Cyclic Symmetric Modal Analysis

Full model of bladed disk assembly
Harish N. Dave Lalit Kr. Mishra

2012, Quality Engineering and Software Technologies, Inc. All rights reserved. UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

2
Technical Report
on
Cyclic Symmetric Modal Analysis

Sourabh Sawant
Raghavendra S S
Biju Kumar
Girish Kulkarni
Suresh S
Bharath B N
Ansil George
Gururaj S Nayak
With valuable Contributions from
Harish N. Dave

Lalit Kr. Mishra
By


3

Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Concepts of symmetry 4
1.2 General Concepts of Modal Analysis 7

Chapter 2 Cyclic Symmetric Modal Analysis

2.0 Introduction 9
2.1 Cyclic Symmetric Modal Analysis ...10
2.1.1 Eigenvalue Problem 12
2.1.2 Concept of Nodal Diameters 14

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

3.0 Introduction 19
3.1 Sources of Excitation in a Steam Turbine Assembly 19
3.2 Definition of Real Resonance 22
3.3 Results Interpretation 22
3.3.1 Why do we get DOUBLETS? 24
3.4 Interference Diagram 27
3.4.1 Plotting an Interference Diagram 28
3.4.2 Interference Diagram beyond NB/2 Limit 29
3.4.3 Studying an Interference Diagram 30
3.4.4 Interference Diagram vs. Campbell Diagram 32
3.5 Some Thoughts on Fatigue Life Estimation 34

Conclusions 35

Scope of future study ...36
References 37


4

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.0 Introduction:

Many engineering problems have identical substructures in the circumferential
direction. It is the field of mechanical engineering where one finds a variety of such
applications. To highlight a few turbomachinery blades and discs, centrifugal fans and
impellers, rotary pumps, gear wheels, pressure vessels, milling cutters, reamers, gear
hobbers etc. These systems can be analyzed in full 360
0
but at a cost that is prohibitive.
Moreover, it also becomes cumbersome to analyze the full 360
0
FE model. It is good to
exploit the cyclically symmetric nature of the bladed assembly and reduce the core, time
and labor involved in analyzing these systems. Using the cyclic symmetric principle both
static and modal analysis can be done. These problems can be broadly classified under
three heads,

1. Static or steady state analysis of cyclic symmetric objects subjected to cyclic
symmetric loading.
2. Static or steady state analysis of cyclic symmetric objects subjected to general
loading (asymmetric loading).
3. Eigenvalue problems (modal analysis).

Any structure that is circumferentially symmetric can be analyzed with the concept of
cyclic symmetry.

According to the principle of cyclic symmetry, it is enough to model only one sector
and behavior of the other sectors can be accurately predicted from the modeled sector.
These results in enormous reduction in computer core and labor, which means reduced
cost and a economical solution to the problem. Further by utilizing this principle, the
analyst can have the privilege of using more number of elements in single sector model.

This report is an effort in making this concept of cyclic symmetry more clear, to the
reader and to explain cyclic symmetric modal analysis in particular. In first chapter, the
concept of symmetry will be discussed with its certain advantages in general. Later, some
of the concepts of modal analysis will also be discussed. In second chapter a focus on
cyclic symmetric modal analysis of a bladed disc assembly of a steam turbine is
presented. Next mathematical formulation to the Eigenvalue problem for cyclic
symmetric structures will be carried out. The concept of nodal diameters and their
physical interpretation will also be discussed at a great length in this chapter. Third
chapter discusses the means of interpreting the results obtained from cyclic symmetric
modal analysis. Results interpreted are those of a bladed disc assembly of a steam
turbine. Interference diagram is most important tool used by engineers to evaluate the risk
of resonance. This will be discussed in detail and compared with conventionally used
Campbell diagram. Finally the conclusions of this study on cyclic symmetric modal
analysis will be presented.


5

1.1 Concepts of symmetry

Symmetry is a law of nature. Any symmetric properties in an analysis should be
exploited to the full if at all possible, as it can drastically reduce solution times and hence
facilitates more effective use of resources. In general, it is important that loads and
boundary conditions are symmetric in nature to allow for symmetry to be used in the
model. There are four major ways that symmetry can be exploited in the model, which
are discussed below.

Type of Symmetries: -

1) Planar or Reflective Symmetry: -

This is the most common type of symmetry found in finite element models.
Reflective symmetry is a condition where the same pattern is mirrored in a plane. The
image shown here indicates that the model is doubly symmetric, one plane in the
horizontal direction and another in the vertical direction. As this is a 2D model the
symmetric planes are comprised of lines. Planar symmetry can occur in 3D also, the
plane of symmetry would be defined by a surface. It is important to apply appropriate
symmetric boundary conditions. In the given case, the vertical constraint is to prevent any
horizontal movement, while the horizontal constraint would be to prevent any vertical
movement.

2) Repetitive Symmetry: -

Repetitive symmetry is a symmetry condition that is seen to repeat along the
length of a body. A typical example of this would be circular cooling fins equally spaced
along the axis of heat exchanger tubing. An example of this type of symmetry is given in
figure below.

1 Full Model Model utilizing reflective symmetry
2. Repetitive Symmetry


6

3) Axisymmetry or Rotational Symmetry: -

If a shape can be defined by rotating a cross-section about an axis, then it is said
to be axisymmetric. If the loads and boundary conditions are also axisymmetric in nature,
then an axisymmetric analysis may be carried out. Axisymmetric elements are 2D planar
in nature, and are used to model a revolved 3D part in 2D space. No special boundary
conditions are applied to exploit axisymmetry. An example showing axisymmetry is
given in figure below.

4) Cyclic Symmetry: -

Cyclic symmetry is the geometric repetition in the form of cyclic sectors. The
structure is composed of a series of identical sectors that are arranged circumferentially to
form a ring. In order to utilize cyclic symmetry, appropriate cyclic symmetric boundary
conditions must be applied. Cyclic symmetry is further discussed and explained in detail
in this report. An example of the symmetry is shown in figure below.

Additional Considerations

3. Full Model Model utilizing Axi-Symmetry

S
4. Full Model consisting of 75 sectors One sector modeled using cyclic symmetry principle


7

Additional Considerations:

It is important to note that taking advantages of symmetric properties may have a
detrimental effect in frequency (modal) or eigenvalue buckling problems. The reason for
this is that the symmetric model will not be able to predict non-symmetric mode shapes.
Therefore, if a symmetric analysis is carried out, only the mode shapes that also have the
same symmetric properties will be resolved. In cases where only minor details disrupt a
structure's symmetry, one can often ignore them or treat them as being symmetric, in
order to gain the benefits of using a smaller analysis model.

