Ways Indigenous People have used and Managed their Natural Resources

The tropical forests of the Caribbean provide a diverse range of important services and products that contribute to the development of the region. An example of a valuable forest service is its ability to function as a watershed thereby securing water resources, reducing severe soil erosion and ameliorating the impacts of shocks to the environment (e.g. torrential rains associated with tropical storms and hurricanes). These regional forests also provide a valuable service through their ability to sustain productive levels of biodiversity from which a variety of products are generated including timber and non timber forest products (NTFPs). The definition of NTFPs, also known as minor forest products or Non Wood Forest Products has proven to be inexact and difficult at times because it is defined not by what it is, but by what it is not. After noting the exclusive nature of the terminology, Neumann and Hirsch (2000) go on to define a NTFP as literally any and every natural resource from the forest except timber. Regional forests have been relied upon for a stream of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) or Non Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) since the pre Columbian era. These NTFPs in many

instances reflect cultural history rooted in the use of the regions biodiversity. Some of these resources serve as foods in the form of forest fruits and nuts (e.g. wild passion fruit, Brazil nut) as well as spices and essences (e.g. mauby, peppers, vanilla). In other instances, NTFPs provide material for the traditional craft sector (e.g. calabash, sisal, palm leaves, roots). Various tree barks, flowers and resins are used to extract tannins or dyes. NTFPs also feature in various cultural and religious practices throughout the region (e.g. incense, gommier sap) and there is growing interest in the traditional herbal remedies used throughout the Caribbean. Many of the rural poor have earned subsistence level income from harvesting such products, selling them either in the raw form or as processed or manufactured goods. The most important NTFPs for the region are (i) medicinal and aromatic plants, (ii) edible products (mainly exotic and natural fruits, bushmeat and bee products) (iii) ornamentals, utensils, handicrafts and (iv) construction material (Rivero 2001). These have been detailed in Table 1.

Technolgy in The Kalinagos,Taino and Mayan Cultures

Taino had very simple life styles but they had some technological advances. Some examples are Hut building, Fishing and Pottery. Hut building there were larger huts built with a center pole, which gave extra support to the roof. It was considered important for resisting heavy gales. It had no windows and doors. Wooden posts were placed firmly in the ground to form a circle about five paces apart and laced together with springy branches and grass. Transverse beams were tied on top of the posts, and a pole placed in the center of the structure. The center pole and the transverse beams were then connected with thin poles, and these were covered with grass or palm leaves to form a conical roof. Fishing- Arawaks used nets, lines with hooks, a bone or turtle shell and harpoons to capture fish. In Cuba artificial pools were created to keep excess fish until they were needed .The Arawaks used the sucking fish (Remora). Pottery- this was made from the local red, brown and gray clays. Pots were not glazed but decorated with markings different for each village. They were made in shapes of frogs, birds or heads with wide eyes and large ears for handles. Basketwork cylinders These were made to extract the poisonous juice of cassava. Cassava was the Arawaks main food, they made cassava cakes, pepperpot with cassava and a sauce called cassareep. Kalinago They painted their bodies to protect against the heat and insect bites made from vegetable dye and oil. Fishing arrows and Spears were tipped with shell and bone and battle arrows were tipped with fire and poison. Boat Building- Caribs canoes might have been up to 6 metres long. It was made out of tree trunks. The trunk was charred then hollowed with stone axes and left to season, after which it was buried in moist sand. Bars were placed across the opening to the force out the sides and it was left in place until wood had dried and hardened. Then triangular boards were wedged at the bow and stern so that the water could not enter the boat, and the sides were raised by fastening sticks bound with fibres and coated with gum to the upper edges. If this type of canoe overturned it did not sink, but instead could be righted by the paddlers but instead rocked to slash out the water.

Case Study Dominica

Aspects of Carib/Kalinago Culture Carib was a name used by Europeans to describe those people who inhabited the islands of the Lesser Antilles at the time of Columbus' second voyage in 1493. This was not what the people called themselves.

Kalinago: The Carib word for the Carib people. As Father Breton, who lived among the Kalinago in Dominica off and on between 1642 and 1653 says in his dictionary: "This is the real name of the Caribs of the islands." He wrote it as "Callinago", but the usual phonetic writing today is "Kalinago". "Kalinemeti" means "A good, peaceful man".
The Kalinago methods of agriculture were based on the clearing of small spaces in the forest that were changed regularly allowing for fallow periods and soil rejuvenation. Colonial agricultural practices were destructive to the Kalinagos' methods of food gathering and swidden agriculture. The sheltered forest clearings that sustained their agriculture were swept away and replaced by open European-style fields. Kalinago provision grounds were overrun. The trees for canoe building that sustained their freedom of movement were transformed into mill rollers and furnace fuel. Within 30 years of English settlement the environmental degradation of Antigua was well advanced (Watts, 1992: 221).

How did the kalinagos practised fishing?

The Kalinagos practised fishing/caught fish by shooting the fish that came to the surface with bows and arrows. They also used nets,traps and fishing lines with hooks made of shell.

Mayans of Belize
Mayan Farmers
Farming Methods: In the rainforest the Mayas used stone axes, and blades of obsidian and flint to cut down trees and bushes before burning them to make clearings. The ashes that were left behind were good for the soil, which was planted with seeds to farm during the rainy season. In other areas the Mayas dug canals to bring water from nearby rivers for their crop. On the sloping land, the Maya made flat terraces for their fields, which they <="" td=""> surrounded with walls. Crops that were grown: Corn, beans, and squash were the most important crops to the Mayans. Early farmers grew only enough food for their family but they also grew cotton and cacao trees which was important for trading. They also grew tropical fruits such as: papayas, sapodillas, and avocados. They also grew sweet potatoes and chili peppers.

 Types of Food: Corn was one of the main meals. They used corn to make a kind of porridge spiced with chili and, they made tamales, and pancake like food that the Spanish now calls tortillas. They made a type of an alcoholic drink called "Balche" which was sweetened with honey and spiced with tree bark. Hunting and Fishing: Mayan men used bow and arrows to hunt wild animals such as: deer, monkey, rabbit, and the pig- like peccary. Hunters used blowguns to bring down birds. At the coast fisherman used nets and nets to catch various fish. Domestication: The Mayans caught wild birds such as turkeys and ducks for food. They kept and trained dogs for hunting buddies, although some breeds were eaten. They also collected bees and kept them in logs.

Traditional Fishing Methods

Indigenous people fished for in a variety of different ways, the following are simple descriptions of a few traditional fishing methods.

1. Using one's hands Although men did most of the fishing, often men, women, and children would go down to the shoreline and fish in holes, within the sand, and under rocks using their hands. They would carry their catch in a net bag or a calabash tied to thier waist. 2. Fishing with nets There were many types : Scoop and dip nets: Scoop nets were constructed using a bendable wood rod formed into a tennis racket shape. A mesh net was then attached to the large opening. Dip nets were constructed using two rods betweeen which was a mesh net. Bait was tied to the net to attract other fish that would hover over the net, which then would be caught as the lifted the net from below, securing the catch.

Gill nets nets made with different size mesh, depending on the catch, and left in places known to obstruct the path of moving fish schools. As the fish swam unknowingly into the net, the fish would become enmeshed and later were removed. Seine nets nets were often very long, reaching lengths of 900 feet. The botton of the net was sewn with a rope and sinkers to help it sink. The top of the net, kept at the surface of the water was laced with wooden floats. Canoes would be used to surround a school of fish .Once the net formed a complete circle around the catch, the bottom of the net was closed using the rope which would trap the fish in the net.