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Transculturation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
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1 Definition
interaction 2 Concepts
About Wikipedia 2.1 Homogenization versus ethnoconvergence
Community portal 2.2 Obstacles to ethnoconvergence
Recent changes 3 See also
Contact Wikipedia 4 Notes
Donate to Wikipedia
5 References
Help
Concepts [edit]
Where attempts are made to keep a cultural identity "pure," the realities of social change, via natural
and artificial means, dictate that cultures do not remain "pure" and never were "pure" in the first place,
but are destined to change. It is the perception of individuals within cultures that their cultures do not in
fact change fundamentally over time.
Human mortality and reproduction provides for social regeneration as well, and by this process of
regeneration, which naturally includes sexual union, other cultures are often integrated. The inability of
societies to maintain divisions over generations, despite attempts to engrain divisive elements, is
reflective of this. As parents die, their children have the opportunity to reflect upon the nature and validity
of established non-convergent precepts, and change them if they like.
These changes often represent differences between homeland pons, and their diasporic communities
abroad. Nevertheless, obstacles to ethnoconvergence are not great. The primary issue; language,
(hence, communication and education) can, be overcome within a single generation - as is evident in the
easy acclimation of children of foreign parents. English, for example, is spoken by more non-Anglo-
American people than Anglo-Americans, making it the current lingua-franca, the worldwide de facto
standard international language.
It has been observed that even in monolingual, industrial societies like urban North America, some
individuals do cling to a "modernized" primordial identity, apart from others. Some intellectuals, such as
Michael Ignatieff, argue that convergence of a general culture does not directly entail a similar
convergence in ethnic identities. This can become evident in social situations, where people divide into
separate groups, despite being of an identical "super-ethnicity", such as nationality.
Within each smaller ethnicity, individuals may tend to see it perfectly justified to assimilate with other
cultures, and some others view assimilation as wrong and incorrect for their culture. This common
theme, representing dualist opinions of ethnoconvergence itself, within a single ethnic group is often
manifested in issues of sexual partners and matrimony, employment preferences, etc. These varied
opinions of ethnoconvergence represent themselves in a spectrum; assimilation, homogenization,
acculturation, and cultural compromise are commonly used terms for ethnoconvegence which flavor the
issues to a bias.
Often it's in a secular, multi-ethnic environment that cultural concerns are both minimalised and
exaccerbated; Ethnic prides are boasted, hierarchy is created ("center" culture versus "periphery") but
on the other hand, they will still share a common "culture", and common language and behaviours. Often
the elderly, more conservative-in-association of a clan, tend to reject cross-cultural associations, and
participate in ethnically similar community-oriented activities. Xenophobes tend to think of cross-cultural
contact as a component of assimilation, and see this as harmful.
The obstacle to ethnoconvergence is ethnocentrism, which is the view that one's culture is of greater
importance than another's.' Ethnocentrism often takes different forms, as it is a highly personal bias, and
manifests itself in countless aspects of culture. Religion, or belief, is the prime ethnocentric divider.
Second is custom, which may overlap religion. With the adherence to each distinct component, comes
the repulsion of the other. In most regions, ethnic divides are binary, meaning only two distinct cultures
are present, each seeing the other as foreign. Many, however make the point that the binary example is
the exception, and the norm is far more dynamic.
We can divide ethnicity into two distinct areas, as they relate to ethnoconvergence: Utilitarian traits, and
traditional customs.
Religion, on the other hand, is a highly personal and attached part of culture. However, religion does not
neatly correspond with ethnic identity. In many cosmopolitan societies, religion is everything - social,
utilitarian, intellectual, political; from the point of view of people of immersed cultures; The very concept
of ethnicity and its distinctions is incongruous to their immersed concepts.
In many societies, such as in those in Europe, languages are considered a significant component of
ethnic values. This does not mean that most Europeans reject learning other languages. Quite the
contrary, Europeans are often polyglots, and may label other individuals by their ethnicities; practical
means of distinguishing cultures may resemble tendencies similar to ethnocentrism.
However, the political and cultural significance of regional or national languages are retained due to the
fact that these polyglots conform to the linguistic norms of the place they visit - doing "as the Romans
do". Thus, conforming to the "ethnic integrity" of the region.
It has even become a cliché that "to learn a new language is to adopt a new soul". There are many other
examples of the essential significance of language. In pre-Russian Siberia, Tatar-Mongol colonists in the
Taiga often recognized indigenous speakers of Turkic languages as their "own people" and non-Turkic
groups as "foreigners", despite these indigenous groups having a similar level of material culture, and
sharing much of a primitive culture with tribes foreign to the Muslim-Buddhist Tatar-Mongols.
Acculturation
Enculturation
Cross-cultural
Intercultural relations
Intercultural competence
Multiculturalism
Ángel Rama
Notes [edit]
References [edit]
Allatson, Paul (2007), Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural And Literary Studies, Oxford and Malden, MA:
Blackwell, ISBN 1405102500.
Duno-Gottberg, Luis. (2003). Solventando las diferencias: La ideología del mestizaje en Cuba,
Iberoamericana – Frankfurt am Main, Vervuert, Madrid.
Ortiz, Fernando (1995), Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar, Durham, NC: Duke University
Press, ISBN 0-8223-1616-1. Trans. Harriet de Onís.
Categories: Culture terms | Human migration | Cultural geography | Multiculturalism | Cultural studies
Acculturation
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languages Despite definitions and evidence that acculturation entails two-way processes of change, research and
theory have continued with a focus on the adjustments and changes experienced by minorities in
Català response to their contact with the dominant majority.
Česky
Thus, acculturation can be conceived to be the
Dansk
Deutsch processes of cultural learning imposed upon
Español minorities by the fact of being minorities. If
Français enculturation is first-culture learning, then
Galego acculturation is second-culture learning. This
Hrvatski has often been conceived to be a
Bahasa Indonesia unidimensional, zero-sum cultural conflict in
Italiano
which the minority's culture is displaced by the
Lietuvių
dominant group's culture in a process of
Polski
assimilation.
Português The traditional definition sometimes
Русский differentiates between acculturation by an
Slovenčina
individual (transculturation) and that by a group -
Српски / Srpski
usually very large (acculturation).
