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Sports Biomechanics
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Use of deterministic models in sports and exercise biomechanics research

John W. Chow & Duane V. Knudson
a a b

Center for Neuroscience and Neurological Recovery, Methodist Rehabilitation Center , Jackson, Mississippi, USA
b

Department of Health and Human Performance , Texas State University , San Marcos, Texas, USA Published online: 09 Aug 2011.

To cite this article: John W. Chow & Duane V. Knudson (2011) Use of deterministic models in sports and exercise biomechanics research, Sports Biomechanics, 10:3, 219-233, DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2011.592212 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2011.592212

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Sports Biomechanics September 2011; 10(3): 219233

Use of deterministic models in sports and exercise biomechanics research

JOHN W. CHOW1 & DUANE V. KNUDSON2
Center for Neuroscience and Neurological Recovery, Methodist Rehabilitation Center, Jackson, Mississippi, USA, and 2Department of Health and Human Performance, Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas, USA
1

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(Received 14 October 2010; accepted 20 May 2011)

Abstract A deterministic model is a modeling paradigm that determines the relationships between a movement outcome measure and the biomechanical factors that produce such a measure. This review provides an overview of the use of deterministic models in biomechanics research, a historical summary of this research, and an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of using deterministic models. The deterministic model approach has been utilized in technique analysis over the last three decades, especially in swimming, athletics eld events, and gymnastics. In addition to their applications in sports and exercise biomechanics, deterministic models have been applied successfully in research on selected motor skills. The advantage of the deterministic model approach is that it helps to avoid selecting performance or injury variables arbitrarily and to provide the necessary theoretical basis for examining the relative importance of various factors that inuence the outcome of a movement task. Several disadvantages of deterministic models, such as the use of subjective measures for the performance outcome, were discussed. It is recommended that exercise and sports biomechanics scholars should consider using deterministic models to help identify meaningful dependent variables in their studies.

Keywords: Exercise science, mechanical analysis, performance analysis, quantitative analysis, research methodology

Introduction Advances in computers, transducers, and imaging technology have made it easier and quicker to collect biomechanics data. Several reviews of these methods in sports biomechanics and their potential have been reported (Bartlett, 1997; Lees, 2002; Yeadon & Challis, 1994). However, the increase in the number of laboratories and research reports in sports biomechanics over the last two decades has not resulted in substantial improvements in the theoretical bases or frameworks used in sports biomechanics research. Exercise and sports biomechanics research is a growing eld and the expanding body of research reports t the chaos in the brickyard perspective (Forscher, 1963) of modern scientic inquiry, where the danger of an increasing number of less than meaningful observations are being reported in the literature is a real possibility. Hudson (1997) has
Correspondence: John W. Chow, Ph.D., Center for Neuroscience and Neurological Recovery, Methodist Rehabilitation Center, 1350 East Woodrow Wilson Drive, Jackson, MS 39216, USA, E-mail: jchow@mmrcrehab.org ISSN 1476-3141 print/ISSN 1752-6116 online q 2011 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2011.592212

