PRIST UNIVERSITY

(Estd. u/s 3 of UGC Act, 1956)

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11152H63-ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION III / 6 Semester

Self Learning Material

th

PREPARED BY A.RIJUVANA BEGUM ASSISTANT PROFESSOR DEPARTMENT OF ECE

NOVEMBER-2013
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
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11152H63 ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION 4105 AIM: To enable the student to study the various types of antennas and wave propagation. OBJECTIVES: To study radiation from a current element. To study antenna arrays To study aperture antennas To learn special antennas such as frequency independent and broad band antennas. To study radio wave propagation. RADIATION 9

UNIT I

Concept of Vector potentials- Modification for Time varying , retarded case- Fields and radiation resistance of an alternating current element-Radiation resistance Effective length Radiation intensity-Gain and Directivity-Field patterns- Beamwidth Effective area-Relation between gain, effective length and radiation resistance. UNIT II ANTENNA ARRRAYS 9 - Pattern

Arrays of two point sources- Broadside array and End fire arrays Binomial arrays multiplication- Uniform linear arrayUNIT III SPECIAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS 9

Radiation from traveling wave on wire- Rhombic antenna Loop antennas- Three element Yagi antenna- Log periodic antenna- Horn antenna UNIT IV PROPAGATION 9

Ground wave propagation: Attenuation characteristics Calculation of field strength Sky wave Propagation: Structure of Ionosphere Effective dielectric constant of ionized regionMechanism of Refraction and Refractive index- Critical Frequeny- Skip distance- Maximum usable frequency Fading and Diversity Techniques. Space Wave Propagation: Calculation of Field strength -Duct propagation.

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UNIT V

MEASUREMENTS

Impedance Field Pattern and Gain of Antennas- Radiation Pattern Ionospheric measurementsVertical incidence measurements of the ionosphere- Relation between oblique and vertical incidence transmission. TUTORIAL 15 TEXT BOOKS: 1. EDWARD C.JORDAN- Electromagnetic waves and Radiation systems Asia Publication House, PHI, 1978, Reprint 2003. REFERENCES: 1. Jhon .D. Kraus and Ronalatory Marhefka- Antenna-T McGraw Hill 2002 2. R.E.Collins-Antennas and Radio Propagation- McGrawhill- 1987 3. Ballany Antenna Theory- Jhon wiley & sons 2nd edition 2003. TOTAL: 60

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ANTENNA TERMINOLOGY Electromagnetic energy The energy of charged particles manipulated through an electric current Energy The ability to do WORK. Measured in electron Volts (eV) All types of matter have the ability to change their form & shape but they need energy to accomplish this. The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed but is only changed from one form to another. Work Work = FORCE x distance an object is moved The term used for the application of force to an object The joule is the derived unit of measurement of work Force Force = mass x acceleration Because of inertia , force is needed to start an object moving, and because of momentum, force is needed to stop an object that is already moving. Force can be imparted from one object to another. Momentum The product of mass & the velocity at which the mass is moving. The law of conservation of momentum states that momentum resulting from an object in motion is not lost unless an outside force acts upon it. Wavelength The length of one wave, measured from the top of one wave to the top of the next Wavelength () = velocity (c)/frequency () Velocity How far an object travels in a specified period of time. A property common to all EM radiation

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 Waves in the electromagnetic spectrum all travel at the same velocity, the speed of light (c), or 3x 108m/s Velocity(c) = frequency()x wavelength() Antenna: Antenna is a transition device or a transducer between a guided wave and a free space wave or vice versa. Antenna is also said to be an impedance transforming device. Polarization The polarization of the radio wave can be defined by direction in which the electric vector E is aligned during the passage of at least one full cycle. Also polarization can also be defined the physical orientation of the radiated electromagnetic waves in space. The polarization are three types. They are Elliptical polarization , circular polarization and linear polarization. Isotropic radiator A isotropic radiator is a fictitious radiator and is defined as a radiator which radiates fields uniformly in all directions. It is also called as isotropic source or omni directional radiator or simply uni pole. Self impedance Self impedance of an antenna is defined as its input impedance with all other antennas are completely removed i.e away from it. Mutual impedance The presence of near by antenna no.2 induces a current in the antenna no.1indicates that presence of antenna no.2 changes the impedance of the antenna no.1.This effect is called mutual coupling and results in mutual impedance.
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Duality of antenna It is defined as an antenna is a circuit device with a resistance and temperature on the one hand and the space device on the other with radiation patterns, beam angle ,directivity gain and aperture. Point source It is the waves originate at a fictitious volume less emitter source at the center O of the observation circle. Similar Point sources Whenever the variation of the amplitude and the phase of the field with respect to the absolute angle for any two sources are same then they are called similar point sources. The maximum amplitudes of the individual sources may be unequal. Identical Point sources Similar point sources with equal maximum amplitudes are called identical point sources. Array An antenna is a system of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater directivity in a desired direction. Uniform linear array An array is linear when the elements of the array are spaced equally along the straight line. If the elements are fed with currents of equal magnitude and having a uniform progressive phase shift along the line, then it is called uniform linear array.

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Side Lobe Ratio Side Lobe Ratio is defined as the ratio of power density in the principal or main lobe to the power density of the longest minor lobe. Short Dipole A short dipole is one in which the field is oscillating because of the oscillating voltage and current. It is called so, because the length of the dipole is short and the current is almost constant throughout the entire length of the dipole. It is also called as Hertzian Dipole, which is a hypothetical antenna and is defined as a short isolated conductor carrying uniform alternating current. Maxwells Equation: Maxwell's equations represent one of the most elegant and concise ways to state the fundamentals of electricity and magnetism. From them one can develop most of the working relationships in the field. Because of their concise statement, they embody a high level of mathematical sophistication and are therefore not generally introduced in an introductory treatment of the subject, except perhaps as summary relationships. These basic equations of electricity and magnetism can be used as a starting point for advanced courses, but are usually first encountered as unifying equations after the study of electrical and magnetic phenomena. Symbols Used E = Electric field B = Magnetic field D = Electric displacement = charge density i = electric current 0 = permittivity 0 = permeability J = current density c = speed of light

H = Magnetic field strength M = Magnetization P = Polarization

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Trigonometric Equation:

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Coordinate Systems
A good understanding of coordinate systems can be very helpful in solving problems related to Maxwells Equations. The three most common coordinate systems are rectangular (x, y, z), cylindrical (r,, z), and spherical ( r,, ).

Rectangular Coordinate Systems:

Cylindrical Coordinate Systems:

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Spherical Coordinate Systems:

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UNIT-I RADIATION
Electromagnetic energy The energy of charged particles manipulated through electric current. Electromagnetic waves are produced by the motion of electrically charged particles. These waves are also called "electromagnetic radiation" because they radiate from the electrically charged particles. They travel through empty space as well as through air and other substances. Scientists have observed that electromagnetic radiation has a dual "personality." Besides acting like waves, it acts like a stream of particles (called "photons") that have no mass. The photons with the highest energy correspond to the shortest wavelengths. Electromagnetic radiation (which includes radio waves, light, cosmic rays, etc.) moves through empty space at the speed of 299,792 km per second. Sunshine is a familiar example of electromagnetic radiation that is naturally emitted by the Sun. Starlight is the same thing from "Suns" that are much farther away. Electromagnetic radiation travels in waves that "vibrate" at different frequencies. Radio waves are in the range of about 10 kHz (or ten thousand waves per second) to 100 GHz (which is one hundred million vibrations per second). Although these aren't electromagnetic waves, you can compare these speeds to other kinds of wave:

Your car vibrates at around 300 beats per second Sound waves are able to be heard roughly from 400 to 10,000 beats per second Even the surf at the beach is a type of wave, with a much lower frequency; less than one a second.