1.2 General Concepts of Modal Analysis

Modal analysis is a vibration analysis. Objective of any modal analysis is to
determine the natural frequencies and its associated mode shapes. Any physical system
possesses its own natural frequency. Further any physical system has 3 unique properties
i.e. stiffness, mass and damping. Damping can be expressed as a function of both stiffness
and mass. Hence the stiffness and mass, govern the behavior of the system subjected to
any loading.

Natural Frequency and mode shapes:

Frequency Ratio
n
e e /
U
Natural frequency is the frequency at
which stiffness force becomes equal and opposite
of inertia force and the structure will vibrate in the
absence of any external loading. At natural
frequency, damping of the system governs the
amplitude of response, and since material
damping is usually very small, the amplitude of
response becomes very high. When excitation
frequency is approximately equal to natural
frequency, the energy build up is maximum and
stresses induced in the system are very large and
the system may fail due to excessive vibrations.
Mode shape is the vibration pattern of the system
excited at its natural frequency. Mathematically
mode shape is nothing but the eigenvector. Each
natural frequency has its own unique mode shape.
Mode shape does not represent the absolute
displacement of the system but only represents the
relative displacement.


8
Undamped Free Vibration Problem:

Consider an undamped free vibration problem,

Note: The figure represents the simplest idealization of any physical system, whose
governing parameters are stiffness and mass. i.e. it should not be thought as merely a
spring connected with a mass.

Thus higher the mass lower is its natural frequency. Stiffer the structure, higher its natural
frequency.

The eigenvalue problem as formulated above can be solved by any of the following
techniques,
- Simultaneous iteration scheme
- Subspace iteration scheme
- Lanczos algorithm
- Power dynamics scheme
0 = +kx x m
Fundamental equation of motion:
Where, k is stiffness of the system
m is the mass of the system
x is the displacement about the mean position

) cos( t u x e =
The solution of the above can be assumed to be,
Where u is the stationary amplitude
Thus we can formulate the eigenvalue problem as under,

mu ku
n
2
e =
is the natural frequency
is the eigenvector or mode shape
n
e
u
| |{ } | |{ } u m u K
n
2
e =
On similar lines, the eigenvalue problem of a multi DOF system system can be formulated as,
m
k
n
= e
For a single DOF system, the natural frequency is given by
Where, is the stiffness matrix

| |
| |
{ }
n
u
m
K
e
is the mass matrix
is
the eigenvector
is
the natural frequency
is the eigenvector or mode shape
is the natural frequency


9
Fig-1 A typical industrial Steam Turbine Rotor
having 22 blades
One sector analyzed using concept of cyclic symmetry
W
h
e
e
l
Bucket
V
a
n
e
Shroud
Wheel
Vane
- Reduced Householders Method

Chapter 2 Cyclic Symmetric Modal
Analysis
2.0 Introduction

Turbomachinery bladed disk assembly is the most ideal example of cyclic
symmetric modal analysis. In this chapter cyclic symmetric modal analysis of bladed disk
assembly of a steam turbine rotor will be discussed in detail.
A rotating turbine blade is the component, which converts the energy of the
flowing fluid into mechanical energy. The reliability of these blades is very important for
the successful operation of a turbine. Researchers have ascertained the major cause of
failure to fatigue of metal. Usually the turbine blades are fabricated by single crystal
solidification techniques to avoid grain boundaries and hence regions of fatigue crack
initiation. Fluctuating forces cause fatigue failure. Turbine blades experience fluctuating
forces when they pass through non-uniform fluid flow from stationary vanes (nozzles).
Thus the basic design consideration is to minimize the dynamic stresses produced by
these fluctuating forces. Based on the theory of vibration of mechanical structures, the
dynamic behavior of the bladed disc assembly can be predicted. Combining the dynamic
behavior with the nature of the fluctuating forces helps a design engineer in evaluating a
blade design. Dynamic stresses reach a maximum at resonance. Thus a complete risk
evaluation due to resonance is of utmost importance. The turbine rotor disk with the
blades mounted evenly around its circumference possesses rotational periodicity in
geometry. It can be analyzed with the help of cyclic symmetric principle.


10

Modeling Considerations:

FE Model is generated for one sector as shown in the above figure. A typical
turbomachinery rotor disk assembly consists of a wheel, bucket (or dovetail), vane or
blade and shroud (or cover plate). These various parts are shown clearly in the above
figure. First we need to generate the meshed model and then generate a full FE Model,
which is to be used in the subsequent modal analysis. Modeling procedure will not be
discussed here as it changes from situation to situation. But however some modeling and
meshing considerations are highlighted here,

1. The sole objective of a cyclic symmetric modal analysis is to extract natural
frequencies; thus the mesh need not be too fine, unless there is a special need to
maintain a finer mesh.
2. It is not required to capture all the minute geometric details, like very small fillets.
3. A flow through mesh between bucket and vane is very difficult to realize, thus
constraint equations need to be applied between vane bottom and bucket top. In
the same way, it needs to be done between vane top and shroud bottom.
4. Depending on the modeling requirements, couplings need to be generated at force
transmitting points between bucket and wheel.
5. Displacement constraints must be applied at the appropriate locations. In the
model shown it was applied at the bore region of the wheel.
6. It should be taken care that the displacement constraint, couplings, constraint
equation should not contradict each other i.e. they should not appear on the same
node.
7. Cyclic symmetric B.C`s needs to be defined along the two extreme faces along
the hoop direction. Use CECYC or CPCYC command in ANSYS to define the
same.

Thus a FE Model can be built taking into account the above points. Now we proceed
to carry out a cyclic symmetric modal analysis.

2.1 Cyclic Symmetric Modal Analysis

This method takes advantage of harmonic variation of modal displacement around
the circumference. Referring to figure 2 the cyclic symmetric object shown has N = 8
repeating sectors. Only 1 sector is modeled in FE Analysis. The forces acting on the
whole object can be expanded in Fourier series as below,

... (2.1)

Here
k
F is the force on the k
th
sector,
N
f f f ,...... ,
2 1
are the Fourier coefficients and the
angle N / 2H = is the angle between any two repeated sectors. Thus if we have a force
vector we can formulate a matrix equation in between the forces acting and the Fourier
coefficients and subsequently solve it to obtain the Fourier coefficients. We may thus
interpret the force on the structure to act in N harmonics, with the complete behavior of
the structure being a superposition of its responses in all the N harmonics.
) 1 )( 1 ( ) 2 )( 1 (
1
) 1 (
2 1
......

