INSTANTANEOUS POWER CONTROL OF D-STATCOM WITH CONSIDERATION OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

ABSTRACT
Electric power distribution network have become more increasingly important and plays an essential role in power system planning. This type of power systems has a major function to serve distributed customer loads along a feeder line; therefore under competitive environment of electricity market service of electric energy transfer must not be interrupted and at the same time there must provide reliable, stable and high quality of electric power. To complete this challenge, it requires careful design for power network planning. There exist many different ways to do so. owever, one might consider an additional device to be installed somewhere in the network. !uch devices are one of capacitor bank, shunt reactor, series reactors, automatic voltage regulators and recently developed dynamic voltage restorers, distribution static compensator "#!T$T%&'(, or combination of them. This paper presents a modified instantaneous power control scheme of #)!T$T%&' for power factor and harmonic compensation. The #)!T$T%&' is a solid state #%*$% power switching converter that consists mainly of a three)phase +,' voltage source converter "-!%( bridge having six ./0Ts with associated anti)parallel diodes. .t is connected to the distribution network via the impedance of the coupling transformer. $ #%)link capacitor provides constant #% link voltage. The proposed control strategy has been introduced in order to enhance some steady)state performances besides its functional elimination of power quality disturbances. +ower factor and harmonic current of a controlled feeder section are two vital roles in steady) state power distribution system operation. 1tili2ing an already installed #)!T$T%&' to achieve these additional control objectives can help system operators maximi2e overall system performances. .n this paper, a control scheme with constant power and sinusoidal current compensation is exploited. .n order to correct the power factor, a power factor control loop is required and therefore included in the control block. 3esults showed that integration of the proposed reactive power control loop can correct the power factor of the controlled feeder to be unity power factor.

INTRODUCTION
Electric power distribution network have become more increasingly important and plays an essential role in power system planning. This type of power systems has a major function to serve distributed customer loads along a feeder line, therefore under competitive environment of electricity market service of electric energy transfer must not be interrupted and at the same time there must provide reliable, stable and high quality of electric power. To complete this challenge, it requires careful design for power network planning. There exist many different ways to do so. owever, one might consider an additional device to be installed somewhere in the network. !uch devices are one of capacitor bank, shunt reactor, series reactors, automatic voltage regulators and*or recently developed dynamic voltage restorers, distribution static compensator "#!T$T%&'(, or combination of them. The #!T$T%&' is a voltage source converter "-!%( based custom power technology which can perform as a reactive power source in power systems. The #)!T$T%&' can regulate magnitude of voltage at a particular $% bus, at the point where it is connected, via generating or absorbing reactive power from the system. 4rom #)!T$T%&' literature, a majority of research works have been conducted in order to enhance electric voltage sags or swells. $part from these voltage variations, the #)!T$T%&' is capable to enhance steady)state performances such as power factor and harmonic of a particular feeder portion. .n this paper, a control scheme with constant power and sinusoidal current compensation is exploited. .n order to correct the power factor additionally, a power factor control loop is required and therefore included in the control block.

POWER QUALITY
The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is often enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed performance, and levels of automation that can be achieved. $lthough these features and their indirectly related computer based enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not forget the foundation upon which we are building. +ower quality is the mortar which bonds the foundation blocks. +ower quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability, our environment, and initial investment in power distribution systems to support new crane installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which accompanied the last monthly issue of my home utility billing5 61sing electricity wisely is a good environmental and business practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from generating plants, and conserves our natural resources.7 $s we are all aware, container crane performance requirements continue to increase at an astounding rate. 8ext generation container cranes, already in the bidding process, will require average power demands of 9:;; to <;;; k, = almost double the total average demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in container crane population, !%3 converter crane drive retrofits and the large $% and #% drives needed to power and control these cranes will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very near future. POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS 4or the purpose of this article, we shall define power quality problems as5 6$ny power problem that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment, manifests itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces negative impacts on the environment.7 ,hen applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade power quality include5 > +ower 4actor > armonic #istortion > -oltage Transients > -oltage !ags or #ips

> -oltage !wells The $% and #% variable speed drives utili2ed on board container cranes are significant contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion. ,hereas !%3 phase control creates the desirable average power factor, #% !%3 drives operate at less than this. .n addition, line notching occurs when !%37s commutate, creating transient peak recovery voltages that can be ? to @ times the nominal line voltage depending upon the system impedance and the si2e of the drives. The frequency and severity of these power system disturbances varies with the speed of the drive. armonic current injection by $% and #% drives will be highest when the drives are operating at slow speeds. +ower factor will be lowest when #% drives are operating at slow speeds or during initial acceleration and deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum value when the !%37s are phased on to produce rated or base speed. $bove base speed, the power factor essentially remains constant. 1nfortunately, container cranes can spend considerable time at low speeds as the operator attempts to spot and land containers. +oor power factor places a greater k-$ demand burden on the utility or engine)alternator power source. Aow power factor loads can also affect the voltage stability which can ultimately result in detrimental effects on the life of sensitive electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction. -oltage transients created by #% drive !%3 line notching, $% drive voltage chopping, and high frequency harmonic voltages and currents are all significant sources of noise and disturbance to sensitive electronic equipment .t has been our experience that end users often do not associate power quality problems with %ontainer cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or there was no economic %onsequence if power quality was not addressed. 0efore the advent of solid)state power supplies, +ower factor was reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal. 8ot until the crane +opulation multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static power conversion became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge. Even as harmonic distortion and power 4actor issues surfaced, no one was really prepared. Even today, crane builders and electrical drive !ystem vendors avoid the issue during competitive bidding for new cranes. 3ather than focus on $wareness and understanding of the potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or 1nintentionally ignored. +ower quality problem solutions are available. $lthough the solutions are not free, in most cases, they

do represent a good return on investment. likely will not be delivered. +ower quality can be improved through5 > +ower factor correction, > armonic filtering, > !pecial line notch filtering, > Transient voltage surge suppression, > +roper earthing systems.

owever, if power quality is not specified, it most

.n most cases, the person specifying and*or buying a container crane may not be fully aware of the potential power quality issues. .f this article accomplishes nothing else, we would hope to provide that awareness. .n many cases, those involved with specification and procurement of container cranes may not be cogni2ant of such issues, do not pay the utility billings, or consider it someone else7s concern. $s a result, container crane specifications may not include definitive power quality criteria such as power factor correction and*or harmonic filtering. $lso, many of those specifications which do require power quality equipment do not properly define the criteria. Early in the process of preparing the crane specification5 > %onsult with the utility company to determine regulatory or contract requirements that must be satisfied, if any. > %onsult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality profiles that can be expected based on the drive si2es and technologies proposed for the specific project. > Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the present situation, but consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the future development plans for the terminal THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY +ower quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of the terminal operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects other consumers

served by the same utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in the following paragraphs. 1. Economic Impac The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container terminal operators. Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in several ways5

a. Po!"# Fac o# P"na$ i"% 'any utility companies invoke penalties for low power factor on monthly billings. There is no industry standard followed by utility companies. 'ethods of metering and calculating power factor penalties vary from one utility company to the next. !ome utility companies actually meter k-$3 usage and establish a fixed rate times the number of k-$3)hours consumed. &ther utility companies monitor k-$3 demands and calculate power factor. .f the power factor falls below a fixed limit value over a demand period, a penalty is billed in the form of an adjustment to the peak demand charges. $ number of utility companies servicing container terminal equipment do not yet invoke power factor penalties. owever, their service contract with the +ort may still require that a minimum power factor over a defined demand period be met. The utility company may not continuously monitor power factor or k-$3 usage and reflect them in the monthly utility billings; however, they do reserve the right to monitor the +ort service at any time. .f the power factor criteria set forth in the service contract are not met, the user may be penali2ed, or required to take corrective actions at the user7s expense. &ne utility company, which supplies power service to several east coast container terminals in the 1!$, does not reflect power factor penalties in their monthly billings, however, their service contract with the terminal reads as follows5 6The average power factor under operating conditions of customer7s load at the point where service is metered shall be not less than B:C. .f below B:C, the customer may be required to furnish, install and maintain at its expense corrective apparatus which will increase the

+ower factor of the entire installation to not less than B:C. The customer shall ensure that no excessive harmonics or transients are introduced on to the DutilityE system. This may require special power conditioning equipment or filters. The +ort or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for maintaining container cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment, should be aware of these requirements. 1tility deregulation will most likely force utilities to enforce requirements such as the example above. Terminal operators who do not deal with penalty issues today may be faced with some rather severe penalties in the future. $ sound, future terminal growth plan should include contingencies for addressing the possible economic impact of utility deregulation. &. S'% "m Lo%%"% armonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not only result in possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses in the distribution system. These losses are not visible as a separate item on your monthly utility billing, but you pay for them each month. %ontainer cranes are significant contributors to harmonic currents and low power factor. 0ased on the typical demands of today7s high speed container cranes, correction of power factor alone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result in a reduction of system losses that converts to a F to 9;C reduction in the monthly utility billing. 4or most of the larger terminals, this is a significant annual saving in the cost of operation. C. Po!"# S"#(ic" Ini ia$ Capi a$ In("% m"n % The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as well as modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost, speciali2ed, high and medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing cables, collector bars, etc. must be si2ed based on the k-$ demand. Thus cost of the equipment is directly related to the total k-$ demand. $s the relationship above indicates, k-$ demand is inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e. a lower power factor demands higher k-$ for the same k, load. %ontainer cranes are one of the most significant users of power in the terminal. !ince container cranes with #%, F pulse, !%3 drives operate at relatively low power

factor, the total k-$ demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power factor correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some common bus location in the terminal. .n the absence of power quality corrective equipment, transformers are larger, switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper si2es are larger, collector system and cable reel cables must be larger, etc. %onsequently, the cost of the initial power distribution system equipment for a system which does not address power quality will most likely be higher than the same system which includes power quality equipment.