220 J.W . Chow & D.V . Knudson noted how our students and colleagues often consider sports biomechanics an atheoretical and irrelevant discipline. Knudson (2005) reported that fewer than 20% of the papers published in two applied biomechanics serials could be rated highly on rationale, theory and statistical analysis. The common use of many statistical tests on many dependent variables in most exercise and sports biomechanics research reports inates the experiment-wise type I error rate (Knudson, 2009) and prevents us from understanding which effects are truly statistically signicant and which are likely to be type I errors. In many elds of study, a model (a graphical or mathematical description of a system or process) can be used as a basis for theoretical or empirical understanding of that system or process. Deterministic models serve such purposes in biomechanics, and their use could help to promote the use of theoretical models in sports and exercise biomechanics research. Concise overviews of deterministic models have been given in several review articles (Glazier, 2010; Lees, 1999, 2002) and textbooks (Bartlett, 1999; Hay & Reid, 1988). This paper presents a comprehensive narrative review synthesizing the use of deterministic models in sports biomechanics. First we dene deterministic models and summarize their use in biomechanics. The advantages and disadvantages of this approach are reviewed, and we conclude with the potential application of these models in research and with athletes. The deterministic model A deterministic model is a modeling paradigm that determines the relationships between a movement outcome measure and the biomechanical factors that produce such a measure (Hay & Reid, 1988). A block diagram is often used to provide an overview of the relationship. For example, the goal of a 100-m dash is for a sprinter to complete the distance of 100 m (Figure 1) in the shortest amount of time. This time is determined by the average speed and the distance covered (a constant in this case) (t D/Savg). The average speed is further determined by the athletes average stride length and stride frequency (Savg SLavg SFavg). When necessary, the average ight and support times can be included as factors that produce the average stride frequency. Stride frequency is determined as the reciprocal of stride time, which is the sum of the ight and support times during a single stride. Also, the average stride length can be divided into three shorter distances the takeoff, ight, and landing distances (Hay, 1993). Dr. James G. Hay is inarguably the pioneer of deterministic model use in biomechanical analyses. While working on his dissertation on high jumping (Hay, 1967), he was having trouble keeping the roles of the variables (performance parameters of high jumping) clear in his mind, and started to draw block diagrams to clarify things. Hays initial problems with these block diagrams revolved around causality, inclusion and redundancy. He became aware that, in some cases, he was leaving an important factor out of a block diagram while in other cases, he was including factors that were redundant for example, the horizontal velocity of takeoff, the vertical velocity of takeoff and the angle of takeoff. This eventually led him to identify a basic mechanical equation that linked the variable in one box to the variables in the boxes linked to it from below. With this approach, the relationships in Hays block diagrams were all-inclusive and non-redundant, and all the relationships involved were causal in nature (Dr. J. Hay, personal communication, May 5, 2001). According to Hay (1984), a deterministic model should have two distinguishing features. First, the model is made up of mechanical quantities or appropriate combinations of mechanical quantities. Secondly, all the factors included at one level of the model must completely determine the factors included at the next highest level. It is this second feature that leads us to refer to these types of models as deterministic models. Some authors (e.g.

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Figure 1. Model for the 100-m dash and illustration of selected kinematic characteristics of a running stride.

Bartlett, 1999; Lees, 2002) refer to these models as hierarchical models. It is worth noting that the deterministic approach dened here is not the same as the deterministic models in mathematical modeling. A deterministic model in mathematical modeling is a direct mathematical representation of phenomena that occur in deterministic, continuous, or discrete patterns (Kleinstreuer, 1997). Hay extended the application of the deterministic model by using correlation analysis to document the strength of association between the movement goal and the subsequent factors in the model. He and his students illustrated this with papers on the limiting factors of vertical jumping (Hay et al., 1976, 1978, 1981). These studies were some of the rst to use partial correlation and multiple regression to account for intercorrelations between variables and identify biomechanical variables with unique associations with performance. The deterministic model combined with the large sample of subjects allowed the identication of key joint torques contributing to jump height. Hip extensor torques early in propulsion and shoulder extensor torques near take-off were identied as signicant determinants.

222 J.W . Chow & D.V . Knudson The mechanisms of these benets have recently been conrmed by experimental and simulation studies (Cheng et al., 2008; Domire & Challis, 2010; Feltner et al., 1999). Replication of correlational studies or experimental/modeling verication is important because causation cannot be inferred from correlations and cross-validation of these associations is necessary. Development of deterministic models The steps in the development of a deterministic model are described in detail by Hay and Reid (1988). Briey, the rst step is to identify the primary goal, result/outcome of the performance to be investigated. The outcome of a performance can be an objective measure (e.g. distance, height, time, etc.) or a subjective measure (e.g. points awarded in gymnastic and diving competition). The next step is to identify those factors that produce the result. As stated earlier, the factors included in the model should normally be mechanical quantities wherever possible and each factor should be completely determined by those factors that are linked to it from below. It should be emphasized that it is possible to develop more than one model for movement tasks of similar results. The discus throw models with the speed of release of the discus as the performance result developed by Hay and Yu (1995) and Chow and Mindock (1999) can be used to illustrate this point. In the second level of the model used by Hay and Yu (Figure 2), a thrower loses distance if the discus is released inside the throwing circle and vice versa. In the third level, the ight distance is determined by factors governing the trajectory of a projectile. In the next level, Hay and Yu considered the speed of the discus at the instant of release to be the sum of changes in the speed of the discus during different phases of a throw. As a result, the terminal factors (boxes at the ends of the various paths) of the model are the distance loss,

