Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts, meaning they speed up reactions without being affected themselves. The molecules that react in the enzyme-catalysed reaction are called substrates, and the molecules produced in the reaction are products. Different enzymes are involved in anabolic reactions (the building up of large molecules from smaller ones) and catabolic reactions (the breaking down of large molecules into smaller ones), so there presence or absence of a particular enzyme controls what will happen to a particular molecule. Enzymes are synthesised in living cells. Most enzymes work inside the cell examples of these intracellular enzymes are catalase (which breaks down harmful hydrogen peroxide in liver cells) and phosphorylase (which builds glucose into starch in plant storage cells). Other enzymes are made inside cells and then released from the cell to perform their function examples of these extracellular enzymes include the digestive enzyme lipase (which breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol) and amylase, which converts starch to maltose during germination (see page 194). Enzymes are specific most enzymes only work on one kind of substrate only. The active site is the part of the enzyme that allows it to act as a catalyst. According to the lock and key hypothesis (a theory on the mechanism of enzyme action), the molecules of the substrate bind to the active site. The substrate molecules fit exactly into the active site of the enzyme, thus bringing the substrate molecules closer together. The substrates now react to form a molecule of product, which leaves the active site. The enzyme molecule is now free to

bind with more molecules of substrate; each enzyme molecule may be used many thousands of times.

Temperature and pH both affect the activity of enzymes:

Temperature A higher temperature speeds up the movement of substrate molecules, so that when they collide with the enzyme they have more energy and are more likely to bind to the active site. The enzyme activity increases with a rise in temperature, up to a point. The enzyme molecules themselves also gain in energy as the temperature rises so that they begin to vibrate. Eventually the enzyme molecules

pH pH also affects enzyme activity since changing acid or base conditions around an enzyme molecule affects its three-dimensional shape and can denature the enzyme. Each enzyme has its own optimum pH, as shown in the graph below, which depends on the environment in which the enzyme is working pepsin is an enzyme that works in the stomach, and has an optimum pH

The enzyme molecules themselves also gain in energy as the temperature rises so that they begin to vibrate. Eventually the enzyme molecules vibrate so much they become denatured they lose their three-dimensional shape and can no longer bind to the substrate. Each enzyme has an optimum temperature, which is a balance between these two effects. Most human enzymes have an optimum temperature around 37C, whilst for most plants the optimum is rather lower at 25C.

around 2, whereas amylase works in the mouth and small intestine and has an optimum pH around 7.5. This is a graph showing how pH affects enzyme activity:

Denaturation is usually irreversible, and living cells make great efforts to keep the conditions suitable for their enzymes to work.

This graph shows how enzyme activity is affected by temperature:

Activators make the binding of substrate molecules to an enzymes active site more likely whereas inhibitors make it more difficult to do so. Humans use enzymes in industry, food preparation and medicine.