). E*+ipm"n R"$ia&i$i ' +oor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce the life of components. armonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags and swells are all power can induce harmonics, the same quality problems and are all interdependent. armonics affect power factor, voltage transients phenomena which create harmonic current injection in #% !%3 variable speed drives are responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically varying power factor of the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can be mitigated using specially designed filters. ,. Po!"# S'% "m A-"*+ac' ,hen considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine the adequacy of the system to support additional crane loads. +ower quality corrective actions may be dictated due to inadequacy of existing power distribution systems to which new or relocated cranes are to be connected. .n other words, addition of power quality equipment may render a workable scenario on an existing power distribution system, which would otherwise be inadequate to support additional cranes without high risk of problems. .. En(i#onm"n

8o issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our environment. 3eduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction in the consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in power plant emissions. .t is our responsibility as occupants of this planet to encourage conservation of our natural resources and support measures which improve our air quality

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

,hat is +,'G +ulse ,idth 'odulation "+,'( is the most effective means to achieve constant voltage battery charging by switching the solar system controller7s power devices. ,hen in +,' regulation, the current from the solar array tapers according to the battery7s condition and recharging needs %onsider a waveform such as this5 it is a voltage switching between ;v and 9<v. .t is fairly obvious that, since the voltage is at 9<v for exactly as long as it is at ;v, then a Hsuitable deviceH connected to its output will see the average voltage and think it is being fed Fv ) exactly half of 9<v. !o by varying the width of the positive pulse ) we can vary the HaverageH voltage.

!imilarly, if the switches keep the voltage at 9< for ? times as long as at ;v, the average will be ?*@ of 9<v ) or Iv, as shown below

and if the output pulse of 9<v lasts only <:C of the overall time, then the average is

0y varying ) or HmodulatingH ) the time that the output is at 9<v "i.e. the width of the positive pulse( we can alter the average voltage. !o we are doing Hpulse width modulationH. . said earlier that the output had to feed Ha suitable deviceH. $ radio would not work from this5 the radio would see 9<v then ;v, and would probably not work properly. owever a device such as a motor will respond to the average, so +,' is a natural for motor control. P+$%" Wi- / mo-+$a o# !o, how do we generate a +,' waveformG .tHs actually very easy, there are circuits available in the TE% site. 4irst you generate a triangle waveform as shown in the diagram below. Jou compare this with a d.c voltage, which you adjust to control the ratio of on to off time that you require. ,hen the triangle is above the HdemandH voltage, the output goes high. ,hen the triangle is below the demand voltage, the

,hen the demand speed it in the middle "$( you get a :;5:; output, as in black.

alf the

time the output is high and half the time it is low. 4ortunately, there is an .% ".ntegrated circuit(

called a comparator5 these come usually @ sections in a single package. &ne can be used as the oscillator to produce the triangular waveform and another to do the comparing, so a complete oscillator and modulator can be done with half an .% and maybe K other bits. The triangle waveform, which has approximately equal rise and fall slopes, is one of the commonest used, but you can use a saw tooth "where the voltage falls quickly and rinses slowly(. Jou could use other waveforms and the exact linearity "how good the rise and fall are( is not too important. Traditional solenoid driver electronics rely on linear control, which is the application of a constant voltage across a resistance to produce an output current that is directly proportional to the voltage. 4eedback can be used to achieve an output that matches exactly the control signal. owever, this scheme dissipates a lot of power as heat, and it is therefore very inefficient. $ more efficient technique employs pulse width modulation "+,'( to produce the constant current through the coil. $ +,' signal is not constant. 3ather, the signal is on for part of its period, and off for the rest. The duty cycle, #, refers to the percentage of the period for which the signal is on. The duty cycle can be anywhere from ;, the signal is always off, to 9, where the signal is constantly on. $ :;C # results in a perfect square wave. "4igure 9(

$ solenoid is a length of wire wound in a coil. 0ecause of this configuration, the solenoid has, in addition to its resistance, 3, a certain in-+c anc", A. ,hen a voltage, -, is applied across

an inductive element, the current, ., produced in that element does not jump up to its constant value, but gradually rises to its maximum over a period of time called the #i%" im" "4igure <(. %onversely, . does not disappear instantaneously, even if - is removed abruptly, but decreases back to 2ero in the same amount of time as the rise time.

Therefore, when a low frequency +,' voltage is applied across a solenoid, the current through it will be increasing and decreasing as - turns on and off. .f # is shorter than the rise time, . will never achieve its maximum value, and will be discontinuous since it will go back to 2ero during -7s off period "4igure ?(.L .n contrast, if # is larger than the rise time, . will never fall back to 2ero, so it will be continuous, and have a #% average value. The current will not be constant, however, but will have a ripple "4igure @(.

$t high frequencies, - turns on and off very quickly, regardless of #, such that the current does not have time to decrease very far before the voltage is turned back on. The resulting current through the solenoid is therefore considered to be constant. 0y adjusting the #, the amount of output current can be controlled. ,ith a small #, the current will not have much time to rise before the high frequency +,' voltage takes effect and the current stays constant. ,ith a large #, the current will be able to rise higher before it becomes constant.

Di /"# !tatic friction, stiction, and hysteresis can cause the control of a hydraulic valve to be erratic and unpredictable. !tiction can prevent the valve spool from moving with small input changes, and hysteresis can cause the shift to be different for the same input signal. .n order to counteract the effects of stiction and hysteresis, small vibrations about the desired position are created in the spool. This constantly breaks the static friction ensuring that it will move even with small input changes, and the effects of hysteresis are average out. #ither is a small ripple in the solenoid current that causes the desired vibration and there by increases the linearity of the valve. The amplitude and frequency of the dither must be carefully chosen. The amplitude must be large enough and the frequency slow enough that the spool will respond, yet they must also be small and fast enough not to result in a pulsating output. The optimum dither must be chosen such that the problems of stiction and hysteresis are overcome without new problems being created. #ither in the output current is a byproduct of low frequency +,', as seen above. owever, the frequency and amplitude of the dither will be a function of the duty cycle, which is also used to set the output current level. This means that low frequency dither is not independent of current magnitude. The advantage of using high frequency +,' is that dither can be generated separately, and then superimposed on top of the output current.

This allows the user to independently set the current magnitude "by adjusting the #(, as well as the dither frequency and amplitude. The optimum dither, as set by the user, will therefore be constant at all current levels. W/' /" PWM 0#"*+"nc' i% impo# an 1 The +,' is a large amplitude digital signal that swings from one voltage extreme to the other. $nd, this wide voltage swing takes a lot of filtering to smooth out. ,hen the +,' frequency is close to the frequency of the waveform that you are generating, then any +,' filter will also smooth out your generated waveform and drastically reduce its amplitude. !o, a good rule of thumb is to keep the +,' frequency much higher than the frequency of any waveform you generate. 4inally, filtering pulses is not just about the pulse frequency but about the duty cycle and how much energy is in the pulse. The same filter will do better on a low or high duty cycle pulse compared to a :;C duty cycle pulse. 0ecause the wider pulse has more time to integrate to a stable filter voltage and the smaller pulse has less time to disturb it the inspiration was a request to control the speed of a large positive displacement fuel pump. The pump was si2ed to allow full power of a boosted engine in excess of F;; p. $t idle or highway cruise, this same engine needs far less fuel yet the pump still normally supplies the same amount of fuel. $s a result the fuel gets recycled back to the fuel tank, unnecessarily heating the fuel. This +,' controller circuit is intended to run the pump at a low speed setting during low power and allow full pump speed when needed at high engine power levels. Mo o# Sp""- Con #o$ 2Po!"# Con #o$3 Typically when most of us think about controlling the speed of a #% motor we think of varying the voltage to the motor. This is normally done with a variable resistor and provides a limited useful range of operation. The operational range is limited for most applications primarily because torque drops off faster than the voltage drops.

'ost #% motors cannot effectively operate with a very low voltage. This method also causes overheating of the coils and eventual failure of the motor if operated too slowly. &f course, #% motors have had speed controllers based on varying voltage for years, but the range of low speed operation had to stay above the failure 2one described above. $dditionally, the controlling resistors are large and dissipate a large percentage of energy in the form of heat. ,ith the advent of solid state electronics in the 9I:;7s and 9IF;7s and this technology becoming very affordable in the 9IK;7s M B;7s the use of pulse width modulation "+,'( became much more practical. The basic concept is to keep the voltage at the full value and simply vary the amount of time the voltage is applied to the motor windings. 'ost +,' circuits use large transistors to simply allow power &n M &ff, like a very fast switch. This sends a steady frequency of pulses into the motor windings. ,hen full power is needed one pulse ends just as the next pulse begins, 9;;C modulation. $t lower power settings the pulses are of shorter duration. ,hen the pulse is &n as long as it is &ff, the motor is operating at :;C modulation. !everal advantages of +,' are efficiency, wider operational range and longer lived motors. $ll of these advantages result from keeping the voltage at full scale resulting in current being limited to a safe limit for the windings. +,' allows a very linear response in motor torque even down to low +,'C without causing damage to the motor. 'ost motor manufacturers recommend +,' control rather than the older voltage control method. +,' controllers can be operated at a wide range of frequencies. .n theory very high frequencies "greater than <; k 2( will be less efficient than lower frequencies "as low as 9;; 2( because of switching losses. The large transistors used for this &n*&ff activity have resistance when flowing current, a loss that exists at any frequency. These transistors also have a loss every time they Nturn onO and every time they Nturn offO. !o at very high frequencies, the Nturn on*offO losses become much more significant. 4or our purposes the circuit as designed is running at :<F arbitrary frequency, it works fine. 2. !omewhat of an