+ + + =
N k i
N
N k i
N
k i
k
e f e f e f f F


11
All calculations in cyclic symmetric
analysis consist of both real and imaginary
parts. For harmonic 0 = n , the uniform
force of
1
f is considered as acting in all the
sectors. Thus displacement and stresses in
all the sectors would be identical for the
harmonic 0 = n . For the harmonic 1 = n , a
force of
2
f acts in the first sector and
i
e f
2
acts on the second sector,
2
2
i
e f acts
in the third and so on. The displacement
also follows the same rule. Similarly for
the harmonic 2 = n , force
3
f acts in the 1
st

sector
2
3
i
e f in the 2
nd
sector,
4
3
i
e f in the
3
rd
sector and so on. Thus all the harmonics
can be easily analyzed for the behavior of
the structure, since the displacement and
force in one sector determine the
displacement and forces in the
remaining sectors for each harmonic.
Fig-2 Cyclic symmetric object with N = 8 repeating sectors

To summarize:

1. If the forces in the repeating sectors are related as in above equation then the
corresponding displacements in the substructures are also related.

2. The structure behavior can then be obtained from the analysis of a single
repeating sector, stipulating the above variation (in the form
i
e ) as a
precondition.

Thus, if a generalized external force acting on a cyclic symmetric structure (e.g. load
carried be a pair of meshing gears) is represented as a sum Fourier harmonics, then for
each such harmonic, analysis of a single repeated sector is possible. It is worthwhile to
mention here that cyclic symmetric analysis, in fact is an extension of the standard
practice for axisymmetric structures under arbitrary external loading. The forces and
corresponding displacements are expressed in terms of Fourier series and analysis is
carried out for each harmonic individually. The total response is obtained as a sum of
individual harmonic responses.

In general for a problem having N repeated structures, for values of N p/ 2t =
and N p N / ) ( 2 = t the imaginary parts of the displacements values will be equal and
opposite i.e. they will be complex conjucate. Hence cumulative sum of displacements will
always be real. This is the reason why stress values are always real in a cyclic symmetric
static analysis. For a complete problem, it is enough to compute only (N/2) + 1
harmonics when N is even and (N+1/2 harmonics when N is odd.


12

2.1.1 Eigenvalue Problem:

In this section eigenvalue problem for cyclic symmetric structures will be
formulated. General definition of eigenvalue problem and various solvers was discussed
in 1
st
chapter. For a cyclic symmetric model, the eigenvector { }
i
u if the
th
i repeated
sector will be connected to the
th
i ) 1 ( + by the relationship

(2.2)

Where, N Number of repeated structures, m number of harmonics to be computed
and p = 0, 1, 2..m.

The nodes in a one sector modeled using cyclic symmetric principle can be classified as:

Master / Slave boundary nodes: Slave boundary nodes are the nodes that also occur on
the next consecutive sector. They are common to
th
i and
th
i ) 1 ( + sector. Hence the slave
boundary nodes are connected to the master boundary nodes by a complex constraint,
namely
{ } { }
i
i
i
u e u

=
+1
p
N
t
2
=
Slave Nodes
Master Nodes
I nterior Nodes
Fig 3Concept of Master, Slave, Adjacent and Interior nodes.
Adjacent nodes


13
p
N
i
e
t 2

where p is the harmonic.

Adjacent nodes: These are the nodes that are adjacent to the slave boundary
nodes.

Interior Nodes: These are the nodes that are neither master/slave nor adjacent nodes.

Thus it is clear that master and slave boundary nodes have a complex
relationship in between them.

The Eigenvalue problem of cyclic symmetric modal analysis in matrix form can
be arrange in the following form,

=

Where { }
i
z are the eigenvectors, | |
i
M is the mass matrix, | |
2
n
e is the eigenvalue and the
stiffness matrix is given as,

| | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |
| |
| |
| | | |
| | | |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
n
T
n
n n
i
n
i
n
T
T
T
B A
A B
e A
e A
B A
A B A
A B A
A B
1
1 1
4 3
3 3 2
2 2 1
1 1
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
n
z
z
z
z
z
...
...
...
4
3
2
1
| |
2
n
e
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
n
n
M
M
M
M
M
M
1
4
3
2
1
... .... ... ... ... ... ... ...
n
z
z
z
z
z
...
...
...
4
3
2
1
| | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |
| |
| |
| | | |
| | | |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
n
T
n
n n
i
n
i
n
T
T
T
B A
A B
e A
e A
B A
A B A
A B A
A B
1
1 1
4 3
3 3 2
2 2 1
1 1
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
Master Nodes
I nterior/Adjacent
Nodes
Slave Nodes


14

Summarizing the above form of stiffness matrix:

1. The interaction stiffness terms of master and slave nodes are complex in
nature.
2. The stiffness matrix has both real and imaginary parts. Comparatively, real
part occupies more core than imaginary part. Imaginary stiffness terms occur
only in the interaction terms between master and slave nodes.
3. Mathematically, the stiffness matrix in a cyclic symmetric modal analysis is
Hermitian in nature, because real parts are symmetric and imaginary parts are
skew-symmetric. Hence it is an eigenvalue problem of a Hermitian matrix. If
the transpose of a complex matrix is its conjucate, then a matrix is said to be
Hermitian. Its eigenvalues are real and eigenvectors are imaginary.
4. Cyclic symmetric modal analysis gives rise to a complex eigenvalue problem.
However, this eigenvalue problem becomes real for 0 = and t = .
5. The harmonic, at which it is excited, has a considerable influence on the
stiffness of the structure.

Further if consistent mass is used then the mass matrix is also complex. But for a
lumped mass formulation it remains real. The Eigenvector and natural frequency can be
obtained by solving this complex Eigenvalue problem. Normally, Lanczos algorithm is
used. The Eigenvector thus obtained are that of a single sector. Eigenvector of other
sectors can be determined from the mathematical relation given by equation 2.2 and
hence the mode shape of the entire disk can be easily obtained.
Thus both natural frequency and mode shape are also dependent on the harmonic
and this harmonic is popularly referred to as Nodal Diameter in literature.

2.1.2 Concept of Nodal Diameters:

In previous sections, the Eigenvalue problem for cyclic symmetric structures was
explained. Nodal diameters play vital role in cyclic symmetric modal analysis and helps
to understand the deflection pattern of the bladed disk assemblies, thus become an
essential feature of the cyclic symmetry analysis. The influence of ND on stiffness of the
structure is evident. It should be noted here that the word nodal used here is in vibration
sense and not in finite element sense. Node here means a point of zero displacement, a
virtual hinge. Nodal diameter can be understood by the following,

Nodal diameter defines the number of complete sine waves that pass through the
circumference. If we plot the displacement of the tip of the blade with angular
position, it follows a sinusoidal characteristic which is designated as a diametrical
pattern

Nodal diameter indicates number of zero displacement planes that pass around the
circumference.

