Us in The United Nations

The United States in the United Nations Author(s): Chadwick F. Alger Source: International Organization, Vol. 27, No.
1 (Winter, 1973), pp. 1-23 Published by: University of Wisconsin Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2706162 . Accessed: 06/03/2014 04:35
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THE UNITEDSTATESIN THE UNITED NATIONS

Chadwick F. Alger
the Reportson the UnitedNationsby threeUnited States groups, ComCommission to StudytheOrganization of Peace, thePresident's of the USA, are summission, and the UnitedNationsAssociation about United marizedand compared.They revealinformed concern and the exeStatesparticipation in theUN at a timewhenCongress are drawn on cutive exhibitnegativism and neglect. Conclusions (1) differing priorities forthe UN system and theirinterdependence, (2) the specialcapabilities of the UnitedStatesforsetting examples, (3) alternative modelsfor UN problemsolving,(4) United States to the UN, and (5) generating contributions politicalwill for creative United States involvement in the UN. Concernis expressed about efforts to cut UnitedStates assessments for UN budgetsand failure ofthereports to adequately consider thepolitical consequences of the fact that "maintenance of international peace and security" is notconsidered themostimportant UN taskby all members. If congressional and executive neglectare to be overcome, public participationand involvement mustbe extended.
INTRODUCTION
The twenty-fifth of the UnitedNations has stimulated the anniversary of threereportson the United Nations: preparation 1. "The United Nations: The Next Twenty-Five Years," TwentiethReport of the Commission to Study the Organization of Peace, November1969 (Louis B. Sohn, chmn.), 70 pages. 2. "ReportofthePresident's ofthe forthe Observance Commission TwentiethAnniversary of the United Nations," April 1971 (Henry Cabot Lodge, chmn.), 58 pages. 3. "The United Nations in the 1970's," National Policy Panel of the United Nations Associationof the USA, September1971 (Nicholas deB. Katzenbach,chmn.),81 pages.
Chadwick F. Algeris Mershon Professor of PoliticalScienceand Public Policy in the PolicySciences, and Director, in Transnational MerProgram Cooperation at the requestof shonCenter, Ohio State University. This paper was prepared the International Affairs of the CharlesF. Kettering Foundation.The Program are solelythoseof the author. opinions expressed
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
and of thoughtful insighton concerns These reports provideextensive informed United States citizensabout the presentstate of the UN, foralterationof UN strucand they offer many creativesuggestions tures and extensionof UN activities. The appearance of these three a deep interest in and desire periodreflects reports withina two-year to strengthen the United Nations. On the otherhand,therehave also been contrary signs. During 1971 the United States Congresstook the following actions: althoughthe action was not (1) The House of Representatives, contriforthe first timeto providea voluntary final,refused bution to the UN DevelopmentProgram. refused to pay as(2) For the secondyearin a row,the Congress Labor Organization(ILO). sessed dues to the International the UnitedStates contribution failedto provide (3) The Congress facilities in New York to the expansionof UN headquarters city. notand criticalmaterials, (4) The Congressexemptedstrategic ofmandatory from UnitedStates implementation ablychrome, from Rhodesia. UN sanctionson imports on Foreign Affairs ofthe House ofRepresenta(5) The Committee on a bill to limitunilaterally UnitedStates tivesheld hearings to the UN. The bill would have the financialcontributions to all UN proof cuttingUnited States contributions effect 30 percent gramsfromthe presentfigureof approximately to 6 percent. have accused oftheUN, including ofCongress, members Supporters fighteitherto the executivebranchof not makinga really energetic of ILO assessmentsor to defeat legislation preventthe withholding himself ofthe Rhodesiansanctions.The president authorizing violation has asked that United States contributions to regularbudgetsof the UN and its specialized agencies be reduced fromthe present 31.5 The president's reportto the Congresson "US percentto 25 percent.1 Foreign Policyforthe 1970's" seemsto treattheUN as an afterthought, covering onlypages 184 to 205 of a reportof 215 pages. towardthe UnitedNations In the lightofcongressional negativism are the threeUN reports likelyto and evidenceofexecutive disinterest, who had served be given serious consideration?Lincoln Bloomfield, on boththe President's Commission (PC) and UnitedNationsAssociaon the tion (UNA) groups,expressedsome doubts when testifying on Foreign of the House Committee a subcommittee two reports before
I"U.S. Foreign Policy for the 1970's: The Emerging Structure of Peace," A Report to the Congressby President Nixon, February 9, 1972 (Washington: GovernmentPrinting Office,1972), p. 190.
THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN
Affairs: thatis moreinsidious. to the problem element But thereis another I referto the presence,even when the UN is showingsigns of withinthe Govin something, of a pervasivecynicism succeeding today. as the one you are reviewing about such efforts ernment is concerned, to U.S. interests Whereanything important crucially will the last place that U.S. decisionmakers the UN is generally turn. in I do not mean the Bureau of International Affairs Organization the State Department.I mean the people who make the real decisionsin ourGovernment. They tendon thebasis ofall the evidence or at mostwitha to prefer to handlethe matteralone, bilaterally, fewcloseallies. thosewhoserveon panels askingwhether thatit is worth persistent, the UN are not livingin some kind of dream about strengthening detachedfrom reality. world,perpetually approachof the "realist"has in factbecomeunyour-options-open out of keepingwiththe nature realisticbecause it is increasingly this Nation faces. of the external problems advice may well be that whichrecommends The trulyhard-nosed farmorebroadlyby takingbold the nationalinterest interpreting moves to pool authority, and givinga new lead in cooperative ratherthan unilateraldirections.2
AND PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT PEACEKEEPING ... keep-all[But] the hard-headed, unilateral, close-to-the-chest, . . . This situation is so ingrained, and the attitudes it reflects so
differences betweenthe reports, There are considerable but their All threegive a largelyimpliedpriority to are significant. similarities and international the law, including peacefulsettlement peacekeeping, in each report, International Court. These subjectsare discussedfirst in most textbooksand courses on the United the tradition reflecting Nationsin the United States, as well as avowed and impliedpriorities oftheAmerican has frequently beena tendency public. In thepast there to on critics of the UN charter reviewand for United States rely the International forstrengthening Courtas keymethods strengthening offer the abilityof the UN to bringpeace to the world. These reports the Courtis not overlooked. morevariedpiecemeal although approaches,
2tUnited States Role in the United Nations System," Hearings Before the on InternationalOrganizationsand Movementsof the Committeeon Subcommittee October 13 and 14, 1971 (Washington: Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, Government PrintingOffice,1971), p. 67.
