
2
the Polar moment of Inertia of the circular section.
τmax I p
∴ T=
C

TC
τmax =
Ip
and
TR
τ=
Ip
Top

Stresses on Inclined Planes
Figure 6.2
The shear stress at a point, on the surface acting on a plane perpendicular to the axis of
the rod can be found out from the preceding analysis.
Using transformation law for, stresses the state of stress at a point on a plane at 450 to the
axis can be found out. These stresses are found out to be
σ1 = τmax
σ2 = −τmax
Ductile materials have lesser shear strength than tensile strength and hence fail through
planes perpendicular to the axis.
Brittle materials have lesser tensile strength than shear strength. Hence they fail through
planes inclined at 450 to the axis.
Top

Angle of Twist in Torsion

Consider a circular shaft subjected to torque. It is assumed that plane sections
perpendicular to the axis remain plane even after loading. Isolating an element form such a
member, (Refer Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3
A line segment in the surface of the shaft, AB is initially parallel to the axis of the shaft.
Upon application of torque, it occupies a new position AB'. The segment OB now occupy
the position OB'.
From figure 16,
BB' = C dφ
Also
BB ' = dx γ max
dφ γ max
=
dx C

Since τ = G γ
τmax = G γ max
TC
τmax =
GIp
TC
∴ γ max =
GI p
dφ T
∴ =
dx GI p
This equation gives the relative angle of twist between any two sections of a shaft distance
dx apart.
To find the total angle of twist φ between any two sections 1 and 2, all rotations of all
elements between 1 and 2 should be summed up
Tdx
∴ φ = φ2 − φ1 = ∫
Ip G
Where
T = T (x)
Ip = Ip ( x )
G = G (x)
When τ, Ip and G vary along the length of the shaft.
Top

Torsion of Circular Elastic Bars:

Formulae:
1. For solid circular member
Polar Moment of Inertia,
πC4 πD 4
Ip = =
2 32
where, C is radius of the circular member. D is Diameter of the circular member.
2. For a circular tube:
Figure 6.4
Polar moment of Inertia,
πc4 − πb 4
Ip =
2
where, c = outer radius of the tube.
b = Inner radius of the tube.
3. For very thin tubes:
where thickness t = c-b is very less. Then IP can be approximated to,
I p = 2πR avg t
where

b+c
R avg = ,
2
4. (i) TC
τmax =
IP
where τ max = Maximum shear stress in a circular cross section.
T = Torque in that section.
C = Radius of the section.
IP = Polar Moment of Inertia.
Note: Shear stress linearly with radius.
Figure 6.5
(ii) Shear Stress (τ) at a distance R from the centre.
Figure 6.6
R
τ = τmax
C
TR
τ=
IP
Note: J is also used to denote the polar moment of Inertia.

Click here to check the Animation
Assumptions
Stress Formula
Angle of twist
Maximum Stress
Top

Table of Formulae
S.No Quantity Formula Diagram
1.
(Shear
stress)
2. (Max.
shear
stress)
(Max.
3. normal
stress)
4.
(angle of
twist)
5. (angle of
twist)
Top

Failure of torsional bars.
Design of torsional members
Stress concentration
Energy
Inelastic torsional bars
Non-circular cross section
Thin walled members
Numerical solutions

Energy
Thin walled members
Numerical solutions

Problem 1 - Internal torque in a Shaft
Problem 2 - Torsion formula (circular elastic bars).
Problem 3 - Hollow cylinder
Problem 4 - Angle of twist for circular members
Problem 5 - Variable c/s and Torque
Problem 6 - Composite bars
Problem 7 - Statically indeterminate problem
Problem 8 - Alternative differential approach to Torsion
Problem 9 - Energy and load impacts

1. Internal torque in a Shaft
Find the internal torque at any section for the shaft shown in the figure. The forces are
shown in the figure.
Figure:
Concepts Involved:
Force equilibrium
Solution :
Step 1
The 50N.m torque is balanced by the two torques of 35 and 15 N.m at A and B
respectively. Therefore, the body as a whole is in equilibrium.
Step 2
We obtain the free body diagram of the part of the shaft, by passing a plane perpendicular
to the shaft at any point between A and B. So we have Σ Mx = 0, this implies TAB = 35N-m.
The conclusion reached is that resisting torque developed between shaft A and B is 35N-m

Step 3
On similar grounds the internal torque resisted between B and C is 50 N-m
Top

2. Torsion formula (circular elastic bars).

Find the maximum torsional stress in shaft AC (refer the figure). Assume the Diameter of
AC is 15 mm.
Concepts involved:
1) Torsional stress
2) Torsion formula
Formulae used:
Polar moment of inertia
J = ∫ ρ2 dA
A
Torsion formula
τ max = Tr/J
Solution:
Step 1:
The maximum internal torque resisted by the shaft is known from the previous problem to
be 50 N-m

Step 2:
Calculate J for the section using the first formula
J = π d4/32 = 4970 mm4
Step 3:
Substitute in the torsion formula
τ max = Tr/J = (50 X 103 X7.5)/ 4970 = 75.45Mpa
Result variation:
Consider the case when diameter changes. Guess how τ max will change?
For answer: τ max is inversely proportional to d3
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3. Hollow cylinder
Consider a long tube of 25mm outside diameter, do, and of 20mm inside diameter di,
twisted about its longitudinal axis with a torque T of 45 N-m Determine the shear stresses
at the outside and inside of the tube
Concepts involved:
Torsional stress
Torsion formula
Formulae used:
Polar moment of inertia
π ( d o4 - di4 )
J = ∫ ρ dA =
2
A 32
Torsion formula
τ max = Tr / J

Solution:
Step 1:
Calculate J
J = ∫ ρ2 dA =
π ( d 4
o - d 4
i ) =
π ( 20 4
-16 4
)
A 32 32
=22641mm4
Step 2:
Apply torsion formula for the two radii
τ max = Tro /J = (50 X 103 X 12.5 )/ 22641= 27.6 MPa
τ max = Tri /J = (50 X 103 X 10)/ 22641= 22.1 MPa
Conclusion:
We see that hollow members are better transmitters of torsion than solid members.
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4. Angle of twist for circular members

Find the relative rotation of section B-B with respect to section A-A of the solid elastic shaft
as shown in the figure when a constant torque T is being transmitted through it. The polar
moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area J is constant.
Concepts involved:
Angle of twist in circular members
Formulae used:
Tx
θ= ∫ dx
JG
Where,
φ= Angle of twist
Tx = torque at distance x
Jx = polar moment of area at distance x
G = Shear modulus

Solution:
Step 1:
Here neither torque nor J changes with x so,
Tx = T and Jx = J
B L L
TA dx Tdx T TL
θ= ∫ =∫ = ∫ dx =
Jx G JG JG JG
A 0 0
TL
i.e , θ=
JG
Note:
In applying the above equation, note particularly that the angle φ must be expressed in
radians. Also observe the great similarity of this relation equation Δ =PL/AE, for axially
loaded bars. Here φ ⇔ Δ  T⇔ P, J⇔ Α, and G⇔ E. By the analogy, this equation can be
recast to express the torsional spring constant, or torsional stiffness, kt as
Kt = T/θ = JG /L [N-m/rad]
This constant torque required to cause a rotation of 1 radian, i.e.,φ = 1. It depends only on
the material properties and the size of the member. As for axially loaded bars, one can
visualize torsion members as springs.
The reciprocal of kt defines the torsional flexibility ft. Hence, for a circular solid or hollow
shaft.
ft = 1/kt = L / JG [ rad/N-m]
This constant defines the rotation resulting from application of a unit torque, i.e., T = 1. On
multiplying by the torque T, one obtains the current equation
Top