Suomi
Українська Additionally, "acculturation" has been used by
Matusevich as a term describing the paradigm
shift public schools must undergo in order to
successfully integrate emerging technologies in
a meaningful way into classrooms (Matusevich,
1995). The old and the new additional definitions
have a boundary that blurs in modern Portrait of Native Americans from the Cherokee,
multicultural societies, where a child of an Cheyenne, Choctaw, Comanche, Iroquois, and Muscogee
immigrant family might be encouraged to tribes in American attire. Photos dates from 1868 to 1924.
Contents
1 Group foreign-origin acculturation
2 Transculturation
3 Native-origin acculturation
4 History of acculturation
5 Cultural appropriation
6 Cultural imperialism
7 Interactive acculturation
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Massive intake of another culture's traits is the most classical and narrow definition of "acculturation".
Such acculturation may be adequately adapted into another's, modernizing and advancing it through the
inflow of technology or the enrichment of literature. For example,
The Chinese written language (Hanzi) was taken, with various degrees of modification by places that
previously have no written records: Japan (as Kanji), Korea (as Hanja), and Vietnam (as Chữ-nôm). In
addition, Chinese vocabulary had also been taken throughout the history. They have therefore
developed a linguistic affinity in several, though not nearly all, aspects—called the CJKV language
family in computer science.
But sometimes, the acculturation has irreversible impact of damaging the recipient culture, as in the
cases of:
Many indigenous peoples, such as First Nations of Canada, Native Americans of the USA, Taiwanese
aborigines, and Australian Aborigines -- have mostly lost their traditional culture (most evidently
language) and replaced by that of the dominant new culture.
The term has most often described as Westernization, Natives having adopted Western cultures.
The founders of Liberia were the descendants, just a few generations removed, of African ancestors
who had a completely African culture; yet they have fully taken up the white-dominated cultural values
of the early 19th Century United States (specifically, of the then dominant Whig Party), to the extent
that their settlement in Africa and rule over the native population there were clearly in the manner of
foreign colonizers rather than of "Africans returning home".
Pidgin is a mixed language that has developed to help communication between members of different
cultures in contact. This usually occurs in situations of trade or colonialism. Pidgin English is a simplified
form of English. It blends English grammar with that of a native language. This was first used in Chinese
ports and similar have developed in Papua New Guinea and West Africa.
In situations of continuous contact, cultures have exchanged and blended foods, recipes, music, dances,
clothing, tools, and technologies.
Transculturation [edit]
A child may learn one or more traditions(multicultural family of immigrants) from birth, usually from the
family (blood or adopted), in particularly the parents.
Inevitably, with each generation, the dominant culture becomes more and more the dominantly
accultured one for the immigrants' descendants. A good example of native origin acculturation would be
the Inuit, these people started to share their traditions when the Canadian Government went to the Arctic.
History of acculturation [edit]
Early written codes of law, for example, the Old Testament law of Moses, or the Babylonian law of
Hammurabi, acted to stabilize cultural practices and reduce acculturative changes. Probably the first
academic account of acculturation appears in Plato's, Laws [5] written in the 4th century BC, in which
he argued that humans have a tendency to imitate strangers and a tendency to like to travel, both of
which introduce new cultural practices. Plato argued that this should be minimized to the degree
possible.
J.W. Powell is credited with coining the word "acculturation," first using it in an 1880 report by the US
Bureau of American Ethnography. In 1883, Powell defined "acculturation" to be the psychological
changes induced by cross-cultural imitation. The first psychological study of acculturation was probably
Thomas and Znaniecki's 1918 study of The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. [6]
Since then, scholars in different disciplines have developed more than 100 different theories of
acculturation. [7] Paul Campisi, in 1947, was the first to make a "A Scale for the Measurement of
Acculturation".
Histories of acculturation theory have been written (in chronological order) by Sarah Simons (1901), Isaac
Berkson (1920), W. D. Borrie (1959), Guido Baglioni (1964),[8] Harold Abramson (1980), and Floyd
Rudmin (2003a; b; 2006).[9]
Acculturation Psychology
Colonialism
Colorism
Creolization
Cultural assimilation
Cultural identity
Colonial mentality
Cultural Alienation
Cultural cringe
Enculturation
Ethnocide
Globalization
Intercultural competence
Language shift
Melting pot
Passing (racial identity)
Paper Bag Party
Race
Racialism
Racism
Social interpretations of race
Syncretism
Westernization
References [edit]
Enculturation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Enculturation is sometimes referred to as acculturation, a word which recently has been used to more
distinctively refer only to exchanges of cultural features with foreign cultures. Note that this is a recent
development, as acculturation in some literatures has the same meaning as enculturation.
Acclimation is adaption to the physical environment, such as to the local climate. When used less
strictly, these terms are nearly synonymous: acclimation, acculturation, and enculturation.
Socialization in the study of animal and human behavior is the process by which human beings or
animals learn to adopt the behavior patterns of the community in which they live.
Education is a social science that encompasses teaching and learning specific knowledge, beliefs, and
skills. Formal education may play a role in enculturation, even though there may be multi-cultural goals.
Notes [edit]
1. ^ a b c d Grusec, Joan E.; Hastings, Paul D. "Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research", 2007,
Guilford Press; ISBN 1593853327, 9781593853327; at page 547.
Grace, Lindsay. "Handbook of Research on Computational Arts and Creative Informatics: The Challenge
of Enculturation in the Arts, 2009, IGI Global Press; ISBN 9781605663524; 312-324.
Intercultural competence
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cultures can be different not only between continents or nations, but also within the same company or even family.
(geographical, ethnical, moral, ethical, religious, political, historical) resp. cultural affiliation or cultural identity.
Requirements [edit]
Basic needs are sensitivity and self-consciousness: the understanding of other behaviors and ways of thinking as well
as the ability to express one’s own point of view in a transparent way with the aim to be understood and respected by
staying flexible where this is possible, and being clear where this is necessary.
It is a balance, situatively adapted, between three parts:
1. knowledge (about other cultures, people, nations, behaviors…),
2. empathy (understanding feelings and needs of other people), and
3. self-confidence (knowing what I want, my strengths and weaknesses, emotional stability).