Mathematically, nodal diameter represents the harmonic content.


15

Nodal diameter is the number of distinct harmonics that are required to completely
define the system. The amplitude of vibration varies harmonically around the disk
and ND is nothing but the no. of distinct harmonics that are present in the system.

Nodal diameter will govern the cyclic symmetric B.C`s that are to be applied while
carrying out cyclic symmetric modal analysis.

Physically, Nodal diameter is nothing but the disk effect. It simulates the disk mode
shape.

Nodal diameter has a direct influence on natural frequency.

The following figure illustrates the harmonic variation of amplitude along the
circumference. At ND = 0 there exists no zero displacement planes. At ND = 1 +ve
indicates a positive displacement and ve indicates a negative displacement and hence
one zero displacement plane exists. Similarly at ND = 2, we have 2 zero displacement
planes. The variation of amplitude along circumferential position is also depicted below.
Similarly nth ND will have N complete sine waves passing around its circumference and
N zero displacement lines in the disc. In a cyclic symmetric structure, the number of
harmonics depends on the number of repeating sectors. If there are N repeating sectors in
the structure, then the number of distinct harmonics i.e. (nodal diameters) can be
calculated as,

(a) (N/2) + 1 nodal diameters, if N is even

(b) (N+1)/2 nodal diameters, if N is odd.

It should be noted that this also includes the zeroth ND, and hence maximum count of ND
will be one less than the above quantity.


16

Let us workout a simple example of a 360
0
disc constrained at its bore and
conduct a cyclic symmetric modal analysis and study the nodal diameter pattern. One 60
0

model was analyzed in ANSYS and we have ND = 0,1,2,3. The nodal diameter patterns
are as shown.

Full 360
0
disk having 6 60
0
sectors One 60
0
sector with constraint at bore.


17

Nodal Diameter 0

Nodal Diameter 1

The disc mode shapes are shown in the given
figure. In ND = 0 disc mode, all the sectors move in
the same direction, either up or down. They all are in
phase i.e. there is no relative motion between the
sectors. The displacement pattern is similar in all the
sectors. All the sectors move together in this ND. In
other words, no interaction exists between different
sectors of the disc. The entire disc behaves like a
cantilever beam constrained at its bore. No sine waves
pass through the circumference. All the sectors are in
phase.
ND 0
The disc mode shapes are shown in the
given figure. In ND = 1 disc mode, the sectors
belonging to the 180
0
moves in one direction
and the other 180
0
moves in another direction
i.e. in a flexure mode, half of the disc moves up
while the other half moves down. The
displacement pattern of the disc is as shown.
One zero displacement plane occurs at this ND
i.e.1-sine wave pass through the circumference.

ND 1


18

Nodal Diameter 2

Nodal Diameter 3

The disc mode shapes are shown in
given figure. In ND = 3 i.e. at the max. ND
all the sectors move in directions opposite to
their neighboring sectors. Three zero
displacement plane occurs at this ND. 3-sine
waves pass through the circumference. All
the sectors are out of phase.

ND 3
The disc mode shapes are shown in
the given figure. In ND = 2 disc mode, first
90
0
moves in one direction, second 90
0

moves in another, third 90
0
moves in same
direction as first and the last one moves in
same direction as second. Two zero
displacement plane occurs at this ND. The
two planes are perpendicular to each other. 2-
sine waves pass through the circumference.
ND 2


19

Thus the main conclusions from the above study on nodal diameters can be
summarized as,

1. For the ND = 0 and ND = NDMAX nodal diameters, the sectors of the bladed
disk are in phase and out of phase respectively i.e. these two NDs are unique.

2. The mode shapes shown in the above figures were flexure modes. Similarly we
can have tangential, axial or a complex modes for each nodal diameter.

3. ND is the parameter that depicts the interaction of each sector in the whole disc.
In bladed disc assemblies, it depicts the interaction in between different blades.

In addition to nodal diameter there also exists a nodal circle mode in disc vibrations.
Nodal circle mode is similar to nodal diameter mode except that, in nodal circle mode a
zero displacement circle exists in contrast to that of a zero displacement line in nodal
diameter modes. Depending on the nature there also can exist combination modes of
nodal diameter and nodal circle. We limit our scope of discussion to nodal diameter
modes only. Thus the principle of cyclic symmetry can be successfully applied to modal
analysis. The next chapter is dedicated to results that we get from a cyclic symmetric
modal analysis and tools to analyze the results of a cyclic symmetric modal analysis
namely Interference Diagram and Campbell Diagram.

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

3.0 Introduction:

Evaluation of the turbine bladed disc assembly design is the sole purpose of any
FE Analysis. Untimely shutdown disturbs the economics of both the user and the
manufacturer. And hence there is an urge for reliable turbine operation. High Cycle
Fatigue (HCF) plays a significant role in causing turbine blade failures. HCF failures can
result from resonant vibratory stresses sustained over a relatively shorter time. During
operation, the periodic fluctuation in the steam forces occurs at frequencies
corresponding to running speed and its harmonics and thus causes the disc to vibrate. The
amplitude of these vibrations depends on the proximity of the forcing frequencies to the
natural frequency. Large amplitude vibration can occur when the forcing frequency


20
approaches or becomes resonant with a natural frequency of the bladed disk. Vibratory
stresses at or near resonant condition aggravate HCF damage.
Steam turbine manufacturers typically design and manufacture bladed disks with
adequate margins between the forcing frequencies and the fundamental natural
frequencies to avoid resonance. However it is not possible to completely avoid resonance
under normal operating conditions of a steam turbine. This is because of manufacturing
variations, assembly variations, routine wear, varying operating speeds or any other
factor that modifies the mass or stiffness of the structure. A practical case of resonance in
operating conditions was due to solid build up at the root of blade because of corrosion,
which shifted the natural frequency, and the excitation frequency coincided with natural
frequency and produced resonance. Thus blade design must be reviewed continuously for
possible interference of natural frequency with excitation frequency.