5. Variable c/s and Torque

Consider the stepped shaft shown in figure rigidly attached to a wall at E. Determine the
angle-of-twist of the end A when the torque at B and at D is applied. Assume the shear
modulus G to be 80 GPa, a typical value for steels.
Concepts Involved:
Angle of twist
Formulae used:
Tx
θ= ∫ dx
JG
Where,
φ = Angle of twist
G = Shear modulus

Solution:
Step 1:
The torque at E is determined to assure equilibrium.
TE = 1000 + 150 N-m
= 1150 N-m
Step 2:
Find Torques at different c/s by drawing free body diagram
At any c/s between D and E is 1150 N.m
TDE = 1150 N.m
At any c/s between BD,
TBD = 150 N-m
At any c/s between AB
TAB = 0 N-m
Step 3:
The polar moments of inertia for the two kinds of cross sections occurring in this problem
are found using polar moment equation giving
πd4
JAB = JBC = = π x254/32 = 38.3x103 mm4
32

π ( do4 − di4 )
JCD = JDE =
32
= π(504 - 254) /32 = 575 x 103 mm4
Step 4:
Angle of twist is found at several c/s as shown
To find the angle-of-twist of the end A, angle-of-twist formula is applied for each segment
and the results summered. The limits of integration for the segments occur at points where
the values of T or J change abruptly.
Here total angle of twist is found out,
E
Tx dx B TAB dx C TBC dx D TCD dx E TDE dx
φ= ∫ =∫ +∫ +∫ +∫
A JxG A J AB G B J BC G C J CD G D J DE G
In the last group of integrals, T’s and J’s are constant between the limits considered, so
each integral reverts to a known solution. Hence,
Ti Li TAB LAB TBC LBC TCD LCD TDE LDE

φ= ∑ = + + +
i Ji G J AB G J BC G JCD G J DE G
150 x103 x 200 150 x103 x 200 1150x103 x500

=0+ + +
38.3x103 x80x103 575x103 x80x103 575x103 x80x103
=0+9.8x10-3+1.0x10 -3+12.5x10 -3=23.3x10-3 rad
As can be noted from above, the angle-of- twist for shaft segments starting from the left
end are : 0 rad, 9.8 x 10-3 rad, 1.0 x 10 -3, rad 12.5x10 -3
rad. Summing these quantities
beginning from A, gives the angle-of-twist along the shaft. Since no shaft twist can occur at
the built-in end, this function must be zero at E, as required by the boundary condition.

Therefore, according to the adopted sign convention the angle-of-twist at A is -23.3x10-3
rad occurring in the direction of applied torques.
No doubt local disturbances in stresses and strains occur at the applied concentrated
torques and the change in the shaft size, as well as at the built-in end. However, these are
local effects having limited influence on the overall behavior of the shaft.
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6. Composite bars
Determine the torsional stiffness kt, for the rubber bushing shown in figure. Assume that
the rubber is bonded to the steel shaft and the outer steel tube, which is attached to
machine housing. The shear modulus for the rubber is G. Neglect deformations in the
metal parts of the assembly.
Concepts involved:
Angle of twist in circular members
Formulae used:
Tx
θ= ∫ dx
JG
Where,
θ= Angle of twist
G = Shear modulus

Solution:
Step 1:
Calculate the torque acting at any surface.
Due to the axial symmetry of the problem, on every imaginary cylindrical surface of rubber
of radius r, the applied torque T is resisted by constant shear stresses τ. The area of the
imaginary surface is 2π rL. On this basis, the equilibrium equation for the applied torque T
and the resisting torque developed by the shear stresses τ acting at a radius r is
T = (2π rL)τ r [area*stress*arm]
Step 2:
Get τ from the above relation and hence determine shear strain.
From this relation, τ =T/2πr2L Hence, by using Hooke’s law, the shear strain γ can be
determined for an infinitesimal tube of radius r and thickness dr, figure, from the following
relation:
τ T
γ= =
G 2πLGr 2
Step 3:
Get the angle of twist by integrating throughout the surface.
This shear strain in an infinitesimal tube permits the shaft to rotate through an infinitesimal
angle dθ. Since in the limit r + dr is equal to r, the magnitude of this angle is dθ =γ (dr/r)
The total rotation θ of the shaft is an integral, over the rubber bushings, of these
infinitesimal rotations, i.e.
Τ D/2 dr T ⎛1 1 ⎞
θ= ∫ dθ= ∫ = −
2πLG d/2 r3 πLG ⎝ d 2 D2 ⎟⎠
⎜
From which,

T πLG
kt = =
θ ⎛1 1 ⎞
⎜ 2− 2⎟
⎝d D ⎠
Top

7. Statically indeterminate problem

Consider the stepped shaft shown in the figure. Determine the end reactions and plot the
torque diagram for the shaft. Apply the force method.
Concepts involved:
Statically indeterminate structures
Force method of analysis
In this method the problems are reduced to statical determinancy by removing one of the
redundant reactions and calculating the rotation θo at the released support. The required
boundary conditions are then restored by twisting the member at the released end through
an angle θ1 such that θo + θ1 = 0.
Formulae used:
θo + θ1 = 0.
where
θo = rotation at the released support
θ1 = Rotation at the restored support

⎛ d 4 -d 4 ⎞
o
J = π ⎜⎜ i ⎟
⎟
⎜ 32 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where
do = Outer diameter
di = Inner diameter
Solution:
Step 1:
Remove any of the redundant reaction and analyse the structure.
There are two unknown reactions, TA and TE. One of them can be considered as
redundant, and, arbitrary, reaction TA is removed. This results in the free-body diagram
shown in the above figure. Then the end rotation is calculated as θo =23.3x10-3 rad.
Step 2:
Get the J for all c/s
JAC=38.3x103 mm2 and JCE =575x103 mm2.
Step 3:
Now apply the redundant reaction (TA in this case).

By applying TA to the unloaded bar, as shown in the above figure, end rotation θ1 at end A
is found.
Ti Li
θ1 = ∑
i Ji G i
⎛ 450 800 ⎞
= TA x103 ⎜ +
575 x 10 x 80 x 10 ⎟⎠
3 3 3 3
⎝ 38.3 x 10 x 80 x 10
= (147 x10-6 + 17 x 10-6 )TA = 164x10-6 TA rad
Where TA has the units of N-m.
Step 4:
Use compatibility condition to find out reactions.
Using compatibility condition and defining rotation in the direction of TA as positive, one
has -23.3x10-3+164x10-6TA=0
Hence TA = 142N-m and TB = 1150 -142 = 1008 N-m.
Step 5:
Now torques at all c/s can be found out using equilibrium.