Court of Justicehas only one Taking note that the International case on its docket,both the PC and UNA urge that the court make itselfmorevisibleby meeting outside The Hague at places moreconvenientto non-European partiesand by settingup regionalchambers. over the past In conformity with scores of similarrecommendations quartercentury, the UNA and PC recommend that the United States repealthe Connallyamendment. UnitedStates acceptanceof the compulsory jurisdiction ofthe Courtwas effectively nullified by thisamendon ment whichreservesto the United States the sole determination a complaint and thus bewhether is a matterof domesticjurisdiction yond the court's jurisdiction.Speaking in the General Assemblyin 1971,the delegateofGhana offered a relevant observation: Ghana is of the viewthat if States chargedwiththe maintenance of international peace and security[i.e., the permanent members of the SecurityCouncil] would accept the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court,they would providethe properleadershipfor new nationsto follow. Withregard to the Security Council, boththe UNA and the PC advocate reserving half of the ten non-permanent seats on the Security Council forthe middle powers (e.g., Argentina, Brazil, India, Japan, Indonesia, Nigeria, UAR, Austria, Poland, Yugoslavia) so that the Councilcan "be betterequippedto play an important rolein the maintenance of peace and security."3The UNA also proposes that the of prestigious individuals SecurityCouncildesignatesmall committees to assist partiesto a dispute,annual closed meetingsof the Security Councilat the foreign minister level to review peace and security problems,and thata coalitionof UN members be organized who are willing to commit in advance to carryout SecurityCouncilresoluthemselves tions adopted unanimously by the SecurityCouncil. The Commission to Study the Organization of Peace (CSOP) is much more daringin proposing that the permanent membersof the theirrightof veto withrespect SecurityCouncilvoluntarily relinquish to recommendations relatingto peaceful settlement of disputes,permitting decisions by a concurrent voteofa majority ofpermanent membersand a minority ofnonpermanent members. They proposethe elimimeasuresare used that do not innationof the veto whenenforcement force. They also suggestthe eventualextenvolve the use of military to enforcement sion of the rule on concurrent majorities actions,with to use armedforce theprovision thatno stateshouldbe required without its consent. the CSOP, UNA and PC all place emIn regardto peacekeeping,
3United Nations Association,September 1971, p. 22.
The UNA givesspecialattention meansforfactfinding. phasison better centerusingthe latest observation to the creationof a UN fact-finding and electronic)to monitorboth potential (photographic technologies The PC arrangements. and truce and cease-fire and actual conflicts capabiliUN peacekeeping in revitalizing urgesUnitedStates initiatives withthe UN and othercounto cooperate readiness ties by: indicating units fora UN Peace Reserve,pledgingair/sealift triesin developing United States units of UN troops,earmarking fortransport facilities and forpossibleparticioperations UN peacekeeping forbackstopping in gaining efforts UN peacekeeping assisting pationin such operations, and helpingto access to the latest relevantscience and technology, createa special fundto meetcostsof peacekeeping. All threereportsconsidereconomicand social questionsnext,alissues" and themjointlywith"environmental thoughthe PC considers The PC "scientific imperatives." with the UNA considers themjointly priorities: specific about is quite of The first of the UN systemmust be the maintenance priority far ahead international peace and security;the second priority, and social developofany other, shouldbe the equitableeconomic ofliving.4 standards mentofthemassesofmankind whoseek higher the fact that an increasing numberof scholarsand other Considering are becomingconvincedthat the divisionbetweenthe rich observers in and the poor of the worldis likelyto be the key basis of conflict these reportsdevote century, the concluding decades of the twentieth to this issue. The PC allocates onlyfivepages, two of slightattention urgethat United are devotedto population.But theydo strongly which to the UN Development States contributions Program(UNDP) be inin 1971), an estimated $86 million creasedto $200 million by 1975 (from multithrough and thatthe UnitedStates channelmoreofits aid effort lateralagencies. The UNA reportdevotes a great deal of attention (23 pages) to economicand social questions,but it is virtuallyall concernedwith because: of the UN system organization is to be increasedsubstantially If the United States contribution above the $86 millionpledgedin 1971, and if the otherprincipal UNDP donorssuch as Sweden,Denmarkand Canada, are to make have to additionalmeasureswill probably increases, proportionate withinthe and forcoordinated planning, be taken forintegration, UN system.5
' President's Commission,p. 16. ' United Nations Association,p. 63.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL QUESTIONS
ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL
by the Economicand Social meetings includeyear-round The proposals making activeroleby ECOSOC in policy Council(ECOSOC) and a more lana common of the UN system, and social activities forthe economic economicand social of the numerous guage forthe budget documents of a centerfortechnological establishment agenciesof the UN system, creationof Advisers, to servicea new Councilof Scientific assessment in close and social activities foreconomic general secretary a UN deputy agenciesand the estaballiance withthe heads of variousoperational councilcomposedof the new development of an international lishment heads of certainUN agenciesand repregeneral, UN deputysecretary and and countries.Whilethese proposals, of donor recipient sentatives central and more coordination to intended offer others,are primarily the UNA panel reaches and social activities, guidanceto UN economic conclusion: important thisvery at the presenttime of the desirability The Panel is not convinced programs of all development the administration of consolidating and social fieldin a singleUnitin the economic ofthe UN system Program.8 ed NationsDevelopment because it sees that "in the future, at thisconclusion The panel arrives and otherissues are likelyto betweendevelopment lines of distinction becomeless clear," and because the specializedagencies have compebut yethave closelyrelatedtechactivity for development tencerelevant development. functions that transcend nical and regulatory of economicand social issues The brief(5 page) CSOP treatment But withless specificity. structural although changes, also recommends an increasedrole for advocating the CSOP takes a broaderperspective, the trade in promoting on Trade and Development the UN Conference eventual UN power to regulateinternacountries, of the developing into economicdeof arms expenditures tional trade, the redirection year assistance,and the creationof a detailed twenty-five velopment but UN development plan that deals not only with industrialization development. also withagricultural ofthe organizaofPC and UNA thatimprovement The assumption is necesresources to utilizefinancial tionalcapacityof the UN system has the developednationswill increasetheircontributions sary before forthe Pearson reportto broad acceptanceand was partlyresponsible to theUNDP. But it is doubtReport8 theWorldBank7and theJackson alone would bringincreasedconful if changes in UN organizations
" United Nations Association, p. 51. "Partners in Development,Report of the Commissionon InternationalDevelopment,Lester B. Pearson, chairman (New York: Praeger, 1969). 8A Study of the Capacity of the United Nations Developmeitt System (UN Document DP/5) (Jackson report) (Geneva: United Nations, 1969).
programs. Thereis a lack ofpolitical tributions to the UN development the largeones) that arises willin the developedcountries(particularly adnone of these reports from a complexity of factors.Unfortunately, to thisproblem.Specifically, what can be done to acquire dressesitself the interestof the United States Congressand the Americanpublic assistanceto in usingthe UN system as a conduitforreallysignificant supporting greater the less developedcountries?Despite manyreports use of multinational forsuch assistance,therehas been organizations littleresponse.