#epending on the motor used, there can be a hum from the motor at lower +,'C. .f objectionable the frequency can be changed to a much higher frequency above our normal hearing level "P<;,;;; 2( . PWM Con #o$$"# F"a +#"%1 This controller offers a basic N i !peedO and NAow !peedO setting and has the option to use a N+rogressiveO increase between Aow and i speed. Aow !peed is set with a trim pot inside the controller box. 8ormally when installing the controller, this speed will be set depending on the minimum speed*load needed for the motor. 8ormally the controller keeps the motor at this Ao !peed except when +rogressive is used and when !peed can vary anywhere from ;C +,' to 9;;C. +rogressive control is commanded by a ;): volt input signal. This starts to increase +,' C from the low speed setting as the ;): volt signal climbs. This signal can be generated from a throttle position sensor, a 'ass $ir 4low sensor, a 'anifold $bsolute +ressure sensor or any other way the user wants to create a ;): volt signal. This function could be set to increase fuel pump power as turbo boost starts to climb "'$+ sensor(. &r, if controlling a water injection pump, Aow !peed could be set at 2ero +,'C and as the T+! signal climbs it could increase +,'C, effectively increasing water flow to the engine as engine load increases. This controller could even be used as a secondary injector driver "several injectors could be driven in a batch mode, hi impedance only(, with +rogressive control ";)9;;C( you could control their output for fuel or water with the ;): volt signal. +rogressive control adds enormous flexibility to the use of this controller. 9;;C +,', steady 9< volt #% power. i !peed is i !peed is commanded "see below(. Aow

that same as hard wiring the motor to a steady 9< volt #% source. The controller is providing i !peed is selected three different ways on this controller5 9( i !peed is automatically selected for about one second when power goes on. This gives the motor full torque at the start. .f needed this time can be increased " the value of %9 would need to be increased(. <( igh !peed can also be selected by applying 9< volts to the igh !peed signal wire. This gives i !peed regardless of the +rogressive signal.

,hen the +rogressive signal gets to approximately @.: volts, the circuit achieves 9;;C +,' = i !peed. Ho! -o"% /i% "c/no$o4' /"$p 51 The benefits noted above are technology driven. The more important question is how the +,' technology Qumping from a 9IK;7s technology into the new millennium offers5 6 Lon4"# &a "#' $i0"1 = reducing the costs of the solar system = reducing battery disposal problems 6 Mo#" &a "#' #"%"#(" capaci '1 = increasing the reliability of the solar system = reducing load disconnects = opportunity to reduce battery si2e to lower the system cost 6 7#"a "# +%"# %a i%0ac ion1 = get more power when you need it for less moneyRR

SPACE 8ECTOR P WM
The !pace -ector +,' generation module accepts modulation index commands and generates the appropriate gate drive waveforms for each +,' cycle. This section describes the operation and configuration of the !-+,' module. $ three)phase <)level inverter with dc link configuration can have eight possible switching states, which generates output voltage of the inverter. Each inverter switching state generates a voltage !pace -ector "-9 to -F active vectors, -K and -B 2ero voltage vectors( in the !pace -ector plane "4igure5 space vector diagram(. The magnitude of each active vector "-9to -F( is <*? -dc "dc bus voltage(. The !pace -ector +,' "!-+,'( module inputs modulation index commands "1S$lpha and 1S0eta( which are orthogonal signals "$lpha and 0eta( as shown in 4igure. The gain characteristic of the !-+,' module is given in 4igure . The vertical axis of 4igure represents the normali2ed peak motor phase voltage "-*-dc( and the hori2ontal axis represents the normali2ed modulation index "'(. The inverter fundamental line)to)line 3ms output voltage "-line( can be approximated "linear range( by the following equation5 TTTT.. "9( ,here dc bus voltage "-dc( is in volts

!pace -ector #iagram This document is the property of .nternational 3ectifier and may not be copied or distributed without expressed consent

Transfer %haracteristics

The maximum achievable modulation "1magSA( in the linear operating range is given by5 TTTT.. "<( &ver modulation occurs when modulation 1mag P 1magSA. This corresponds to the condition where the voltage vector in "4igure5 voltage vector rescaling(increases beyond the hexagon boundary. 1nder such circumstance, the !pace -ector +,' algorithm will rescale the magnitude of the voltage vector to fit within the vector is restricted within the exagon limit. The magnitude of the voltage exagon; however, the phase angle "U( is always preserved. The

transfer gain "4igure 5transfer characteristics( of the +,' modulator reduces and becomes non) linear in the over modulation region.

8o$ a4" 8"c o# R"%ca$in4 This document is the property of .nternational 3ectifier and may not be copied or distributed without expressed consent.

PWM Op"#a ion 1pon receiving the modulation index commands "1$lpha and 10eta( the sub)module !-+, 'STm starts its calculations at the rising edge of the +,' Aoad signal. The !-+,' STm module implements an algorithm that selects "based on sector determination( the active space vectors "-9 to -F( being used and calculates the appropriate time duration "w.r.t. one +,' cycle( for each active vector. The appropriated 2ero vectors are also being selected. The !-+,' STm module consumes 99 clock cycles typically and ?: clock cycles "worst case Tr( in over modulation cases. $t the falling edge of n!J8%, a new set of !pace -ector times and vectors are readily available for actual +,' generation "+hase1, +hase-, +hase,( by sub module +wm /eneration. .t is crucial to trigger +wmAoad at least ?: clock cycles prior to the falling edge of n!J8% signal; otherwise new modulation commands will not be implemented at the earliest +,' cycle. The above 4igures voltage vector rescaling illustrates the +,' waveforms for a voltage vector locates in sector . of the !pace -ector plane "shown in 4igure(. The gating pattern outputs "+,'1 T +,',A( include dead time insertion

,-p/a%" Spac" 8"c o# PWM

<)phase "F)step +,'( !pace -ector +,'

PWM Ca##i"# P"#io-1 .nput variable +wm%val controls the duration of a +,' cycle. .t should be populated by the system clock frequency "%lk( and +wm frequency "+wm4req( selection. The variable should be calculated as5

TTT.. "?( The input resolution of the !pace -ector +,' modulator signals 1S$lpha and 1S0eta is 9F)bit signed integer. system clock frequency. D"a- im" In%"# ion Lo4ic #ead time is inserted at the output of the +,' /eneration 'odule. The resolution is 9 clock cycle or ?;nsec at a ??.? ' 2 clock and is the same as those of the voltage command registers and the +,' carrier frequency register. owever, the actual +,' resolution "+wm%val( is limited by the

The dead time insertion logic chops off the high side commanded voltLseconds by the amount of dead time and adds the same amount of voltLseconds to the low side signal. Thus, it eliminates the complete high side turn on pulse if the commanded voltLseconds is less than the programmed dead time.

D"a- im" In%"# ion The dead time insertion logic inserts the programmed dead time between two high and low side of the gate signals within a phase. The dead time register is also double buffered to allow Non the flyO dead time change and control while +,' logic is inactive. !ymmetrical and $symmetrical 'ode &peration There are two modes of operation available for +,' waveform generation, namely the %enter $ligned !ymmetrical +,' "4igure( and the %enter $ligned $symmetrical +,' "4igure(The volt)sec can be changed every half a +,' cycle "Tpwm( since +wm Aoad occurs every half a +,' cycle "compare 4igure 5symmetrical pwm and 4igure 5asymmetrical +,'(. ,ith !ymmetrical +,' mode, the inverter voltage %onfig V ;(, the inverter voltage can be changed at two times the rate of the switching frequency. This will provide an increase in voltage control bandwidth, however, at the expense of increased current harmonic

A%'mm" #ica$ PWM Mo-" T/#""-P/a%" an- T!o-P/a%" Mo-+$a ion Three)phase and two)phase !pace -ector +,' modulation options are provided for the .3'%x<;?. The -olt)sec generated by the two +,' strategies are identical; however with <) phase modulation the switching losses can be reduced significantly, especially when high switching frequency "P9;Wh2( is employed. 4igure5 three)phase and two phase modulation shows the switching pattern for one +,' cycle when the voltage vector is inside sector 9

T/#"" P/a%" an- T!o P/a%" Mo-+$a ion The field Two +hase +,' of the +,' %onfig write register group provides selection of three)phase or two)phase modulation. The default setting is three)phase modulation. !uccessful operation of two)phase modulation in the entire speed operating range will depend on hardware configuration. .f the gate driver employs a bootstrap power supply strategy, disoperation will occur at low motor fundamental frequencies "X < 2( under two)phase modulation control. Sin+%oi-a$ P+$%" Wi- / Mo-+$a ion .n many industrial applications, !inusoidal +ulse ,idth 'odulation "!+,'(, also called !ine coded +ulse ,idth 'odulation, is used to control the inverter output voltage. !+,' maintains good performance of the drive in the entire range of operation between 2ero and KB percent of the value that would be reached by square)wave operation. .f the modulation index exceeds this value, linear relationship between modulation index and output voltage is not maintained and the over)modulation methods are required Spac" 8"c o# P+$%" Wi- / Mo-+$a ion $ different approach to !+,' is based on the space vector representation of voltages in the d, q plane. The d, q components are found by +ark transform, where the total power, as well as the impedance, remains unchanged.

4ig5 space vector shows B space vectors in according to B switching positions of inverter, -L is the phase)to)center voltage which is obtained by proper selection of adjacent vectors -9 and -<.