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All together, electromagnetic waves make up what is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves are used for wireless transmission of sound messages, or for passing information.

Electromagnetic radiation with frequencies between about 10 kHz and 100 GHz are referred to as radio frequencies. Radio frequencies are divided into groups which have similar characteristics, called "bands," such as "S-band," "X-band," etc. The bands are further divided into small ranges of frequencies called "channels," some of which have been set aside for the use of deep space telecommunications. Many deep-space vehicles use S-band and X-band frequencies which are in the neighborhood of 2 to 10 GHz. These frequencies are among those referred to as microwaves, because their wavelength is very short, only a few centimeters. Deep
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space telecommunications systems are being developed for use on the even higher frequency Kaband. CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL: Potential is defined as the voltage difference between two end of the conductor. Potential difference= potential V1-V2 The main sources for electromagnetic potential are the charges and current element. Potentials help to derive the Electric and magnetic field strength and hence power radiated , radiation resistance. Potentials due to charges are Electric potential. Since charges having only magnitude Electric potentials are scalar. It is denoted as V. Electric scalar potential used to calculate Electric field strength E using a scalar derivative operator divergence.

Potential due to current element is called magnetic potential. Since the current element having both direction and magnitude they are either scalar or vector. Vector magnetic potential is denoted as A and Scalar magnetic potential is Vm. Vector magnetic potential is used to derive the magnetic field strength H a space derivative operator curl.

There are three different approaches to determine potential Heuristic approach Maxwells Equation approach Phasor representation

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Radiation intensity The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation intensity U or (watts per steradian or per square degree). The radiation intensity is independent of distance. Gain The ratio of maximum radiation intensity in given direction to the maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna produced in the same direction with same input power. i.e Maximum radiation intensity from test antenna Gain (G) = ------------------------------------------------------Maximum radiation intensity from the reference antenna with same input power

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Directivity The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power density P(,)max to its average value over a sphere as observed in the far field of an antenna. D= P(q,j)max / P(q,j)av. Directivity from Pattern. D=4 /W A. . Directivity from beam area(WA ). Antenna beam width: Antenna beam width is a measure of directivity of an antenna. Antenna beam width is an angular width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern (major lobe) between points where the radiated power has fallen to half its maximum value .This is called as beam width between half power points or half power beam width. (HPBW)

Power pattern. Graphical representation of the radial component of the pointing vector Sr constant radius as a function of angle is called power density pattern or power pattern. Radiation Resistance The antenna is a radiating device in which power is radiated into space in the form of electromagnetic wave. W= I2R Rr= W/I2 Where Rr is a fictitious resistance called as radiation resistance.

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Effective Aperture (Ae). It is the area over which the power is extracted from the incident wave and delivered to the load is called effective aperture. Effective height (length) The effective height h of an antenna is the parameter related to the aperture. It may be defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to the incident field. i.e le= V / E. Relationship between Gain, Effective length and radiation resistance: D = 120 2 le2/Rr2

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UNIT-II ANTENNA ARRAYS

Array An antenna is a system of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater directivity in a desired direction. Need: To increase the directivity and gain in a desired direction To increase the power and field strength

Types of array a. Broad side array. b. End fire array c. Collinear array. d. Parasitic array. Design Principles of Arrays There are several array design variables which can be changed to achieve the overall array pattern design. Array Design Variables 1. General array shape (linear, circular,planar) 2. Element spacing. 3. Element excitation amplitude. 4. Element excitation phase. 5. Patterns of array elements. Application of Arrays

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An array of antennas may be used in a variety of ways to improve the performance of a communications system. Perhaps most important is its capability to cancel co channel interferences. An array works on the premise that the desired signal and unwanted co channel interferences arrive from different directions. The beam pattern of the array is adjusted to suit the requirements by combining signals from different antennas with appropriate weighting. An array of antennas mounted on vehicles, ships, aircraft, satellites, and base stations is expected to play an important role in fulfilling the increased demand of channel requirement for these services. Broad side array : Broadside array is one of the most commonly used antenna array in practice. The array in which a number of identical parallel antennas are arranged along a line perpendicular to the line of array axis is known as broadside array, which is shown in figure (2.1). In this, the individual antennas are equally spaced along a line and each element is fed with current of equal magnitude, all in the same phase. The radiation pattern of broadside array is bidirectional, which radiates equally well in either direction of maximum radiation.

End fire array The array in which a number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a line and individual elements are fed with currents of unequal phases (i.e., with a phase shift of 180) is known as end fire array .This array is similar to that of broadside array except that individual
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elements are fed in with, a phase shift of 180 .In this, the direction of radiation is coincides with the direction of the array axis, which is shown in figure. The radiation pattern of end fire array is unidirectional. But, the end fire array may be bidirectional also. One such example is a two element array, fed with equal current, 180 out of phase.

Collinear Array The array in which antennas are arranged end to end in a single line is known as collinear array.Figure, shows the arrangement of collinear array, in which one antenna is stacked over another antenna. Similar to that of broadside array, the individual elements of the collinear array are fed with equal in phase currents. A collinear array is a broadside radiator, in which the direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the line of antenna. The collinear array is sometimes called as broadcast or Omni directional arrays because its radiation pattern has circular symmetry with its main to be everywhere perpendicular to the principal axis.

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Differentiate broad side and End fire array. BROAD SIDE ARRAY END FIRE ARRAY

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Broad Side array: Arrays of two Point Source with Equal amplitude and phase, Two isotropic sources symmetrically situated with respect to the origin is shown in below figure.
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End Fire Array: Arrays of two Point Source with Equal amplitude and opposite in phase.

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Radiation Pattern:

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N - ELEMENTS UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS OF POINT SOURCES Uniform linear array An array is linear when the elements of the array are spaced equally along the straight line. If the elements are fed with currents of equal magnitude and having a uniform progressive phase shift along the line, then it is called uniform linear array.