HUMAN RIGHTS
It is surprising ignoreshuman that the UNA reportcompletely supportthe establishrights issues. Both the PC and CSOP strongly mentof a highcommissioner forhumanrights.The PC urgesthat the United States (1) press forthe implementation of the mandateof the of Discrimination and Protection of UN Subcommission on Prevention Minorities to call attention to grossabuses of human rights,(2) take for human the lead in focusing attentionon the seriousimplications developments in science and rights and freedom of presentand future treaties technology, and (3) clarify its positionon those humanrights which moreextensive it has signedbut notratified.The CSOP suggests of a activities of UN humanrights by the establishment strengthening the Economic and Social councilhavingequal statuswith humanrights on humanrights, a special committee of the GeneralAssembly Council, headed by an of humanrights in the UN secretariat and a department under secretaryfor human rights. Also urged are an international and a worldassemblyon humanrights to assist courtof humanrights the General Assembly. The CSOP also urges that individualseveryof wherehave the rightto petitionthe United Nations forprotection theirrights.
SELF-DETERMINATION
are not mentioned that issues of self-determination It is incredible in eitherthe PC or UNA reports.Of course,the UNA did publisha panel, on SouthernAfricain separate report, compiledby a different December1971: "SouthernAfrica: ProposalsforAmericans."In this to the theUNA urgedthat the UnitedStates givestrong support report the imsanctionsimposedby the SecurityCouncil by not permitting of chromefromSouth Africainto the United States. This portation also urgedthat the United States supporttrustfundsproviding report education and relieffor refugeesfromSouthern Africa,since "the U.S. supported the creationof these funds,but has done little since
The reportalso asks the United States to supportthemfinancially."9 to withdraw its objectionto allocationsmade to these trustfundsfrom the United States urgesthat the regular budgetof the UN. Presently contributions. onlyby voluntary the trustfundsbe supported of appointa committee The CSOP asks that the secretary-general should expertsto studythe role whichthe rightof self-determination era,including the possibleneed fornew powers play in the post-colonial the foreign forthe UN in thisfield. The CSOP includesin its concerns economicdominationof countriesthat have acquired political indeare arrangements the UN can whereby pendence. Also recommended in remaining non-selfof self-determination ascertainfreeexpressions and more effective powers enabling the UN to governing countries, bringpressureon states that refuseto complywith the wishesof the territories. people in non-self-goveming
NEW TASKS FOR THE UN
in proposals is reflected The broadening agenda of the UN system of the environment, in disasterrelief, made forUN activities protection that the UN outerspace, and the oceans and seabed. The PC suggests to deal withnatural disasters create a long-range, worldwide program in cooperationwith other agencies, includingthe InternationalRed the creationof a special UN commisCross. The PC also recommends of the environment that would represent the insionerforprotection withinthe terestsof all peoples in achievingeconomicdevelopment framework of sound evironmental as well as an international practices, and vigorous ofpollutants, pursuitofinternationally monitoring system regimefor cooperativeresearch. The PC advocates an international of mineralresourcesof the seabed beyond national the exploitation the CSOP urges the jurisdiction.In addition to a seabed authority, of an autonomouslivingresourcesof the sea authority establishment all activitiesrelatingto with power to adopt regulationsconcerning of the sea. Also advocatedby the CSOP is an autonolivingresources to enable all the peoples of the worldto mous outer space authority in space activities. participate the knowledge base forextendedUN activities In orderto provide the UNA proposesthe in the last paragraph, such as those mentioned to advisethe secretary-general. ofa councilofscientific advisors creation fortechnological wouldbe supported The council assessby a newcenter of the generalassembly ment,and also by a seventhmain committee
"Southern Africa: Proposals for Americans," Report of a Nttional Policy Panel establishedby the United Nations Associationof the USA, William M. Roth, chairman,December 1971, p. 78.
(to replacethe Special Political Committee)that would be concerned moreambiThe CSOP makesa somewhat withscienceand technology. scienceand ofan autonomous the creation tiousproposalforthe future, to conduct researchand keep the UN abreast of researchauthority would authority the scienceand research nationalresearch.Whenever international "that a new area requires to the GeneralAssembly certify the UN should be giventhe power to establisha special regulation, the establishfor the purpose."'0 The CSOP recommends authority communications systemreachingall areas of mentof a moreeffective of messagesbetweenUnited Nations headthe worldfortransmission and fieldpersonnel.Also advocated by CSOP is UN quartersoffices channelsto ensurethat and television access to satellitebroadcasting the decisionsand discussionsof the UN are knownto the people of nationscan sharetheircultures. the worldand as a meanswhereby
VOTING IN THE GENERALASSEMBLY
revealsomeuneasinesswiththe singlevote All threeofthe reports forall members of the UN in the General Assemblyin the light of variationin the size, populationand power of these the tremendous earlierproposalsfora single solutionthrough members.Abandoning weightedvoting,a varietyof proceduralchanges is advocated. Both countin the total votescast the UNA and PC suggestthat abstentions when computing majorities. Presentlya majorityis only requiredof disregarded. the total of the yes and no votes,withabstentions to withothermembers The UNA urgestheUnitedStates cooperate as bindAssembly the General of recommendations certain in accepting majorities."11 and meaningful specified by ing if they are "adopted votes could be required(forexamA certainpercentage of affirmative or the affirmative votes of certain or three-fifths) ple, three-fourths the members could be required. In makingthese bindingagreements issues. coalitionson different United States could join with different The UNA proposesthat the UnitedStates developone or more"coalitions for peaceful settlement"composed of memberswho would be on selectedissues,to accept a decisionof the GeneralAssembly willing, vote or if the General Assembly as bindingif reached by a specified votes of a specified groupof members. action includedthe affirmative In a relatedproposal,the CSOP asks that the votingrules of General revision committees needed) be changedso that (no charter Assembly abstain fromor oppose a morevotes are requiredif the superpowers decision.