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Figure 2. Model for the discus throw used by Hay and Yu (adapted from Hay & Yu, 1995).

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angle and height of release, aerodynamic distance, and the changes in discus speed during different phases of a discus throw. The model developed by Chow and Mindock (1999) focused on the kinematic characteristics of upper body segments during throws performed by wheelchair athletes (Figure 3). The rst three levels of the model are similar to those of Hay and Yu (1995), while the rest of the model is formed by repeated applications of several equations relating kinematics of distal endpoint to proximal endpoint of a segment of the throwing arm. The terminal factors of the model can be categorized into three groups: (1) the characteristics of the discus at the instant of release, (2) the characteristics of different upper body segments at the instant of release, and (3) the characteristics of different segments during the forward

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Figure 3. Model for the wheelchair discus throw used by Chow and Mindock (1999).

224 J.W . Chow & D.V . Knudson swing. Apart from the common nding that the speed of release is the most inuential determinant of the distance of the throw, there are differences in inuential variables between able-bodied and disabled discus throwers. Hay and Yu (1995) demonstrated the importance of achieving a large gain in the speed of the discus during the second double support phase in elite able-bodied discus throwers, while Chow and Mindock (1999) found the shoulder girdle movement during the forward swing to be the important determinant of both medical classication and throw distance of wheelchair athletes. Although the movement tasks of able-bodied and wheelchair discus throws are not exactly the same, the segmental approach used in wheelchair discus can by applied in future research to the delivery phase of the ablebodied discus throw. Use of deterministic models in biomechanics Over the years the utility of a deterministic model approach in biomechanical research has been illustrated in several sports, especially in swimming, athletics eld events, and gymnastics. A concise summary of this research is presented in Table I. Use of deterministic models has claried key performance parameters in swimming starts and strokes. In competitive swimming the average speed (S) is the product of the average stroke frequency (SF ) and average stroke length (SL) and the relationships between these parameters have been investigated using swimmers of different performance levels. Craig and Pendergast (1979) asked college swimmers to swim at different speeds and found that increased S toward the maximum was achieved by a combination of increasing SF and decreasing SL in all of the four competitive strokes. In a group of 168 untrained high school students, improvement in breaststroke S after six weeks (three times/week) of training depended upon an increase of SL, rather than SF (Saito, 1982). Based on data collected at the 1982 British Commonwealth Games, Pai et al. (1984) concluded that elite swimmers achieved very similar S with very different combinations of SL and SF. With the aid of a deterministic model Grimston and Hay (1986) identify 21 anthropometric variables relevant to success in swimming and tried to relate these variables to the freestyle swim performance of college swimmers. The axilla cross-sectional area, a variable that could be substantially affected by training, was found to have the largest inuence on both SL and SF. Using the total starting time (sum of block, ight, and water times) as the performance goal of the hands-between-the feet grab starting technique, Guimaraes and Hay (1985) tested 24 male high school swimmers and identied several mechanical characteristics that contribute to a faster start. McLean et al. (2000) adapted the model by Guimaraes and Hay (1985) to compare the kinematics of three types of relay start one or two-step approach, and a no-step start. Their ndings suggested that step starts offered some performance improvements over the no-step start. Deterministic models have been successfully used in the study of jumps and throws in track and eld athletics. Using the deterministic model approach Hay and colleagues (1985a, 1985b, 1986) successfully identied mechanical characteristics that are signicantly related to the ofcial distances of long and triple jumps of elite jumpers. Chow and Hay (2005) developed a model of the last support phase of the long jump and used it to examine the interacting roles played by the approach velocity, the explosive strength (represented by vertical ground reaction force), and the change in angular momentum about a transverse axis through the jumpers centre of mass during the last support phase of the long jump, using a computer simulation technique. The results indicated that approach velocity and vertical ground reaction force are not independent factors in determining jump distance, and the jump distance was over-estimated if the change in angular momentum was not considered in