Cultural characteristics can be differentiated between several dimensions and aspects (the ability to perceive them and
to cope with them is one of the bases of intercultural competence), such as:
Collectivist and individualist cultures;
Masculine and feminine cultures;
Uncertainty avoidance;
Power distance;
Chronemics: Monochrone (time-fixed, "one after the other") and polychrone (many things at the same time, "multi-
tasking");
Structural characteristics: e. g. basic personality, value orientation, experience of time and space, selective
perception, nonverbal communication, patterns of behavior.
Assessment [edit]
For assessment of intercultural competence as an existing ability and / or the potential to develop it (with conditions and
timeframe), the following characteristics are tested and observed: ambiguity tolerance, openness to contacts, flexibility
in behavior, emotional stability, motivation to perform, empathy, metacommunicative competence, polycentrism.
Assessment of cross-cultural competence (3C) is another field rife with controversy. One survey identified eighty-six
assessment instruments for 3C [8]. The Army Research Institute study narrowed the list down to ten quantitative
instruments for further exploration into their reliability and validity [2]. Three examples of quantitative instruments include
the Inter-cultural Development Inventory, the Cultural Intelligence Scale, and the Multi-cultural Personality Questionnaire
[2]
. Qualitative assessment instruments such as scenario-based assessments are also useful tools to gain insight into
inter-cultural competence. These have proven valuable in poorly defined areas such as 3C [9][10][11][12]. Research in the
area of 3C assessment, while thin, also underscores the value of qualitative instruments in concert with quantitative ones
[13][14][15]
.</ref>
Criticisms [edit]
It is important that intercultural competence training and skills not break down into application of stereotypes of a group
of individuals. Although the goal is to promote understanding between groups of individuals that, as a whole, think
somewhat differently, it may fail to recognize the specific differences between individuals of any given group. These
differences can often be larger than the differences between groups, especially with heterogeneous populations and
value systems.
References [edit]
1. ^ a b Selmeski, B. R. (2007). Military cross-cultural competence: Core concepts and individual development. Kingston:
Royal Military College of Canada Centre for Security, Armed Forces, & Society.
2. ^ a b c Abbe, A., Gulick, L.M.V., & Herman, J.L. (2007). Cross-cultural competence in Army leaders: A conceptual and
empirical foundation. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Research Institute.
3. ^ Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David
McKay.
4. ^ Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of
Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: McKay Co., Inc.
5. ^ Desmond Morris, Peter Collett, Peter Marsh and Marie O'Shaughnessy, 1979 Gestures: Their Origin and Meanings -
The Thumb Up Webified by Bernd Wechner
6. ^ Un, deux, trois - Gestes français - French Gestures
7. ^ The Game of Tarof: An extensive look into the custom from an Iranian's perspective
8. ^ Fantini, A.E. (2006). 87 Assessment tools of intercultural competence [Electronic version]. Brattleboro, VT: School for
International Training. Retrieved June 20, 2007 from http://www.sit.edu/publications/docs/feil_appendix_f.pdf
9. ^ Davis, B. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
10. ^ Doll, W. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum. New York: Teacher’s College Press.
11. ^ English, F. & Larson, R. (1996). Curriculum management for educational and social service organizations. Springfield,
IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
12. ^ Palomba, A. & Banta, T. (1999). Assessment essentials. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
13. ^ Kitsantas, A. (2004). Studying abroad: the role of college students’ goals on the development of cross-cultural skills
and global understanding. College Student Journal, 38(3). Retrieved July 9, 2007 from ERIC database.
14. ^ Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Towards an understanding of culture in L2/FL education. Ronko: K.G. studies in English,
25, 131-150.
15. ^ Lievens, F., Harris, M., Van Keer, E. & Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting cross-cultural training performance: The validity
of personality, cognitive ability, and dimensions measured by an assessment center and a behavior description
interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 476-489.
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Westernisation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Westernization)
Contents
1 Definition of the West
1.1 Territorial
1.2 Personal
1.3 Differences
2 Process of Westernisation
2.1 Colonisation (1492–1960s)
2.1.1 Europeanisation
2.1.2 Reactions
2.1.2.1 Asia
2.2 Globalisation (1960s-now)
3 Consequences
3.1 Negative
3.2 Positive
4 See also
4.1 The West
4.2 Cultural influence
4.2.1 Europe and USA
4.2.2 Other
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Territorial [edit]
The West was originally defined as Western Europe. Ancient Romans distinguished between Oriental
(Eastern) cultures that inhabited present day Egypt and Turkey and Occidental Cultures that lived in the
West. A thousand years later, the East-West Schism separated the Catholic Church from the Eastern
Orthodox Church. The definition of Western changed as the West was influenced by and spread to other
nations. Islamic and Byzantine scholars added to the Western canon when their stores of Greek and
Roman literature jump started the Renaissance. The West expanded to include Russia when Peter the
Great brought back ideas from France. Today, most modern uses of the term refer to the societies of
Western and Central Europe and their close genealogical, linguistic, and philosophical descendants,
typically included are those countries whose ethnic identity and dominant culture are derived from
European culture.
The Western civilisation can be defined as at least North America, West and Central Europe, Argentina,
Australia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela and New Zealand. North
America includes the U.S.A., Canada and Greenland (as part of Denmark). Widening this definition
however invites controversy. This widened definition can include these countries, or a combination of
these countries:
Latin-America. Many countries in Latin America are sometimes regarded as Western countries,
largely because most of its peoples are racially descended from Europeans (Spanish and Portuguese
settlers mainly) and Natives. And thus their society operates in a highly Westernised way. Indeed,
most countries in Latin America use their official language, either in Spanish or Portuguese.
According to the CIA -The World Factbook-, there has also been considerable immigration to Latin
America from European nations other than Spain and Portugal, (For example, from Germany, Italy,
the Netherlands, etc. See Immigration to Brazil or Immigration to Argentina.). [1]. There are also
many indigenous cultures with their own languages in Latin America.
Turkey. Although geographically only 6% of Turkey lies in Europe, Turkey has a similar economic
system, has a customs union with the European Union in addition to being an official candidate for
membership, and is a member of typical Western organisations such as OECD, Council of Europe,
and NATO. It is usually a member of European organisations for sports and cultural events such as
UEFA and the Eurovision Song Contest.