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N Element LINEAR BROADSIDE ARRAY: Major Lobe:

Minor Lobe-Maxima: The Condition is Numerator of Enorm must be +_1

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Minor Lobe Minima:

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Radiation Pattern:

Beam width of the major Lobe:

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N Element LINEAR END-FIRE ARRAY

Major Lobe:

Minor Lobe-Maxima:

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Major Lobe-Minima:

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Beam width of the Major Lobe:

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Pattern Multiplication: The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the multiplication of the individual source pattern and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources each located at the phase centre of individual source and having the relative amplitude and phase, where as the total phase patterns is the addition of the phase pattern of the individual sources and the array of isotropic point sources. Total field by an array is defined as E = { E0(,) x Ei(,)} x { Epi(,)+ Epa(,) } = (Multiplication of field patterns) (Addition of phase patterns) Where, E - Total field E0(,) = Field pattern of individual source Ei(,) = Field pattern of array of isotropic point source Epi(,)= Phase pattern of individual source Epa(,)= Phase pattern of array of isotropic point sources. Radiation Pattern of 4-isotropic elements fed in phase, spaced /2 apart: Let the 4-elements of isotropic (or non-directive) radiators are in a linear arrays ,the elements are placed at a distance of /2 and are fed in phase, i.e. = 0. One of the method to get the radiation pattern of the array is to add the fields of individual four elements at a distance point P vectorically but instead an alternative method, using the principle of multiplicity of pattern, will be shown to get the same.

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The radiation pattern of two isotropic radiation spaced apart, fed in phase is known to be as shown in Figure. Now elements (1) and (2) are considered as one unit and is considered to be placed between the midway of the elements and so also the elements (3) and (4) as another unit assumed to be placed between the two elements as shown in fig,

Thus 4 elements spaced /2 have been replaced by two units spaced and by doing so, the problem of determining radiation of 4 elements has reduced to find out the radiation pattern of two antennas spaced apart. Then according to multiplicity of pattern. The resultant radiation pattern of 4 elements is obtained by multiplying the radiation pattern of individual element and array of two units spaced .

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Radiation pattern of 8-isotropic elements fed in phase, spaced /2 apart. As above the principle canbe applied to broad-side linear array of 8-isotropic elements also as shown in Fig. 4.5 In this case 4- isotropic elements are assumed to be one unit and then to find the radiation pattern of two such units paced a distance 2 apart.

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Thus the radiation pattern of 8 isotropic elements is obtained by multiplying the unit pattern of 4 individual elements as already obtained and Group pattern of two isotropic radiators spaced 2 is as shown and hence the resultant pattern is

BINOMIAL ARRAY: In linear arrays as order of an array increases, directivity increases but side lobes (SLs) also appear. SLs are always undesirable except in some special (military) applications If d > /2, SLs will appear in UP as well as in GP If either UP or GP contains SLs, RRP [also referred as total pattern (TP)] will also contain SLs In Binomial arrays numbers of array elements has to be such that these can be represented in terms of 2n. Thus for 4-elements (= 22) or n Elements of binomial array is arranged by means of Pascals Triangle

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Advantages of Binomial Array 1. The binomial array is one in which all the elements are fed with current of non uniform amplitude such that it reduces minor lobes. 2. Hence, we use Pascal triangle to select the coefficient or amplitudes of elements. 3. Hence, we use Pascal triangle to select the coefficient or amplitudes of elements. 4. Secondary lobes do not appear in the radiation pattern.

Disadvantages of Binomial Array. 1. HPBW increases and hence the directivity decreases. 2. Large amplitude ratio is required for a design of a large array

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UNIT III SPECIAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS

TRAVELLING WAVE (WIDEBAND) ANTENNAS Characteristics: Travelling wave or non-resonant or aperiodic antennas are those antennas in which there is no reflected wave i.e., standing wave does not travel over such antennas. As against this, there are resonant or tuned or standing waves or periodic antennas in which standing waves exist due to improper termination. Such antenna operates properly on limited band for which they are tuned. Since in radio communications which employ ionosphere for reflection, frequently require to operate on a widely spaced frequencies and thus there is a need for an antenna having greater band width. This need of larger bandwidth is met by these traveling wave antennas. In order to avoid reflected waves from the radiator so that only incident traveling wave travel on the antenna, the antennas are terminated at one end other than the feed end. Although this dissipates some powers but because of its simplicity it has its own attraction. Now to have a thorough understanding of traveling wave radiators we have to consider the radiation from a single wire carrying travelling waves.

Now consider a two wire transmission line terminated at its far end by its characteristics impedance so that there is no reflected wave and traveling waves travel along the line.

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The spacing between two wires transmission line and the other line (i.e. return conductor of the line) can be disregarded for the moment, as radiation from a current clement can be applied for a single wire.

Further uniform current throughout the single wire is assumed. Thus a single long wire may be thought as number of Hertzian dipoles joined end to end with current with phase lagging according to distance i.e. it is similar to an end fire array of collinear Hertzian dipoles, if velocity of light is assumed to be same in the wire and the free space.

Thus traveling wave antenna is essentially an end fire antenna with a sharp null in the forward direction. The field strength at a distance r from the wire at an angle can be

L = Length of the wire, Irms = rms value of traveling wave current. If radiation pattern for various lengths are plotted as in Fig.4.1.2, it would be seen that as the length of wire increases, the major lobes get closer and narrower to the wire axis. It is further seen that for a variation of length of travelling wave radiator from 2 to 8 , the angle of major lobe varies from 17 to 68. Besides the amplitude of the lobe also increases. The traveling wave radiators can be excited without the second line or return conductor. Since an end fed antenna possesses standing wave so it can be made a traveling wave radiator if its other end is terminated with a suitable value resistor. Thus a single wire radiator, if terminated with impedance of value equal to characteristic impedance, will work as traveling wave radiator.

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RHOMBIC ANTENNA: It consists of two wires arranged in the form of diamond or rhombus. The basic principle of rhombic antenna depends upon the traveling wave radiator. Rhombic antenna is used for both transmission and reception. In case of transmission, the input is applied through a feed line and receiving end is terminated by characteristic impedance. The rhombic antenna is similar to the two V-antennas connected in series and is suitable for point-to-point communication. The each arm of the rhombic antenna formed by Traveling wave antenna produces the resultant radiation pattern shown in figure. The lobes B C E G are producing the resultant field pattern at the receiving end which is terminated by characteristic impedance. The remaining lobes such as A D F G are also participating in the radiation pattern process and which are going to increase the directivity of the resulting signal further. The gain of rhombic antenna is increased by adding four lobes BDEK and tilt angle is equal to the angle of major lobe minus 98.

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Construction of rhombic antenna depends upon three major factors. They are, 1. Tilt angle() 2. Leg length(L) 3. Height above ground (h). Basically, there are two types of design. They are, 1. Alignment design 2. Maximum output design. This classification is based upon the elevation angle ().

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1. Maximum output design To get the condition for the maximum field intensity using maxima theorem, differentiate the field expression with respect to h and L and equating it into zero.

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2 . Alignment design
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In alignment design, the height h above ground is selected such that, angle of main beam is equal to the elevation angle (). General expression for height is,

Leg length, L = 0.37 / sin2 and Tilt angle, = 90-

Advantages of Rhombic Antenna 1. Rhombic antennas are very much useful for radio communication. 2. It is useful for long distance propagation because of low vertical angle of radiation. 3. The input impedance of single wire antenna is half of the impedance of rhombic antenna. 4. The performance of rhombic antenna is measured in terms of leg length, height and tilt angle. 5. Single wire antennas have less receiving power along main axis whereas, rhombic antennas have more receiving power. So, rhombic antennas are highly directional broadband antennas. 6. The input impedance and radiation pattern does not depend upon frequency so, rhombic antennas are used in broadside arrays. 7. Rhombic antennas are un tuned and easily convert from one frequency to another frequency.