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Table I. Summary of research articles using the deterministic model approach. Performance result Vertical jump height Joint angles and kinematics of center of gravity (CG) and limb segments Partial CORR & REG Partial CORR Terminal factors Statistical approach Key ndings

Reference

Subjects

Hay et al. (1976)

213 M

Hay et al. (1978)

213 M

Vertical jump height

Joint angular impulses

Craig & Pendergast (1979) REG

63 M, 47 F

t-test

Hay et al. (1981)

194 M

Average swimming speed (S) Vertical jump height

Average stroke length (SL) and stroke frequency (SF) Mean joint torques

Saito (1982)

168 M high school students S of four competitive strokes SL and SF

S of breaststroke

SL and SF

t-test

Pai et al. (1984)

64 M, 46 F

CORR & REG

Guimaraes & Hay (1985)

24 M high school swimmers

Swim grab start time

CG kinematics and kinetic variables determine the block, ight, & water times

CORR & REG

Use of deterministic models

Hay & Miller (1985a), Hay et al. (1986)

12 M & 12 F elite long jumpers

Long jump distance

Velocities at takeoff and touchdown of the last four strides of the approach and the velocity and angle at takeoff

CORR

The actions of head, trunk, and arms contributed signicantly to the variations in CG elevation from takeoff to peak of ight. Torques at the shoulder, hip, and knee were signicant contributors to jump height and contributions varied across phases. Within subject S increased as a result of increasing SF and decreasing SL. Ten shoulder, hip, knee, and ankle torques were signicant contributors to jump height and contributions varied across phases Improvement in S after six weeks of training (3x/week) was due to an increase in SF, rather than in SL. S was not signicantly correlated with either SL or SF. Elite swimmers used different combinations of SL and SF to achieve a fairly constant S. For a faster start swimmers should (a) move CG fast forward on block, (b) maximize backward force by feet, & (c) maximize force by hands in forward and upward direction. Conrming the dominant roles of the horizontal velocity of the approach, the horizontal and resultant velocities at takeoff, and the ight distance. Other factors closely related to the jump distance were identied.

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Table I continued Performance result Triple jump distance Velocities at takeoff and touchdown and times of ight and support for the three phases of the triple jump SL and SF. A deterministic model with swim time as the result was used to identify anthropometric variables relevant to success in swimming Partial CORR & REG CORR Terminal factors Statistical approach Key ndings

Reference

Subjects

Hay & Miller (1985b)

12 M elite triple jumpers

226 J.W . Chow & D.V . Knudson

Grimston & Hay (1986)

12 M college swimmers

Average swimming speed (S)

Wilson et al. (1987)

24 M & 10 F

Skating sprint speed CORR

Takei (1988; 1989; 1990; 1992; 1998), Takei & Kim (1990), Takei et al. (1992; 2000; 2003) Gervais (1994) Time on horse, time of postight, CG location and velocities postight, and pre- and post-ight angular momentum values

Ranged from 24 to 122 M/F world class gymnasts 1 gymnast

Stride length, stride frequency, body segment angles and range of motion during single support Linear and angular motion of the gymnast in preight, postight, and the execution during the vault CORR

CORR & REG

Gymnastic vault: point awarded by judges Gymnastic vault: judges score

The more the jumpers resources are expended prior to the jump phase and the more vertical the effort at takeoff into the jump, the better the nal result. The anthropometric variables accounted for 89% (SL), 41% (SF), and 17% (S) of the variances in the measured characteristics of their strokes. Although S is little inuenced by the physique, the combination of SL and SF used to attain a given S is very much a function of swimmers physique. Sprint skating speed is associated with a long stride length and a large singlesupport distance. Mechanical factors associated with judges scores were identied for different types of vaults.