The torque diagram for the shaft is shown in the above figure. The direction of the internal
torque vector T on the left part of an isolated shaft segment coincides with that of the
positive x axis, it is taken as positive. Note that most of the applied torque is resisted at the
end E. Since the shaft from A to C is more flexible than from C to E, only a small torque
develops at A.
In this problem is indeterminate only to the first degree, it has three kinematics degrees of
the freedom. Two of these are associated with the applied torques and one with the
change in the shaft size. Therefore, an application of the displacement method would be
more cumbersome, requiring three simultaneous equations.
Tips while solving similar problems:
Identification of the redundant force is one of the key points in this type of problem. The
choice is usually simple.
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8. Alternative differential approach to Torsion

Consider an elastic circular bar having a constant JG subjected to a uniformly varying
torque tx, as shown in the figure. Determine the rotation of the bar along its length and the
reactions at the ends A and B for two cases:
(a) assume that end A is free and the end B is built-in
(b) assume that both ends of the bar are fixed.
Concepts involved:
Differential approach

Formulae used:
d2φ x
JG = − t x = − t
dx 2 L o
tx = Distributed torque in a small infinitesimal element
T = Torque developed at the ends of the element due to the distributed torque tx
Solution:
Part 1:
By integrating the above equation twice and determining the constants of integration C1
and C2 from the boundary conditions, the required conditions are determined
d2φ x
JG = − t x = − t
dx 2 L o
dφ t x2
JG = T =− o + C1
dx 2L
Apply boundary condition to get C1 and C2
TA=T(0) = 0 hence, C1=0
TB = T(L) = - to (L / 2)
t o x3
JG φ = T =− + C2
6L
to L
φΒ =φ ( L ) = 0 hence C2 =
6
t o L2 t o x3
JG φ = −
6 6L
The negative sign for TB means that the torque vector acts in the direction opposite to that
of the positive x-axis.
Part 2:

Except for the change in the boundary conditions, the solution procedure is the same as in
part (a).
d2φ x
JG = − t x = − t
dx 2 L o
dφ t x2
JG = T = − o + C1
dx 2L
t o x3
JG φ = T = − + C1x + C2
6L
φA = φ (0) = 0 hence C2 =0
φB = φ (L) = 0 hence C1=to (L / 6)
t o L2 t o x3
JG φ = −
6 6L
TA = T(0) = to (L / 6)
TB = T(L) = -to (L / 2) + to (L / 6) = -to (L / 3)
Top

9. Energy and load impacts

Find the energy absorbed by an elastic circular shaft subjected to a constant torque in
terms of maximum shear stress and the volume of materials (Refer to the figure). Find the
rotation of an elastic circular shaft with respect to the built in end when a torque T is
applied at the free end.
Concepts involved:
Energy methods
Formulae used:
Shear energy formula
τ2
Us = ∫ dV
V 2G
Where,
Us = Shear energy stored in the body
τ = Shear stress

Solution:
Part 1:
The shear stress in an elastic circular shaft subjected to torque varies linearly from the
longitudinal axis. Hence the shear stress acting on an element at a distance ρ from the
center of the cross-section is
( τmax ρ )
r
Then
τ2
Us = ∫ dV
V 2G
τ ρ2
2
τ2
Us = ∫ dV = ∫ ma x 2 2πρ dρ L
V 2G V 2Gr
τma x 2π L c 3 τma x 2π L r 2
2 2
= ρ dρ =
2G r 2 ∫0 2G r 2 4
τ ⎛1
2
⎞
= ma x ⎜ vol ⎟
2G ⎝ 2 ⎠
If there were uniform shears throughout the member, a more efficient arrangement for
absorbing energy would be obtained. Rubber bushings with their small G values provide
an excellent device for absorbing shock torque from a shaft.
Part 2:
If torque T is gradually applied to the shaft, the external work We = (1/2) Tθ , Where θ is
the angular rotation of the free end in radians. The expressions for the internal strain
energy Us, which was found in part (a), may be written in a more convenient form by
noting that τ max = Tr / J, the volume of the rod π r2L, and J = π r4/2. Thus

τmax 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Us = ⎜ vol ⎟
2G ⎝ 2 ⎠
τ2 r 2 1
= 2 πr2L
2J G 2
τ2 L
=
2JG
Then from We = Us
Tθ /2 = T2L/2JG and θ = TL/JG
Top

Frequently Asked Questions
Why do we have to make the assumption that plane sections plane?
How about bars with non-axis symmetric cross section?
The formulae derived look very similar to beam and axial deformation formulae?
Is the derivation for composite axis symmetric bar subjected to torsion similar to
the composite beam derivation?
What if material is non-isotropic?
What if material goes to plastic range?
What about non-linear elastic materials?
Why is the variation of shear strain with radius linear?
What do we do for stepped shafts?
Why do they have a tapering change in c.s. for stepped shafts?
Why deal with torsion of an axis symmetric bar?
How do I solve for stresses in the case of impact torque on an axis symmetric bar?

Why do we have to make the assumption that plane sections plane?
In order to make calculation of stresses due to torsion easy, we need to make certain
simplifying assumptions on the deformation pattern which is realistic. It is has been found
from the rigorous solution procedure (elasticity solution) and from the experiments that the
circular cross section members subjected to pure torsion in the elastic range satisfy very
closely this condition of plane sections remain plane and rigid. By making this assumption,
the solution procedure becomes simple as shown in the ‘basic concepts’ section in the
derivation for torsional stresses.
Top

How about bars with non-axis symmetric cross section?
For bars with non-axisymmetric cross section, the assumption of plane section remain
plane is not satisfied. Regions of the cross-section undergo deformations in the axial
direction leading to ‘warping’ of the section. There are again certain simplifying
assumptions which are relaxation of the axisymmetric bar assumption that can be used to
find stresses in a non-axisymmetric bar. (see Advanced Topics for details)
Top

The formulae derived look very similar to beam and axial deformation formulae?
Yes, that’s true. In all the three derivations pertaining to axial, beam and torsional
deformations, the assumption of plane section remains plane is used and it leads to very
similar formulae for these three types of structural members.
Top

Is the derivation for composite axisymmetric bar subjected to torsion similar to the
composite beam derivation?
Yes. Since plane sections remain plane assumption holds good for composite bar
subjected to torsion, similar principle as derivation for composite beam can be used to
solve for stresses in a composite bar subjected to torsion. (See 'Worked Examples" on
"composite bars" for details)
Top

What if material is non-isotropic?
If the material is non-isotropic (i.e. anisotropic), then the elastic modulii will vary and thus
the problem will be completely different with additional stresses appearing since there is a
coupling between shear stresses and normal stresses for an anisotropic material.
Top

What if material goes to plastic range?
Even, if the material goes to plastic range, plane sections remain plane assumption is
assumed to hold. Therefore, the strains can be found out from which distribution of
stresses can be derived from equilibrium principles. (refer to 'Advanced Topics: Inelastic
Torsional bars' for details of solving for stresses.)
Top

What about non-linear elastic materials?
For non-linear elastic materials again, the elastic modulii are different and are functions of
the strains. Therefore, while solving for stresses, appropriate constitutive law should be
used before applying the equilibrium conditions.
Top

Why is the variation of shear strain with radius linear?
This emanates from the fact that the cross-section rotates as a rigid body because of axis
symmetry condition of the cross-sectional geometry and the anti-axis symmetry of the
torque. Since the cross-section rotates as a rigid body, the amount of rotation is linear with
respect to the variation in radius.
Top

What do we do for stepped shafts?
For stepped shafts, away from the abrupt change in the cross-section, the stresses can be
computed using the same formulae derived taking appropriate diameter of the shaft portion
in to consideration. (See: Worked out Examples: Stepped Shafts). At the region of change
in geometry, stress concentrations can occur due to abrupt change radius. (refer to 'stress
concentration' section of "Advanced Topics")
Top

Why do they have a tapering change in c.s. for stepped shafts?
Why deal with torsion of an axis symmetric bar?
How do I solve for stresses in the case of impact torque on an axis symmetric bar?

