Genetics

Heredity and Genetics

Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to offspring Traits are controlled by genes, so GENETICS is the study of how traits are inherited through the action of alleles

Gregor Mendel Father of Genetics

Austrian monk born in 1822 who is responsible for the laws governing the inheritance of traits Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated and tested over 28,000 pea plants Mendel performed crosspollination by transferring pollen from one plant to selected ova of other plants, thereby controlling which plants mixed

Mendels Experiments
Mendel produced pure strains by allowing plants to self-pollinate, I.e., pollen (male gamete) from one plant fertilizes ova (female gamete) of same plant

Mendels Peas.
S s

Y
I G

y
i g

Mendels Peas.
P A p a

Mendels Results.
(F2 from crossing to heterozygous F1s)

Genetics Terminology
Traits any characteristic that can be passed from parents to offspring Heredity the passing of traits from parents to offspring Alleles one form (dominant or recessive) of a gene Sex cells have ONE form of a gene on their chromosomes Body cells have TWO forms or alleles for a single gene (you get one from mom and the other from dad) Dominant is always expressed; masks a recessive trait Recessive can only be expressed if there are no dominant alleles present

Genetics Terminology
Dominant alleles are represented by a capital letter Recessive alleles are represented by a lower case letter Example: B = Brown eye color (dominant) b = Blue eye color (recessive) Purebred species have two of the same alleles; this is also called HOMOZYGOUS, e.g., BB (homozygous dominant) or bb (homozygous recessive) Species with two different alleles are called HETEROZYGOUS, e.g., Bb Genotype: the alleles present in the organism, i.e., BB, Bb, or bb Phenotype: the expression of the genes; what is observed

Genotype and Phenotype in Flower

All genes occur in pairs, so TWO alleles affect a trait. Possible combinations if: R = Red flower r = Yellow flower Genotypes Phenotypes RR Red Rr Red rr Yellow

BrainPop - Heredity

Genetic Crosses
Monohybrid Cross: cross involving ONE trait, e.g., eye color Dihybrid Cross: cross involving TWO traits, e.g., eye color and hair color Offsprings genotype and phenotype is determined using a Punnett square
B B BB b Bb

Bb

bb

Punnett Square, cont.

Generations in Crosses
Parental Generation (P1) = the parental generation in a breeding experiment First Filial Generation (F1) = the first generation of offspring in a breeding experiment Second Filial Generation (F2) = the second generation of offspring in a breeding experiment TT tt Tt Tt TT Tt Tt tt

P1 Monohybrid Cross
Trait: Seed Color Alleles: Y Yellow y Green Cross: Yellow seeds X Green seeds YY X yy Crossing two true-breeding (pure) plants

y Yy y Yy

Yy Yy

Genotype: Yy Phenotype: Yellow Genotypic Ratio: 100% Yy Phenotypic Ratio: 100% Yellow

F1 Monohybrid Cross
Trait: Seed Color Alleles: Y Yellow y Green Cross: Yellow seeds X Green seeds Yy X Yy Crossing to heterozygotes (hybrids)

Y YY y Yy

Yy yy

Genotype: YY, Yy, yy Phenotype: Yellow and Green Genotypic Ratio: 25% YY, 50% Yy, 25% yy (1:2:1) Phenotypic Ratio: 75% Yellow, 25% Green (3:1)

Dihybrid Crosses
A breeding experiment that tracks the inheritance of two traits Mendels Law of Independent Assortment Each pair of alleles segregates independently during gamete formation Formula: 2n (n = # of heterozygotes) Example: 1. RrYy: 2n = 22 = 4 possible gametes RY Ry rY ry 2. AaBbCCDd: 2n = 23 = 8 gametes ABCD ABCd AbCD AbCd aBCD aBCd abCD abCD

Dihybrid Crosses
Traits: Seed shape & Seed color Alleles: R round r wrinkled Y yellow y green

RrYy
RY Ry rY ry

RrYy
RY Ry rY ry

All possible gamete combinations

Dihybrid Cross
RY
RY

Ry

rY

ry

Ry
rY ry

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Dihybrid Cross
RY
RY RRYY Ry RRYy rY RrYY ry RrYy

Ry
RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy

rY
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy

ry
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
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Round/Yellow:

Round/green:

wrinkled/Yellow: 3 wrinkled/green: 1

9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio

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Dihybrid Cross
Round/Yellow: 9 Round/green: 3 wrinkled/Yellow: 3 wrinkled/green: 1 9:3:3:1

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Test Cross
Test crosses involve breeding the individual in question with another individual that expresses a recessive version of the same trait. If all offspring display the dominant phenotype, the individual in question is homozygous dominant; if the offspring display both dominant and recessive phenotypes, then the individual is heterozygous

y Yy y Yy

Y Yy Yy

y yy yy

y
y

Yy Yy

Offspring all yellow!

Offspring yellow; Offspring green!

Test Cross
A mating between an individual of unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual. Example: bbC__ x bbcc BB = brown eyes Bb = brown eyes bb = blue eyes CC = curly hair Cc = curly hair cc = straight hair bC b___

bc

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Test Cross
Possible results:
bC
bc bbCc

b___ C
bbCc or bc

bC
bbCc

b___ c
bbcc

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Incomplete Dominance and Codominance

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Incomplete Dominance
F1 hybrids have an appearance somewhat in between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties. Example: snapdragons (flower) red (RR) x white (rr)
r r

RR = red flower rr = white flower

R R

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Incomplete Dominance
r R Rr R Rr r Rr

produces the F1 generation All Rr = pink (heterozygous pink)

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Rr

Incomplete Dominance

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Codominance
Two alleles are expressed (multiple alleles) in heterozygous individuals. Example: blood type 1. 2. 3. 4. type type type type A B AB O = = = = IAIA or IAi IBIB or IBi IAIB ii
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Codominance Problem
Example: homozygous male Type B (IBIB) x heterozygous female Type A (IAi)
IA
IB IB IAIB IAIB

i
IBi IBi
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1/2 = IAIB 1/2 = IBi

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Another Codominance Problem

Example: male Type O (ii) x female type AB (IAIB)
IA i i IAi IAi IB IBi IBi
1/2 = IAi 1/2 = IBi

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Codominance
Question: If a boy has a blood type O and his sister has blood type AB, what are the genotypes and phenotypes of their parents?
boy-type O (ii) X girl-type AB (IAIB)

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Codominance
Answer:
IA IB i IAIB ii i Parents: genotypes = IAi and IBi phenotypes = A and B

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Sex-linked Traits
Traits (genes) located on the sex chromosomes Sex chromosomes are X and Y XX genotype for females XY genotype for males Many sex-linked traits carried on X chromosome

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Sex-linked Traits
Example: Eye color in fruit flies
Sex Chromosomes
fruit fly eye color

XX chromosome - female

Xy chromosome - male
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Sex-linked Trait Problem

Example: Eye color in fruit flies (red-eyed male) x (white-eyed female) Xr Xr

XRY

XrXr

Remember: the Y chromosome in XR males does not carry traits. RR = red eyed Y Rr = red eyed rr = white eyed
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Sex-linked Trait Solution:

Xr XR Y XR Xr Xr XR Xr
50% red eyed female 50% white eyed male

Xr Y

Xr Y

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Female Carriers

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