.nverter output voltage space vector

#etermination of !witching times The reference space vector -L is given by Equation "9(, where T9, T< are the intervals of application of vector -9 and -< respectively, and 2ero vectors -; and -K are selected for T;. -L T2 V -9 LT9 Y -< LT< Y -; L"T;*<( Y -K L"T;*<(TTT."@(

Spac" 8"c o# P+$%" Wi- / Mo-+$a ion 2con in+"-3 4ig. below shows that the inverter switching state for the period T9 for vector -9 and for vector -<, resulting switching patterns of each phase of inverter are shown in 4ig. pulse pattern of space vector +,'.

.nverter switching state for "a(-9, "b( -<

+ulse pattern of !pace vector +,' Compa#i%on .n 4ig5comparison, 1 is the phase to) center voltage containing the triple order harmonics that are generated by space vector +,', and 19 is the sinusoidal reference voltage. 0ut the triple order harmonics are not appeared in the phase)to)phase voltage as well. This leads to the higher modulation index compared to the !+,'.

Compa#i%on o0 SPWM an- Spac" 8"c o# PWM $s mentioned above, !+,' only reaches to KB percent of square wave operation, but the amplitude of maximum possible voltage is I; percent of square)wave in the case of space vector +,'. The maximum phase)to)center voltage by sinusoidal and space vector +,' are respectively -max V -dc*< 5 !inusoidal +,' -max V -dc*Z? 5 !pace -ector +,' ,here, -dc is #%)Aink voltage. This means that !pace -ector +,' can produce about 9: percent higher than !inusoidal +,' in output voltage.

S8M PWM T"c/ni*+" The +ulse ,idth modulation technique permits to obtain three phase system voltages, which can be applied to the controlled output. !pace -ector 'odulation "!-'( principle differs from other +,' processes in the fact that all three drive signals for the inverter will be created simultaneously. The implementation of !-' process in digital systems necessitates less operation time and also less program memory. The !-' algorithm is based on the principle of the space vector uL, which describes all three output voltages ua, ub and uc 5 uL V <*? . " ua Y a . ub Y a< . uc ( TTT":( ,here a V )9*< Y j . v?*< ,e can distinguish six sectors limited by eight discrete vectors u;TuK "fig5) inverter output voltage space vector(, which correspond to the <? V B possible switching states of the power switches of the inverter.

Spac" ("c o# Mo-+$a ion The amplitude of u; and uK equals ;. The other vectors u9TuF have the same amplitude and are F; degrees shifted. 0y varying the relative on)switching time Tc of the different vectors, the space vector uL and also the output voltages ua, ub and uc can be varied and is defined as5 ua V 3e " uL ( ub V 3e " uL . a)9( uc V 3e " uL . a)<( TTTT"F(

#uring a switching period Tc and considering for example the first sector, the vectors u;, u9 and u< will be switched on alternatively.

D"0ini ion o0 /" Spac" ("c o# #epending on the switching times t;, t9 and t< the space vector uL is defined as5 uL V 9*Tc . " t; . u; Y t9 . u9 Y t< . u< ( uL V t; . u; Y t9 . u9 Y t< . u<

uL V t9 . u9 Y t< . u< ,here

TTTT.. "K(

t; Y t9 Y t< V Tc and t; Y t9 Y t< V 9 t;, t9 and t< are the relative values of the on switching times. They are defined as5 t9 V m . cos " a Y p*F( t< V m . sin a t; V 9 ) t9 ) t<

Their values are implemented in a table for a modulation factor m V 9. Then it will be easy to calculate the space vector uL and the output voltages ua, ub and uc. The voltage vector uL can be provided directly by the optimal vector control laws w9, v sa and vsb. .n order to generate the phase voltages ua, ub and uc corresponding to the desired voltage vector uL the following !-' strategy is proposed.

FACTS
4lexible ac transmission systems, called facts, got in the recent years a well known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic devices. !everal facts) devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. $ number of new types of devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice. .n most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of substations and power lines. 4acts)devices provide a better adaptation to varying operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations.

The basic applications of facts)devices are5 > power flow control, > increase of transmission capability, > voltage control, > reactive power compensation, > stability improvement, > power quality improvement, > power conditioning, > flicker mitigation, > interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages. 4igure 9.9 shows the basic idea of facts for transmission systems. The usage of lines for active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. -oltage and stability limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different facts devices. .t can be seen that with growing line length, the opportunity for facts devices gets more and more important.

The influence of facts)devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short reaction times down to far below one second.

The development of facts)devices has started with the growing capabilities of power electronic components. #evices for high power levels have been made available in converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system. 4igure 9.< shows a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the facts)devices. 4or the facts side the taxonomy in terms of HdynamicH and HstaticH needs some explanation. The term HdynamicH is used to express the fast controllability of facts)devices provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the conventional devices. The term HstaticH means that the devices have no moving parts like mechanical switches to

perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the facts)devices can equally be static and dynamic.

The left column in figure 9.< contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with transformers. The facts)devices contain these elements as well but use additional power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of facts)devices uses thyristor valves or converters. These valves or converters are well known since several years. They have low losses

because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.

The right column of facts)devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source converters based today mainly on insulated gate bipolar transistors "./0T( or insulated gate commutated thyristors "./%T(. -oltage source converters provide a free controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the igbts or ./%T!. igh modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are required to compensate this.

Con0i4+#a ion% o0 0ac %--"(ic"%1 S/+n -"(ic"%1

The most used facts)device is the svc or the version with voltage source converter called statcom. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks are5 > reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses. > keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power. > compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground train systems. > compensation of thyristor converters e.g. .n conventional hvdc lines. > improvement of static or transient stability. $lmost half of the svc and more than half of the statcoms are used for industrial applications. .ndustry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require power quality. 4lickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of industrial processes due to

insufficient power quality. 3ailway or underground systems with huge load variations require svcs or statcoms.

S(c1
Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. !ince the transmitted load varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as well. The result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or even a voltage depression, at the extreme a voltage collapse. $ rapidly operating static var compensator "svc( can continuously provide the reactive power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various system conditions and thereby improve the power system transmission and distribution stability. App$ica ion% o0 /" %(c %'% "m% in #an%mi%%ion %'% "m%1 $. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability margin 0. To damp power oscillations %. To achieve effective voltage control

In a--i ion9 %(c% a#" a$%o +%"1. In #an%mi%%ion %'% "m% $. To reduce temporary over voltages 0. To damp sub synchronous resonances %. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems ). In #ac ion %'% "m%

$. To balance loads 0. To improve power factor %. To improve voltage regulation ,. In /(-c %'% "m% $. To provide reactive power to ac=dc converters .. In a#c 0+#nac"% $. To reduce voltage variations and associated light flicker .nstalling an svc at one or more suitable points in the network can increase transfer capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different network conditions. .n addition an svc can mitigate active power oscillations through voltage amplitude modulation. !vc installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important is the thyristor valve, i.e. !tack assemblies of series connected anti)parallel thyristors to provide controllability. $ir core reactors and high voltage ac capacitors are the reactive power elements used together with the thyristor valves. The step up connection of this equipment to the transmission voltage is achieved through a power transformer.

S(c &+i$-in4 &$oc:% an- (o$ a4" ; c+##"n c/a#ac "#i% ic

.n principle the svc consists of thyristor switched capacitors "T!%( and thyristor switched or controlled reactors "T!%*T!3(. The coordinated control of a combination of these branches varies the reactive power as shown in figure. The first commercial svc was installed in 9IK< for an electric arc furnace. &n transmission level the first svc was used in 9IKI. !ince then it is widely used and the most accepted facts)device.

S(c

S(c +%in4 a TCR an- an FC1

.n this arrangement, two or more fc "fixed capacitor( banks are connected to a T%3 "thyristor controlled reactor( through a step)down transformer. The rating of the reactor is chosen larger

than the rating of the capacitor by an amount to provide the maximum lagging vars that have to be absorbed from the system. 0y changing the firing angle of the thyristor controlling the reactor from I;[ to 9B;[, the reactive power can be varied over the entire range from maximum lagging vars to leading vars that can be absorbed from the system by this compensator.

S(c o0 /" FC;TCR 'p"1 The main disadvantage of this configuration is the significant harmonics that will be generated because of the partial conduction of the large reactor under normal sinusoidal steady) state operating condition when the svc is absorbing 2ero '-$3. These harmonics are filtered in

the following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled by arranging the T%3 and the secondary windings of the step)down transformer in delta connection. The capacitor banks with the help of series reactors are tuned to filter fifth, seventh, and other higher)order harmonics as a high)pass filter. 4urther losses are high due to the circulating current between the reactor and capacitor banks.

%omparison of the loss characteristics of T!%)T%3, T%3)4% compensators and synchronous condenser. These svcs do not have a short)time overload capability because the reactors are usually of the air)core type. .n applications requiring overload capability, T%3 must be designed for short)time overloading, or separate thyristor)switched overload reactors must be employed.

S(c +%in4 a TCR an- TSC1

This compensator overcomes two major shortcomings of the earlier compensators by reducing losses under operating conditions and better performance under large system

disturbances. .n view of the smaller rating of each capacitor bank, the rating of the reactor bank will be 9*n times the maximum output of the svc, thus reducing the harmonics generated by the reactor. .n those situations where harmonics have to be reduced further, a small amount of 4%! tuned as filters may be connected in parallel with the T%3.

S8C o0 com&in"- TSC an- TCR 'p"

,hen large disturbances occur in a power system due to load rejection, there is a possibility for large voltage transients because of oscillatory interaction between system and the svc capacitor bank or the parallel. The A% circuit of the svc in the fc compensator. .n the T!%) T%3 scheme, due to the flexibility of rapid switching of capacitor banks without appreciable disturbance to the power system, oscillations can be avoided, and hence the transients in the

system can also be avoided. The capital cost of this svc is higher than that of the earlier one due to the increased number of capacitor switches and increased control complexity.