3.1 Sources of Excitation in a Steam Turbine
Assembly:

The root cause of vibration in a steam turbine is due to flow induced vibrations.
In a steam turbine, most common sources of excitation are nozzle-passing frequency
(NPF), running speed and harmonics of both NPF and running speed. The main source of
turbine blade vibration problems arising in turbomachines is the fact that the distribution
of the steam load on the blade is not constant with respect to the rotational angle but
varies during one rotation of blade. This angular dependence of blade load is caused by
various circumstances. The main reason for that is the fact that the rotor blades run
behind a row of still standing stator blades, which are fixed in the casing of the machine.
This causes a circumferential distortion in the flow, which may be due to inlet or exhaust
ducts. The pressure variation in the fluid flow causes the forces to vary circumferentially.
These forces depend on the relative position of blading with respect to nozzles and any
other interruptions like struts, diaphragms etc. Another reason for non-uniform blade load
in one revolution can occur by partial admission e.g. the loading of the rotor blades by
fluid forces in one or more sectors around the circumference while other sectors remain
unloaded. In both the cases, the load on the rotating blade is periodic and can be
described in the form of Fourier series as,

) cos( ) (
0
n n
n
n
t F t F O =
=
(3.1)

Where ) (t F is the forcing function,
n
F are the Fourier coefficients which define the
forcing function ) (t F ,
n
is the phase angle, t is the time,
n
O are the excitation
frequencies given by,

e = O n
n
(or) e = O NN n
n
n = 1, 2, 3 .

Where e is the running speed of the turbine, NN is the number of nozzles (i.e. the
number of periodics of the blade load during one revolution). Here it should be noted that


21
excitation frequency arises either from running speed harmonics or nozzle passing
frequency.

Nozzle passing frequency excitations are caused by steam flowing through a set of
nozzles or diaphragms, which are used to turn and direct steam flow onto the blades.
Because of their design, nozzles have flow interruptions at regular or cyclic intervals,
which cause the force imparted on the blades to be cyclic. These excitations are caused
by nozzle vane trailing edge wakes as the flow leaves the vanes. A blade passes through
nozzle vane wakes a number of times equal to the number of nozzle vanes in one
revolution. An example of this wake formation zone is shown in the given figure below.
Due to formation of wakes in the airfoil region of nozzles, velocity of steam remains no
more constant and a variation in pressure takes place. Net effect of this variation in
velocity and pressure is to produce unbalance forces.

WAKES (REGIONS OF REDUCED
VELOCITY)
P
2
V
2

P
1
V
1

SHOCKS (LINES OF
VELOCITY AND
DENSITY CHANGE)
P
2
> P
1
V
2
< V
1


22

Fig: Wake formation in Stator vanes

Running speed harmonics occur due to interruptions in the fluid flow path.
Harmonics of running speed are multiples of rotor operating speed. For example, the fifth
harmonic of running speed would be a force that occurs five times for every revolution of
the wheel. For example, a turbine rotor running at a speed of 3600 RPM (60 cycles/sec or
Hz) would have running speed harmonics occurring at 120Hz, 180Hz, 240Hz and so on.

3.2 Definition of Real Resonance:

A good design of turbomachinery blading consists of following steps,

1. The investigation of natural frequency and the mode shapes of the rotor blades
2. The determination of amplitude, frequency, and shape of aerodynamic forces
acting on the rotor blades.
3. The determination of damping values and generating appropriate damping
models.
4. Determination of dynamic stresses.
5. Life estimation based on cumulative damage fatigue theories.

Thus determination of true resonance condition is critical for turbomachinery design.
A turbine bladed disc can get into a state or resonance when the energy build up is
maximum. There are two simultaneous conditions for the energy build up per cycle of
vibration to be maximum. These conditions are:

The frequency of exciting force equals the natural frequency of the structure,

The exciting force profile has the same shape, as the associated mode shape
of vibration i.e. the harmonic number must represent the nodal diameter.

Both of these must exist together for a real resonance to occur. If both the
conditions are satisfied, then work done by the system will be maximum and hence
energy build up will be maximal, thus causing maximum damage to the system.

3.3 Results Interpretation:

Results from cyclic symmetric modal analysis with objective of investigation of
natural frequency and mode shape pattern are discussed in this section. Basically it
should be noted that natural frequency would vary with nodal diameter. Consider a case
of 44 blades around the circumference and thus we have nodal diameter range from


23
0,1,222. Natural frequencies were extracted for first 12 modes using Lanczos
algorithm in ANSYS. A typical list of natural frequencies thus obtained from a cyclic
symmetric modal analysis is given below:

The modes as indicated in first column are the mode shapes of the individual
buckets/sectors and nodal diameter is the one that indicates the vibration mode of disc.

Observations:

1. Mode of disc vibration can be completely defined if and only if both ND and the
individual bucket (or) sector mode shape of one sector are specified i.e. 1F (3)
indicates 1
st
Flexure mode with 3 nodal diameters. If a combination of nodal
circle modes and nodal diameter modes occur, then we specify it as 1F (2C3D) 1
st

flexure mode occurring in conjunction with a combination of 2
nd
nodal circle
mode and 3
rd
nodal diameter mode.
2. It is clearly evident from the above results that natural frequency depends to a
considerable extent on nodal diameter.
3. Doublets in natural frequencies are observed for all nodal diameters except
ND =
0 and ND = NB/2.
4. As the number of nodal diameter increases, the disk assembly becomes more and
more stiffer in nature.
5. It may also happen that a natural frequency value can appear in more than one
nodal diameters, that means a particular natural frequency can excite many nodal
diameters.
Natural Frequencies at each Nodal Diameter
ND=0 ND=1 ND=2 ND=3 ND=4 .. .. .. ND=20 ND=21 ND=22
Mode # 1 1018.551 1051.936 1102.742 1169.668 1264.132 .. .. .. 3156.285 3198.778 3212.413
Mode # 2 1296.730 1051.936 1102.742 1169.668 1264.132 .. .. .. 3156.285 3198.778 3548.476
Mode # 3 2918.921 1390.389 1657.615 2020.396 2406.908 .. .. .. 3535.594 3544.492 4504.928
Mode # 4 3549.565 1390.389 1657.615 2020.396 2406.908 .. .. .. 3535.594 3544.492 5405.417
Mode # 5 4288.775 2939.808 2982.150 3081.082 3272.481 .. .. .. 4499.048 4503.265 5955.164
Mode # 6 4838.825 2939.808 2982.150 3081.082 3272.481 .. .. .. 4499.048 4503.265 6352.461
Mode # 7 5669.021 3861.894 4225.162 4260.962 4304.176 .. .. .. 5400.065 5404.021 7297.392
Mode # 8 5998.684 3861.894 4225.162 4260.962 4304.176 .. .. .. 5400.065 5404.021 7521.234
Mode # 9 6625.923 4300.977 4540.467 4766.320 4886.864 .. .. .. 5981.648 5962.567 8351.090
Mode # 10 7116.876 4300.977 4540.467 4766.320 4886.864 .. .. .. 5981.648 5962.567 8723.034
Mode # 11 8135.735 4857.238 4985.760 5294.683 5491.265 .. .. .. 6371.552 6357.133 9671.878
Mode # 12 8213.375 4857.238 4985.760 5294.683 5491.265 .. .. .. 6371.552 6357.133 10201.245
ND = 0 NDMAX


24

3.3.1 Why do we get DOUBLETS?

In general the mode shape of the bladed disc assembly can be given as,

(3.2)

Where M n l L = , = . .......... 3 , 2 , 1 , 0 l , n is the number of buckets and if assembly is
packeted then it is the number of packets and
l
is the phase lag between the force and
response, which occurs due to damping. The basic reason for repetition of natural
frequencies at all NDs except at ND = 0 and ND = NB/2 or (NB-1)/2 depending on
whether the no. of buckets are even or odd respectively , is that they represent orthogonal
mode shapes.