Hay & Yu (1995)

14 M & 15 F

Discus throw distance

Changes in the speed of the discus (Ds) during different phases, speed, angle, and height of release Components of ground reaction force (GRF) and center of pressure, and digitized marker location

CORR

Dixon & Kerwin (1998)

3F

Maximum Achilles tendon force

ANOVA

The results demonstrated that the optimization approach developed could produce a viable prediction of an individuals optimal performance of a handspring 11 2 front salto longhorse vault. Ds during the second double support phase and the speed of release are inuential determinant of the throw distance The nding that increased heel lifts may increase maximum Achilles tendon force suggested that caution is advised in the routine use of this intervention.

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Table I continued Performance result Discus, shot put, & javelin measured distance Swim start time Speed, angle, and body position at takeoff, takeoff and entry heights, and airborne body moment of inertia and angular momentum ANOVA Kinematics of the implement and different upper body segments at the instant of release, and kinematics of different segments during the delivery CORR Terminal factors Statistical approach Key ndings

Reference

Subjects

Chow & Mindock (1999), Chow et al. (2000; 2003b)

1417 M wheelchair athletes

McLean et al. (2000)

10 M college swimmers

Powers & Harrison (2002)

8 show- jumping horses

CG path during ight

CG velocities at takeoff and landing and CG elevation during ight

ANOVA

Chow et al. (2003a)

4 M, 4 F, professional players

Ball location at landing for a tennis serve Long jump distance Approach velocity, vertical GRF (VGRF), and change in angular momentum during takeoff Hip-shoulder and shoulder-arm separation, trunk forward-backward tilt, throwing-arm elevation angles, and throwing procedure phase times

Kinematics of ball toss, pre- and postimpact ball and racquet velocities

Wilcoxon

Chow & Hay (2005)

NA (computer simulation)

NA

Leigh et al. (2008)

51M, 53F

Discus throw distance

CORR & REG

In addition to the speed of the implement at release, important determinants of medical classication and measured distance were identied for each eld event. Compared with no-step starts, increased horizontal takeoff velocity, decreased vertical takeoff velocity, increased takeoff height, steeper entry angle and orientation were found in step starts. The riders effect on jumping horses was primarily due to behavioral changes in horses motion, rather than inertial effects. From 1st to 2nd serve players tossed the ball closer to the body and imparted spin on the ball by changing the racquet vertical and lateral velocities. Sensitivity analysis revealed that approach velocity and VGRF are not independent factors in determining the jump distance. Female throwers use a more sophisticated technique than male throwers. Male throwers may place more reliance on physical strength to achieve long distances.

Use of deterministic models

Abbreviations: M: male, F: female, CORR: correlation analysis, REG: regression analysis, ANOVA: analysis of variance, NA: not applicable.