"0Commission to Study the Organization of Peace, p. 53. 1 United Nations Association,p. 34.
10
processin the The UNA also observesthat the "decision-making to theviewsofthosestates to accordgreater weight UN can be improved activities."The to the Organization's whichmakea majorcontribution PC notes that UN DevelopmentProgramdecisions on projects are councilin whichall of the major taken by consensusin the governing Also notedis the UnitedStates proposalforan donorsare represented. of the seabed, of the resources forthe exploitation international regime majoritiesof defordecisionsto be reachedby concurrent providing countries.The PC proposesthat the United veloped and developing which wouldgiveadded weight arrangements States "seek specialvoting to the financing of future UN peaceto the viewsofmajorcontributors forbalanced voting and seek similararrangements keepingoperations fundsor newmajorrevenueforany greatly expandedUN development activities."12 producing votingadjustmentsit is notable that the PC When considering betweenfinancialconplaces such great emphasison the relationship could be used thatwouldbe and voting power. Othercriteria tributions applied in domestic morein accordancewiththeoriesof representation voting weighted population.Ofcourse, institutions, particularly political advantageousto is particularly on the basis of financialcontributions to the UN. the UnitedStates, the largestcontributor
UN FINANCING
theUN financial caused primarily All ofthereports deficit, consider by the refusalof the Soviet Union and France,as well as a fewother operato pay forthe Middle East and Congo peacekeeping countries, accordcomponents, has the following deficit tions. The UN financial of $69.6 millionof which$52.1 deficit ing to the UNA: (1) a current portionof and (2) the unamortized millionis owed to governments, whichstands operations, UN bonds issued to financethe peacekeeping at $119.4 million. This is a total of $189 mllion. The UNA suggests the deficit that avoidsthe battlesof to eliminate effort a comprehensive the 1960s over peacekeepingfinance. They urge that memberswho purchasedbonds waive paymentup to the amount they would be waiverby non-members of the obligatedto pay in UN assessments, ofamounts facevalue ofthe bondstheyhold,waiverby members entire cash owed themas a resultof the Congo and Middle East operations, contributions by membersthat neitherpurchased bonds nor made the UN deficit, and private towardeliminating contributions voluntary and groups. The UNA wisely from individuals contributions voluntary of eliminating the monetary the small cost to UN members emphasizes
"President's Commission, p. 42.
11
on orderly drag it has inflicted deficit in contrastto the tremendous of UN activities. implementation note of the fact that the United States The PC takes particular forthe UN each year by not makingits causes financialdifficulties firstpaymentuntil July or later. Because the United States is the this puts a severestrainon the abilityof the UN largestcontributor, to meet currentfiscal obligations. The PC also notes the financial in nonconvertmake contributions thatensuewhenmembers difficulties in excess of amountsthat can be used by the UN. It ible currencies urgesthe UnitedStates to cease thispractice. that the PC recommends In a highlysignificant recommendation, budget to the regular the UnitedStates seek to reduceits contribution of the UN to 25 percentfromthe presentrate of 31 percent. Whaile hastensto add that it the commission this recommendation, making a diminution wishesto emphasizethat it is in no way proposing of U.S. resourcesto the UN system. of the overall commitment in the U.S. share of the regularbudget must be Each reduction increasein U.S. conclearlymarkedby at least a corresponding budgets or fundsin to one or more of the voluntary tributions the UN system.13 and in order the fullsignificance ofthisproposal, to understand In order attacks on United States morefullythe congressional to comprehend to the to the UN, United States contributions contributions financial in some detail. examined UN shouldbe to The emphasisplaced on United States financialcontributions and the PC is puzzlingwhenviewedin critics the UN by congressional an termsof absolute amounts. In 1971 the United States contributed estimated$335 millionto the United Nations systemfor budgets of the UN, specialized agencies and other related activities. This is a littlemorethan halfthe budgetforthe New York City Police Depart$1.57 per personto the ment. In 1970 the United States contributed expenditures! UN comparedto $373 per personformilitary Why do such small amountsof moneyreceiveso muchattention? been wagingsuch a relentless Whyhave United States representatives reduced? One reacampaignto have the United States contributions of the over the limitedeffectiveness son is certainlydisappointment in the Middle East and the inabilityof the UN UN in peacekeeping in Vietnam,Bangladeshand elsewhere. to come to gripswithconflicts is the UN. Also important To manyin the UnitedStates,peacekeeping that the United States is doing more than its share are impressions to othercountries.For the period1946 to 1971, the United compared
p. 46. President'sCommission,
12
States contributed 39 percent of UN budgets. Although the figure had droppedto 30 percent in 1971,14it is stillmorethan double the contributionof the nextlargestcontributor. Many seem to thinkthe United States pays morethan its fairshare. Does it? UN assessments are based on capacityto pay as derivedfrom national income statistics,with the following modifications giving an advantageto threecategories of members: 1. Memberswith per capita incomesbelow $1,000 per year and assessmentrates above .04 percentare givenan allowance for low per capita income whichreduces theirassessment. 2. The UnitedStates contribution is reducedfrom 39.48 to 31.57 by a ceilingprinciple limiting the highestcontributor to that percentage. 3. A fewcountries(Canada, Kuwait, New Zealand and Sweden) have receivedreductions flowing from a corollary of the ceiling principle that states that no nation shall pay moreper capita than the contribution of the largestcontributor. Two categories of members pay morethan theywould be obligatedto pay undera strictapplicationof the capacityto pay criterion: 1. All nationsmustpay at least .04 percent ofthe budget, requiring 60 of the poorestmembers to pay morethan theywould based on capacityto pay. 2. Memberswithper capita incomeover $1,000,exceptthose affectedby the ceiling, pay morethan theirrelativecapacityto pay. on these assessmentstandards,in testimony Commenting beforeCongressin December1971, AssistantSecretary of State forInternational Organization Affairs Samuel de Palna concluded: yearsthe United States has paid less than it wouldhave if it had been assessed according to the same criteria applied to the other main industrialstates, includingthe Soviet Union, the United Kingdom,France,and Canada. .. . .On a strictcapacity-to-pay basis, we estimatethat at the presenttime the U.S. rate, based on national income statistics
" These percentageswere calculated fromfigureson United States contributions and total budgetsof the United Nations, specialized agencies, voluntaryprograms and the International Atomic Energy Agency given in the appendix to: US House of Representatives, Committeeon Foreign Affairs, "United States Contributions to International Organizations," 19th Report from the Secretary of State, Document No. 92-173,November 1971 (Washington: Government PrintingOffice, 1971). US contributions for calendar year 1971 were estimatedto be $335,443,000 out of a total of $1,115,500,000.