Energy
Thin walled members
Numerical solutions

5. Beams
Introduction
Bending of Beams
Theory of Bending

Introduction:
Apart from axial and torsional forces there are other types of forces to which members may
be subjected. In many instances in structural and machine design, members must resist
forces applied laterally or transversely to their axes. Such members are called beams. The
main members supporting floors of buildings are beams, just as an axle of a car is a beam.
Many shafts of machinery act simultaneously as torsion members and as beams. With
modern materials, the beam is a dominant member of construction. The determination of
the system of internal forces necessary for equilibrium of any beam segment will be the
main objective of this chapter. For the axially or torsionally loaded members previously
considered, only one internal force was required at an arbitrary section to satisfy the
conditions of equilibrium. However, even for a beam with all forces in the same plane, i.e.,
a planar beam problem, a system of three internal force components can develop at a
section. These are the axial force, the shear, and the bending moment. Determining these
quantities is the focus of this chapter. The chapter largely deals with single beams. Some
discussion of related problems of planar frames resisting axial forces, shears, and bending
moments is also given. Only statically determinate systems will be fully analyzed for these
quantities. Special procedures to be developed in subsequent chapters are required for
determining reactions in statically indeterminate problems for complete solutions.
Extensions to members in three-dimensional systems, where there are six possible
internal force components, will be introduced in later chapters as ceded and will rely on the
reader's knowledge of statics. In such problems at a section of a member there can be: an
axial force, two shear components, two bending moment components, and a torque.
Top

5.1 Bending of Beams

5.1.1 Introduction:
Beams:
Bars Subjected to transverse loads.
Planar and slender members.
Supports:
Identified by the resistance offered to forces.
(a) Rollers/Links:
Resists forces in a direction along the line of action (Figure 5.1(a)).
(b) Pins:
Resists forces in any direction of the plane (Figure 5.1(b)).
(c) Fixed Support:
Resists forces in any direction (Figure 5.1(c)).
Resists moments.

5.1.2 Classification of Beams
(a) Statically determinate or indeterminate.
Statically determinate - Equilibrium conditions sufficient to compute reactions.
Statically indeterminate - Deflections (Compatibility conditions) along with equilibrium
equations should be used to find out reactions.
(b) Cross sectional Shapes - I,T,C or other cross sections.
(c) Depending on the supports used
1) Simply supported - pinned at one end and roller at the other (Figure 5.1.2(a))
2) Cantilever - fixed at one end and the other end free (Figure 5.1.2(b)).
3) Fixed beam - fixed at both ends (Figure 5.1.2(c)).
Where W – loading acting, L – span.

5.1.3 Calculation of beam reactions

When all the forces are applied in a single plane, the three equations of static equilibrium
are available for analysis.
∑ Fx = 0, ∑ Fy = 0 and ∑ M3 = 0
Employing these, the reactions at supports could be found out.
5.1.4 Procedures for Computing forces and moments

For a beam with all forces in one plane, three force components are internally developed.
• Axial force
• Shear
• Bending Moment
Procedures are to be established for finding these quantities.
Direct Method/Method of sections:

This method is illustrated by the following example
Find reactions at supports for the cantilever shown in figure 5.1.3(a) subjected to uniformly
distributed load.
Cut the cantilever along section A-A and obtain free body diagram as given in figure
5.1.3(b).

The segment of the beam shown in figure 5.1.3(b) is in equilibrium under the action of
external forces and internal forces and moments.
∑ Fy = 0
gives
V = − wx
∑M = 0
wx 2
gives, M- =0
2
wx 2
M=
2

Sign convention: Shear force
Sign convention: Moments
As Shown in Figure 5.1.5(a), sagging (beam retains water) moment is positive, other wise
bending moment is negative (Figure 5.1.5(b)).

5.1.5 Shear force and Bending Moment Diagrams (SFD & BMD)
Plot of shear and bending moment values on separate diagrams could be obtained.
Magnitude and location of different quantities can be easily visualized.
SFD & BMD are essential for designers to make decisions on the shape and size of a
beam.
The worked out examples illustrate the procedure for plotting SFD and BMD by direct
approach.
5.1.6 Shear force and BM Diagrams / (Alternate approach)
Beams Element: Differential equations of Equilibrium
Free body diagram of element of length dx is shown Figure 5.17, which is cut from a
loaded beam (Figure 5.1.6).
∑ Fy = 0 gives
V + wdx − ( V + dv ) = 0
dv
ie =w 5.1.1
dx
∑ M p = 0 gives
M + dM − Vdx − M − ( wdx ) . ( dx / 2 ) = 0

dM
ie =V 5.1.2
dx
Substituting equations 5.1.2 in 5.1.1
d2 M
=V 5.1.3
dx 2
Integrating 5.1.2
x
V = ∫ wdx + c1
0
Integrating 2
x
M = ∫ Vdx + C2 + M e
0
Me - External moment acting.
Top

5.2 Theory of Bending

5.2.1 General theory
Plane sections normal to the axis before bending remain plane and normal after bending
also, as shown in Figure 5.2.1.
From Figure 5.2.1, ab, cd efs are sections which remain plane and normal. Beam is
subjected to pure bending (no shear). Longitudinal top fibers are in compression and
bottom fibres in tension.
Layer of fibres in between which is neither in tension or compression, is called the neutral
surface. Neutral axis is the intersection of such a surface with the right section through the
beam.
Assumptions of the theory of bending

Deflection of the beam axis is small compared to span of the beam.
Shear strains, along the plane xy are negligible.
( )
Effect of shear stress in the plane xy τ xy on normal stress ( σx ) is neglected.
Note: Even through pure bending is assumed, distribution of normal stresses at any given
cross section does not get significantly changed due to non uniform bending.

For pure bending of a beam, beam axis deforms into part of a circle of radius ρ ; for an
element defined by an infinitesimal angle d , the fiber length is given by (refer figure
5.2.2)).
ds = R dθ
dθ 1
= = k , where
ds R
R - Radius of Curvature
k - Axis Curvature
For a fiber located at radius R' = R – y
ds ' = ( R − y ) dθ
ds − ds '
Strain, ε x =
ds
ε x = −ky
5.2.2 Elastic Flexure Formula

By Hooke's Law,
σ x = Eε x = − Eky
∑ Fx = 0 gives

− Ek ∫ ydA = 0
i.e. neutral axis possess through the centroid of the cross section (Ref Figure 5.2.3.)
∑ M = 0 gives
M z = E k ∫ y 2 .dA
= Ek Iz
This gives
M
k=
E Iz
−M z y
σx =
Iz
Mz C
σmax =
Iz

5.2.3 Beams of Composite Cross section
For beams of composite cross section σ x = −Ei ky for the ith material in the composite.
y = yi - y0
y0 is the location of neutral axis from the bottom of the beam.
yi is the location of neutral axis of the ith material. In the figure yi = yA, from this, we get
∫ Ei yi dA
y0 = A
∫ Ei dA
Where A the area of cross section of the corresponding material. The procedure for
analyzing beams of composite cross section is illustrated in worked out examples.
Top

Problem 1: Computation of Reactions
Problem 4: Computation of forces and moments
Problem 5: Bending Moment and Shear force
Problem 6: Bending Moment Diagram
Problem 11: Beams of Composite Cross Section