S a com1
.n 9III the first svc with voltage source converter called statcom "static compensator( went into operation. The statcom has a characteristic similar to the synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost and lower operating and maintenance costs. $ statcom is build with thyristors with turn)off capability like /T& or today ./%T or with more and more ./0T!. The static line between the current limitations has a certain steepness determining the control characteristic for the voltage. The advantage of a statcom is that the reactive power provision is independent from the actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the svc. This means, that even during most severe contingencies, the statcom keeps its full capability. .n the distributed energy sector the usage of voltage source converters for grid interconnection is common practice today. The next step in statcom development is the combination with energy storages on the dc)side. The performance for power quality and balanced network operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and reactive power.

S a com % #+c +#" an- (o$ a4" ; c+##"n c/a#ac "#i% ic

!tatcoms are based on voltage sourced converter "-!\( topology and utili2e either gate) turn)off thyristors "/T&( or isolated gate bipolar transistors "./0T( devices. The statcom is a very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser. .f the statcom voltage, vs, "which is proportional to the dc bus voltage vc( is larger than bus voltage, E!, then leading or capacitive vars are produced. .f vs is smaller than E! then lagging or inductive vars are produced.

< p+$%"% % a com

The three phases statcom makes use of the fact that on a three phase, fundamental frequency, steady state basis, and the instantaneous power entering a purely reactive device must be 2ero. The reactive power in each phase is supplied by circulating the instantaneous real power between the phases. This is achieved by firing the /T&*diode switches in a manner that maintains the phase difference between the ac bus voltage E! and the statcom generated voltage vs. .deally it is possible to construct a device based on circulating instantaneous power which has no energy storage device "i.e no dc capacitor(. $ practical statcom requires some amount of energy storage to accommodate harmonic power and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real power is non)2ero. The maximum energy storage required for the statcom is much less than for a T%3*T!% type of svc compensator of comparable rating.

S a com "*+i(a$"n ci#c+i

!everal different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the statcom. 4undamental switching of the /T&*diode once per cycle can be used. This approach will minimi2e switching losses, but will generally utili2e more complex transformer topologies. $s an alternative, pulse width modulated "pwm( techniques, which turn on and off the /T& or ./0T

switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This approach allows for simpler transformer topologies at the expense of higher switching losses.

The F pulse statcom using fundamental switching will of course produce the F n]9 harmonics. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics. These methods include the basic 9< pulse configuration with parallel star * delta transformer connections, a complete elimination of :th and Kth harmonic current using series connection of star*star and star*delta transformers and a quasi 9< pulse method with a single star)star transformer, and two secondary windings, using control of firing angle to produce a ?;]^^phase shift between the two F pulse bridges. This method can be extended to produce a <@ pulse and a @B pulse statcom, thus eliminating harmonics even further. $nother possible approach for harmonic cancellation is a multi)level configuration which allows for more than one switching element per level and therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has a staircase effect, dependent on the number of levels. This staircase voltage can be controlled to eliminate harmonics.

S+&% a ion !i / a % a com

S"#i"% -"(ic"%1
!eries devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically switched compensations to the thyristor controlled series compensation "tcsc( or even voltage source converter based devices. T/" main app$ica ion% a#"1 > reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line, > reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power transmissions, > improvement of system damping resp. #amping of oscillations, > limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations, > avoidance of loop flows resp. +ower flow adjustments.

TCSC1

Thyristor controlled series capacitors "tcsc( address specific dynamical problems in transmission systems. 4irstly it increases damping when large electrical systems are interconnected. !econdly it can overcome the problem of sub synchronous resonance "ssr(, a phenomenon that involves an interaction between large thermal generating units and series compensated transmission systems. The tcscHs high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The tcsc also can regulate steady)state power flow within its rating limits. 4rom a principal technology point of view, the tcsc resembles the conventional series capacitor. $ll the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including the thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank. Aikewise the control and protection is located on ground potential together with other auxiliary systems. 4igure shows the principle setup of a tcsc and its operational diagram. The firing angle and the thermal limits of the thyristors determine the boundaries of the operational diagram.

A-(an a4"%

%ontinuous control of desired compensation level #irect smooth control of power flow within the network .mproved capacitor bank protection Aocal mitigation of sub synchronous resonance "ssr(. This permits higher levels of compensation in networks where interactions with turbine)generator torsional vibrations or with other control or measuring systems are of concern.

#amping of electromechanical ";.:)< h2( power oscillations which often arise between areas in a large interconnected power network. These oscillations are due to the dynamics of inter area power transfer and often exhibit poor damping when the aggregate power tranfer over a corridor is high relative to the transmission strength.

SHUNT AND SERIES DE8ICES

#ynamic power flow controller $ new device in the area of power flow control is the dynamic power flow controller "#4%(. The #4% is a hybrid device between a phase shifting transformer "+!T( and switched series compensation. $ functional single line diagram of the dynamic flow controller is shown in figure 9.9I. The dynamic flow controller consists of the following components5 > a standard phase shifting transformer with tap)changer "+!T(

> series)connected thyristor switched capacitors and reactors "T!%*T%3( > a mechanically switched shunt capacitor "'!%(. "This is optional depending on the system reactive power requirements(

0ased on the system requirements, a #4% might consist of a number of series T!% or T!3 The mechanically switched shunt capacitor "'!%( will provide voltage support in case of overload and other conditions. 8ormally the reactance of reactors and the capacitors are selected based on a binary basis to result in a desired stepped reactance variation. .f a higher power flow resolution is needed, a reactance equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be added.

The switching of series reactors occurs at 2ero current to avoid any harmonics. control as well. The operation of a #4% is based on the following rules5

owever,

in general, the principle of phase)angle control used in tcsc can be applied for a continuous

> T!%*T!3 are switched when a fast response is required. > the relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the T!%*T%3. > the switching of the +!T tap)changer should be minimi2ed particularly for the currents higher than normal loading. > the total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimi2ed by the operation of the '!%, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors.

.n order to visuali2e the steady state operating range of the #4%, we assume an inductance in parallel representing parallel transmission paths. The overall control objective in steady state would be to control the distribution of power flow between the branch with the #4% and the parallel path. This control is accomplished by control of the injected series voltage. The +!T "assuming a quadrature booster( will inject a voltage in quadrature with the node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature with the throughput current. $ssuming that the power flow has a load factor close to one, the two parts of the series voltage will be close to collinear. owever, in terms of speed of control, influence on reactive power balance and effectiveness at high*low loading the two parts of the series voltage has quite different characteristics. The steady state control range for loadings up to rated current is illustrated in figure 9.<;, where the x)axis corresponds to the throughput current and the y)axis corresponds to the injected series voltage.

4ig9.<;. &perational diagram of a #4% &peration in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power through the #4%, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds to increasing the power flow through the #4%. The slope of the line passing through the origin "at which the tap is at 2ero and T!%*T!3 are bypassed( depends on the short circuit reactance of the +!T. !tarting at rated current "< ka( the short circuit reactance by itself provides an injected voltage "approximately <;W- in this case(. .f more inductance is switched in and*or the tap is increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the #4% decreases "and the flow on parallel branches increases(. The operating point moves along lines parallel to the arrows in the figure. The slope of these arrows depends on the si2e of the parallel reactance. The maximum series voltage in the first quadrant is obtained when all inductive steps are switched in and the tap is at its maximum. 8ow, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases "due e.g. To changing loading of the system( the series voltage will decrease. $t 2ero current, it will not matter whether the T!%*T!3 steps are in or out, they will not contribute to the series voltage.

%onsequently, the series voltage at 2ero current corresponds to rated +!T series voltage. 8ext, moving into the second quadrant, the operating range will be limited by the line corresponding to maximum tap and the capacitive step being switched in "and the inductive steps by)passed(. .n this case, the capacitive step is approximately as large as the short circuit reactance of the +!T, giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second quadrant.

UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER1

The upfc is a combination of a static compensator and static series compensation. .t acts as a shunt compensating and a phase shifting device simultaneously.

4ig9.<9. +rinciple configuration of an upfc

The upfc consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected via two voltage source converters with a common dc)capacitor. The dc)circuit allows the active power exchange between shunt and series transformer to control the phase shift of the series voltage. This setup, as shown in figure 9.<9, provides the full controllability for voltage and power flow. The series converter needs to be protected with a thyristor bridge. #ue to the high efforts for the

voltage source converters and the protection, an upfc is getting quite expensive, which limits the practical applications where the voltage and power flow control is required simultaneously.

OPERATIN7 PRINCIPLE OF UPFC

The basic components of the upfc are two voltage source inverters "vsis( sharing a common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through coupling transformers. &ne vsi is connected to in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series transformer. $ basic upfc functional scheme is shown in fig.9

The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system "-!%(, of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and reactive power flows on the transmission line. !o, this inverter will exchange active and reactive power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series inverter, and the active power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is operated in such a way as to demand this dc terminal power "positive or negative( from the line keeping the voltage across the

storage capacitor vdc constant. !o, the net real power absorbed from the line by the upfc is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their transformers. The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive power with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point. The two vsi7s can work independently of each other by separating the dc side. !o in that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a statcom that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point. .nstead, the series inverter is operating as sssc that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and hence the power low on the transmission line. The upfc has many possible operating modes. .n particular, the shunt inverter is operating in such a way to inject a controllable current, ish into the transmission line. The shunt inverter can be controlled in two different modes5 -ar control mode5 the reference input is an inductive or capacitive var request. The shunt inverter control translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt current request and adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. 4or this mode of control a feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, vdc, is also required. $utomatic voltage control mode5 the shunt inverter reactive current is automatically regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection to a reference value. 4or this mode of control, voltage feedback signals are obtained from the sending end bus feeding the shunt coupling transformer. The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with the line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage can be obtained in several ways. #irect voltage injection mode5 the reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase angle of the series voltage. +hase angle shifter emulation mode5 the reference input is phase displacement

between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Aine impedance emulation mode5 the reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line impedance $utomatic power flow control mode5 the reference inputs are values of p and q to maintain on the transmission line despite system changes.