....
because of the adoption of an arbitrary ceiling, for over 25
13
whenadjusted to benefit the low per capita states,would actually be 38.40 percent. Comparablefiguresfor the Soviet Union, includingByelorussia and the Ukraine,[wouldbe] 14.66 on the adjusted basis. In fact,the Soviet Union is now assessed at 16.55 percent.The difference between14.66 percent and 16.55 percent is the extraamountwe estimate the SovietUnionis assessed because ofthe ceiling principle applied to the U.S. contribution.'5 Secretaryde Palma's explanationmightlead to the conclusionthat United States assessmentsshould be increasedfrom31.5 percentto 38.40 percent. But in testimony beforeCongressin October 1971, he arguedthat UnitedStates assessments shouldbe lowered to 25 percent. He justifies this by asserting that in principle no international organization based on the sovereign equality of its members and in whichalmost all nationsare representedshould become overlydependenton one state for contributions to its operating budget.16 overthe dependence UnitedStates concern ofthe UN on its largest has been expressed contributor since 1946,althoughUnited States performance seemsnotto accordwiththisconcern. WhiletheUnitedStates has successfully to pressed for reductionof its assessed contribution UN budgets from39 percentto 31 percent,the percentageof total United States contributions made to voluntary budgets has risen to 67 percent. This is because of the increasing tendencyfor UN field to be financed in the and economic social fields, activities, particularly the UN's largest through voluntary contributions. This,of course, gives evenmoreinfluence becausethe UnitedStates has unilateral contributor to determine volunhow muchit willcontribute to specific competence the UnitedStates desiresto to the president, taryprograms. According continue to decide unilaterallywhen it will contributemore than twenty-five percent: should not and will not apply to the This 25 percentlimitation voluntary contributions upon whichmanyof the more important are now dependent.'7 UN functions thatassessments The well-established UN norm shouldbe based on to pay has boththemerit and conformity ofbroadsupport with capacity forbearing services norms theburden ofgovernmental within developing
I' on to the UN," Hearings beforethe Subcommittee "To Limit US Contributions InternationalOrganizationsand Movementsof the Committeeon Foreign Affairs, 92nd Congress,1st session,Nov. 18 and Dec. 2, 1971 US House of Representatives, PrintingOffice,1972). (Washington: US Government "United States Role in the United Nations System,"p. 17. 7"U.S. Foreign Policy forthe 1970's: The EmergingStructureof Peace," p. 190.
14
may indeed the United States itself. While some Americanofficials of the UN on the dependence about highfinancial be trulyconcerned explainrecent UnitedStates,thisis a publicposturethat does not fully branch executive There little doubt that the is United States policy. to is and unwilling of critical congressmen assaults is bowingto the no is significant line. There hold the to capitalin trying investinfluence thispolicy. Veryfewcitizensknow bodyof publicopinionto challenge except the fact that the United at all about UN financing anything more than any othercountry.They do not know States contributes as a perin contributions that the United States rankstwenty-fourth centofGNP!
AND THE UN THE US GOVERNMENT
of United States forthe direction and coordination Responsibility of is vestedin the secretary in international organizations participation in in United States involvement growth state. Despite the tremendous since World War II, the PC reportsthat organizations international of State has Bureau of the Department Organization the International declinedfrom236 people in 1950 to 155 in 1970. While recognizing than largerones, the moreeffective that smallerstaffsare sometimes PC is concernedabout the capabilityof the staffto "dischargeits the ever-expandand evaluating supervising, in planning, responsibilities organsof the UN as well as the workof the principal ingand complex of the Organization of a dozen special bodies or programs performance and 14 UN specializedagencieslocatedaroundthe world."'8Of course, forpolicies with respect responsibility the bureau has no substantive Fund, and is highly Monetary to the WorldBank and the International Labor, Health, such as Agriculture, dependenton otherdepartments, UnitedStates policyin the etc.,fordeveloping Educationand Welfare, specializedagencies. that (1) the AssistantSecretaryforInterThe PC recommends authority be given more comprehensive national Organization Affairs notingthat they account to deal with economicand social activities, from for80 percentof UN expenditures, (2) technicalstaffmembers of for limited time periods to the bureau be attached otherdepartments of the specialized and programmatic problems to workon budgetary agencies,and (3) the bureau be fundedadequately to obtain specific of UN activities. and effectiveness evaluationsof the programs ofUnitedStates policyin thelight The UNA viewsthecoordination of decisionit has made forgreatercentralization of recommendations in UN economic and social activities.In orderfortheserecommaking
8President's Commission,p. 50.
15
coordination by to be fully effective, it believesthat greater mendations willbe required: nationalgovernments of Agriwhenthe Department The timeis past, if it everexisted, U.S. policyin the FAO, or the Treasury cultureshould determine U.S. policyin the WorldBank, or the SurgeonGenDepartment of Labor U.S. U.S. policyin WHO, or the Department eral's Office only for of State responsible policyin ILO, withthe Department questionsin these specializedagencies. U.S. policy on budgeting and budgetarydecisionsin international U.S. policy on program and shouldnot be allowedto proceedon independent organizations pathsas in the past.'9 oftencolliding for ofa post ofunder-secretary the creation The UNA recommends of State in orderto "symbolize multilateral affairs in the Department to the effective organizations of international the growing importance and to the developof the new technologies management international control. "It would signal approachesto conflict mentof multilateral that the time formorecenin the Government to otherDepartments tralizeddecisionmakingon UN systemactivitieswas at hand."20 organizain chargeof international Raisingthe rankof the official in the Departmentof State to the rank of undertion participation withinthe Departsecretary would seem to make him more effective Bureau has traOrganization ment of State wherethe International bureaus. On the other had lowerstatus than the geographic ditionally of decisionmakingon UN systemactivities hand, the centralization in the Department ofState is not as obviousan answerto the problems to the and being responsive the United States is facingin influencing centralization mayalready as theUNA assumes. Budgetary UN system in maintaining United to the difficulties encountered be contributing States financial supportforthe UN systembecause Americancontriare such a significant portionof butionsto international organizations of State budget. If theywere includedas part of the the Department be noticeofrelevant theywouldhardly functional departments, budgets able and would perhaps be perceivedin clearerperspective. Contributionsto the specializedagenciesare far less than the magnitudeof of health,labor,agriculture, of nationalsystems the interdependencies telecommumaritime transport, aviation,atomic energy, meteorology, of a "foreignaffairs" nications,mail, education,etc. Centralization in which ofa budgetary the development perspective budgetencourages betweena "they" (foreign affairs)budget and thereis a dichotomy of funca "we" (domestic) budget. This inhibitsrealisticperceptions and encouragesattacks on the "they" total, tional interdependencies
'United
Nations Association,p. 73. 'United Nations Association,p. 74.