South Africa. South Africa is most of the time considered Western because of its languages
(Afrikaans, English) and because of its religion (Christianity). It also has a similar economic system.
Furthermore, about 12% of the South African population are of European origin (White).
Central, Eastern Europe, The Balkans - Due to their membership to
the European Union and European Neighbourhood Policy, these
countries are included to the definition of the West, as they more or less
share a common European identity with Western Europeans. This view
has increasingly gained support, especially since the disintegration of
communism (through money) and the current European integration
process that is a direct result of that disintegration. Others, however, like
the American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, consider the
majority-Orthodox Christian part of Europe as very different from the
West. Most who support Huntington's view, believe that Eastern Europe,
from Central Europe to the Balkans, European Russia and the
Caucasus, did not experience the renaissance or the full strength of the
HIH Japanese Princess
industrial revolution to be considered as part of "The West". Equally they
Kaneko Higashi-fushimi in maintain that Eastern European culture is not shaped by western
western clothing Christian traditions of Catholicism or Protestantism, but rather by
Eastern Orthodoxy or Islam. From a different angle, this part of the world
does not fulfil the economic and standard of living criteria one would associate with the "West".
Japan. Japan is sometimes considered Western, as this country supported the West during the
Cold War, has a similar economic system and welfare, is a stable democracy, protects human
rights, etc. Also, Japan is a member of typical Western organisations like the OECD, and together
with Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, Japan
constitutes the Group of Eight (G8).
The Philippines is sometimes considered Western because of the Spanish-influenced languages
and because most of the people are Roman Catholic. The Filipinos' culture has been influenced by
Spain and the United States. Furthermore, about 3.6% of the Filipino population are of European
origin.
Oceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand). With American statehood of Hawaii, French control
of French Polynesia, the colonial influence of Britain, and the current political influence of both
Australia and New Zealand, Oceania is gradually, but inevitably, becoming more and more
"westernised".
Personal [edit]
A different view on the Western world is not defining it by its territory, but by its people, as these tend to
differ in an increasingly globalised world. This view highlights the non-Western population in countries
with a Western majority, or vice versa. The Boers for instance can be regarded as Western inhabitants of
South Africa.
Differences [edit]
It would be incorrect to regard the Western world as a monolithic bloc, as there exist many cultural,
linguistic, religious, political, and economical differences between Western countries and populations.
The western world itself is changing over time as it has in the past.
Europeanisation [edit]
From 1492 onward, Europeanisation and colonialism spread gradually over much of the world, colonising
major portions of the globe. The two World Wars weakened the European powers to such extent that
many colonies strove for independence, often inspired by nationalistic movements. A period of
decolonisation started. At the end of the 1960s, most colonies were autonomous. Those new states
often adopted some aspects of Western politics such as the adoption of a constitution, while frequently
reacting against western culture.
Reactions [edit]
Asia [edit]
A reaction to Westernisation can include fundamentalism, protectionism or embrace to varying degrees.
Countries such as North Korea and China tried to adopt isolationism, but they have been unable to resist
the adoption of many aspects of Western culture. In Japan, the Netherlands continued to play a key role
in transmitting Western know-how to the Japanese from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, as the
Japanese had opened their doors only to Dutch Merchants before US Navy Captain, Commodore Perry’s
visit in 1852. After Commodore Perry's visit, Japan began to deliberately accept Western culture to the
point of hiring Westerners to teach Western customs and traditions to the Japanese starting in the Meiji
era. Many Japanese politicians have since also encouraged the westernisation of Japan using the term,
Datsu-A Ron, which means the argument for "leaving Asia" or "Good-bye Asia". In Datsu-A Ron,
"westernisation" was described as an "unavoidable" but "fruitful" change.
Westernisation is often regarded as a part of the ongoing process of globalisation. This theory proposes
that western thought has led to globalisation, and that globalisation propagates western culture, leading
to a cycle of westernisation. On top of largely Western government systems such as democracy and
constitution, many Western technologies and customs like music, clothing and cars have been
introduced across various parts of the world and copied and created in traditionally non-Western
countries like Japan, China, India, etc.
The main characteristics are economic liberalisation (free trade) and democratisation, combined with the
spread of an individualised culture. Often it was also regarded of the opposite of the worldwide influence
of communism. After the break-up of the USSR in 1991, many of its component states and allies
nevertheless underwent westernisation, including privatisation of hitherto state-controlled industry.
Westernisation as globalisation is seen by many as progress, as democracy and free trade spread
gradually throughout the world. Others view westernisation as a disadvantage. Some have protested that
Asian cultures who have traditionally existed on a primarily plant-based diet might lose this healthy
lifestyle as more people in Asia switch to a Western-style diet that is rich in animal-based foods.
(Cornell Times, 2001[1] )
Consequences [edit]
Negative [edit]
Due to the colonisation of the Americas and Oceania by Europeans, the cultural, ethnic and linguistic
make-up of the Americas and Oceania has been irreversibly changed. This is most visible in settler
colonies such as the United States of America, Australia, Canada, Argentina, New Zealand and
Uruguay, where the traditional indigenous population has been overtaken demographically by non-
indigenous settlers. This demographic takeover in settler countries has often resulted in the linguistic,
social, and cultural marginalisation of indigenous peoples. However, even in countries where large
populations of indigenous peoples remain or the indigenous peoples have mixed considerably with
European settlers, such as Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and Ecuador, marginalisation still exists.
Due to colonisation, the prevalent languages in the Americas, Australia and New Zealand are now:
Portuguese (Brazil), Spanish (the rest of Latin America), French (Quebec in Canada, French Guiana),
and English (USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand). Many indigenous languages are
on the verge of becoming extinct. However, some settler countries have gone to great lengths to preserve
and expand indigenous languages, for example, in New Zealand the Māori language is official, some
however, would argue that this is a token gesture.
Positive [edit]
Not all aspects of Westernisation are considered bad by all people. Western medicine, science, and
technology have led to longer life expectancy. Everyday conveniences of living, means of travel such as
trains, cars, and aeroplanes, and media enabling enhanced entertainment and interactivity such as
Internet and Hollywood movies are used and enjoyed by many people around the world. Although
opinions concerning damage to traditional values and customs are sometimes expressed, positive
aspects of Western culture are not ignored either.