DISTRIBUTION STATIC COMPENSATOR 2DSTATCOM3

$ #)!T$T%&' "#istribution !tatic %ompensator(, which is schematically depicted in 4igure, consists of a two)level -oltage !ource %onverter "-!%(, a dc energy storage device, a coupling transformer connected in shunt to the distribution network through a coupling transformer. The -!% converts the dc voltage across the storage device into a set of three)phase ac output voltages. These voltages are in phase and coupled with the ac system through the reactance of the coupling transformer. !uitable adjustment of the phase and magnitude of the #) !T$T%&' output voltages allows effective control of active and reactive power exchanges between the #)!T$T%&' and the ac system. !uch configuration allows the device to absorb or generate controllable active and reactive power. The -!% connected in shunt with the ac system provides a multifunctional topology which can be used for up to three quite distinct purposes5 9. -oltage regulation and compensation of reactive power; <. %orrection of power factor; and ?. Elimination of current harmonics. ere, such device is employed to provide continuous voltage regulation using an indirectly controlled converter.

4igure) the shunt injected current . sh corrects the voltage sag by adjusting the voltage drop across the system impedance _th. The value of .sh can be controlled by adjusting the output voltage of the converter. The shunt injected current .sh can be written as,

The complex power injection of the #)!T$T%&' can be expressed as,

.t may be mentioned that the effectiveness of the #)!T$T%&' in correcting voltage sag depends on the value of _th or fault level of the load bus. ,hen the shunt injected current .sh is kept in quadrature with -A, the desired voltage correction can be achieved without injecting any active power into the system. &n the other hand, when the value of . sh is minimi2ed, the same voltage correction can be achieved with minimum apparent power injection into the system. The control scheme for the #)!T$T%&' follows the same principle as for #-3. The switching frequency is set at @K: 2. TEST SYSTEM 4igure shows the test system used to carry out the various #)!T$T%&' simulations.

!ingle line diagram of the test system for #)!T$T%&'.

MATHEMATICAL MODELIN7 OF DSTATCOM1 #!T$T%&' is a shunt device which hast the capability to inject or absorb both active and reactive current. The reactive power output of a #)!T$T%&' is proportional to the system voltage rather than the square of the system voltage, as in a capacitor. This makes #!T$T%&' more suitable rather than using capacitors. Though storing energy is a problem for long term basis, considering real power compensation for voltage control is not an ideal case. !o most of the operations considered is steady stat only and the power exchange in such a condition is reactive. To reali2e such a model, it can be said that a #!T$T%&' consists of a small #% capacitor and a voltage source converter

MODELIN7 OF THE DSTATCOM;ESS1 $ #!T$T%&' consists of a three)phase voltage source inverter shunt)connected to the distribution network by means of a coupling transformer, as depicted in 4ig. 9. .ts topology allows the device to generate a set of three almost sinusoidal voltages at the fundamental frequency, with controllable amplitude and phase angle. .n general, the #!T$T%&' can be utili2ed for providing voltage regulation, power factor correction, harmonics compensation and

load leveling D?E. The addition of energy storage through an appropriate interface to the power custom device leads to a more flexible integrated controller. The ability of the #!T$T%&'*E!! of supplying effectively extra active power allows expanding its compensating actions, reducing transmission losses and enhancing the operation of the electric grid.

0asic circuit of a #!T$T%&' integrated with energy storage -arious types of energy storage technologies can be incorporated into the dc bus of the #!T$T%&', namely superconducting magnetic energy storage "!'E!(, super capacitors "!%(, flywheels and battery energy storage systems "0E!!(, among others. owever, lead)acid batteries offer a more economical solution for applications in the distribution level that require small devices for supplying power for short periods of time and intermittently. 'oreover, 0E!! can be directly added to the dc bus of the inverter, thus avoiding the necessity of an extra coupling interface and thus reducing investment costs. The integrated #!T$T%&'*0E!! system proposed in 4ig. < is basically composed of the inverter "indistinctly called converter(, the coupling step)up

transformer, the line connection filter, the dc bus capacitors, and the array of batteries. !ince batteries acts as a stiff dc voltage source for the inverter, the use of a conventional voltage source inverter appears as the most cost)effective solution for this application. The presented -!. corresponds to a dc to ac switching power inverter using .nsulated /ate 0ipolar Transistors "./0T(. .n the distribution voltage level, the switching device is generally the ./0T due to its lower switching losses and reduced si2e. .n addition, the power rating of custom power devices is relatively low. $s a result, the output voltage control of the #!T$T%&'*0E!! can be achieved through pulse width modulation "+,'( by using high)power fast)switched ./0Ts. This topology supports the future use of +,' control even for higher power utility applications. The -!. structure is designed to make use of a three)level pole structure, also called neutral point clamped "8+%(, instead of a standard two)level six)pulse inverter structure This three)level inverter topology generates a more sinusoidal output voltage waveform than conventional structures without increasing the switching frequency. The additional flexibility of a level in the output voltage is used to assist in the output waveform construction. .n this way, the harmonic performance of the inverter is improved, also obtaining better efficiency and reliability respect to the conventional two)level inverter. $ drawback of the 8+% inverters is that the split dc capacitor banks must maintain a constant voltage level of half the dc bus voltage. &therwise, additional distortion will be contributed to the output voltage of the #!T$T%&'*0E!!. .n this work, the use of battery energy storage in an arrangement with neutral point "8+( permits to independently contributing to the charge of the capacitors %9 and %<, and thus to maintain the voltage balance of the dc capacitors without using additional control techniques. The connection to the utility grid is made by using low pass sine wave filters in order to reduce the perturbation on the distribution system from high)frequency switching harmonics generated by +,' control. The total harmonic distortion "T #( of the output voltage of the inverter combined with a sine wave filter is less than : C at full rated unity power factor load. Typically, leakage inductances of the step)up transformer windings are high enough as to build the sine wave filter simply by adding a bank of capacitors in the +%%. .n this way, an effective filter is obtained at low costs, permitting to improve the quality of the voltage waveforms introduced by the +,' control to the power utility and thus meeting the requirements of .EEE !tandard :9I)9II< relative to power quality.

#etailed model of the proposed !T$T%&'*0E!! Ba%ic Con0i4+#a ion an- Op"#a ion o0 DSTATCOM1 The #)!T$T%&' is a three)phase and shunt connected power electronics based device. .t is connected near the load at the distribution systems. The major components of a #) !T$T%&' are shown in 4igure 9. .t consists of a dc capacitor, three)phase inverter "./0T, thyristor( module, ac filter, coupling transformer and a control strategy. The basic electronic block of the #)!T$T%&' is the voltage)sourced inverter that converts an input dc voltage into a three)phase output voltage at fundamental frequency.

0asic 0uilding 0locks of the #)!T$T%&'

The #)!T$%&' employs an inverter to convert the #% link voltage -dc on the capacitor to a voltage source of adjustable magnitude and phase. Therefore the #!T$T%&' can be treated as a voltage)controlled source. The #)!T$T%&' can also be seen as a current) controlled source. 4igure shows the inductance A and resistance 3 which represent the equivalent circuit elements of the step)down transformer and the inverter will is the main component of the #)!T$T%&'. The voltage -i is the effective output voltage of the #)!T$T%&' and ` is the power angle. The reactive power output of the #)!T$T%&' inductive or capacitive depending can be either on the operation mode of the #)!T$T%&'. 3eferring to figure 9, the controller of the # !T$T%&' is used to operate the inverter in such a way that the phase angle between the inverter voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted so that the #)!T$T%&' generates or absorbs the desired -$3 at the point of connection. The phase of the output voltage of the thyristor)based inverter, -i, is controlled in the same way as the distribution system voltage, -s. 4igure < shows the three basic operation modes of the #!T$T%&' output current, ., which varies depending upon -i. .f -i is equal to -s, the reactive power is 2ero and the #)!T$T%&' does not generate or absorb reactive power. ,hen -i is greater than -s, the #!T$T%&' shows an inductive reactance connected at its terminal. The current, ., flows through the transformer reactance from the #)!T$T%&' to the ac system, and the device generates capacitive reactive power. .f -s is greater than -i, the #) !T$T%&' shows the system as a capacitive reactance. Then the current flows from the ac system to the #)!T$T%&', resulting in the device absorbing inductive reactive power.