227

228 J.W . Chow & D.V . Knudson the analysis. In addition to horizontal jumps, Hay and Yu (1995) developed a model to analyse discus throws performed by elite able-bodied athletes (Figure 2). In separate studies Chow and colleagues (Chow et al., 2000, 2003b; Chow & Mindock, 1999) applied a stationary throw model to the analyses of shot put, discus throw and javelin throw performance of wheelchair throwers of different medical classications (Figure 3). The models used in Takeis studies on gymnastic vaults are good examples of models that use subjective measures for the performance outcome (Figure 4). Takei and colleagues have used deterministic models to guide their biomechanical analyses of several gymnastic vaults performed by elite gymnasts (Takei, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1998; Takei & Kim, 1990; Takei et al., 1992, 2000, 2003). Figure 4 shows a typical model used by Takei. Studies using these models and correlation analysis have documented inuential performance variables in gymnastic vaults and key techniques that are signicantly associated with successful performance (points awarded by judges). Instead of statistical approaches commonly used by others, Gervais (1994) utilized the evaluation scheme (point deductions) of a vault in conjunction with a deterministic model to set up an optimization process for predicting the optimal performance of a gymnastic vault. The predicted optimal performance was found to display greater virtuosity in postight height, distance and angular momentum when compared with the individuals best trial performance. Other sports skills studied using the deterministic model approach are roller skating (Wilson et al., 1987), horse jumping (Powers & Harrison, 1999, 2002) and tennis serve (Chow et al., 2003a). Deterministic models were also used in reviews analyzing the slalom in alpine skiing (Bober, 1996) and rowing (Soper & Hume, 2004), and physical training for increasing vertical jump height (Ham et al., 2007). Deterministic models can be adapted to a goal to minimize the exposure to a mechanical variable that is hypothesized to be the primary cause of injury. Dixon and Kerwin (1998)

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Figure 4. Model showing preight factors causally related to the ofcial score of a handspring vault (adapted from Takei, 1989).

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reported one of the few studies that have explicitly taken advantage of deterministic models to study inuential factors related to injury. It is possible that the use of deterministic models in conjunction with multivariate statistical analysis can identify factors and their strength of association with injury rates. Use of deterministic models has found its way into other exercise and sports science research utilizing biomechanical data. Although no block diagrams were used, three studies on the acquisition of motor skills have used deterministic models (Heise & Cornwell, 1997; Schneider et al., 1989; Yoshida et al., 2004). Schneider et al. (1989) examined the net joint moments at the upper extremity joints during a maximum speed hand movement, in a vertical plane up and around a barrier to a target. Their model focused on the three components of the net joint moment: gravitation, interactive and generalized muscle moments. Their results supported Bernsteins (1967) hypothesis that practice alters motor coordination among muscular and passive joint moments. Using the same mathematical procedures Heise and Cornwell (1997) and Yoshida et al. (2004) tried to determine, for a planar multi-joint throwing skill and a target reaching task respectively, whether the relative contributions of the components of the net joint moment at the elbow and shoulder change after an intervention. With practice, subjects in the Heise and Cornwell (1997) study could throw further. However, the relative contribution of net joint moment components remained unchanged. Results from Yoshida et al. (2004) suggest that rapid aiming movements are controlled through a reciprocal interplay between intersegmental dynamics during the acceleration phase and error corrections. It is clear that deterministic models have been useful in conducting biomechanical research on a wide variety of human movements. It should also be mentioned that some studies used the deterministic modeling approach but the approach was not explicitly stated [e.g., Yu et al. (2006) and Zablotny et al. (2003)]. Extension of deterministic models to qualitative biomechanics Besides their utility in planning and analyzing biomechanical data in research, Hay also advocated that deterministic models be used as a basis for qualitative analysis of sports skills (Hay, 1984; Hay & Reid, 1988). There is strong logical support for this position because these models enable coaches to focus on important biomechanical variables that directly affect the movement goal. Some coaches are not educated in exercise and sports science and rely on passed-down craft knowledge of sports techniques. Qualitative analysis of technique decisions on meaningful biomechanical factors that directly affect performance is important, so use of deterministic models to guide qualitative analysis could be an improvement on traditional error detection and correction based on unveried technique beliefs. The utilization of deterministic models as a guide for qualitative analysis, however, has not been tested by research and deterministic models are only one of several approaches (Knudson & Morrison, 2002). Hudson (1997) has been critical of any qualitative analysis model that does not focus the attention of the analyst and athlete on kinematic variables that are visually observable and potentially meaningful in modifying technique, while others encourage use of deterministic models and kinetic variables in qualitative analysis (Sanders, 2004). There has been limited and fragmented research on the interdisciplinary skill of qualitative analysis of human movement (Knudson & Morrison, 2002), so there is a lack of evidence as to which approach to qualitative analysis is best or the efcacy of biomechanical data in improving sport performance (Lees, 1999). There is a need for research comparing the use of deterministic models of qualitative analysis with other models of qualitative analysis.