Find the reactions at the supports for a simple beam as shown in the diagram. Weight of
the beam is negligible.
Figure:
Concepts involved
• Static Equilibrium equations
Procedure
Step 1:
Draw the free body diagram for the beam.
Step 2:
Apply equilibrium equations
In X direction
∑ FX = 0
⇒ RAX = 0
In Y Direction
∑ FY = 0

⇒ RAY+RBY – 100 –160 = 0
⇒ RAY+RBY = 260
Moment about Z axis (Taking moment about axis pasing through A)
∑ MZ = 0
We get,
∑ MA = 0
⇒ 0 + 250 N.m + 100*0.3 N.m + 120*0.4 N.m - RBY *0.5 N.m = 0
⇒ RBY = 656 N (Upward)
Substituting in Eq 5.1 we get
∑ MB = 0
⇒ RAY * 0.5 + 250 - 100 * 0.2 – 120 * 0.1 = 0
⇒ RAY = -436 (downwards)
TOP

Find the reactions for the partially loaded beam with a uniformly varying load shown in
Figure. Neglect the weight of the beam
Figure
(a) (b)
Procedure:
The reactions and applied loads are shown in figure (b). A crude outline of the beam is
also shown to indicate that the configuration of the member is not important for finding out
the reactions. The resultant force P acting though the centroid of the distributed forces is
found out. Once a free body diagram is prepared, the solution is found out by applying the
equations of static equilibrium.
∑ Fx = 0
RAx = 0
∑ MA = 0 Anticlockwise
+12 X 2 - RBy X 6 = 0

RBy = 4 kN downwards
∑ MB = 12 * (6 - 2) - RAy * 6
=> RAy = 8 kN
Check ∑ Fy = 0
8 + 12 − 4 = 0 ok!
TOP

Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam shown due to the applied force.
Figure
Solution
At A, the reaction components is x and y directions are RAx and RAy. The reaction RB acting
at B and inclined force F can be resolved into two components along x and y directions.
This will simplify the problem.
Calculation:
Fy = 12, Fx = 9; (By resolving the applied force)
∑ MA = 0
12 X 3 – RBy X 9 = 0
RBy = 4 kN = RBx
∑ MB = 0
12 X 6 - RAy X 9 = 0
RAy = 8kN
∑ Fx = 0
RAx – 9–4 = 0
RAx = 13kN

So,
RA = (82 + 132 ) = 233 kN
RB = ( 42 + 42 ) = 4 2 kN
Check:
∑ Fy = 0
+ 8 – 12 + 4= 0 ok!
TOP

Problem 4: Computation of forces and moments
In the earlier Example, determine the internal system of forces at sections a-a and b-b; see
Figure
Figure
(b)
(a)
(d)
(c)

Solution:
A free-body diagram for the member, including reactions, is shown in Fig. (a). A free-body
to the left of section a-a in Fig. 5-20(b) shows the maximum ordinate for the isolated part of
the applied load. Using this information,
Va = -8 + 1/2 * 2 * 2/3 * 8 = -2.67 kN
and
Ma = -8 * 2 + {1/2 * 2 * (2/3 * 8)} * {1/3 * 2} = -14.45 kN
These forces are shown in the figure.
A free-body diagram to the left of section b-b is shown in Figure. This gives
Vb = - 4 kN
And
Mb = -4 x 2 = - 8 kN-m
TOP

Construct shear and bending-moment diagrams for the beam loaded with the forces
shown in the figure.
Figure
Solution.
Taking an arbitrary section at a distance x from the left support isolates the beam segment
shown in Fig.(b). This section is applicable for any value of x just to the left of the applied
force P. The shear, remains constant and is +P. The bending moment varies linearly from
the support, reaching a maximum of +Pa.

An arbitrary section applicable anywhere between the two applied forces is shown in
Fig.(c). Shear force is not necessary to maintain equilibrium of a segment in this part of the
beam. Only a constant bending moment of +Pa must be resisted by the beam in this zone.
Such a state of bending or flexure is called pure bending.
Shear and bending-moment diagrams for this loading condition are shown in Figs (d) and
(e). No axial-force diagram is necessary, as there is no axial force at any section of the
beam
TOP

Problem 6: Bending Moment Diagram
Plot shear and bending-moment diagrams for a simply supported beam with a uniformly
distributed load; see Figure.
Figure
Solution
A section at a distance x from the left support is taken as shown in figure (b). The shear is
found out by subtracting the load to the left of the section from the left upward reaction.
The internal bending moment M resists the moment caused by the re-action on the left
less the moment caused by the forces to the left of the same section. The summation of
moments is performed around an axis at the section.
Similar expressions may be obtained by considering the right-hand segment of the beam,
while taking care of the sign conventions. The plot of the V and M functions is shown in
Figs(c) and (d)

TOP

For the beam as shown in Fig 5, express the shear V and the bending moment M as a
function of x along the horizontal member.
Figure:
Fig (a)
Solution
A load discontinuity occurs at x == 3 m, in this problem. Hence, the solution is determined
in two parts for each of which the functions V and M are continuous.
V(x) =-8 + 1/2 x [(x/3) * 8)] = -8 + (4/3) x2 kN for 0 < x < 3
M(x) = -8x + 1/2x[(x/3) * 8 *(x/3)] = -8x + 4/9x3 kN.m for 0 < x < 3
V(x) = -8 +12 =+4KN For 3<x<6,
M(x) = -8x + 12(x-2) = 4x - 24kN.m For 3<x<6,
TOP

Problem 8: Bending Moment and shear force
A parabolic beam is subjected to a 10kN force as shown above. Find axial force, shear
force and bending moment at a section, as shown above.
Solution :
We first find the equation of the beam and the point where section is cut. With origin at A,
equation of the parabola can be written as
y = kx(4 − x).It remains to findk.

wrt y = 4 when x = 2 ⇒ k = 1
so y = x(4 − x).
dy 1
slope, y ' = = 4 − 2x = tan30 =
dx 3
⇒x=
(4 3 +1 )
2 3
Now, we only have to resolve the force at the section along the normal and tangential
directions. But before that, we first have to find the support reactions.

∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ R Ax = 0
∑ M A = 0 ⇒ 10 × 2 = R By × 4 R By = 5kN.
By symmetry (since RAX = 0), R Ay = 5kN [or R Ay = 10 − R By ]
We now draw the free body diagram of the cut body
We now resolve the 5kN force
3
Shear force = 5cos30 = 5 = 4.33 kN.
2
Axial force = −5cos30 = −2.50 kN(compression)
(4 3 +1 ) = M = 11.44 kNm
∑ Mc = 0 ⇒ 5 × 2 3
The Reader can repeat the exercise for a general angle θ and check where each of
quantities reaches their zeros and maxima.
TOP

A constant load of ω0 per unit length is applied on a simply supported beam as shown
below. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram by
a. Method of sections
b. Integration method
Solution:
Formulas used:
dv dm
=q = V.
dx dx
We first find the support reactions which are necessary for both the methods.
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ R Ax = 0
ω0 L
By symmetry, R Ay = R By =
2
a. Method of section
We cut a section at a distance 'x' from left and of the beam.