16
organizato efforts to use nationaland international whichis irrelevant to solve humanproblems. tions,as each is appropriate, decisionmakingwithregardto the parcentralizing Furthermore, of the United States government departments of various ticipation the solutionto difficult problems in the UN systemis not necessarily that solving.Assuming in linking nationaland globalproblem involved social and of decisionmakingin UN economic greatercentralization the UNA valid assumption), is meritorious (not a necessarily activities forparticipaofpolicymaking thatnationalcentralization and PC belief tion in UN activitieswould facilitatethis objective is questionable. negotiated ofa government have carefully Once thevariousdepartments it would probpolicyforthe UN system, foran integrated agreements to of that government forrepresentatives ably be even more difficult that decisionmakingwith other governments engage in collaborative of nathe various functional interests had done likewise. Permitting latitudein their freerer and policymaking budgetary tionalgovernments and could make thembothmoreresponsive in the UN system activities both the centralizedand decentralized more influential.Admittedly, are based on anecdote and speculation. But the time has arguments of the that the centralization come to divestourselvesof assumptions withinsingle departactivitiesof national governments international the only or the best way to handle the diversity mentsis necessarily of problemareas in whichthe activitiesof nationaland international in the case of the intersect.Particularly organizations governmental of large and highlyspecialized national govfunctional components thatmore, rather suggests (liketheUnitedStates), experience ernments is requiredif effecthanless, flexibility and capacityforresponsiveness tive globalproblemsolvingis to becomefeasible.
SOME CONCLUSIONS
Despite the fact that the three reportsunder review represent and oftencreativeconcernon the part of some influential thoughtful and highlyinformed American citizensabout United States participathereis a markeddecline to the UN system, tion in and contributions are in the system.These reports in creative UnitedStates involvement unlikelyto turn the tide unless there is additional inquiry,followed and disaction,on the causes ofthisseason ofdiscontent by appropriate all intimately would seem to merit intertwined, interest.Five themes, forthe UN systemand their priorities closerscrutiny: (1) Differing thatthe UnitedStates has (2) The specialcapabilities interdependence; modelsforUN problemsolving; forsettingexamples; (3) Alternative to international on monetary contributions or(4) New perspectives for will creative inUnited States Generating political ganizations;(5) in the UN. volvement
THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN for the UN Systemand Their Interdependence. Priorities 1. Differing
17
enough with variation in None of the reports deals forthrightly groups around interest advocatedby diverse for theUN system priorities enoughwiththe politicalinterthe globe. Nor do theydeal explicitly areas. The assertion priority of UN activitiesin different dependence mustbe the mainof the UN system priority of the PC that "the first is not sharedby all manpeace and security" tenanceof international forthe United States to establishthis as kind. It is not inappropriate manyUnitedStates citizenswould its first in theUN, although priority that this is just a US priority. not agree. But it must be recognized like American that come out of United States priorities UN priorities, politicalprocesses,must be decided by the political processesof the between different UN system. Inevitablythis will require tradeoffs progress willmake meaningful groupsso that no singlepriority interest groupsare advanced. The untilall those advocated by major interest betweenthe "law and order"and economicdevelopinterdependence in UnitedStates oftheUN needto be mademoreexplicit ment activities about the UN. discourse The priority peace and given to "maintenanceof international in anothersense. The most must be givengreaterscrutiny security" forthe was the means provided in the UN charter innovation dramatic the use of peace and security"through enforcement of "international this innovato implement forces of the majorpowers. Efforts military has generateda subtion have failed,althoughthe UN "laboratory" used to keep small wars from stitute: small scale forcesprimarily has development escalatingintolargeones. But even this evolutionary One quite plausible explanationis that severedifficulty. encountered "international could first thatthe UN system centralize theassumption those requiringmilitary particularly peace and security"functions, as is unfounded.Experiencein national and regionalsystems, force, with that peace cannotbe createdby starting wellas the UN, suggests must force. Firsta degreeof community of military the centralization in providingother servicesin the combe created by collaboration munity. ofsomedegreeofcommunity Whilethe development by responsiveneeds shouldnot be seen as a simpleroad to "peace and ness to diverse it is at least equally as plausiblea means towardthat end security," of testingin the as military forces. It would seem no less deserving than one military UN "laboratory" weapon,such as the F14 aircraft, to the UN system. The United States contributions whosecost dwarfs withwhichmanyapproachthe contribution by the United reluctance the UN system reallyresponStates of $1.57 per capita towardmaking humanpriorities aroundthe globe of interdependent sive to a diversity
18
indicatesthat slight expenditures) (comparedto the $373 formilitary of betweenthe development credibility is givento the probablerelation peace and security." and "intemational a moreviableglobalcommunity Examples. Stateshas forSetting 2. TheSpecialCapabilities thattheUnited Whatcriteria shouldbe appliedwhena nationevaluatesits performance thatthe criterion in theUN system?Perhapswe shouldnotbe surprised of bases withcareful selection ofothernations, is often theperformance of comparison so that the nation of the evaluator looks best. This of United States criticswith absopartlyexplainsthe preoccupation ratherthan contrilute amountsof American monetary contributions, of man's efforts butionsbased on capacityto pay. When the history it will record in this era is written, to developviable globalinstitutions timesas much on military that the United States spent twenty-three to the United Nations. Is this indicator expenditures as it contributed of priorities beliefsand aspirareallyin accord withthe fundamental providethe tions of United States society? Does this performance kind of model forbehaviorthat citizensof the United States would like otherbig powers, to follow? now and in the future, The UnitedStates willnotbe themostpowerful nationin theworld through the preservaforever.The pursuitof shorttermself-interest tionofoptions, mayoffer sometemby LincolnBloomfield, as described poraryadvantages. But what will be the legacy,fromthis era of exin which system to the international ceptionalUnitedStates capability, our children mustlive? Must we be draggeddownto the lowestcomwiththe behaviorof other mon denominator by childlikecomparisons nationsor dare we providenew examplesof the creativeuse of the capfindthemor theirchildren, nation? If ourchildren, ofa wealthy ability selves citizensof a nation that is not top dog, what normswould we nationto follow?The United States has the wishthe mostinfluential of these normsand to help in the development capabilityto influence that will enforce them. international institutions As the threereportshave pointedout, the United States is preratherthan shapingthe illusionsof "sovereignty" servingshort-term its own domestic futureintemationalsystemin directions reflecting nationalvalues by refusing to annul the Connallyamendment and reto ratify The UnitedStates numerous humanrights conventions. fusing at home is undergoing a dramaticchange (althoughmany thinknot fastenough) as new groupsare givenaccess to politicalpowerat many This is beingdone partlybecause it is necessary levelsof government. to preserve order,but also because it is believedto represent domestic a fulfillment of Americanideals. The escalatingdivisionbetweenthe to richand the poor of the worldis similar,althoughmore extreme,