American culture
European culture
Western culture
OECD
Americanisation is the term used for the Korenisation or Korenizatsiya was the early
influence the United States of America has on Soviet ethnicity policy.
other cultures. Magyarisation or Magyarization refers to
Anglicisation is the process of making spreading the Hungarian language and culture
something English. in general.
Europeanisation can either mean the process Polonisation is the assumption or assimilation
of transforming a society into a more European of the Polish language or another Polish
society or the process of growth towards a attribute.
European identity in Europe. Russification is an adoption of the Russian
Francisation is the process of giving a French language or some other Russian attribute by
character to something or someone. non-Russian communities.
Germanisation is defined as either the spread de-Russification is a process in the post-
of the German language and culture, or the Soviet countries to overcome the
adaptation of a word to the German language. consequences of the Russification.
Hellenisation, the spread of Greek culture and Slovakisation refers to the policies of
language. Czechoslovakia then Slovakia against the
Latinisation is a system for representing a word ethnic Hungarians there.
or language with the Latin alphabet, or the Turkification is a term used to describe a
traditions of the Latin Rite into Eastern Catholic cultural change in which something or
Church Liturgies and practices. someone who is not a Turk becomes one,
Romanisation, the spread of Roman culture and voluntarily or by force.
language. Ukrainisation was the policy conducted by the
Bolshevik party and the Government of the
Ukrainian SSR during 1920s and 1930s to
increase the presence of Ukraine.
Other [edit]
References [edit]
1. ^ "CIA - The World Factbook -- Field Listing - Ethnic groups ". Retrieved 2008-02-20.
Ankerl, Guy. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1:
Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western.
Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
Intercultural competence
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cultures can be different not only between continents or nations, but also within the same company or even family.
(geographical, ethnical, moral, ethical, religious, political, historical) resp. cultural affiliation or cultural identity.
Requirements [edit]
Basic needs are sensitivity and self-consciousness: the understanding of other behaviors and ways of thinking as well
as the ability to express one’s own point of view in a transparent way with the aim to be understood and respected by
staying flexible where this is possible, and being clear where this is necessary.
It is a balance, situatively adapted, between three parts:
1. knowledge (about other cultures, people, nations, behaviors…),
2. empathy (understanding feelings and needs of other people), and
3. self-confidence (knowing what I want, my strengths and weaknesses, emotional stability).
Cultural characteristics can be differentiated between several dimensions and aspects (the ability to perceive them and
to cope with them is one of the bases of intercultural competence), such as:
Collectivist and individualist cultures;
Masculine and feminine cultures;
Uncertainty avoidance;
Power distance;
Chronemics: Monochrone (time-fixed, "one after the other") and polychrone (many things at the same time, "multi-
tasking");
Structural characteristics: e. g. basic personality, value orientation, experience of time and space, selective
perception, nonverbal communication, patterns of behavior.
Assessment [edit]
For assessment of intercultural competence as an existing ability and / or the potential to develop it (with conditions and
timeframe), the following characteristics are tested and observed: ambiguity tolerance, openness to contacts, flexibility
in behavior, emotional stability, motivation to perform, empathy, metacommunicative competence, polycentrism.
Assessment of cross-cultural competence (3C) is another field rife with controversy. One survey identified eighty-six
assessment instruments for 3C [8]. The Army Research Institute study narrowed the list down to ten quantitative
instruments for further exploration into their reliability and validity [2]. Three examples of quantitative instruments include
the Inter-cultural Development Inventory, the Cultural Intelligence Scale, and the Multi-cultural Personality Questionnaire
[2]
. Qualitative assessment instruments such as scenario-based assessments are also useful tools to gain insight into
inter-cultural competence. These have proven valuable in poorly defined areas such as 3C [9][10][11][12]. Research in the
area of 3C assessment, while thin, also underscores the value of qualitative instruments in concert with quantitative ones
[13][14][15]
.</ref>
Criticisms [edit]
It is important that intercultural competence training and skills not break down into application of stereotypes of a group
of individuals. Although the goal is to promote understanding between groups of individuals that, as a whole, think
somewhat differently, it may fail to recognize the specific differences between individuals of any given group. These
differences can often be larger than the differences between groups, especially with heterogeneous populations and
value systems.
References [edit]
1. ^ a b Selmeski, B. R. (2007). Military cross-cultural competence: Core concepts and individual development. Kingston:
Royal Military College of Canada Centre for Security, Armed Forces, & Society.
2. ^ a b c Abbe, A., Gulick, L.M.V., & Herman, J.L. (2007). Cross-cultural competence in Army leaders: A conceptual and
empirical foundation. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Research Institute.
3. ^ Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David
McKay.
4. ^ Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of
Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: McKay Co., Inc.
5. ^ Desmond Morris, Peter Collett, Peter Marsh and Marie O'Shaughnessy, 1979 Gestures: Their Origin and Meanings -
The Thumb Up Webified by Bernd Wechner
6. ^ Un, deux, trois - Gestes français - French Gestures
7. ^ The Game of Tarof: An extensive look into the custom from an Iranian's perspective
8. ^ Fantini, A.E. (2006). 87 Assessment tools of intercultural competence [Electronic version]. Brattleboro, VT: School for
International Training. Retrieved June 20, 2007 from http://www.sit.edu/publications/docs/feil_appendix_f.pdf
9. ^ Davis, B. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
10. ^ Doll, W. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum. New York: Teacher’s College Press.
11. ^ English, F. & Larson, R. (1996). Curriculum management for educational and social service organizations. Springfield,
IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
12. ^ Palomba, A. & Banta, T. (1999). Assessment essentials. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
13. ^ Kitsantas, A. (2004). Studying abroad: the role of college students’ goals on the development of cross-cultural skills
and global understanding. College Student Journal, 38(3). Retrieved July 9, 2007 from ERIC database.
14. ^ Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Towards an understanding of culture in L2/FL education. Ronko: K.G. studies in English,
25, 131-150.
15. ^ Lievens, F., Harris, M., Van Keer, E. & Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting cross-cultural training performance: The validity
of personality, cognitive ability, and dimensions measured by an assessment center and a behavior description
interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 476-489.