ω0 L
∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ V = 2
− ω0 x
ω L x x
∑ M c = 0 ⇒M = 20 × x − ω0 × x × 2 = ω0 2 ( L − x )
b. Method of Integration
dv
= q.
dx
Here, q = −ω0
dv
⇒ = −ω0
dx
Integrating V = −ω0 x + C1
ω0 L
wkt V at x = 0is . Putting x = 0in above equation,
2
ω L
We get C1 = 0
2
ω0
V= ( L − 2x )
2
dm ω
= V = 0 ( L − 2x )
dx 2
ω
(
M = 0 Lx − x 2 + C2
2
)
wkt, for a simply supported beam, bending moment is zero at the two ends.
M = 0 at x = 0 ⇒ C2 = 0
⇒M=
ω0
2
( ) ω x
Lx − x 2 = 0 ( L − x )
2
We see that the expression for shear force and bending moment is the same using the two
methods. It only remains to plot them.

Points to ponder:
dm
The relation = V can be construed from two diagrams as below.
dx
As shear force decreases (with increasing x), the slope of the bending moment diagram
also decreases.
Further the bending moment is maximum when its derivative, the shear force is zero.
TOP

A beam with a hinge is loaded as above. Draw the shear force and bending moment
diagram.
Solution:
Concept: A hinge can transfer axial force and shear force but not bending moment. So,
bending moment at the hinge location is zero.
Also, without the hinge, the system is statically indeterminate (to a degree 1). The hinge
imposes an extra condition thus rendering the system determinate.
We first find the support reactions.
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ R Ax = 0.
M B = 0 ⇒ R Ay × 2 = 0 ⇒ R Ay = 0 [ Bending moment at hinge = 0]
∑ M D = 0 ⇒ 10 × 5 + 5 × 4 × 2 = R cy × 4
R cy = 22.5kN
R Dy = 10 + 5 × 4 − 22.5 = 7.5kN

Shear force Diagram
The shear force remains zero till the 10kN load is reached. It is then constant and equal to
-10 kN till it reaches the point C where it jumps up by the value of Rcy. From C to D it
decreases linearly at 5kN/m. From above considerations, the shear force diagram is as
below.
Bending moment diagram:
Let us draw the bending moment diagram from the shear force diagram, keeping in mind
the fact that the slope of bending moment diagram at any point must be equal to the shear
at that point. Further, we know that the bending moment is zero at end supports.
The bending moment remains zero till the 10kN force, as shear is zero. It then decreases
linearly at 10 kNm/m up to the point C. From the point C, it is parabolic till it finally reaches
zero at the right support D. Further, it reaches a maximum where shear is zero, keeping
these in mind, the BM diagram is as below.
1.5
M max = 7.5 × 1.5 − 5 × 1.5 × = 5.625 kNm
2

TOP

Problem 11: Beams of Composite Cross section
The composite beam shown in figure is made up of two materials. A top wooden portion
and a bottom steel portion. The dimensions are as shown in the figure. Take young’s
modulus of steel as 210 GPa and that wood as 15 GPa. The beam is subjected to a
bending moment of 40 kNm about the horizontal axis. Calculate the maximum stress
experienced by two sections.
Solution:
The solution procedure involves hiding an equivalent dimension for one of the materials
keeping the other as reference.
Let us take, Reference Material as steel.
Ratio of modulii,
E wood 15
r= = = .00714
Esteel 210
= 7.14 × 10-2
The equivalent section is as shown in following Figure.

The equivalent thickness of wood sections, h
= 120 × r
= 120 × 7.14 × 10-2
= 8.568 mm
Distance of the neutral axis from the bottom of the beam,
(120 × 10 ) × 5 + ( 200 × 8.568 ) × (100 + 10 )

y=
(120 × 10 ) + ( 200 × 8.568)
= 66.75 mm
bi di3
∑ 12 + Ai yi
2
Moment of Inertia I =
8.568 × ( 200 ) (120 ) × (10 )3

3
+ ( 8.568 × 200 ) × ( 43.25 ) + + (120 ) × (10 ) × ( 61.75)
2 2
=
12 12
= 13.5 × 10 mm 6 4
Stresses in beams
M.y
( σsteel )max =
I
40 × 103 × 66.75 × 10-3
=
( )
4
13.5 × 106 × 10-3
= 197.78 MPa
( σwood )max = ( σsteel )max × r
= 14.12 MPa

TOP

Deflection of beams
Introduction
Deflection of Beams (Solution Method by Direct Integration)
Moment - Area Method for finding Beam Deflections

Introduction
The axis of a beam deflects from its initial position under action of applied forces. Accurate
values for these beam deflections are sought in many practical cases: elements of
machines must be sufficiently rigid to prevent misalignment and to maintain dimensional
accuracy under load; in buildings, floor beams cannot deflect excessively to avoid the
undesirable psychological effect of flexible floors on occupants and to minimize or prevent
distress in brittle-finish materials; likewise, information on deformation characteristics of
members is essential in the study of vibrations of machines as well as of stationary and
flight structures.
Top

Deflection of Beams
(Solution Method by Direct Integration)

From Analytic geometry, Curvature of a line,
d2 y
k=
1
= dx 2
R ⎧ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎫3 / 2
⎪ d y ⎪
⎨1 + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎬
⎩⎪ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎭⎪
where x and y are co-ordinates of a point on the curve.
For small deflections,
d2 y
k=
dx 2
Since, σ x = − My / EI
and k = −ε / y, and ε = σ x / E
k = M / EI
d2 y
∴ M = EI
dx 2
where M = My
Hence,
d2 y
EI = M(x)
dx 2
dM
Since, V =
dx
d3 y
EI = V(x)
dx 3
dv
Since, w =
dx

d4 y
EI = w (x)
dx 4
Boundary Conditions
Refer figure 5.2.7(a) – (d)
(a) Clamped Support:
y(x1) = 0; y'(x1)=0;
(b) Roller or Pinned Support:
y(x1) = 0; M (x1)=0;
(c) Free end:
M (x1) = 0; V(x1) = 0;
(d) Guided Support:
y'(x1) = 0; V (x1)=0;

Example:
Question: A Cantilever beam is subjected to a bending moment M at the force end. Take
flexural rigidity to be constant and equal to EI. Find the equation of the elastic curve.
d2 y
EI = Ma
dx 2
Integrating
EI dy/dx = Max + C1
at x = 0; dy/dx = 0
which gives C1 = 0
Integrating again,
Ma x 2
EIy = + C2
2
y = 0; at x = 0 gives
C2 = 0
Ma x 2
∴ y=
2EI
which is the equation to the elastic curve.
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Moment - Area Method for finding Beam Deflections

This method is used generally to obtain displacement and rotation at a single point on a
beam.
This method makes use of the Moment - Area theorems given below.
Moment - Area Theorems
Refer above Figure
M d2 y
=
EI dx 2
M d ⎛ dy ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
EI dx ⎝ dx ⎠
Let dy/dx = θ
M dθ
=
EI dx
M
∫ dθ = ∫ EI dx
Referring to figure down
Q
M
∴ θQ/P = θQ − θP = ∫ EI dx
P
This is the first moment area theorem, Where P and Q are any two sections on the beam.
ie change in angle measured in radians between any two point P and Q on the elastic
curve is equal to the M/EI area bounded by the ordinates through P and Q.