19
in the United States. Will the United States domesticdevelopments have the creativeinsightto apply what it is learningabout domestic by the is not offered Encouragement to globalcommunity? community politicalprocesses (i.e., interof the PC that meaningful expectation nationalorder) can be based on votingsystemsin whichwealth is a of votingpower. Domestic experiencein the determinant significant United States has revealed that outcomes of political processes,no and to groupsdeprivedof participation matterhow greatthe benefits illegitimate will be suspectand considered in theseprocesses, influence is possible. The less developed nations have until full participation interestgroup,largelyin self-conscious evolvedinto an increasingly naive of the PC to it incredibly is the contextof UNCTAD. Not only the whereby richand the poor processes political expectthatmeaningful among differing accommodation nationscan reach mutuallysatisfying in whichwealthis a significant systems can be based on voting priorities politicalvalues ofvoting power. It also violatesproclaimed determinant by its own bein the United States. Why should the United States, of thesevalues to global politics? the extension undermine havior,
3. AlternativeModels for UN Problem Solving.
creaWhile it is easy to criticizethe United States fornot providing way the light that nations tive examplesforthe behaviorof powerful humanneeds,it is systemthat morefullysatisfies to an international to specifywhat this model should be like in the contextof difficult have made verycreativesugthe UN system. All threeof the reports whichthe United States could help to evolvea more through gestions changes in SecurityCouncil dynamicUN system,such as voluntary the creationof an intercoalitionsfor peace settlement, procedure, of a centerfor techcouncil,the development national development of a special UN commissioner the appointment nologicalassessment, of an autothe establishment of the environment, forthe protection and the creationof an autonomousscience and researchauthority, a comprehenoffers nomousseabed authority.But none of the reports towardwhichpiecemealtinkering sive imageof the kind of UN system similarto is leading. Earliermodelsof global order,oftenshamefully are now systemsof theirauthor'scountry, the domesticgovernmental domestic willbe applied, experience beingcast aside. Whilelessonsfrom clear that global orderwill be evolvedout of global it is increasingly of governmental ofa diversity systems gainedby interaction experience createdby the tremendous space and responsive to the specialproblems at thispointto describeone to be encompassed.It wouldbe ridiculous model towardwhichthe UN systemoughtto progress. future specific useful to have alternativemodels with But it would be exceedingly
20
speculationabout their advantages and disadvantages. tend to the UN system mostproposalsforrestructuring Presently area as thoughit were independent.Models considereach functional of alternative futuresfor the UN would help to spell out the interrealms. For example,a rich functional dependencies betweendifferent might seem to involvemoreducommunication system and redundant objectives but plicationthan is necessaryfor economicdevelopment mightbe very useful forlinkingnations with the UN systemwhen more"political"lines are cut offduringtimesof tension. While technical reasonsmightdictate the locationof a regionalheadquartersin one country, the fact that otherUN activitiesare already thereand may dictatethat the none in an adjacent,and perhapshostile,country the be located in the neglectedcityin orderto facilitate headquarters in the UN system. involvement of that country entitiesfor The UN will inevitably new organizational be creating the environment and the sea. Numerousquestionswill arise. Should these agencies be an integralpart of the UN or quasi-independent? of the sea be handledby the environment Should pollution agency,the of theseagenciesbe in sea authority, or both? Should the headquarters UN agencieshave their sinceall existing Africa, Asia or Latin America, in either Europe or NorthAmerica?How willthe various headquarters affect the restof the UN system?The availoptionson thesedecisions with some delineation modelsof the UN system, abilityof alternative of some of theircharacteristics, would help those of the likelyeffects view of the conwiththe systemto take a moresystematic tinkering sequences of organizationalchange. Included should be alternative models of how nations,particularly large ones, can be organizedfor in the UN system. and responsive effective participation on Monetary Contributions to International 4. New Perspectives Organizations. that the United States escape fromits It is of criticalimportance to the obsessionwith the relativesize of its monetarycontributions concentration of incomein the UN that result fromthe tremendous United States. Why does the richestnation in the world continually by put a strainon the abilityof the UN to meet its fiscalobligations to United States fiscalconlate out of deference makingits payments is dollarspay any of its venience? Why does a nationwhose currency in othercurrency, noncenvertible contributions currency? particularly Why does a nationthat realizes at least $135 millionin incomefrom ofa desperately the UN in New York per yearhold up the construction its share, needed extensionof UN headquartersby not contributing its portion?Why thecityofNew Yorkhas agreedto contribute although
21
woulda nationarguethatit wishesits shareofassessed budgetsdiminby but yet enhance that influence ished so as to curtailits influence contributions? increasing the size of voluntary realizesthatsomeofthese hearings whoreadscongressional Anyone of the factsand othersproknowledge lack ofintimate acts resultfrom in its presentform, that the nationstate system ceed from assumptions They and theroleofthe UnitedStates in it,are stableand unchanging. also are shapedby viewsofthe worldthatmakeit possibleto apply one domestically and anotherset internationalset ofvalues and procedures systems and the contradictory ofmaintaining ly,ignoring the difficulties will that of our children, the degreeto whichour fate,and particularly system ofthe international by the character be significantly determined we are creating.Of course,these are only speculations.Whateverthe of the attitudesof some,it is certainthat a verysmallperexplanation centage of the Americanpeople are acquainted with the details of United behaviorin the UN, particularly recentUnited States financial to eliminate States efforts capacityto pay as the basis fordetermining Nor is it widelyknownthat the UnitedStates, along its contributions. is making the UN increasingly dependent withother majorcontributors, on voluntary because of the desireto avoid the rates of contributions systemwould require. It is vital assessment that an assessment-based consequencesof this trend be carefully that the potentiallong-term to the public,and that the examined, that the resultsbe distributed alternatives be debated.