Consider the case of 40 bladed disk assembly, thus we have no. buckets 40 = n ,
no. of nodal diameters (ND) from 0 to 20 and phase angle = 0 . Except at ND = 0 and
ND = 20 we expect doublets. Now let us expand the above equation for the following
four cases by substituting the various values of l, n and M.

Case 1: - ND = 0 Case 3: - ND = 15

0 = L 15 = L
40 0 40 = = L 55 , 25 15 40 = = L
80 0 80 = = L 95 , 65 15 80 = = L

Case 2: - ND = 20 Case 4: - ND =17

20 = L 17 = L
60 , 20 20 40 = = L 57 , 23 17 40 = = L
100 , 60 20 80 = = L 97 , 63 17 80 = = L

The values of L represent the harmonic content in the mode shape of the disc.
The 360
0
model of the turbine rotor consists of 40 blades. Thus 0 to 40 blades represents
0
0
to 360
0
in a cyclic manner. For understanding purpose one can assume the angular
) sin( ) (
0
l
l
L
L A M X u + =
=


25
position of any nodal line can be calculated as [()
ang.
= (360
0
/ no. of buckets n)
*{harmonic no. L})] starting from 0
0
to 360
0
clockwise direction if it has been assumed
0
0
angular position at the top of the disk. This angular position will be the starting point
of the sinusoidal wave to that deflection pattern of bladed disk will follow. For better
understanding consider case 3 mentioned above in the table, this nodal diameter has
mode shapes at 15
th
and 25
th
harmonic, means angular position of the nodal lines i.e.
sinusoidal waves will start either at 135
0
or 225
0
respectively. Similarly considering the
case 4 we have only 17
th
and 23
rd
harmonic, representing 153
0
and 207
0
respectively
within first 360
0
. Thus for the case, 3 and 4 we have only two harmonics that
encompasses within full 360
0
and

other higher harmonic nodal lines will start exactly at
any of the two angular positions. Consider case 2, this nodal diameter has only one
starting angular position of the sinusoidal wave for each and every harmonics and which
is unique. For each harmonics for case 2, there will be 20 sinusoidal waves and same
number of nodal lines, which will be at 18
0
interval. Finally considering case 1 it has
mode shapes occurring at 0
th
and 40
th
harmonics thus it represents 0
0
and 360
0
degrees
respectively. Mathematically we can say 360
0
in nothing but 0
0
(as the function is
harmonic in nature ) 360 cos( ) 0 cos( = and ) 360 sin( ) 0 sin( = ). For the zeroth nodal
diameter there is no sine wave which means no nodal line to be shown along the
circumference. Again for the zeroth nodal diameter all the system is moving all together
i.e. there is no relative motion among the components. Thus in the cases 1 and 2 we have
only one harmonic that encompasses within full 360
0
.

The above study reveals an interesting observation that, except at ND = 0 and
ND = NB/2 we have two different harmonic contents within 360
0
.

This leads to the natural modes to occur in spatially orthogonal pairs.
Orthogonal mode shapes are the ones in which nodal radii of one mode in the pair
become antinodes in the other and vice-versa.


26
The above figure represents an ND = 3 nodal diametric mode showing nodes
and antinodes. Solid lines show one mode and dotted the other of the two orthogonal
mode shapes i.e. nodes of solid lines are the antinodes of dotted line and vice-versa.
These two orthogonal mode shapes have same frequency as they represent nothing but u
and u 360 angular position. The basic nature of function assumed in cyclic symmetric -
analysis is harmonic in nature i.e. u cos , ) sin(u and from mathematics we know that
) 360 cos( ) cos( u u = and ) 360 sin( sin u u = . Thus there is no change in mode
shape as such, except an orientation change. Since mode shape remain unaffected, the
natural frequencies also occur in pairs for a pair of orthogonal mode shapes. This is true
only if the disc is perfectly cyclic symmetric.

Following observations can be made from the study :

The reason for repetition of frequencies is because of occurrence of orthogonal
mode shapes at all NDs except at ND = 0 and ND = NB/2.

The mode designation does not change in a pair of orthogonal mode shapes i.e.

The only change in a pair of orthogonal mode shape is the orientation i.e. the
location of nodal line is indeterminate and depends usually on the position of
applied excitation.

Excitation at any ND can have harmonics i.e. it is not necessary that only 15
th

harmonic excites the system at ND = 15 and the system can get excited at ND =
15 even at 25, 55, 65, 95 harmonics.

The next obvious question is - how are orthogonal mode shapes implemented in
ANSYS?

In ANSYS 5.6 for cyclic symmetric modal analysis we use two macros
CYCGEN and CYCSOL. For generating cyclic symmetric B. C`s ANSYS offers
CECYC and CPCYC commands. The main purpose of CYCGEN is to generate a
duplicate sector. This duplicate sector is generated to take care of orthogonal mode shape
and leads to occurrence of natural frequencies in pairs. Thus duplicate sector and the
original sector put together ensure an orthogonal mode shape pair. CYCGEN macro has
to be executed before CYCSOL. The main purpose of CYCSOL macro is to generate
cyclic symmetric B.C corresponding to the nodal diameter and solve it. To generate
cyclic symmetric B.C, CYCSOL uses CECYC command. Thus we need to give in the
nodal diameter number or number of buckets as an input to CYCSOL macro. But we
also know that at ND = 0 and ND = NB/2 we do not have an occurrence of orthogonal
mode shapes and hence natural frequencies do not occur in pairs. ANSYS ensures that at
ND = 0 and ND = NB/2 DOFs of duplicate sector as generated from CYCGEN is not
included in the FE Analysis. This is taken care in CYCSOL macro by constraining all
DOF of the duplicate sector, for ND = 0 and ND = NB/2 respectively.