Categories: Cultural anthropology | Cultural geography | Cultural studies | Etiquette | Human communication | Social
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Americanization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the the process by which immigrants to the United States became American, see United States
naturalization.
navigation For other uses, see Americanization (disambiguation).
Main page
Contents The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the
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Current events until the dispute is resolved. (June 2008)
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Americanization (or Americanisation) (verb form Americanize,
search
əˈmɛrɨkənаɪz (help·info)) is the term used for the influence the
United States of America has on the culture of other countries on
such matters like technology, culture, lifestyle, etc. When
Go Search
encountered unwillingly or willingly, it can have a negative
interaction connotation; when sought voluntarily, it sometimes has a positive
About Wikipedia connotation.[citation needed] Before the mid-twentieth century,
Community portal however, Americanization referred to the process by which A can of U.S. Cola in the West
Bank in the Middle East.
Recent changes immigrants to the United States became American.[1]
Contact Wikipedia
Donate to Wikipedia Contents
Help 1 Overview
toolbox 2 Politics
3 Media
What links here
Related changes 4 American business and brands
Upload file 5 Fast food
Special pages 6 See also
Printable version 7 Notes
Permanent link 8 Further reading
Cite this page
Politics [edit]
Many governments established by the United States after war or decolonization were modeled after the
American system including: Japan, Germany, the Philippines, the Marshall Islands, Cuba (until 1959),
South Vietnam (until 1975), South Korea, Afghanistan, Iraq, Grenada and several South American
countries. In some cases leading to some accusations of being puppet states and suspicions of being
un-authentically independent countries.
Media [edit]
The spread of American media including TV, film and American music artists has been the main
component of Americanization of other countries. American TV shows are broadcast around the world.
Many of the shows are broadcast through American broadcasters and their subsidiaries such as HBO
Asia, CNBC Europe, Fox Channel and CNN International. All of what is known as the "big four"
American broadcasters have international distributors, and HBO broadcasts to over 20 countries.[2]
Many of these distributors broadcast mainly American programming on their TV channels. According to
a recent survey by Radio Times The Simpsons, Lost and Desperate Housewives are among the most
watched shows, with CSI being the most watched show among the surveyed 20 countries.[3] American
films are also extremely popular globally. All of the top 20 grossing films ever are American made or
have an American influence, either through publishers, cast or financiers.[4] Titanic is currently the
biggest grossing film worldwide without adjusting for inflation, it currently holds the top grossing film title
in various countries including Germany, France, Spain among others.[5] Adjusting for inflation, the
highest grossing film of all time is Gone with the Wind. Often part of the negotiating in free trade
agreements between the America and other nations involve screen quotas. One such case is Mexico,
after abolishing their screen quotas after the establishment of the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) with the US.[6] Recently Korea has agreed to reduce its quota under pressure from America as
part of a free trade deal.[7] Many American artists are known throughout the world, artists such as Frank
Sinatra, Michael Jackson and Elvis Presley are recognised worldwide and have sold over 500 million
albums each.[8][9][10] Michael Jackson's album Thriller, at 100 million sales, is the biggest selling album
of all time.[11]
Of the top ten global brands seven are based in the United States.[12] Coca Cola, which holds the top
spot, is often viewed as a symbol of Americanization. Coca Cola has vending machines in over 200
countries worldwide.[13] Of the 25 biggest companies, thirteen are based in the United States.[14] Many
of these companies can be viewed as selling Americanized products. Many of the world's biggest
computer companies are also American, such as Microsoft, Apple Inc., Dell, and IBM. Much of the
software used world wide is created by American based companies. The two largest personal computer
companies, Dell and Hewlett Packard, which maintain over 30% of the market, are American based.[15]
Fast food [edit]
Cocacolonization
Westernization Wikimedia Commons has media
related to: Americanization
American culture in the arts and literature.
American Empire
Neo-colonialism
Cultural hegemony
Cultural imperialism
McDonaldization
Notes [edit]
1. ^ http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9006140/Americanization
2. ^ "Time Warner: HBO. Home Box Office ". Time Warner. 2007-05-18. Retrieved 2007-08-24.
3. ^ "CSI show 'most popular show in the world' ". BBC. 2006-07-31. Retrieved 2007-08-24.
4. ^ "All-Time International Box Office ". Box Office Mojo. 2006-05-01. Retrieved 2007-08-24.
5. ^ "International All Time Box Office ". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2007-08-24.
6. ^ "Dual forces fuel Mexican film industry ". Adelante. Retrieved 2007-08-29.
7. ^ "South Korea cuts local film quotas to meet US FTA demand ". M&C. Retrieved 2007-08-29.
8. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions ". Elvis.com. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
9. ^ "Michael Jackson Biography ". Virgin Radio. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
10. ^ "Frank Sinatra (German) ". tele.at. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
11. ^ "Jackos Back ". MTV. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
12. ^ "The Global Brands Scorecard 2006 ". BusinessWeek. 2006-08-02. Retrieved 2007-08-24.
13. ^ "The Coca-Cola Company ". NYSE Euronext. Retrieved 2007-08-24.
14. ^ "The Forbes 2000 ". Forbes. 2006-03-30. Retrieved 2007-08-24.
15. ^ "Gartner Says Hewlett-Packard Takes Clear Lead in Fourth Quarter Worldwide PC Shipments and
Creates a Virtual Tie with Dell for 2006 Year-End Results ". Gartner. 2007-01-17. Retrieved 2007-08-
24.