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Disadvantages of Rhombic Antenna 1. Transmission efficiency of rhombic antenna is very less. 2. It requires more space.

LOG PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY (LPDA) It is a broadband antenna. It is a frequency independent antenna. A frequency independent antenna is defined as the antenna for which antenna maintain its design parameters like gain, directivity radiation pattern, Standing wave ratio to the requires level. In order to be frequency independent the antenna should be expand or contract in portion to the wavelength. The geometry of log periodic antenna structure is chosen such that electrical properties must repeat periodically with the logarithm of frequency A log-periodic antenna is classified as a frequency-independent antenna. No antenna is truly frequency-independent but antennas capable of bandwidth ratios of 10:1 ( fmax : fmin ) or more are normally classified as frequency-independent. The structure size changes with each repetition by a constant scale factor so that the structure can expand of contract. All the dimensions increase in proportion to the distance from origin. It has a number of dipoles of different length and spacing and fed by balanced two wire transmission lines. It is fed at the narrow end.

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The elements of the log periodic dipole are bounded by a wedge of angle 2. The element spacing is defined in terms of a scale factor J such that

where J < 1. Using similar triangles, the angle " is related to the element lengths and positions according to

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Combining equations (1) and (3), we find that the ratio of adjacent element lengths and the ratio of adjacent element positions are both equal to the scale factor.

The spacing factor F of the log periodic dipole is defined by

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Operation The log periodic dipole antenna basically behaves like a Yagi-Uda array over a wide frequency range. As the frequency varies, the active set of elements for the log periodic antenna (those elements which carry the significant current) moves from the long-element end at low frequency to the short-element end at high frequency.

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The director element current in the Yagi array lags that of the driven element while the reflector element current leads that of the driven element. This current distribution in the Yagi array points the main beam in the direction of the director. In order to obtain the same phasing in the log periodic antenna with all of the elements in parallel, the source would have to be located on the long-element end of the array.

However, at frequencies where the smallest elements are resonant at 8/2, there may be longer elements which are alsoresonant at lengths of n8/2. Thus, as the power flows from the long-element end of the array, it would be radiated by these long resonant elements before it arrives at the short end of the antenna.

For this reason, the log periodic dipole array must be driven from the short element end. But this arrangement gives the exact opposite phasing required to point the beam in the direction of the shorter elements.

It can be shown that by alternating the connections from element to element, the phasing of the log periodic dipole elements points the beam in the proper direction.

Sometimes, the log periodic antenna is terminated on the long- element end of the antenna with a transmission line and load. This is done to prevent any energy that reaches the long-element end of the antenna from being reflected back toward the short-element end. For the ideal log periodic array, not only should the element lengths and positions follow the scale factor J, but the element feed gaps and radii should also follow the scale factor. In practice, the feed gaps are typically kept constant at a constant spacing.

If different radii elements are used, two or three different radii are used over portions of the antenna.

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The radiation pattern is unidirectional, if the structure has only one active region and is bidirectional when there are two active regions. A larger gain and smaller variation in impedance and pattern is obtained when but that leads to a larger structure.

Note: Log periodic antenna is excited from the shortest length side or high frequency side to achieve maximum directivity. There are many log periodic structures possible but not all are frequency independent. In the inactive region there should be a rapid decay of current.

Applications of log periodic antenna HF communication Television reception All round monitoring

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YAGI-UDA ARRAY It consists of a reflector, a driven element and one or more directors. Consider the arrangement of Yagi-Uda antenna shown in figure below. Here resonant half-wave dipole acts as a driven element and parasitic elements are arranged parallel to the driven element. Here,

D - Director or Parasitic element R - Reflector or Parasitic element DR- Driven element. The current flowing through the director depends upon the voltage induced in the parasiticelements. The spacing between the driven element and parasitic element is approximately 0.1 (or) 0.15 . The driven element is placed between two parasitic elements. The parasitic element in the back of the driven element is known as reflector and in front of the driven element is known as director. The length of director is approximately 0.45 and reflector is 0.55 . The length of director, reflector and parasitic element depends upon the frequency. The general expressions for 3-element Yagi-Uda antenna is, Reflector length = 500f(MHz) feet
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Director length = 455(MHz) feet Driven element length = 475(MHz) feet The length of parasitic element determines its reactance. If the length is equal or greater than 2 , it will be inductive and less than 2 it will be capacitive. (i) If the less than 2 , the current lags the induced voltage. (ii) If the length is greater than 2 , the current leads the induced voltage. Hence there is 180 phase difference between the parasitic elements, and therefore which can be analyzed as an end fire-array. Yagi-Uda antenna is also known as super gain antenna because the gain can be increased by adding a number of directors after the driven element. The distance between any two elements range from 0.1 to 0.3 . As the distance between the driven element and parasitic element reduces, the input impedance of driven element reduces. Parasitic Element A radio antenna element which does not have any wired input is known as parasitic element. It absorbs radio waves radiated from another active antenna element in proximity and reradiates it in phase with the active element, so that it adds to the total transmitted signal. This will change the antenna pattern and beam width.

Usage of Different Types of Parasites in TV Receiving Antennas Basically, there are two different types of parasites used in TV receiving antennas. They are, 1. Reflector 2. Director.
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The above parasitic elements (i.e., passive elements which are not connected directly to the transmission line but electrically coupled) are able to receive their induced voltage by the current flow in the driven element. The phases of the currents are determined by the spacing between elements and the lengths of the parasitic elements.

Using the parasitic elements, we can either reflect or direct the radiated energy, so that a compact directional antenna system can be obtained. The director which is shorter than driven element used to add the fields of driven element in the direction away from the driven element.

In case of more than one directors, each one is used to excite the next director. The reflector which is equal to or greater than driven element, used to add up the fields of driven element in the direction from reflector to driven element.

Further, the use of parasitic elements in conjunction with driven element causes the dipole impedance to fall below 73.Gain up to 12 dB is also achieved by using additional directors at an interval of 0.15 in the beam direction. When the distance between driven and director elements is increased, the capacitive reactance needed to provide correct phasing of parasitic current is also more.