At Ansys 10 and above, the command CYCGEN is replaced by CYCLIC
command. This command also instructs Ansys to automatically identify the sector angle


27
and creates the Constraint equations between the sector end faces. The CYCOPT
command should be used in conjunction to the CYCLIC command to specify the number
of nodal diameters to be extracted, tolerance of variation in co-ordinates of nodes on the
end faces etc. The CYCSOL is no more used in the present version and a simple SOLVE
command suffices. However the total number of modes to be extracted & the mode
extraction algorithm is to be specified using the MODOPT command as in earlier
versions.

The reason for repetition of natural frequencies is explained and we now proceed
to interpret the results from a cyclic symmetric modal analysis using an Interference
diagram.

3.4 Interference Diagram:

In cyclic symmetric structures, natural frequency also depends on nodal diameter
apart from rotating speed, material properties, geometry and applied constraints. For a
given geometry, material property and applied constraints natural frequency varies with
rotating speed and nodal diameter. Thus we really need a three dimensional surface
) , , ( e e ND
n
to conduct a full-fledged investigation on risk due to resonance.

Engineers do not always prefer a three-dimensional surface. This is compounded
by the fact that, it is difficult to visualize a 3D plot and it is also a time consuming


28
process to create a 3D plot of ) , , ( e e ND
n
. So we need to simplify a 3D plot into 2D
plot for better and quicker analysis. Thus we can either create a ) , ( ND
n
e plot or a
) , ( e e
n
plot. Plot of ) , ( ND
n
e is nothing but Interference Diagram and plot of
) , ( e e
n
is a Campbell Diagram.

3.4.1 Plotting an Interference Diagram:

The interference diagram is a plot of nodal diameter along its absisca and natural
frequency along its ordinate. Since interference diagram is a tool for risk evaluation
arising due to resonance, we also need to express all sources of excitations in the
diagram. A typical interference diagram is as shown below:

3.4.2 Interference Diagram beyond NB/2 Limit:


29
In chapter 2 we defined nodal diameters as the number of distinct harmonics
that are required to define the complete system. Again consider the case of a rotor with
44 blades around the circumference and let us plot interference diagram beyond NB/2
limit:

Full Range Interference Diagram
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88
Harmonic Number
N
a
t
u
r
a
l

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Mode 5
Mode 6
NPF Lines
Critical Nodal Diameters
Running Speed Harmonics Line
Harmonic no(NDMAX)
after which natural frequency
values periodically repeats.
No of Blades = 44


30
Points to be noted:

1. ND = NB/2 for even no of blades and ND = (NB-1)/2 fully defines the system.
Behavior at all harmonics higher than ND = NB/2 are just a replica of behavior
defined until ND = NB/2. This is possible due to the beauty of harmonic
functions, which was the basic assumption in the case of cyclic symmetric
structures.

2. If we map the running speed harmonic line in 0 to NB/2 range then it would be
enough to completely interpret the risk due to resonance and hence carry out a full
vibration analysis. The plot thus obtained after mapping is nothing but
Interference Diagram.

3. It should also be noted that interference diagram is drawn keeping the speed as
constant. In the present case running speed was assumed to be 60Hz.

3.4.3 Studying an Interference Diagram:

This section is devoted to physical understanding of interference diagram and
carrying out a risk evaluation due to resonance. The following important points are to be
noted while studying an interference diagram:

Resonance will occur at all points where running speed harmonics and/or NPF
line cut the natural frequency line. But however the level of damage caused may
be different.

At any nodal diameter, the harmonics that can excite the system are given by the
equation (3.2) i.e. it is not possible for any harmonic to excite any ND. There
exists a relationship between the nodal diameter to be excited and the possible
harmonics that can excite the system at that nodal diameter.

Experimentally or by experience the max harmonic NPF is decided. In the present
case it was assumed till NPF 2 .

There exists no general rule for change in natural frequency with respect to nodal
diameters. In the present case we observe an increase in natural frequency with
increase in nodal diameter. This may be due to the fact that the system becomes
stiffer at higher modes and nodal diameter is nothing but disc mode. Some
researchers have observed that shrouded assembly is more sensitive to nodal
diameters than unshrouded assemblies. But strictly speaking there is no defined
pattern of natural frequency variation with respect to nodal diameters.

Among all possible nodal diameters it is possible to single out a few which will
cause maximal damage to the system i.e. pump in max energy into the system.
These nodal diameters are referred to as critical nodal diameters.


31

Why are critical nodal diameters really critical?

First what are critical nodal diameters? They are nothing but the nodal
diameter at which both NPF, its harmonics have same forcing frequency as that of
running speed and its harmonics i.e. they are the nodal diameters corresponding to the
points of intersection of running speed harmonics line and NPF line. Thus the no. of
critical nodal diameters that can occur are usually equal to the no of harmonics of NPF
that are expected to excite the system i.e. maximum no. of harmonics of the NPF for
which the risk evaluation due to resonance is to be carried out. In present case study upto
NPF 2 was carried out and hence we had only 2 critical nodal diameters. Sometimes
both the intersections can occur at same nodal diameter.

The main edge interference diagram possesses over other tools like Campbell
diagram are due to the critical nodal diameters. Critical nodal diameters represent the
interference of two waves i.e. running speed harmonic wave and NPF harmonic wave.
From elementary physics, interference occurs when two waves with same frequency are
in phase, the waves add up and produce a net wave, which has amplitude equal to the
summation of amplitudes of both the waves. Thus in the present case at critical nodal
diameters, the amplitude of force due to running speed harmonic and NPF harmonic add
up and inflict maximum damage to the system, if the forcing frequency equals natural
frequency. It should be taken care while designing that; the natural frequency of any
mode should not cut the point of interference. In actual practice resonance condition
prevails in a certain frequency zone. Thus we also need to evaluate the % of frequency
margin that exists between natural frequency and forcing frequency at critical nodal
diameters and compare it with design criteria.

The name Interference Diagram itself arises from the occurrence of
interference at critical nodal diameters.

Necessary conditions, for real resonance was stated earlier. The number of nodal
diameter must coincide with the number of harmonic. This is taken care in an
interference diagram by the concept of interference at critical nodal diameter and hence
interference diagram also helps to design the turbine rotor against the possibility of
occurrence of real resonance.

Thus capabilities of interference diagram are studied and an appreciation of its
suitability towards better turbine blade design is presented.


32

3.4.4 Interference Diagram Vs. Campbell Diagram:

In this section we make a comparative study of an interference diagram with a
Campbell diagram. Campbell Diagram is a ) , ( e e
n
plot with natural frequency,
n
e
along its ordinate and running speed,e along its absisca. This diagram predicts where the
blades natural frequencies coincide with the exciting frequencies (in above diagram we
have plotted running speed harmonics). This condition of frequency coincidence will be
termed a PROBABLE RESONANCE.