8o)load mode "-s V -i(

b( %apacitive mode "-i P-s(

c( .nductive mode "-i X-s(

Op"#a ion mo-"% o0 D-STATCOM

4./ shows the three basic operation modes of the #!T$T%&' output current, ., which varies depending upon -i. .f -i is equal to -s, the reactive power is 2ero and the #)!T$T%&' does not generate or absorb reactive power. ,hen -i is greater than -s, the #)!T$T%&' shows an inductive reactance connected at its terminal. The current ., flows through the transformer reactance from the #)!T$T%&' to the ac system, and the device generates

capacitive reactive power. .f -s is greater than -i, the #)!T$T%&' shows the system as a capacitive reactance. Then the current flows from the ac system to the #)!T$T%&', resulting in the device absorbing inductive reactive power. COMPENSATION SCHEME OF DSTATCOM1 The #!T$T%&' is a #%*$% switching power)converter composed of an air)cooled voltage source converter. 0asically, the #!T$T%&' is used to suppress voltage variations and control reactive power in phase with the system voltage. The #!T$T%&' produces phase) synchroni2ed output voltage, therefore, it can compensate for inductive and capacitive currents linearly and continuously. $ctive and reactive power trade between the power system and the #!T$T%&' is accomplished by controlling the phase angle difference between the two voltages. .f the output voltage of the #!T$T%&' -. is in phase with the bus terminal voltage -T, and -. is greater than -T, the #!T$T%&' provides reactive power to the system. .f -. is smaller than -T, the #!T$T%&' absorbs reactive power from the power system. .deally, -T and -. have the same phase, but actually -T and -. have a little phase difference to compensate for the loss of transformer winding and inverter switching, so it absorbs some real power from system. 4ig. shows the #!T$T%&' vector diagrams, which show the inverter output voltage -., system voltage -T, reactive voltage -A and line current . in correlation with the magnitude and phase a. 4ig. a and 4ig. b explain how -. and -T produce inductive or capacitive power by controlling the magnitude of the inverter output voltage -. in phase with each other. 4ig. c and 4ig. d show that the #!T$T%&' produces or absorbs real power with -. and -T having a phase difference ba

-ector diagrams of #!T$T%&' 4igure shows a radial type electric power distribution system feeding an unbalanced load. $ #!T$%&' is installed in parallel with the unbalance load for on)site load compensation. The reactive power output of the #!T$T%&' in each phase, which is inductive or capacitive, can be independently controlled by the controller of the #!T$T%&' for real)time load compensation. The method of symmetrical components is used in the paper for deriving the compensation scheme of the #!T$T%&'. 4irst in 4ig. 9, the line)to)line load bus voltages are transferred to positive) and negative)sequence components by using the symmetrical components transformation matrix DTE. The three)phase unbalanced load currents in the a)b)c reference frame can be expressed as

$ radial distribution system with an unbalance load and a #!T$T%&'

$pplying the symmetrical components method transfers the three)phase load currents to positive) and negative)sequence components, as shown the linnet) line voltages are assumed equal to simplify the derivation of the compensation scheme.

The detection of the load power can be obtained via two wattmeter method, as shown in,the positive) and negative)sequence load currents are represented with line)to)line active and reactive powers, as shown

4or fast load compensation, the #!T$T%&' should compensate the imaginary part of the positive)sequence load current and the entire negative)sequence load current in as soon as possible. .n this way, the power source supplies only real part of the positive)sequence load current. !ince no 2ero sequence component appears in three)phase three)wire system, the compensation current can be derived from. 4inally, the needed compensation current of the #!T$T%&' for load compensation is obtained, as shown

$ccording to, the #!T$T%&' is now treated as a current)controlled source to locally supply the needed compensation current for on)site load compensation. .n the implementation, a current)regulated +,' "%3+,'( inverter is used as the power stage of the #!T$T%&' for generating the compensation current, as shown in 4ig. 9. .n order to keep the dc)link voltage of the inverter in the #!T$T%&' at an assigned level during operation, the #!T$T%&' needs to absorb active power from the power source to supply the power losses and charge the dc)link capacitor in the #!T$T%&'. ence, use of a +). type feedback controller in the #!T$T%&' controller regulates the active current c .rc of the #!T$T%&', as shown in "9<(. The overall compensation scheme of the #!T$T%&' is now completed.

4or fast real)time compensation, the #!T$T%&' needs to detect the line)to)line power data very quickly to calculate the needed compensation current, as shown in "B(. The needed line)to) line power data are the controller of the #!T$T%&'. $ fast detection method for these power data is

described in D9E. 'oreover, the three)phase power data measurements can also be incorporated in

,ith a high performance #!+)based system, the compensation scheme and other necessary functions regarding power detections can be implemented very easily. .n this way, the necessity for measuring instruments is reduced. This significantly reduces the constructing cost of the #!T$T%&' and enhances the system reliability

0lock diagram of the proposed #!T$T%&' controller. 4igure shows the block diagram of the proposed #!T$T%&' controller for the #!T$T%&'. $ccording to "99(, the #!T$T%&' controller calculates the compensation current commands by using line)to)line voltages and line current. The instantaneous compensation currents are obtained with the aid of the synchronous signal sin ]t via a +AA circuit. $dditionally, the dc)link voltage is maintained by supplying a real part of compensation current c .rc via a +). controller, as shown in "9<(. ,ith the same synchronous signal sin ]t, the instantaneous current for active power balance is also yielded. %ombining the above two currents generates the needed three)phase current command signals d^eL L L % , % , % a b c i i i

for the #!T$T%&'. The paper employees a current)regulated +,' "%3+,'( inverter as the power stage of the proposed #!T$T%&'. The %3+,' inverter uses the error signals from the comparison results of the reference signals d^eL L L % , % , % a b c i i i

and the actual compensation currents % , % , % a b c i i i

as the

input. This generates the needed compensation current of the #!T$T%&' for fast load compensation.

CONTROL OF THE DSTATCOM;BESS The proposed multi)level control scheme for the integrated #!T$T%&'* 0E!! device, consisting of an external, middle and internal level, is based on concepts of instantaneous power on the synchronous)rotating dq reference frame as depicted in 4ig. ?. 3otating reference frame is used because it offers higher accuracy than stationary frame)based techniques. $ll blocks make use of control variables that are feasible to be locally measured. A. E= "#na$ L"("$ Con #o$ The external level control "left side in 4ig. ?( is responsible for determining the active and reactive power exchange between the enhanced custom power device and the utility system. The proposed external level control scheme is designed for performing three major control objectives, that is the voltage control mode "-%'(, which is activated when switch !9 is in position a, the power factor control mode "+4%'(, activated in position b, and the active power control mode "$+%'( that is always activated. The standard control loop of the external level consists in controlling the voltage at the +%% of the #!T$T%&'*0E!! through the modulation of the reactive component of the output current. To this aim, the instantaneous voltage at the +%% is computed by using a synchronous)rotating orthogonal reference frame. Thus, by applying +ark7s transformation, the instantaneous values of the three)phase ac bus voltages are transformed into dq components, vd and vq respectively. This operation permits to design a simpler control system than using abc components, by employing +. compensators. $ voltage regulation droop "or slope( 3d is included in order to allow the terminal voltage of the #!T$T%&'*0E!! to vary in proportion with the compensating reactive current. .n this way, a higher operation stability of the integrated device is obtained in cases that more fast)response compensators are operating in the area. $s a result, the +. controller with droop characteristics The +4%' corresponds to a variation of the reactive power control mode, being the last controller similar to the $+%' but changing active components by reactive ones. .n the power factor control mode, the reactive power reference is set to 2ero in order to provide all the reactive power demand at the consumer side and thus being able to maintain unity power factor.

The reactive power measurement is carried out at the customer supply side and is used as a reference for the +4%'. $ standard +. compensator is included to eliminate the steady)state error in the reactive current reference computation. The integral action gives the controller a large gain at low frequencies that results in eliminating the post)transient current offset. The $+%' allows controlling the active power exchanged with the electric system. This control mode compares the reference power set with the actual measured value in order to eliminate the steady)state active current offset via a +. compensator. .n this way, the active power exchange between the #!T$T%&'*0E!! and the +! can be controlled so as to force the batteries to absorb active power when +r is negative, or to inject active power when +r is positive. The active power limits have been established with priority over the reactive power ones. .n this way, +max and +min dynamically adjust in real)time the reactive power available from the #!T$T%&'*0E!! device, through constrains fmax and fmin. $s during a fault or a post) fault transient of the electric system, the instantaneous voltage vector in the +%%, vd may greatly reduce its magnitude, the controllers will tend to raise the output active and reactive currents. Therefore the current ratings need to be independently restricted. .t is significant to note that as digital signal processing is currently used to implement control techniques, anti)aliasing filtering composed of analog <nd order low)pass filters is included in the measurement system in order to restrict the input signals bandwidth and thus to approximately satisfy the !hannon) 8yquist sampling theorem. B. Mi--$" L"("$ Con #o$ The middle level control makes the expected output to dynamically track the reference values set by the external level. .n order to derive the control algorithm for this block, a dynamic model of the integrated #!T$T%&'*0E!! controller needs to be set up. 4or this purpose, a simplified scheme of the #!T$T%&'*0E!! equivalent circuit is used, that is depicted in 4ig. The #!T$T%&' is considered as a voltage source that is shunt)connected to the network through the inductance As, accounting for the equivalent leakage of the step)up coupling transformer and the series resistance 3s, representing the transformers winding resistance and -!. semiconductors conduction losses. The mutual inductance ' represents the equivalent magneti2ing inductance of the step)up transformers.

.n the dc side, the equivalent capacitance of the two dc bus capacitors is described by %d*< whereas the switching losses of the -!. and power loss in the capacitors are considered by 3p. The 0E!! is represented by an ideal dc voltage source -b, and a series resistance 3b, accounting for the battery internal resistance. The self)discharge and leakage as well as the capacity of batteries are represented by a parallel combination of a resistance and a capacitor . 0oth values are included into 3p and %d*<, respectively. The dynamics equations governing the instantaneous values of the three)phase output voltages in the ac side of the #!T$T%&' and the current exchanged with the utility grid are given by "9( and "<(.

!implified scheme of the #!T$T%&' integrated with 0E!!