The variations in the distance between driven element and parasitic element allow us to make the radiation pattern as unidirectional by changing the relative phases. Practically, a parasitic element shortened by 5 % with respect to driven element acts as director and lengthened by 5% acts as reflector. The parasitic antennas which are

properly designed with a large front to back ratio are having special use at higher frequencies between 100-1000 MHz. Advantages

Lightweight Low cost Simple construction Unidirectional beam (front-to-back ratio) Increased directivity over other simple wire antennas Practical for use at HF (3-30 MHz), VHF (30-300 MHz), and UHF (300 MHz - 3 GHz)
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Typical Yagi-Uda Array Parameters Driven element : half-wave resonant dipole or folded dipole,(Length = 0.458 to 0.498, dependent on radius), folded dipoles are employed as driven elements to increase the array input impedance. Director Length = 0.48 to 0.458 (approximately 10 to 20 % shorter than the driven element), not necessarily uniform. Reflector Length = 0.58 (approximately 5 to 10 % longer than the driven element). Director spacing = approximately 0.2 to 0.48, not necessarily uniform. Reflector spacing = 0.1 to 0.258 HORN ANTENNA: A Horn Antenna is similar to the opened out waveguide. It is excited at one end and kept opened at the other to get the energy radiated out of it. The radiation is more from a waveguide compared to two wire transmission lines. The amount of energy radiated from (out of) the waveguide is very less compared to the reflected energy due to impedance mismatch. In order to overcome the non-directive radiation pattern and poor radiation, we use horn antenna. The horn antenna is similar to the opened waveguide only difference is abrupt discontinuity is replaced by a gradual transformation. Horn antennas are classified as, 1. Sectoral horn antenna 2. Pyramidal horn antenna 3. Conical horn antenna. Depending upon the flaring, all the above horn antennas are classified.
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Sectoral Horn Antenna When the flaring is done at only one particular direction, it is known as sectoral horn antenna, depending upon the direction of flaring, sectoral horn antenna is classified as, (i) H-plane sectoral horn antenna (ii) E-plane sectoral horn antenna.

If the flaring is done to the walls of circular waveguide it is known as Conical Horn.

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The main function of electromagnetic horn antenna is the impedance matching and to produce uniform phase front with a larger aperture to provide greater directivity. The general equation for flare angle (2) in horn antenna is given as,

= Permissible phase angle variations expressed as a fraction of 360 and = (1/2) of flare angle. The above equations are design conditions of horn antenna. If the value of flare angle is very large, the wave front on the mouth of the horn antenna will be curved rather than plane. General expressions for Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) of optimum flare horn in E and H directions, is given approximately as, E = (56/h) and H= (67/)

Uses: 1. Horn antennas are generally used at microwave frequencies for moderate power gain. 2. Horn antennas are also used as a universal standard for calibration and gain measurement of other high gain antennas. 3. They are also used as primary radiators for reflector antennas.

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Design of E-Plane Horn Antenna:

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LOOP ANTENNA: Characteristics: Basic directional broadband antenna Produces circular polarization Wide bandwidth Simple in construction Highest directivity Used in telemetry

It is a simple antenna. it may take many different forms such as square, rectangle, or circle. Loop antenna with electrically small circumference have small radiation resistance compare to their loss resistance. Their radiation is poor and rarely used in radio communication. These antenna are used in receiving mode where antenna efficiency is not very important. Mainly the loop antennas are used in direction finding.
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The Small Loop: Consider a circular loop of radius a with a uniform in-phase current as shown in figure 4.1. The radius a is very small compared to its wavelength [a<<_]. The circular loop may be approximated by a square loop of length d with a uniform in-phase current. The lengthd is chosen such that the area of the square loop is the same as the area of the circular loop ie.,

d2 = a2

Thus the loop can be treated as four short linear dipole. If the loop is oriented as shown in figure 4.2, its far field has only an E components. To find the far field pattern in the yz plane it is only necessary to consider two of the linear dipoles 2 and 4 only. The dipole 1 and 3 do not contributes to the total field since their field components are exactly equal and opposite in phase at all point in the yz plane.

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RADIATION FIELDS FROM SMALL LOOP ANTENNA:

Since the individual small dipoles 2 and 4 are non directional in the yz plane, the fields pattern of the loop in this plane is the same as that of two isotropic point sources as in figure

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Applications of Loop antenna: Radio receivers Aircraft receivers Direction finding transmitters UHF transmitters.

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UNIT IV PROPAGATION
The process of communication involves the transmission of information from one location to another. This chapter describes the different ways that electromagnetic waves propagate. Propagation means how radio waves travel from one point A to another point B. What are the events that occur in the transmission path and how they affect the communications between the points? RADIO WAVES:

Electromagnetic radiation comprises both an Electric and a Magnetic Field. The two fields are at right-angles to each other and the direction of propagation is at right-angles to both fields. The Plane of the Electric Field defines the Polarisation of the wave.zxyElectric Field, E Magnetic Field, H Direction of Propagation

Two types of waves: Transverse and Longitudinal

Transverse waves: Vibration is from side to side; that is, at right angles to the direction in which they travel a guitar string vibrates with transverse motion. EM waves are always transverse.
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Longitudinal waves: Vibration is parallel to the direction of propagation. Sound and pressure waves are longitudinal and oscillate back and forth as vibrations are along or parallel to their direction of travel

POLARIZATION: The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation. Radio waves from a vertical antenna will usually be vertically polarized and that from a horizontal antenna are usually horizontally polarized. RF PROPAGATION: There are three types of RF (radio frequency) propagation: Ground Wave(Surface wave) Ionospheric (Sky wave ) Space Wave(Troposheric propagation or LOS)

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GROUND WAVE (SURFACE WAVE) PROPAGATION: Radio waves follow the Earths surface AM broadcasts during the day Works best at lower frequencies (40, 80, and 160 meters) Relatively short-range communications

Ground wave propagation follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground waves have carrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is an example of ground wave propagation.

The ground wave used for radio communications signal propagation on the long, and medium wave bands for local radio communications. Ground wave propagation is particularly important on the LF and MF portion of the radio spectrum. Ground wave radio propagation is used to provide relatively local radio communications coverage, especially by radio broadcast stations that require to cover a particular locality. Ground wave radio signal propagation is ideal for relatively short distance propagation on these frequencies during the daytime. Sky-wave ionospheric propagation is not possible during the day because of the attenuation of the signals on these frequencies caused by the D region in the ionosphere.

In view of this, radio communications stations need to rely on the ground-wave propagation to achieve their coverage.

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A ground wave radio signal is made up from a number of constituents. If the antennas are in the line of sight then there will be a direct wave as well as a reflected signal. As the names suggest the direct signal is one that travels directly between the two antenna and is not affected by the locality. There will also be a reflected signal as the transmission will be reflected by a number of objects including the earth's surface and any hills, or large buildings. That may be present.

In addition to this there is surface wave. This tends to follow the curvature of the Earth and enables coverage to be achieved beyond the horizon. It is the sum of all these components that is known as the ground wave. Beyond the horizon the direct and reflected waves are blocked by the curvature of the Earth, and the signal is purely made up from the diffracted surface wave. It is for this reason that surface wave is commonly called ground wave propagation.

Effect of polarization The type of antenna has a major effect. Vertical polarisation is subject to considerably less attenuation than horizontally polarised signals. In some cases the difference can amount to several tens of decibels. It is for this reason that medium wave broadcast stations use vertical antennas, even if they have to be made physically short by adding inductive loading.

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FIELD STRENGTH CALCULATION OF GROUND WAVE: Ground wave propagation is very useful at lower frequencies between 1 -2 MHz this mode of propagation exists when the transmitting and receiving antennas are very close to the surface of the earth. The genera expression for field strength of ground wave propagation is given as,

The above expression is valid when distance (d) is very small. As the distance increases, ground attenuation and absorption increases. Field strength of ground wave propagation according to sommerfield is,

The value of ground field strength at the surface of earth (Eo) depends upon, (i) Directivity of planes which are vertical and horizontal. (ii) Power radiation of transmitting antenna. The field at unit distance (1Km) for a radiated power of 1 kW, can be calculated as,

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From above, field strength is directly proportional to the square root of the power radiated. E0 = 300 mV/mt. at P = I kW, d = 1 km = 186.45 mV/m at J = 1 mile Applications Ground wave propagation is generally used in TV, radio broadcasting etc.