A further look at these coincident points with the knowledge of mode shape(s) and the
shape(s) of exciting forces allows the POSSIBLE RESONANCE points to be identified.
Figure below is a representation of such an analysis where the solid circles indicate the
few POSSIBLE RESONANCES among the many PROBABLE RESONANCES of
the blade frequency and force frequency intersections.

From these PROBABLE RESONANCES we need to focus our energies in avoiding
REAL RESONANCE. In interference diagram it occurs at the point of intersection (or
within the frequency margin) of NPF line, running speed harmonic line and natural
frequency line i.e. at critical nodal diameter. Condition of REAL RESONANCE in both
Interference diagram and Campbell diagram is illustrated below:

Operating range of speed
Steady speed


33


34

Thus interference diagram has an edge over Campbell diagram that it readily
indicates the condition of real resonance than a Campbell diagram, which on the first
count shows all probable resonance conditions, which may or may not occur in actual
practice. Thus a Campbell diagram can possibly misguide a designer by showing
resonances that actually is not at all occurring. So care is needed in using a Campbell
diagram while an interference diagram is foolproof.

3.5 Some Thoughts on Fatigue Life Estimation:

Fatigue lifing follows a dynamic stress analysis. Blade fatigue is a multi-
technological problem, which is undergoing continuous investigation by researchers.
Blade fatigue failure depends on steady stress, vibratory stresses, fatigue properties of the
blade material, loading history, material imperfections and environmental conditions
under which the blade is operating. Precise evaluation of excitation forces in terms of
magnitude and frequencies is really crucial for successful prediction of dynamic stresses.
A detailed study of both steady and unsteady aerodynamics is thus essential.
Turbomachinery blading is designed to have high steady stress levels. HCF occurs
because of high mean stress and low amplitude vibratory loading. HCF is initiated by a
formation of small, often microscopic crack. These fatigue cracks usually initiate at a
zone of high stress at some metallurgical or structural discontinuity and it such critical
conditions of blade operation sustain, the crack may grow and lead to a failure.

It is customary design practice to use a modified Goodman diagram for fatigue
studies. Various cumulative damage theories help in predicting life of turbine. Miners
cumulative damage rule is one such theory. Researchers have presented various advanced
theories and the subject is still under constant technological advancement. S-N curve is
extensively used to predict the endurance limit of the material.

In summary, HCF of turbomachinery blading is a significant design problem
because fatigue failures can result from resonant vibratory stresses sustained over a
relatively short duration of time. Blade life and hence turbine life are dependent on
vibratory stress levels for a given steady operating conditions. And thus these vibratory
Interference Diagram showing Real
Resonance
Campbell Diagram showing Real Resonance


35
stresses must be accurately predicted. Further discussion on Fatigue of turbomachinery
blading is out of scope of the present study.

Conclusions

The basic objective of this technical report was to present various Concepts of Cyclic
Symmetric Modal Analysis. In the process of fulfilling it, we discussed the following
aspects:

Various types of symmetry, and its merits were discussed. A very basic discussion
on modal analysis was presented.

Principle of cyclic symmetry was outlined with emphasis on cyclic symmetric
modal analysis.

Eigenvalue problem for cyclic symmetric problems was presented.

Concept of nodal diameter was discussed at a considerable length.

Evaluation of resonance condition for a typical steam turbine rotor was discussed.
Various sources of nuisances in a steam turbine were outlined.

Condition of Real Resonance was presented.

Some aspects of cyclic symmetric modal analysis in ANSYS were discussed.
Reason for pairing of natural frequencies was explained.

Interference diagram was discussed and its use in risk evaluation due to resonance
was presented.

A comparison of Interference Diagram and Campbell Diagram was presented.

Finally some thoughts on fatigue life estimation were outlined.


36

Scope of future study

Some of the related areas of future studies are details of effects such as Spin
Softening, Gyroscopic effects, Temperature effects and Damping. The analysis with
orthotropic and anisotropic materials is another area of interest to be exploited.
Further more the study can be extended to Harmonic and Transient Dynamic
analysis. All these studies can also be carried out for Gas turbines and other
Turbomachinery components, both cyclically symmetric and partially symmetric. The
Elastoplastic nature of components and its effect on the vibration behavior can also
be studied.


37

References

1. Arslan, M. A., Cyclic Symmetry Analysis Procedure, Training
Document
QuEST-LLC (USA).
2. ANSYS 5.6 Structural Analysis Guide, Chapter 3: Modal Analysis.
Balaji, K., Sriram, K., and Ramamurti, V., Development of User Friendly
Program for Static and Dynamic Analysis of Impellers, Yet to be published.
Dello, J. D., Frequency Evaluation of Steam Turbine Blade Disk, Technical
Publication, Dresser Rand, Inc.
Ewins, D. J., Stanbridge, A. B., and Martarelli, M., Rotating Disc Vibration
Analysis with Circular Scanning LDV, Imperial College, London.
Fleeter, S., and Zhou, Chenn., Fatigue Life Prediction of Turbomachine Blading,
Technical Report, Purdue University.
3. Imregun, M., Structural and Aeroelastic Vibration Analysis of Bladed Systems,
Ph.D., Thesis, Imperial College London, 1983.
Irretier, H., Free and Forced Vibration of Turbine Blades, Institute of Mechanics,
University of Kassel, Germany.
Longtin, R. S., Crash Course in Modal Analysis, Training Document, QuEST-LLC
(USA).
Ramamurti, V., Computer Aided Mechanical Design and Analysis, 4
th
edition,
Tata - McGraw Hill, 2000.
Rao, J.S., Turbomachine Blade Vibration, 1
st
edition, New Age International,
1991.
Roemer, M. J., and Orsagh, R. F., Examination of Successful Modal Analysis
Techniques Used for Bladed Disk Assemblies, Technical Publication, Impact
Technologies, LLC (USA).
Singh, M. P., Matthews, T., and Ramsey, C., Fatigue Damage of Steam Turbine
Blade Caused by Frequency Shift Due to Solid Buildup A Case Study, Technical
Publication, Dresser Rand, Inc.


38
Singh, M. P, Vargo, J. J., Schiffer, D. M., and Dello, J. D., SAFE Diagram A
Design and Reliability Tool for Turbine Blading, Technical Publication, Dresser
Rand, Inc.

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Full model of bladed disk assembly

Harish N. Dave Lalit Kr. Mishra

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