C. In "#na$ L"("$ Con #o$1 The internal level is responsible for generating the switching signals for the twelve valves of the three)level -!., according to the control mode "sinusoidal +,'( and types of valves "./0Ts( used. 4ig. ? "right side( shows a basic scheme of the internal level control of the #!T$T%&'*0E!!. This level is mainly composed of a line synchroni2ation module and a three)phase three)level +,' firing pulses generator for the #!T$T%&' -!.. The line synchroni2ation module consists mainly of a phase locked loop "+AA(. This circuit is a feedback control system used to automatically synchroni2e the #!T$T%&'*0E!! device switching pulses; through the phase ! of the inverse coordinate transformation from dq to abc components, with the positive sequence components of the ac voltage vector at the +%% "vq(. The design of the +AA is based on concepts of instantaneous power theory in the dq reference frame. %oordinate transformations from abc to dq components in the voltage and current measurement system are also synchroni2ed through the +AA. .n the case of the sinusoidal +,' pulses generator block, the controller of the -!. generates pulses for the carrier)based three)phase +,' inverter using three)level topology. Thus, the expected sinusoidal)based output voltage waveform -abcL of the #!T$%&'*0E!!, which is set by the middle level control, is compared to two positive and negative triangular signals generated by the carriers generator for producing three state +,' vectors "9, ;, )9(. These states are decoded by the states)to)pulses decoder via a look)up)table that relates each state with the corresponding firing pulse for each ./0T of the four ones in each leg of the three) phase three)level -!..

MODELLIN7 OF CASE STUDY

DESCRIPTION OF D-STATCOM OPERATION
$ #)!T$T%&' is a shunt device that regulates the system -oltage by absorbing or generating reactive power at a point of %oupling connection. The schematic diagram of a #!T$T%&' .s shown in 4ig 9. The #)!T$T%&' is a solid !tate #%*$% power switching converter that consists mainly &f a three)phase +,' voltage source converter "-!%( bridge aving six igbts with associated anti)parallel diodes. .t is %onnected to the distribution network via the impedance of the %oupling transformer. $ #%)link capacitor provides constant #% link voltage.

4ig. 9. !implified power system equipped with a #)!T$T%&' The output voltage of the #)!T$T%&' is generated by a #%*$% voltage source converter operated from an energy storage capacitor. 4rom the #% input voltage, provided by a three)phase output voltages at the frequency of the $% power system. Each output voltage is in phase with and coupled to the corresponding $% voltage via coupling reactance. 0y varying the magnitude of output voltage produced, the reactive power exchange between #)!T$T%&' and $% system

is controlled. .f the amplitude of output voltage is increased "or decreased( above the $% system voltage, the converter generates "or absorbs( reactive power for the $% system. #!T$T%&' acts as a shunt compensator connected in parallel to the system so that it can inject appropriate compensation currents. The #) !T$T%&' has several advantages, compared to a conventional static var compensator "!-%(. .t gives faster responses and can produce reactive power at low voltage. $lso, it does not require thyristor)controlled reactors "T%3( or thyristor)switched capacitors "T!%( that normally produce low order harmonics.

BRIEF OF THE INSTANTANEOUS POWER THEORY

$s the name implied, the instantaneous power theory is based on a definition of instantaneous real and reactive powers in time domain. .t is very useful not only in the steady)state but also in the transient state analysis for both three)phase systems with or without a neutral conductor. To illustrate the theory, let consider a set of instantaneous three phase quantity, for example a v , b v and c v . .t starts with transforming a set of three)phase variables in the abc into ag 0 coordinates. This transformation is so)called as the %lark transformation as described follows.

>>>>>. 213

>>>>>>> 2)3

.n three)phase, three)wire systems, there is no 2ero sequence components. .f 0 v and 0 i are both neglected, instantaneous voltage, (, and current phasors, i, can be defined from their corresponding instantaneous a and g components as follows

TTT.. "?( TTT. "@( 4rom "?( and "@(, instantaneous complex powers, %, can be defined as the product of the instantaneous voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of the instantaneous current phasor given in ":(. TTTTT ":( ,here, is the instantaneous active power is the instantaneous reactive power The instantaneous complex power is useful. .t can be applied for transient or steady)state analysis. The following equation is a compact form for the instantaneous real and reactive power definition and its inversion.

>>>>> 2<3

>>>>> 2?3 >>>>>>. 2@3 >>>>>>.. 2A3

4ig. <. %oncept of shunt current compensation

4ig. ?. %ontrol block of shunt current compensation based on the instantaneous power theory These two powers can be separated into average components " components " and and ( and oscillating

( as shown in "B( and "I(. The average values of both p and q agree with

conventional real and reactive powers in $% circuits. The oscillating terms that naturally produce a 2ero mean give additional oscillating power flow without contribution of the energy transfer neither from the source to the load nor from the load to the source. &ne important application of the instantaneous power theory is the shunt current compensation as shown in 4ig. <. To achieve the compensation, the oscillating components of p and q must be eliminated. The powers to be compensated can be simply determined by eliminating the oscillating real and reactive power components. $ssume that the instantaneous powers of load and line current are calculated. The instantaneous current references to minimi2e the oscillating terms can be established with some efficient concepts. 4ig. ? shows a general idea of shunt current compensation based on the instantaneous power theory described in this section. PROPOSED CONTROL STRATE7Y FOR D-STACOM .n general, power compensation by #)!T$%&' can have various functions such as elimination of power oscillation, improvement of power factor, elimination of harmonic current, etc. 1nder a balanced three)phase supply condition, some criteria must be met to optimi2e the overall system

compensation. The research conducted by aimed to compensate the source current become purely sinusoidal and deliver the minimum average real power to the load. $lthough under non) linear loading it can guarantee only one optimal criterion, in this paper multiple objectives for shunt power compensation are proposed. .n addition, power factor correction of a protected load can be included in the control scheme by 2eroing reactive power supplied by the source. $s mentioned previously, the compensator must supply the oscillating power components to the load. .n order to compensate the oscillating power flow by means of +,' converters, the #% voltage across the #% link capacitor must be large enough and kept constant at that value to stabili2e the compensation. Therefore, #% link voltage regulator must be added to the control loop. To separate the oscillating real power components a low)pass filter is used. Together with the switching and ohmic losses of the +,' converter, the instantaneous real power reference is formed. !imilarly, the instantaneous reactive power reference can be set as 2ero to achieve unity power factor. .n practice, the reference signals for generating the switching pattern to drive ./0T gates are current waveforms, modified to equate the compensating current in ag coordinates as expressed. Therefore, the ag current is transformed back to the abc coordinate for switching pattern generation as described. ,ith this power factor correction, the reactive power regulator is also added to the loop as shown in 4ig. @. The overview of the proposed control scheme can be depicted as shown in 4ig. :.

MATLAB DESI7N OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS D-STATCOM CASE I1

So+#c" (o$ a4" 28%a&c3 an- c+##"n 2I%a&c3

Po!"# 0ac o#

T/#"" p/a%" Ac i(" po!"# an- #"ac i(" po!"#

Dc (o$ a4"

D-STATCOM CASE II1

So+#c" (o$ a4" 28%a&c3 an- c+##"n 2I%a&c3

Po!"# 0ac o#

T/#"" p/a%" Ac i(" po!"# an- #"ac i(" po!"#

Dc (o$ a4"

CONCLUSION
This paper presents a modified control scheme to compensate a distribution feeder loading with non)linear loads. The compensation consists of three main objectives that are i( regulation of real powers delivering to loads, ii( regulation of #% link voltage to ensure +,' converter operation, and iii( correction of power factor. 'odification of the control scheme made in this paper is to add the reactive power regulation into the control loop. ,ith 2ero reactive power reference, unity power factor can be achieved. $s a result, the modified control scheme can regulate #% link voltage and real power delivery at specified level while reactive power drawn from the load was cancelled by that injected from #)!T$T%&'.

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,iley, <;;K. D<E Q. $. 'omoh, Electric +ower #istribution, $utomation, +rotection and %ontrol, 8ew Jork, 1!$5 %3% +ress, <;;B. D?E 8. /. ingorani and A. /yu/yi, 1nderstanding 4$%T! %oncept and Technology of 4lexible $% ransmission !ystem, 8ew Jork, 1!$.5.EEE +ress, <;;;. D@E 8. /. ingorani, N.ntroducing custom powerO, .EEE !pectrum, Qune 9II:, pp. @9 = @B. D:E $. /hosh and /. Aedwich, +ower quality enhancement using custom power devices,'assachusetts, 1!$.5 Wluwer $cademic +ublishers,<;;<.

DFE $.A. &limpo and E. $cha, N'odeling and analysis of custom power systems by +!%$#*E'T#%,O .EEE Trans. +ower #elivery, vol. 9K, no. 9, pp. <FF)<K<, Qan. <;;<. DKE +. +ohjanheimo and E. Aakervi, N!teady state modeling of custom power components in power distribution networks,O in +roc. .EEE +ower Engineering !ociety winter 'eeting, vol. @, Qan. <;;;, pp. <I@I) <I:@. DBE $. $dya, N$pplication of #)!T$T%&' for isolated systemsO, .EEE 3egion 9; %onference "TE8%&'(, -ol. ?, 8ov. <;;@, pp. ?:9)?:@. DIE W. !omsai and T. Wulworawanichpong, N'odeling, simulation and control of #)!T$T%&' using $T+*E'T+,O .n armonics and fuality of +ower, <;;B. .% f+ <;;B. 9?th .nternational %onference on. pp. 9) @, <;;B. D9;E %. !umpavakup, and T. Wulworawanichpong, N#istribution -oltage 3egulation 1nder Three)+hase 4ault 0y 1sing #)!T$T%&'O, The .nternational %onference on Electric +ower and Energy !ystems "E+E! <;;B(, pp.B::)B:I, Quly <;;B.