Karen DeBres: A Cultural Geography of McDonald's UK; Journal of Cultural Geography, 2005
Gerald K Haines: The Americanization of Brazil: A Study of U.S.Cold War Diplomacy in the Third
World, 1945-54, Scholarly Resources, 1993
Lawrence Martin, Pledge of Allegiance: The Americanization of Canada in the Mulroney Years,
Mcclelland & Stewart Ltd, 1993, ISBN 077105663X
Robert W. Rydell, Rob Kroes: Buffalo Bill in Bologna. The Americanization of the World, 1869-1922,
University of Chicago Press, 2005, ISBN 0226732428
v • d•e Cultural assimilation
Africanization · Albanization · Americanization · Anglicization · Arabization · Araucanization · Batavianization ·
Bulgarization · Castilianization · Christianization · Croatization · Czechization · Estonianization · Europeanization ·
Fennicization · Francization · Gaelicization · Germanization · Globalization · Hellenization · Hispanicization · Islamization ·
Italianization · Japanization · Judaization · Kurdification · Lithuanization · Magyarization · Pashtunization · Persianization ·
Polonization · Romanianization · Romanization (cultural) · Russification · Sanskritization · Serbianization · Sinhalization ·
Sinicization · Slavicization · Slovakization · Sovietization · Swahilization · Syrianization · Taiwanization · Thaification ·
Turkification · Turkmenization · Ukrainization · Uzbekization · Westernization
Categories: Cultural assimilation | American culture | Types of words | Word coinage | Transliteration |
Western culture
Europeanisation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
European integration
Pan-European identity
Globalisation
References [edit]
^ Robert Harmsen & Thomas M. Wilson (ed.s), Europeanization: Institution, Identities and
Citizenship, (Atlanta: Rodopi, 2000) ISBN 90-420-1423-7.
^ Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, Foreign Affairs, 1993.
Johan Olsen, The Many Faces of Europeanization , ARENA Working Papers, 2002.
Cernat, L. (2006) Europeanization, Varieties of Capitalism and Economic Performance in Central and
Eastern Europe , New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Borzel, T and Risse (2003) Conceptualizing the Domestic Impact of Europe: In K. Featherstone and C
Radaelli (eds), The Politics of Europeanization, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 57-80
Assets Economy · Euro (International status and usage) · ECHO · Galileo · Military
Cultural appropriation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Go Search Contents
1 Overview
interaction
2 Support
About Wikipedia
3 Examples
Community portal
4 See also
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia 5 Notes and references
Donate to Wikipedia 6 External links
Help
toolbox
Overview [edit]
What links here The term cultural appropriation can have a negative connotation. It generally is applied when the subject
Related changes
culture is a minority culture or somehow subordinate in social, political, economic, or military status to
Upload file
the appropriating culture; or, when there are other issues involved, such as a history of ethnic or racial
Special pages
Printable version conflict between the two groups.
Permanent link To many, the term implies that culture can actually be "stolen" through cultural diffusion.
Cite this page
Cultural and racial theorist, George Lipsitz, outlined this concept of cultural appropriation in his seminal
term "strategic anti-essentialism." Strategic anti-essentialism is defined as the calculated use of a
cultural form, outside of your own, to define yourself or your group. Strategic anti-essentialism can be
seen both in minority cultures and majority cultures, and are not confined to only the appropriation of the
other. For example, the American band Redbone, composed of founding members of Mexican heritage,
essentialized their group as belonging to the Native American tradition, and are known for their famous
songs in support of the American Indian Movement "We Were All Wounded at Wounded Knee" and
"Custer Had It Coming." However, as Lipsitz argues, when the majority culture attempts to strategically
anti-essentialize themselves by appropriating a minority culture, they must take great care to recognize
the specific socio-historical circumstances and significance of these cultural forms so as not the
perpetuate the already existing, majority vs. minority, unequal power relations.
Cultural appropriation may be defined differently in different cultures. While academics in a country such
as the United States, where racial dynamics had been a cause of cultural segmentation, may see many
instances of intercultural communication as cultural appropriation, other countries may identify such
communication as a melting pot effect.
Cultural appropriation has also been seen as a site of resistance to dominant society when members of
a marginalized group take and alter aspects of dominant culture to assert their agency and resistance.
This is exemplified in the novel Crick Crack, Monkey by Merle Hodge when those who are colonized
appropriate the culture of the colonizers. Another historical example were the Mods in the UK in the
1960s, working class youth who appropriated and exaggerated the highly tailored clothing of the upper
middle class. Objections have been raised to such political cultural appropriation, citing class warfare
and identity politics.
Support [edit]
Justin Britt-Gibson's article for the Washington Post looked at the appropriation of Jamaican culture by
Italians and of other cultures by African-Americans as a sign of progress:
Throngs of dreadlocked Italians were smoking joints, drinking beer, grooving to the rhythms of Bob
Marley, Steel Pulse and other reggae icons. Most striking was how comfortable these Italians seemed
in their appropriated shoes, adopting a foreign culture and somehow making it theirs. The scene
reinforced my sense of how far we've come since the days when people dressed, talked and celebrated
only that which sprang from their own background. For the first time in my life, I was fully aware of the
spiritual concept that we're all simply one. That sense hasn't left me. Everywhere I look, I see young
people -- such as my two younger brothers, a Japanese-anime-obsessed 11-year-old and a pastel-
Polo-sporting 21-year-old -- adopting styles, hobbies and attitudes from outside the culture in which
they were raised. Last month in a Los Angeles barbershop, I was waiting to get my trademark Afro cut
when I noticed a brother in his late teens sitting, eyes closed, as the barber clipped his hair into a
"'frohawk", the punk-inspired African American adaptation of the mohawk. Asked why he chose the look,
the guy, without looking up, shrugged, "Something different." Immediately, I understood. Minutes later,
his "different" cut became my new look.[1]
Examples [edit]
A common sort of cultural appropriation is the adoption of the iconography of another culture. Obvious
examples include tattoos of Hindu gods, Polynesian tribal iconography, Chinese characters, or Celtic
bands worn by people who have no interest in, or understanding of, their original cultural significance.
When these artifacts are regarded as objects that merely "look cool", or when they are mass produced
cheaply as consumer kitsch, people who venerate and wish to preserve their indigenous cultural
traditions may be offended. In Australia, Aboriginal artists have discussed an 'authenticity brand' to
ensure consumers are aware of artworks claiming false Aboriginal significance [3] . The movement for
such a measure has gained momentum after the 1999 conviction of John O'Loughlin for fraud, for the
sale of works described as Aboriginal but painted by non-indigenous artists [4] .
In history, some of the most hotly debated cases of cultural appropriation occur in places where cultural
exchange is the highest, such as along the trade routes in southwestern Asia and southeastern Europe.