SKY WAVE (IONOSPHERIC) PROPAGATION Radio waves in the LF and MF ranges may also propagate as ground waves, but suffer significant losses, or are attenuated, particularly at higher frequencies. But as the ground wave mode fades out, a new mode develops: the sky wave. Sky waves are reflections from the ionosphere. While the wave is in the ionosphere, it is strongly bent, or refracted, ultimately back to the ground. From a long distance away this appears as a reflection. Long ranges are possible in this mode also, up to hundredsof miles. Sky waves in this frequency band are usually only possible at night, when the concentration of ions is not too great since the ionosphere also tends to attenuate the signal. However, at night, there are just enough ions to reflect the wave but not reduce its power too much.

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Sky wave (Ionospheric) propagation(2-30MHz)

The HF band operates almost exclusively with sky waves. The higher frequencies have less attenuation and less refraction in the ionosphere as compared to MF. At the high end, the waves completely penetrate the ionosphere and become space waves. At the low end, they are always reflected. The HF band operates with both these effects almost all of the time.

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STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE:

Troposphere

Troposphere is that portion of the earths atmosphere which from the earths surface extends upto a height of 8 to 10 km at polar latitude,12-12km at moderate latitude and upto 16-18km at the equator

On the average it is said that troposphere is extending upto a height of 15km from the earth surface In troposphere the percentage of gas components remains almost constant with increase of height The important property of troposphere is that temperature decreases with increases of height and falls to a minimum temperature of -68F.After the top of the troposphere, troposphere starts and ends at the beginning of Stratopause (region of calm)

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Ionosphere: Upper part of atmosphere where ionization (ie creation of positive and negative ions)is possible It extends from 50 to 400 km above earth. Ionizing agents are UV rays, , and cosmic rays There will be very little ionization below about 50km.Above the height of 400km the air particle are very few so the density of ionization is again very low. Considerable ionization exists in the intermediate height ie between 50kmto 400km and this region has the most influence on the sky wave propagation. Ionosphere is divided into many layers due to ionizing agents, different physical properties at different height, different critical frequency. Presence of layers vary day by day, month by month or year by year. The levels, at which the electron density reaches maximum, are called as layers. The three principal day time maxima are called E, F1, and F2 layers. In addition to these three regular layers, there is a region (below E) responsible for much of the day time attenuations of HF radio waves, called D region It lies between the heights of 50 and 90 Km. The heights of maximum density of regular layers E and F1are relatively constant at about 110 Km and 220Km respectively. These have little or no diurnal variation, whereas the F2 layer is more variable, with heights in the range of 250 to 350 Km.

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D region (layer): Region below E is called as D region Responsible for much of the day time attenuation of high frequency waves Lower most region of the ionosphere Located in the height range of 50km to 90km It is present only during the day and disappears at night Degree of ionization depends on the altitude of the sun and on the sunset the recombination increases. So D vanishes. Critical frequency is 100kHz.ionization increases with solar activity Ionization density is maximum at noon and its electron density is ranging from1014 to 1016per cubic centimeter Capable of reflecting VLF signals (very long wave)and LF signals(long wave) and absorbs to a certain extent MF and HF signals Known as absorbing layer for short wave signals(HF)

Normal E Region(Layer):
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Layer occurs during day light hours During night hours,E region remains weekly ionized and during day light hours its height remains practically constant Electron density of region ranges from 105 to 4.5x105 during day and from 5x103 to 104 at night Maximum at noon in summer and increases with increased solar activity E region is formed by ionization of all gases by soft x-ray radiations Most useful layer for long distance radio propagation during day light hours and its main function is to reflect HF waves in day hours Located in the height range 90 to 140km Maximum density occurs at 110 km from the earth surface Critical frequency lies in the range of 3MHz to 5MHz It is also called Kennelly Heaviside layer Day to Day variations are not much
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Sporadic E Region(Layer) It is independent of solar activity Ranges from 90-130 km above earth It is very much irregular It usually occurs in the form of clouds, varying in size from 1km to several hundred km across The occurrence of sporadic E layer is quite predictable and it may be observed both in day and night hours It is not impotent in long distance propagation but sometimes it allows unexpectedly good reception It helps long distance scatter propagation of VHF signals It may also produces M type of reflection

F Region(Layer) F1 Layer
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It present during night time with the combination of F1&F2 The region lies between 140km to 400kmfrom earth source Average height is 270km Topmost layer highly ionized layer.Remainsionized irrespective of hours of day or seasons of the year It is also called as Appleton layer Critical frequency is 5MHz to 7MHz Low latitude throughout the year and high latitude only in summer

Uppermost region situated at a height of 140 km to 250km with the average height at 220km Critical frequency at noon is 5MHz to 7MHz
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Electron density ranges from 2x105 to 4.5x105 F1 layer is formed by ionization of Oxygen atoms During the radiowave propagation some of the signal is reflected back by F1 layer,The remaining signals penetrate to F2 layer

F2 Layer Uppermost region situated at a height of 250km to 400 km in day having highest electron density of all the ionospheric layer(average height is 150km) Critical frequency at noon is10MHz to12MHz Electron density ranges from 3x105 to 2x106 F2 layer is formed by the ionization of UV and X rays It is the most important reflecting medium for high frequency radio waves

Outer atmosphere (G Region): It is occupied by the radiation belts girding the earth and consisting of the charged particles trapped by the terrestrial magnetic field, having the shape of magnetic lines of force

MECHANISM OF REFRACTION: The path of the radio wave is bent by the ionosphere. Neglecting the effect of the earth's magnetic field and the effect of energy loss, the refractive index of the ionosphere is given by

This will always show the values of n < 1. Lower the frequency and higher the electron density, greater is the deviation of the Refractive Index from unity. When f 2< 81N, n is imaginary, i.e.

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the ionized region is not able to transmit a wave freely at such a frequency. Instead, attenuation takes place, analogous to the action of a waveguide operating beyond cut off.

The phase velocity of a wave travelling through the ionosphere behaves in the same way as the phase velocity of a wave on a transmission line, i.e. the velocity is inversely proportional to the square root of the dielectric constant.

since n < 1 for an ionized medium, the phase velocity in the ionosphere, is always greater than V by an amount that is greater, larger the quantity .