Referring to Figure, considering an element of the Elastic Curve,
dh = x . dθ
Q
∴ h Q/P = ∫ dh
P
Q
= ∫ xdθ
P
Q
M
= ∫ EI x dx
P
This is the second moment Area theorem.
If x P is the distance of centroid of the bending moment diagram between P and Q from P,
(Refer Figure)
then
h P / Q = Ax P
h Q /P = Ax Q
Here h P / Q is called the tangent deviation of the point P from a tangent at Q.

where A is the area of the BM diagram between P and Q. x p and x Q are as shown in
figure.
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Problem 1: Calculating deflection by integration – uniform load
Problem 2: Calculating deflection by integration - triangular load pattern
Problem 3: Deflections - by differential equations, concentrated load
Problem 4: Deflections by Moment area method – Concentrated load
Problem 6: Moment Area Method - udl

Problem 1: Calculating deflection by integration – uniform load
A simply supported prismatic beam AB carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity w
over its span L as shown in figure. Develop the equation of the elastic line and find the
maximum deflection δ at the middle of the span.
Figure:
Concepts involved:
Beam defection formula
Formulae used:
d2y/dx2 = M/EI
Solution:
Taking coordinate axes x and y as shown, we have for the bending moment at any point x.
Mx = wLx/2 - wx2/2
And deflection equation becomes
EI d2y/dx2 = wLx/2 - wx2/2.
Multiplying both sides by dx and integrating, we obtain

EI dy/dx = wLx2/4 - wx3/6 + C1, ------------------ Equation 1
Where C1 is an integration constant. To evaluate this constant, we note from symmetry
that when x = L/2, dy/dx = 0. From this condition, we find
C1 - wL3/24
And equation 1 becomes
EI dy/dx = -wLx2/4 + wx3/6 - wL3/24 ------------------ Equation 2
Again multiplying both sides by dx and integrating,
EIy = wLx3/12 - wx4/24 - wL3x/24 + C2
The integration constant C2 is found from the condition that y = 0 when x = 0.
Thus C2 = 0 and the required equation for the elastic line becomes
y = -wx / 24EI (L3 -2Lx2 + x3)
To find the maximum deflection at mid- span, we set x = L/2 in the equation and obtain
| δ | = 5wL4/384EI
The maximum slope θ A at the left end of the beam can be found by setting x = 0 in the
equation 2, which gives
⎛ dy ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ x = 0
=> θ A = wL3/24EI.
Top

Problem 2 : Calculating deflection by integration - triangular load pattern
A simply supported beam AB carries a triangularly distributed load as shown in the fig.
Find the equation of the deflection curve referred to the coordinate axes x and y as shown.
Also determine the maximum deflection d .
Figure:
Solution:
In this case we begin directly with deflection equation. We have,
EI d4y/dx4 = - wx/L
Separating variables and integrating twice, we obtain
EIy d2y/dx2 = -wx3/6L + C1 x + C2 ------------------------1
Again, separating variables and performing two more integrations, we obtain
EIy = -wx5/120L + C1 x3/6 + C2 x2/2 + C3 x + C4 ------------2
To find the four constants of integration, we now note that the bending moment,
represented by equation 1, and the deflection, represented by equation 2, both vanish
when x = 0 and when x =L. From these four boundary conditions, we find

C1 = wL/6, C2 = 0, C3 = -7wL3/360, C4 = 0
Substituting these values back into eq.2 and rearranging terms, we obtain
Y - (wx/360LEI) (7L4 – 10L2x2 + 3x4)
To find the maximum deflection d, we first set dy/dx = 0 and find x = 0.519l. Then using
this value of x in the expression for y, the maximum deflection becomes
δmax = | d max | = ymax = 0.00652 wL4/EI
Setting x = L in eq.2, we obtain, the deflection,
δ = | d | = PL3/3EI
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Problem 3 : Deflections - by differential equations, concentrated load
A simply supported prismatic beam AB carries a concentrated load P as shown in the
figure. Locate the point of maximum deflection on the elastic line and find the value of this
deflection.
Figure:
Solution:
we have for 0 < x < a,
⎛ Pa ⎞
Mx = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠x
While for a < x < L,
Pb
Mx = (x - a).
L
Substituting these expressions for bending moment into deflection equation, we obtain for
the two portions of the deflection curve, the following two differential equations
EI d2y/dx2 = (Pax/ L) for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
EI d2y/dx2 = ( -Pa/L) (L-x) for a ≤ x ≤ L

Successive integration of these equations gives
EI dy/dx = Pax2/2L + C1 ----------------------------- (l) (for 0 ≤ x ≤ a)
EIy = Pax3/6L + C1x + C2 --------------------------- (m) (for 0 ≤ x ≤ a)
EI dy/dx = Pax - Pax2/2L +D1 ----------------------------- (n) (for a ≤ x ≤ L)
EIy = Pax2/2 - Pax3/6L + D1x +D2------------------------ (o) (for a ≤ x ≤ L)
Where C1, C2, D1, D2, are constants of integration. To find these four constants, we have
the following conditions:
1. At x = 0 , y = 0
2. At x = L , y = 0
⎛ dy ⎞
3. ⎜ ⎟ is the same from equations (l) and (n)
⎝ dx ⎠ x = a
4. ( y )x = a is the same from equations (m) and (o)
Using these we get, C1 = Pb/6L (L2 – b2), C2 = 0, D1 = Pa/6L (2L2 + a2), D2 = Pa3/6EI
Using the constants as determined eqs. (m) and (o) defining the two portions of the elastic
line of the beam become
EIy = - ⎜
⎝ 6L ⎠
(
⎛ Pbx ⎞ 2 2 2
)
⎟ L - b - x -------------------------------------(p)
⎛ Pb ⎞ ⎡
⎟ ⎣( L/b ) (x-a) + (L - b ) x - x ⎤⎦ --------------------------(q)
3 2 2 3
EIy = ⎜
⎝ 6L ⎠
For a > b, the maximum deflection will occur in the left portion of the span, to which eq.(p)
applies. Setting the derivative of this expression equal to zero gives
x = a ( a + 2b ) /3 = ( L - b )( L + b ) / 3
= ( L2 - b2 / 3)
Which defines the abscissa of the point having a horizontal tangent and hence the point of
maximum deflection. Substituting this value of x into eq.(p), we find

( )
3/ 2
Pb L2 - b 2
y max =
9 3EIL
Top

Determine the deflection δ and the slope θ at the free end A of the cantilever beam AB
loaded as shown in the figure.
Figure:
Solution:
The bending moment diagram is shown in figure. Since the tangent to the elastic line at B
coincides with the undeflected axis of the beam, the required deflection d will be the
deflection of A from the tangent at B. Thus using Theorem 2 we have
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 2L ⎞
d = ⎜ ∗ PL ∗ L ⎟ ∗ ⎜ ⎟ /EI
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
= PL3/3EI --------------- (1)
Likewise, the slope at A is the angle between tangents at A and at B and from Theorem 1,
we have
⎧1 ⎫
q = ⎨ ∗ PL ∗ L ⎬ / EI
⎩2 ⎭
= PL2/2EI ----------(2)

Top

A simply supported beam AB carries a concentrated load P at point D as shown in figure.
Find the deflection d of point D from the cord line and the tangent at A.
Figure:
Solution:
The bending moment diagram is shown in following figure. The area of this diagram is
Pab/2L and the distance of its centroid C from B is 1/3(L +b) as shown. Taking the statical
moment of this area with respect to point B, we obtain the deflection B'B of B away from
the tangent at A. thus
Pab ⎛ L + b ⎞
B'B = ⎜ ⎟
2EI ⎝ 3 ⎠