230 J.W . Chow & D.V . Knudson Advantages and disadvantages The primary advantage of using deterministic models is to help to avoid selecting performance variables arbitrarily (the trial and error approach). The deterministic model approach is a more objective approach to identifying factors that affect the outcome of a performance. If done correctly, this ensures that no major factor that determines the outcome is overlooked and that nothing is included unnecessarily (Hay, 1984). Use of deterministic models in biomechanical research could reduce the problems caused by numerous dependent variables noted earlier. Another advantage of the deterministic models is that it can be used to provide a theoretical basis (mechanical relationships) for statistical modeling (Bartlett, 1999). For example, referring to the model depicted in Figure 3, the signicant correlations between the range of motion and average angular velocity of the shoulder girdle during the forward swing and the measured distance (r $ 0.72) of throwers allowed the investigators to afrm the signicance of shoulder girdle movement in wheelchair discus throw (Chow & Mindock, 1999). It is not uncommon to see many factors and levels of factors in a well-developed model. A major concern when using such a model for statistical modeling is the sample size and assumptions of the statistics used. A reasonably large sample of subjects and trials is needed in order to come up with an acceptable power value. For example, to allow a reliable multiple linear regression analysis and to overcome problems of colinearity, Hay et al. (1981) tested 194 subjects for the purpose of identifying limiting factors of vertical jumping. Partial correlation and multiple regression analyses should be used to dene the variables that are meaningful in predicting the goal of the movement, thereby eliminating variables that are intercorrelated or not truly inuential. Care must also be taken to ensure and report that the scatterplots do not violate assumptions of linearity and random error, so that the strength of the correlations and regression equations accurately model the data. Subjectivity in selecting the number of levels and variables in a deterministic model can be a disadvantage at times. For example, increasing the number of variables expands the study, but imposes greater demands on sample size and interpretation. In any event, it is recommended that researchers should strive to minimize the number of variables involved and statistical tests performed to maximize the power of their analysis.

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Summary The deterministic model approach provides a strong theoretical or mechanical basis for examining the relative importance of various factors that inuence the outcome of a movement task. These models have been used successfully in research on a wide variety of motor skills in the last four decades. Studies using deterministic models in biomechanics and motor behaviour illustrate their utility in identifying critical mechanical parameters in human movement. The use of correlation and regression analyses to document the size of the association of variables inuencing movement is an important step in planning prospective studies to apply biomechanics to improve movement performance or reduce injury risk. Despite the success of these models in a wide variety of biomechanics research, most of the scholars using deterministic models have links to Dr. Hay and his students. This somewhat limited use of deterministic models in research may be because many associate deterministic models with qualitative biomechanical analysis advocated by Hays classic texts (Hay, 1993; Hay & Reid, 1988). While deterministic models logically have the potential to improve qualitative analysis, biomechanics scholars are encouraged to use deterministic models to improve the focus and impact of their research.

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It is likely that greater use of deterministic models in planning biomechanics research can help reduce some of the problems in the literature related to numerous and likely meaningless dependent variables (Hudson, 1997; Knudson, 2005, 2009). Research can then be focused on variables with a strong theoretical or mechanistic connection to performance as well as risk of injury. We recommend that sports biomechanics scholars consider using deterministic models to help identify meaningful dependent variables in their studies, and build mechanistic or theoretical linkages related to the independent variables being studied. When correlation and regression analyses are used in conjunction with a deterministic model, care must be take to sample a well-dened population of subjects adequately in order to document the magnitude of inuence of the factors on performance or potential injury. For scholars interested in the application of biomechanical theory and principles, research comparing deterministic models of qualitative analysis with other models would be benecial to the eld.

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Acknowledgements The preparation of this review was supported in part by the Wilson Research Foundation (Jackson, Mississippi, USA).

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