As a result, when a wave enters the ionosphere, the edge of the wave front in the region of the highest electron density will advance faster than the part of the waveforms encountering regions of lower electron density. Accordingly, the path of the wave is bent in the ionosphere. This bending of the wave follows ordinary optical laws. The direction, in which a wave travels at P, in the ionosphere, is given by Snell's Law.
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Pm is commonly referred to as the point of reflection, though, actually, it is the point of refraction. Smaller the 0, smaller is the 'n' required to return the wave to the earth. With vertical incidence, i.e. 0 = 0, n must be reduced to 0 for reflection to take place. The wave then penetrates the ionized region until it reaches a point, where the electron density N and the frequency fv of the vertically incident wave are so related that

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REFRACTIVE INDEX AND EFFECTIVE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (PERMITIVITY):

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SKIP DISTANCE (Dskip): Skip distance may be defined as (i) The minimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky wave of given frequency is returned to earth by the ionosphere.It is represented by D (ii) The minimum distance from the transmitter to a point where sky wave of a given frequency is first received (iii) The minimum distance within a sky wave of given frequency fails to be reflected back

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(iv)

As the angle of incidence at the ionosphere decreases,the distance from the transmitter at which the ray returns to ground first decreases This behaviour continues until eventually an angle of incidence is reached at which the distance bocomes minimum

(v)

The minimum distance is called skip distance(D).With further decrase in angle of incidence,the wave penetrates the layer and does not return to earth.

(vi) (vii)

Skip distance is the distance skipped over by the sky wave For a given frequency of propagation f=fmuf the skip distance is Dskip=2h(( fmuf/fc)2-1)

CRITICAL FREQUENCY

It is the frequency at which the radio wave is reflected back at vertical incidence and r=90 = =

At critical frequency i=0 r=0 N=Nmax is the maximum electron density. f= fc Therefore = sin 0=0 =

fc=9Nmax

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MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (OBLIQUE INCIDENCE) fmuf The maximum, frequency that can be reflected back for a given distance of transmission is called the maximum usable frequency (MUF) for that distance. It is seen that the MUF is related to the critical frequency and the angle of incidence by the simple expression fmuf = fc seci It is otherwise called as secants law. Where i is the angle of incidence. FADING & DIVERSITY RECEPTION Sky wave propagation largely suffers from fading variations or a fluctuation in the received signal strength is defined as fading. Wherever the signals that are propagated through sky wave propagation, at the receiver end the signals or wave follow different paths due to variations in the height and density of the ionization layer. Fading is one of the important parameter in sky wave propagation and occurs due to reflections from the earth. The values of fading are very small when the variation in signal strength is 20 to 30 dB. Fading can be reduced by using diversity reception. Variation of signal strength occur on line of sight paths as a result of the atmospheric conditions and it is called .It can not be predicted properly. Types of fading i. ii. Inverse bending & Multi path fading. Selective and interference Fading

Inverse and Multi path fading: Inverse bending may transform line of sight path into an obstructed one. Multi path fading is caused by interference between the direct and ground reflected waves as well as interference between two are more paths in the atmosphere.

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Selective Fading This type of fading produces serious distortion in modulated signal. Selective fading is important at higher frequencies. Selective fading generally occurs in amplitude modulated signals. SSB signals become less distorted compared to the AM signals due to selective fading. Interference Fading Interference fading occurs due to the variation in different layers of ionospheric region. This type of fading is very serious and produces interference between the upper and lower rays of sky wave propagation. Interference fading can be reduced with the help of frequency and space diversity reception. Diversity reception To minimize the fading and to avoid the multi path interference the technique used are diversity reception. It is obtained by two ways. i. Space diversity reception. ii. Frequency diversity reception. iii. Polarization diversity. Space diversity Reception. This method exploits the fact that signals received at different locations do not fade together. It requires antenna spaced at least 100 l apart are referred and the antenna which high signal strength at the moment dominates. Frequency diversity Reception. This method takes advantage of the fact that signals of slightly different frequencies do not fade synchronously. This fact is utilized to minimize fading in radio telegraph circuits.

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Polarization diversity reception. It is used in normally in microwave links, and it is found that signal transmitted over the same path in two polarizations have independent fading patterns. In broad band dish antenna system, Polarization diversity combined with frequency diversity reception achieve excellent results. SPACE WAVE (TROPOSPHERIC) PROPAGATION: Space Waves, also known as direct waves, are radio waves that travel directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. In order for this to occur, the two antennas must be able to see each other; that is there must be a line of sight path between them. The maximum line of sight distance between two antennas depends on the height of each antenna. If the heights are measured in feet, the maximum line of sight, in miles, is given by:

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Because a typical transmission path is filled with buildings, hills and other obstacles, it is possible for radio waves to be reflected by these obstacles, resulting in radio waves that arrive at the receive antenna from several different directions.

Because the length of each path is different, the waves will not arrive in phase. They may reinforce each other or cancel each other, depending on the phase differences.

This situation is known as multi path propagation. It can cause major distortion to certain types of signals. Ghost images seen on broadcast TV signals are the result of multi path one picture arrives slightly later than the other and is shifted in position on the screen.

Multi path is very troublesome for mobile communications. When the transmitter and/or receiver are in motion, the path lengths are continuously changing and the signal fluctuates wildly in amplitude. For this reason, NBFM is used almost exclusively for mobile communications. Amplitude variations caused by multi path that make AM unreadable are eliminated by the limiter stage in an NBFM receiver.

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FIELD STRENGTH OF THE SPACE WAVE: Space wave contain two components 1. Direct Ray 2. Ground reflected ray

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DUCT PROPAGATION: The higher frequencies or microwaves are continuously reflected in the duct and reflected by the ground. So that they propagate around the curvature for beyond the line of sight. This special refraction of electromagnetic waves is called super refraction and the process is called duct propagation. Duct propagation is also known as super refraction. Consider the figure,

Here, two boundary surfaces between layers of air form a duct or a sort of wave guide which guides the electromagnetic waves between the walls. Temperature inversion is one of the important factor for the formation of duct. For proper value of curvature, the refractive index (n) must be replaced by a modified refractive index

(N). Duct can be used at VHF, UHF and microwave frequencies. Because, these waves are neither reflected nor propagated along earth surface. So, the only possible way to transmit such signal is to utilize the phenomenon of refraction in the troposphere.
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UNIT-V MEASUREMENTS
Radiation Pattern Measurement: The antenna pattern is also termed as radiation pattern of an antenna. The radiation pattern is nothing but the plot of the intensity of radiation taken at different points that are at equal distance from the antenna. It is also defined as plot of power density with respect to the direction. The radiation pattern of an antenna is a 3-D figure. Hence, it needs intensity of radiation measurement over all spatial angles. Let us assume a 3-coordinate Cartesian system in which the antenna, whose pattern is to be measured, is placed at the origin as shown in figure . The plane XY is horizontal plane. For horizontal plane antenna, the two patterns exhibited are, (a) The component of E-field (horizontal) is measured as a function of (j) in XY plane (0 = 90). This is indicated as E ( = 90, (j>) and called as E-plane pattern. (b)The component of E-field is measured as a function of c in XZ plane ( = 0). This is represented as E = (, = 0) and called as H-plane pattern. These E-plane and H-plane patterns are mutually perpendicular to the major lobe. The plane XZ is called vertical plane and the two patterns to be measured in this plane are, (a) The ' ' component of it-field is measured as a function of in XY plane ( = 90).This is represented by E (=90, ) and called as H-plane pattern. (b) The component of E-field is measured as a function of in XZ plane ((j) = 0). This is represented as E(, (j) = 90) and called as E-plane pattern. For circularly or elliptically polarized antennas, these four patterns should be measured. The two types of techniques for measuring antenna pattern in any one of the plane are, 1. The primary antenna is fixed, and the secondary antenna is equipped for free rotation around the primary antenna in circular fashion. The field strength and direction of secondary antenna with respect to primary is noted at different points on the circular
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path of secondary antenna. Then, the required antenna pattern plot is made. 2. In this procedure, the primary antenna is rotated along vertical axis with respect to secondary antenna. The field strength at primary receiving antenna with respect to transmitting secondary antenna is recorded at different point on the vertical rotation path of primary antenna. Then, with recorded values, plot is made.