For instance, some scholars of the Ottoman empire and ancient Egypt argue that Ottoman and Egyptian
architectural traditions have long been falsely claimed and praised as Persian or Arab, [5] and Greco-
Roman, innovations, respectively[citation needed].
A more subtle example is brass band music (trubaci). While this kind of music is almost exclusively
performed by Romani people, who may not consider themselves Serbs, many people of Serbian origin
will consider this to be their own style.[citation needed]
On the other hand, when the middle-class Slovenian band Pankrti adopted the style of London punk
music rooted in unemployment and other issues specific to the UK, it was seen in Yugoslavia as the
spread of British culture and its adaptation to the local setting.
African American culture historically has been the subject of a good deal of cultural appropriation,
especially elements of its music, dance, slang, dress, and demeanor. (See blackface and cool.) For
example, artists such as Eminem, a white American who adopted a traditionally African American music
and style, may be perceived this way.
Another prominent example of cultural appropriation is the use of real or imaginary elements of Native
American culture by North American summer camps, by organizations such as the Boy Scouts of
America, or by New age spiritual leaders (see Plastic shamans). Many summer camps, and many age-
segregated groups of campers within summer camps, are named after real Native American tribes
(Mohawk, Seminole, etc.); tipis are common at summer camps (even at an enormous distance from the
Great Plains); and rituals often evoke Native American culture, using phrases like "the Great Spirit", for
example. The Boy Scout honor society is called the Order of the Arrow.
In some cases, a culture usually viewed as the target of cultural appropriation can become the agent of
appropriation. For example, the government of Ghana has been accused of cultural appropriation in
adopting the Caribbean holiday of Emancipation Day and marketing it to African American tourists as an
"African festival".[2].
A bindi dot when worn as a decorative item by a non-Hindu woman could be considered cultural
appropriation,[3] along with the use of henna in mehndi as a decoration outside traditional ceremonies.
The metrosexual fashion is often seen as[who?] a form of cultural appropriation of gay culture by straight
men. This view is parodied in the South Park episode "South Park is Gay!"
Controversy has arisen concerning the usage of the leprechaun mascot by the Boston Celtics basketball
club and the University of Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team. Some people of Irish ancestry see the
usage as an example of cultural appropriation and even racism. Leprechauns appear in many Celtic
mythological motifs, and the reduction of this mythological figure to a set of stereotypes and clichés
may be perceived as offensive. [6] [7] A common term amongst the Irish for someone who
appropriates or misrepresents Irish culture is Plastic Paddy.[4]
Review of Borrowed Power: Essays on Cultural Appropriation from the 'University of Toronto
Quarterly'
Model Minority: Chinese Tattoos / Year of the Dragon / Commodifying Buddhism
Intellectual Property in the Dreamtime
Declaration Of War Against Exploiters Of Lakota Spirituality
Forced assimilation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
toolbox If a state or a government puts extreme emphasis on a homogeneous national identity, it may resort,
What links here especially in the case of minorities originating from historical foes, to harsh, even extreme measures to
Related changes 'exterminate' the minority culture, sometimes to the point of considering the only alternative its physical
Upload file elimination (expulsion or even genocide).
Special pages
Printable version In Europe during the time of Nationalism. Europeans states, mostly based on the idea of nation,
Permanent link perceived the presence of ethnic or linguistic minorities as a danger for their own territorial integrity. In
Cite this page fact minorities could claim their own independence, or to be rejoined with their own motherland. For this
reason, in the 19th and 20th century, most European states conducted politics of forced assimilation
languages
against their ethnic and linguistic minorities.[citation needed] The consequence was the weakening or
Deutsch
disappearing of several ethnic minorities. Forced migrations took place after each of the two world wars.
Français
Italiano The latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century saw the rise of nationalism in
Europe. Previously, a country consisted largely of whatever peoples lived on the land that was under the
dominion of a particular ruler. Thus, as principalities and kingdoms grew through conquest and marriage,
a ruler could wind up with peoples of many different ethnicities under his dominion. This also reflected
the long history of migrations of different tribes and peoples through Europe.
The concept of nationalism was based on the idea of a "people" who shared a common bond through
race, religion, language and culture. Furthermore, nationalism asserted that each "people" had a right to
its own nation. Thus, much of European history in the latter half of the 19th century and the first half of
the 20th century can be understood as efforts to realign national boundaries with this concept of "one
people, one nation".
Much conflict would arise when one nation asserted territorial rights to land outside its borders on the
basis of a common bond with the people living on that land. (Example?) Another source of conflict arose
when a group of people who constituted a minority in one nation would seek to secede from the nation
either to form an independent nation or join another nation with whom they felt stronger ties. Yet another
source of conflict was the desire of some nations to expel people from territory within its borders on the
ground that those people did not share a common bond with the majority of people living in that nation.
(Specifics?)[citation needed]
It is useful to contrast the mass migrations and forced expulsion of ethnic Germans out of Eastern
Europe with other massive transfers of populations, such as exchange of populations between Greece
and Turkey, and population exchanges that occurred after the Partition of India. In all cases those
expelled suffered greatly.[citation needed]
See also Assimilation (linguistics).
Assimilation also includes the (often forced) conversion or secularization of religious members of a
minority group, such as Judaism.
Throughout the Middle Ages and until the mid-19th century, most Jews in Europe were forced to live in
small towns (shtetls) and were restricted from entering universities or high-level professions.
Main article: Jewish Assimilation
When new immigrants enter a country, there is a tension as they adapt to new people and surroundings
to fit in, while holding on to their original culture. Some rules and expectations they have to follow.
Sooner or later the majority culture will no longer view the immigrants (or perhaps their children) as
immigrants; they will seem to be similar to everyone else because of assimilation.
Sometimes the immigrants instead assimilate the original inhabitants, depending on numbers involved.
This can occur during a colonisation process.
Acculturation
Americanization (of Native Americans)
Cultural imperialism
Cultural appropriation
Diaspora politics
Ethnic interest group
Ethnocide
Forced assimilation
Forced conversion
Hegemony
Intercultural competence
Language shift
Linguicide
Mexicans in Omaha, Nebraska
"More Irish than the Irish themselves"
Nationalism
Patriotism
Political correctness
Integration
segregation
Stolen generation
White American