in 5. GeneratingPoliticalWill for Creative United States Involvement the UN.
in the UN seems to display decreasing As United States involvement policy,the and domestic relative to otheraspects of foreign importance causes appear to be numerousand intertwined: traditionsin the and in of State, both organizationally serviceand Department foreign for trustin weapons of mass destruction termsof humanperceptions; creating 'internationalorder"; inflated expectationsand misunderof the UN in peacestandingof the reasonsforlimitedachievements a "peacekeeping" of the UN as primarily organizakeeping;perception in the UN; belief tion; perceiveddecline in United States influence forthe that the United States has done morethan any othercountry involvement in critical UN and that it is not appreciated;increasing in the UN, partilack of press interest eventsand problems; domestic in the United activities;public disinterest cularlythe "non-political" and perhaps others,help to make UN Nations. All of these factors, in generaland forthe United States government issues of low priority in particular. forthe foreign policyestablishment
22
Some would say that executiveleadershipis all that would be rein the UN. This quired formore creativeUnited States involvement seemsreasonablebecause overthe longrunpublicattitudestowardthe UN have been quite positive. But the executivehas rarelygivenUN are issues top priority.While Departmentof State recommendations of the UN than eventualpolicy (e.g., support oftenmore supportive for paying United States assessmentsto ILO and resistanceto imare genRhodesia), these recommendations of chromefrom portation to win effort major a require to enough important erallynot considered in advocates influential more have issues Other support. congressional groups, interest Pentagon, the House, White the the State Department, who wishesto make increasedUN supand the Congress.A president inertiaby govemmental overcome probably item could porta priority vague although of positive, reservoir public appealingto the creatively president the does incentive what But UN. forthe and passive,support policy inso long as other foreign have to give UN issues priority yearnpublic vague might How and vocal? terestsare moreinfluential through activity into ings and aspirationsfor the UN be converted and influential? are made moreconcrete whichthesefeelings Ways must be foundto make the links betweenthe individual, moreobviousand vivid. his stationin life,and the UN system whatever must be for involvement new opportunities Perhaps more important, it should be some possible innovations, provided. Before examining vastly expanded that the UN systemhas already offered recognized by relations in intergovernmental fordirectparticipation opportunities specialists and nongovernmental a vast rangeofgovernmental involving dailyinvolves bodies. The UN system and technical in itsparliamentary These linksneed to be viewed everyprofession. virtually personsfrom functechnical ofthe specific notjust in terms withbroader perspective, ofthe globallinksofinvolvement butalso in terms tionsbeingperformed and budgetviewsofefficiency narrow thatare beingcreated. Too often in the UN system. of participation character ingmissthe multipurpose with the CSOP deals mostcreatively reviewed, Ofthe threereports into contactwiththe UN citizensmoredirectly the need forbringing institutions.A world parliasystem. They propose three different in contrast the peoplesof the world, wouldrepresent assembly mentary are represented. to the UN General Assemblyin whichgovernments the CSOP recommends, seemtoo visionary, thatthismight Recognizing asstep,a United Nations inter-parliamentary as a morefeasiblefirst of nationalparliaments.Modelled after semblycomposedof members Union, it would assist the General the existingInter-parliamentary offer directlinksto national issuesand thereby on designated Assembly them,to the citizensthat elect them. Also and, through parliaments proposedis a worldyouthassembly.
23
assemblymight While even a United Nations inter-parliamentary in United to discernible problems it wouldbe responsive seemvisionary, to United resistance in theUN. Some congressional Statesparticipation overexecutivedomin the UN is rootedin conflict States involvement policy. More extensivelegislativeininance in United States foreign would likelybringgreatersupport. Perhaps the worldparvolvement body representing as a second UN parliamentary assembly, liamentary is a longway off. But it is not too soon,nor the peoplesof the world, about ways forthe United'Statesto beginthinking indeedunrealistic, in which greaterdemocraticcontrolcould be exercisedover United in the UN system. This could involvedirectelecStates participation ifpopular is notonlynecessary Such control tionofUN representatives. deof multinational influence increasing the is to survive government a prerequisite also be It may of all citizens. on the lives cision-making to the willingly with and to contribute forcitizenabilityto identity UnitedNationssystem. to generatemoreexefforts But it would be a mistaketo confine to the UN systemn identitiesand involvement tensive international internaalone. There are now some two hundredintergovernmental interand some threethousandnongovernmental tional organizations in national organizations.These can make importantcontributions in whichthe UN can be moreefcommunity buildinga transnational covervirtualorganizations international fective.The nongovernmental or hobbyin whichman is business,philanthropy, ly everyprofession, engaged. How many citizens are acquainted with the existing transnationalactivity and potential of those organizationsrelated to their own professions? It is unfortunatethat international are looked community of international relationsand the development that more It is important forgovernments. as matters upon primarily transnational fornongovernmental citizensperceivenew opportunities ofthis ofthe significance and acquiredeeperunderstanding involvement forshapingthe worldofthe future.It is equallyimportant involvement of citizensalreadyengagedin a varietyof transthat the vast number between moreclearlythe interdependencies nationalactivity perceives international and nongovernmental activityand sees in governmental activity for broader perspectivethe potential of nongovernmental involvements goals. More multifaceted desiredinternational achieving of links as wellas consciousness in transnational activity, ofindividuals and the functioning of the UN system, betweenthese involvements the politicalwill formorecreativeUnited States could also strengthen in the UN system. involvement

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The United States in the United Nations Author(s): Chadwick F. Alger Source: International Organization, Vol. 27, No.

THE UNITEDSTATESIN THE UNITED NATIONS

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL QUESTIONS

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

because of the adoption of an arbitrary ceiling, for over 25

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

Nations Association,p. 73. 'United Nations Association,p. 74.

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

THE UNITED STATES IN THE UN

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