Gain and Field Pattern Measurement: To measure the absolute gain of an antenna another identical antenna is used. They are

arranged at a distance V from each other as shown in the figure. The directions of both the antennas are adjusted for maximum signal. Then the input to the transmitting antenna is adjusted to a specified level and the corresponding receiver reading is recorded, i.e., the attenuator dial setting and power bridge readings are recorded as Wr and Pt1respectively. Then the transmitter is connected to the receiver directly (through pads). The attenuator dial is adjusted until the receiver shows the same previous level. Now the attenuator dial setting and the power bridge readings are recorded as Wr and Pt2 Since the two antennas are identical pt1 = pt2 and the gain 'G ' is calculated as,

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Measurement of Field Pattern

The energy radiated by an antenna is not same in all directions it is more in one direction and less in another direction. The energy radiated by an antenna is measured in terms of field strength.

Consider the general arrangement as shown in above figure.

Here primary antenna (transmitting antenna) and receiving antenna are separated by a distance of R 2d2/ Depending upon the direction of rotation, the antenna support shaft is rotated. (i) E ( = 90) In this measurement, the antenna support shaft is rotated and both primary and secondary antennas are horizontal. . (ii) E (, = 0)

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In this pattern measurement, the antenna support shaft is rotated both primary and secondary antennas are vertical. Radiation pattern of an antenna is generally expressed in terms of horizontal and vertical plane,

(a) Radiation Pattern (Horizontal and Vertical) of Vertical Antenna

(b) Radiation Pattern (Horizontal and Vertical) of Horizontal Antenna

(i) E (= 90, ) is known as E-plane pattern because the electric field is function of (ii) E (, =90) is known as H-plane pattern because the electric field is function of From reciprocity theorem the pattern of an antenna is same for receiving mode and transmitting mode. Hence figure (a) and figure (b) are valid under receiving mode also. (iii) E (= 90, ) is known as H-plane pattern because the electric field component E as a function of . (iv) E (, = 0) is known as E-plane pattern because the electric field E as a function of After calculation of radiation pattern directivity can be calculated as follows. Directivity is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation intensity.

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IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT Impedance measurement can be done by two| methods, 1. Bridge method 2. Slotted line method, 1.Slotted line method The slotted line method is of practical important at frequencies 30 MHz - 1000 MHz . The block diagram of slotted line method is shown below.

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In this method, impedance of antenna is determined from the voltage and current standing wave ratio. So that, this method is also known as "Standing wave ratio method". The load impedance (or antenna input impedance) (ZL) is given by,

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2.Bridge Method The Wheatstone bridge is the simplest and most easily understood measurement bridge. The measurement device (traditionally, a meter) is "bridged" across the circuit. The meter will read zero when the following condition is satisfied:

This can be shown by treating the pairs R1, R2, R3, and R4 as voltage dividers driven by VS.VM is the difference between the output voltages of the voltage dividers. Suppose R1 equals R2 and R3, is the unknown resistor to be measured. The meter will read zero (null indication) when

If R4 is a variable precision resistor, its value can be adjusted until the meter reads zero. At this setting, the value of the unknown resistor is the same as the value of R4. This assumes that R4has a calibrated dial connected to it so that its value can easily be determined. R4 may be implemented using a bank of switchable resistors with or without additional variable resistors. R1 and R2 were assumed to be equal in the preceding discussion. For additional flexibility, they may be made switchable. The null condition will occur whenever the ratio of R1 and R2 equals the ratio of R3 and R4, So changing the ratio of R1 and R2 alters the ratio of R3 and R4 that will produce the null condition.

The measurement range of the bridge can be extended by using selectable values for R1 or R2.

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The Wheatstone bridge circuit is capable of comparing ratios of resistors very accurately. The meter displays its minimum value when the bridge is properly balanced.

The concept of the Wheatstone bridge can be extended to facilitate impedance measurement. Such a bridge may be used to measure the values of capacitors and inductors. A variety of bridge configurations have been developed to accomplish this, but all are variations on the concept of the resistive bridge.

One or more of the resistors in the bridge are either supplemented or replaced by inductors and capacitors. The unknown impedance is one arm of the bridge circuit, and one or more of the other arms are adjusted until the null condition is reached. Then the value of the unknown impedance can be inferred from the values of the components in the other arms in the bridge.

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IONOSPHERIC MEASUREMENT: Virtual height: The virtual height of an ionospheric layer is the equivalent altitude of a reflection that would produce the same effect as the actual refraction. The virtual height of any ionospheric layer can be determined using an ionospheric sounder, or ionosonde, a sort of vertically oriented radar. The ionosonde sends pulses that sweep over a wide frequency range, generally from 2 MHz to 6 MHz or higher, straight up into the ionosphere. The frequencies of any echoes are recorded against time and then plotted as distance on an ionogram. The highest frequency that returns echoes at vertical incidence is known as the vertical incidence or critical frequency. The critical frequency is almost totally a function of ion density. The higher the ionization at a particular altitude, the higher becomes the critical frequency. Physicists are more apt to call this the plasma frequency, because technically gases in the ionosphere are in a plasma, or partially ionized state. F-layer critical frequencies commonly range from about 1 MHz to as high as 15 MHz.

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Virtual Height Measurement: Transmit a signal that consists pulses of RF energy of short duration. Reciever which is located close to the transmitter picks up both the direct and the reflected signal. The spacing between the signals on the time axis of CRO gives a measurement of the height of the layer and this height is called the Virtual Height(h) of the layer. The virtual height is greater than the actual height(h) because the interchange of energy takes place between the wave and the electrons of the ionosphere cause the velocity of the propagation to be reduced . The measurement of virtual height is normally carried out by means of an instrument known as an ionosonde.In this method, a pulse modulated radio wave is transmitted vertically upward with a pulse duration of about 150 micro seconds. The reflected signal is received close to the transmission point and the time T required for the round trip is measured. The Virtual Height is then given by h=CT/2 Where C- velocity of light T- Round trip time period. The virtual height has the greatest advantage of being easily measured and it is very useful in the transmission path calculations.

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Relationship between vertical incidence and Oblique incidence: Critical Frequency (Vertical incidence) fc : It is defined as the highest frequency at which the radio wave is reflected back to the earth at vertical incidence(angle of incidence i=0).

fc=9Nmax

Maximum Usable frequency (Oblique incidence) fmuf The maximum, frequency that can be reflected back for a given distance of transmission is called the maximum usable frequency (MUF) for that distance. It is seen that the MUF is related to the critical frequency and the angle of incidence by the simple expression

fmuf = fc seci
It is otherwise called as secants law. Where i is the angle of incidence.

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