Then noting from the figure that θA = B'B /l, we have
Pab
θA = (L + b) ------------------------------------- (1)
6EIL
We see also from the figure that the required deflection of point D from the cord line AB is
δ = (a * θ A) - d' -------------------------------------(2)
Where d' is the deflection of D away from the tangent at A. This deflection d' can be found
by using theorem 2 for the portion A1D1 of the bending moment diagram. The area of this
is Pa2b/2L and its centroid is at the distance a/3 to the left of D. Thus
d' = (Pa2b/2LEI) *a/3 ------------------------------------(3)
Substitutions of expressions (3) and (1) into eq.(2) gives
Pa 2 b Pa 3 b Pa 2 b 2
δ= (L + b) − = ------------------------------------ (4)
6EIL 6LEI 3LEI
Top

Problem 6: Moment Area Method - udl
A prismatic cantilever beam AB carries a uniformly distributed load over the portion b of its
length as shown in the figure. Find the deflection δ of the free end A
Figure:
Solution:
The bending moment diagram is shown in the figure. Its area wb3/6 from the position of its
centroid C are found by reference to the figure. Now from the second theorem the
deflection will be obtained by dividing by EI the static moment of this area with respect to
point A1. Thus
wb3 ⎧ 3b ⎫
δ= × ⎨a + ⎬
6EI ⎩ 4⎭
Top

Shear Stresses in Beams
Shear force is related to change in bending moment between adjacent sections.
dM
=v
dx
As shown in figure, consider a cut-out section from a beam.
At section 1 {Area PADS}
−M1 y −M1 M1Q

F1 = ∫ I
dA =
I ∫ y dA = I
A1 A1
where y is the distance of any fiber from the neutral axis.
M2Q
Q= ∫ y.dA - First moment of area about the neutral axis F2 =
I
A1
if M 2 = M1 + dM and F2 = F1 + dF
dM
then dF = Q
I
dF dM Q
Force per unit length, =
dx dx I
This force per unit length is termed as the shear flow, q
dM
Substituting for = V;
dx

VQ
q=
I
Here I is the moment of Inertia of the entire cross-sectional area around the neutral axis.
Shear Stress Formula for Beams

The shear stress formula is obtained by modifying the shear flow formula.
dF dM Q
=
dx dx I
Shear Stress,
1 dF
τ=
t dx
VQ
= (Refer figure)
It
q
=
t

Problem 1: Derivation of Shear stress in rectangular crosssection
Problem 2: Computation of Shear stresses

Problem 1: Derivation of Shear stress in rectangular crosssection
Derive an expression for the shear stress distribution in a beam of solid rectangular cross-
section transmitting a vertical shear V.
The cross sectional area of the beam is shown in the figure. A longitudinal cut through the
beam at a distance y1, from the neutral axis, isolates area klmn. (A1).
Shear stress,
VQ
τ=
It
V
It ∫
= y.dA
A1
d/2
V
=
Ib ∫ by dy
y1
V⎡
= ⎢
⎣
( d / 2 )2 − ( y1 )2 ⎤⎥⎦ ---------------------- (1)
2I
The Shear Stress distribution is as shown below
Max Shear Stress occurs at the neutral axis and this can be found by putting y = 0 in the
equation 1.

Vd 2
τmax =
8I
3 V
=
2 bh
3V
=
2A
Top

A vertical shear force of 1KN acts on the cross section shown below. Find the shear at the
interface (per unit length)
Solution:
Formula used: q = VQ/I
We first find the distance of the neutral axis from the top fiber.
All dimensions in mm
20 × 100 × 10 + 20 × 100 × 70
y NA = = 40mm
20 × 100 + 20 × 100
Q = ∫ ydA of shaded area about neutral axis.
Q = 20 x 100 x 30 = 6 x 104

V = 1KN
20 × 1003 2 100 × 20
3
I= + 20 × 100 × 30 + + 100 × 20 × 302
12 12
= 5.33 × 106
VQ 103 × 6 × 104 × φ(10−3 )3 N
q= = = 1.125 × 104
( )
I 4 m
5.33 × 106 × 10−3
KN
= 11.25
m
Top

A 6m long beam with a 50 mm × 50 mm cross section is subjected to uniform loading of
5KN/m. Find the max shear stress in the beam
Solution:
3V
τmax =
2A
We first find the section of maximum shear force. We know this is at the supports and is
equal to
5× 6
= 15KN
2
We also know that max.shear stress occurs at the centre (for a rectangular cross section)
and is 1.5 times the average stress.
3 × 15 × 103
So, τmax = = 9 Mpa
2 × 50 × 50 × 10−6
Top

The cross section of an I beam is shown below. Find the max.shear stress in the flange if it
transmits a vertical shear of 2KN.
Solution:
VQ
Formula used: τ=
It
V = 2KN
10 × 1003 ⎛ 100 × 103 ⎞
I= +⎜ + 100 × 10 × 552 ⎟ × 2 = 6.9 × 106 mm 4
12 ⎜ 12 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Q is maximum at the midpoint as shown below
Q = 50 × 10 × 55
( )
3
2 × 103 × 50 × 10 × 55 × 10−3
τmax = = 0.79 MPa
( 6.9 × 10 )(10 )
6 −3 4
× 10 × 10 −3

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Strength of Materials Prof. M. S.

Free body diagram - Revisited

Normal, shear and bearing stress

Stress on inclined planes under axial loading

Mechanical properties of materials

True stress and true strain

Elasticity and Plasticity

Creep and fatigue

Deformation in axially loaded members

Statically indeterminate problems

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caused by the loads applied to a structure. Clearly it is important to avoid deformations so

principle of statics. This is because statics is based on the assumption of undeformable,

rigid structures. By considering engineering structures as deformable and analyzing the

statically indeterminate. Also the distribution of stresses in a given member is

distribution of stresses within a member, it is necessary to analyze the deformations which

member such as a rod, bar or a plate under axial loading.

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1.2 Free body diagram - Revisited

the element/structure considered.

equilibrium conditions, and hence, the analysis.

be considered for free body diagram.

their forces on the free body are represented.

clearly in the diagram.

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and moments are applied and solved for the unknowns.

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1.3 Normal, shear and bearing stress

possible merely from the reaction force in the member.

per unit area is called the stress.

axis of the bar. These stresses are called normal stresses.

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figure 1.3. Let the area contain a point C.

Now, the stress at the point C can be defined as,

1.3.2 Saint - Venant's Principle:

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of the bar is represented in the figure.

immediate vicinity of the application of loads.

distribution may be assumed to be uniform and is independent of the mode of application

of loads. This principle is called Saint-Venant's principle.

1.3.3 Shear Stress:

were discussed in the preceding section.

section A as shown in figure 1.5.

corresponding section area, we obtain the shear stress on that section.

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distribution of them over the area is not uniform.

is said to be under single shear.

by half in double shear when compared to a single shear.

various structural members and machine components.

1.3.4 Bearing Stress:

contact surface between the bolt and the plates.

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the bolt and the thickness of the plate.

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Shear stress in the pin = τ pin

Force acting on the base plate = Pcosθ= 50 cos300 = 43.3 kN

Shear stress in the bolt, τ bolt =

Bearing stress between pin and rod, σb =

Bearing stress between pin and bracket = σb =

Bearing stress between plate and bolts = σb =

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1.4 Stress on inclined planes under axial loading: