IMPERIAL JAPAN

Sino-Japanese War, Russo-Japanese War, & Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
By William P. Litynski

The Ameri ani!ation & Europeani!ation o" Japan

American Gunboat Diplomacy: U.S. Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry prepares to meet the Imperial Commissioners at Yokohama, apan on !ly ", #"$%. Commodore Perry visited apan to pers!ade the &ok!'awa Sho'!nate to open apanese har(ors to )meri*an ships +or trade and +!el, Commodore Perry and apanese o++i*ials si'ned the &reaty o+ -ana'awa on Mar*h %#, #"$., allowin' )meri*an mer*hants to trade in apan. )meri*an mer*hants and missionaries visited apan, China, and /awaii +re0!ently d!rin' the late #"11s. &he openin' o+ apan2s har(or to )meri*an ships was inte'ral part o+ )meri*a2s 3China &rade4. &he r!lin' &ok!'awa Sho'!nate maintained an isolationist +orei'n poli*y, a restri*tion on +orei'n trade 5trade with 6!t*h, Chinese, and -orean mer*hants7, and a (an on travel to +orei'n *o!ntries +rom #8%$ to #"$%.

Le+t paintin'9 &he Belmont +amily at &he /a'!e aro!nd #"$.. :rom le+t to ri'ht9 Isa(el Perry, /essen;(orn ewish (anker )!'!st Belmont 5U.S. Minister to the Netherlands7, Perry Belmont, Caroline <Slidell Perry= Belmont, :rederi*ka Belmont, ane Perry, )!'!st Belmont, r., and Commodore Matthew Cal(raith Perry. )!'!st Belmont married Caroline Slidell Perry, the da!'hter o+ Matthew C. Perry, on Novem(er >, #".?. Matthew C. Perry was the (rother o+ Commodore @liver /aAard Perry. Commodore Matthew C. Perry2s wi+e ane Slidell was sister o+ Con+ederate envoy and +ormer U.S. Senator ohn Slidell.

A copy of the Treaty of Kanagawa, written in March 1854. The Treaty of Kanagawa opened the Japanese ports of Shimoda and Ha odate !Ho aido" to American trade. !#oc$ment% &ationa' Archi(es"

Prelude to the Opening of Japan: The China Trade & Opium War

&he :a*tories at Canton, China, where )meri*an, British, 6!t*h, and other +orei'n mer*hants sold tea and opi!m to Chinese mer*hants. 5Marine Paintin's and 6rawin's in the Pea(ody BsseC M!se!m7

&he @pi!m War 5#"%?;#".D7. &he British 'overnment !nder E!een Fi*toria wa'ed war a'ainst the Man*h!rian Chinese Bmpire in an attempt to allow mer*hants to sell opi!m in China. &he Man*h!rian Chinese Bmpire 5Ch2in' 6ynasty7 *eded /on' -on' to Great Britain in #".D.

Fiew o+ the west part o+ the *ity o+ Fi*toria, /on' -on', showin' the premises o+ the Penins!lar and @riental Steam Navi'ation Company with their +la' over the 'odown. &he +la's (ehind the P.H@. are :ren*h and )meri*an. &he hon' l., o+ the pi*t!re is pro(a(ly the @riental Bank 5opened #".$7 and has lon' disappeared as well as the o++i*e o+ the P.H@. &he I/on'kon' )lmana*k2 +or #".8 re*ords the Company as havin' the o++i*e in E!een2s Joad. 5Paintin'9 http9KK+reepa'es.'enealo'y.rootswe(.an*estry.*omKL*hater+amilytreeK*hinnery.htm7

36!rin' that +irst @pi!m War, the *hie+ o+ operations +or Ru ell & Co! in Canton was Warren 6elano, r., 'rand+ather o+ :ranklin Joosevelt. /e was also the U.S. vi*e;*ons!l and on*e wrote home, 3&he /i'h o++i*ers o+ the <Chinese= Government have not only *onnived at the trade, (!t the Governor and other o++i*ers o+ the provin*e have (o!'ht the dr!' and have taken it +rom the stationed ships in their own Government (oats.4 W! Pin';*hen, or /ow0!a II, the leadin' 3hon'4 mer*hant, was *onsidered (y some to (e one o+ the world2s ri*hest men, worth over MD8 million in #"%%. &he pro+its were h!'e and many +ort!nes were made. Warren 6elano went home with one, lost it and went (a*k to China to 'et more. J!ssell H Co. partners in*l!ded ohn Cleve Green, a (anker and railroad investor who made lar'e donations to and was a tr!stee +or Prin*eton, ). )(iel Low, a ship(!ilder, mer*hant and railroad owner who (a*ked Col!m(ia University, and mer*hants )!'!stine /eard and oseph Coolid'e. Coolid'e2s son or'aniAed the United :r!it Company, and his 'randson )r*hi(ald C. Coolid'e, was a *o+o!nder o+ the Co!n*il on :orei'n Jelations. Partner ohn M. :or(es 3dominated the mana'ement4 o+ the Chi*a'o, B!rlin'ton and E!in*y railroad, with Charles Perkins as president. @ther partners and *aptains in*l!ded oseph &aylor Gilman, William /enry -in', ohn )lsop Griswold, Captain Lovett and Captain . Pres*ott. Captain Pres*ott *alled on :.&. B!sh, Bs0., his +riend and a'ent in /on' -on' +re0!ently. J!ssell H Co. +amilies, relations and +riends are well represented in the @rder o+ Sk!ll H Bones. )+ter the +irst @pi!m War, the port o+ Shan'hai was opened !p, with J!ssell H Co. as one o+ its +irst +orei'n mer*hants. In #".#, J!ssell (ro!'ht the +irst steam ship to Chinese waters and *ontin!ed to develop e transportation ro!tes as lon' as opi!m made them pro+ita(le. J!ssell partners were also involved in early railroad vent!res in China, to'ether with U.S. railroad ma'nate B./. /arriman, whose sons later (e*ame very a*tive in Sk!ll H Bones. &he se*ond @pi!m War led to the le'aliAation o+ opi!m in China in #"$"N4 O Fleshing Out Skull & Bones (y -ris Mille'an, p. #$$;#$8

)re'$de to the Moderni*ation of Japan% +$ropean ,ntrig$es - Japanese ,ndependence

A Japanese Nanban bybu detai' depicting a )ort$g$ese carrac arri(ing at &agasa i ! ", Japan in circa 15.1. Japanese daimyo /m$ra S$mitada, who con(erted to 0hristianity, permitted the esta1'ishment of a port with the p$rpose of har1oring )ort$g$ese ships in &agasa i in 15234 the dea' was esta1'ished in 15.1, $nder the s$per(ision of the Jes$it missionary 5aspar 6i'e'a and )ort$g$ese 0aptain7Ma8or Trist9o 6a* de 6eiga, with /m$ra:s persona' assistance. The city of &agasa i was a Jes$it co'ony for a short time d$ring the 158;s4 a (ast ma8ority of Japanese peop'e 'i(ing in &agasa i in the 158;s were 0atho'ics. The )ort$g$ese, #$tch, Spanish, and +ng'ish merchants traded with Japan at the port of &agasa i from the 158;s $nti' the 12<;s, when Japan restricted its trade to #$tch and 0hinese merchants. )ort$g$ese and #$tch merchants introd$ced new prod$cts to Japan, inc'$ding rif'es, 1read, temp$ra !fried seafood", eyeg'asses, and te'escopes.

=eft% Jes$it co7fo$nder Saint >rancis ?a(ier !15;27155@" introd$ced 0hristianity in Kagoshima, Japan in 1543. Aight% Japanese warrior Bda &o1$naga ! , 15<47158@" 1egan a mi'itary campaign to $nify Japan d$ring the 'ate 15;;s and em1raced ear'y moderni*ation of Japan, inc'$ding the $se of rif'es that were introd$ced initia''y 1y )ort$g$ese merchants.

The (oyages of Spanish71orn )ort$g$ese Jes$it missionary St. >rancis ?a(ier

Map of Ky$sh$, inc'$ding the is'ands of Tanegashima and Ts$shima and the cities of &agasa i and Kagoshima

=eft% A gro$p of )ort$g$ese Nanban C1ar1arianD merchants (isit Japan d$ring the 'ate 12;;s. Aight% Toyotomi Hideyoshi ! , c.15<.71538" was the ,mperia' Aegent of Japan from 1585 to 1531 and, a'ong with Bda &o1$naga and To $gawa ,eyas$, was one of the three 'eaders who $nified Japan.

Nanban C+$ropean 1ar1arianD ships arri(e for trade in Japan, as depicted in a 12th cent$ry painting.

=eft% The #$tch +ast ,ndia 0ompany !6B0" trading factory in Hirado, Japan was m$ch 'arger than the +ng'ish factory. The +ng'ish factory at Hirado was c'osed in 12@< d$e to a 'ac of profits. Aight% Hirado 0ast'e in Hirado, Japan.

+ng'ish merchant Ei''iam Adams !1524F12@;", the first +ng'ish and +$ropean sam$rai, meets with To $gawa ,eyas$ in Bsa a, Japan in May7J$ne 12;;. Ei''iam Adams and his s$r(i(ing crew were detained at Bsa a 0ast'e after they anchored their ship =iefde off Hirado ,s'and !near Ky$sh$ is'and" in Apri' 12;;. Ei''iam Adams, whose Japanese name was Mi$ra An8in, ser(ed as an economic ad(isor to To $gawa ,eyas$, assisted To $gawa ,eyas$ in he'ping 1$i'd Japan its first Eestern71$i't ship, wor ed in the +ng'ish factory at Hirado, tra(e'ed to Siam CThai'andD on a trade eGpedition in 1215, 'i(ed in present7day Ho os$ a, Japan, and raised two chi'dren with his Japanese wife. Adams died in Hirado on May 12, 12@;.

The 121< 'etter of King James , of +ng'and remitted to To $gawa ,eyas$ !)reser(ed in the To yo Ini(ersity archi(es"

The Jtrade passK !#$tch% handelspas" iss$ed in the name of To $gawa ,eyas$. The teGt commands% J#$tch ships are a''owed to tra(e' to Japan, and they can disem1ar on any coast, witho$t any reser(e. >rom now on this reg$'ation m$st 1e o1ser(ed, and the #$tch 'eft free to sai' where they want thro$gho$t Japan. &o offenses to them wi'' 1e a''owed, s$ch as on pre(io$s occasionsL F dated A$g$st @4, 12;3.

A map of Ky$sh$ is'and, Japan. Hirado is 'ocated north7northwest of &agasa i. Shima1ara, the site of the Shima1ara Ae1e''ion is 'ocated to the east of &agasa i and west of K$mamoto.

Time'ine of Japan 1efore and after the +sta1'ishment of the To $gawa Shog$nate
154<% )ort$g$ese traders 'anded on Tanegashima, Japan, an offshore is'and 'ocated near &agasa i. A$g$st 15, 1543% Saint >rancis ?a(ier arri(es in Kagoshima, Japan from 5oa, ,ndia to promote 0hristianity in Japan. 155;% )ort$g$ese ships (isit Hirado, Japan. 1521% >o''owing the m$rder of foreigners in the area of the Hirado c'an, )ort$g$ese 1egin to 'oo for other ports to trade. 15.;% 0hristian daimyo /m$ra S$mitada ma e a dea' with the )ort$g$ese to de(e'op &agasa i4 siG town 1'oc s are 1$i't. 15.1% &agasa i Har1or is opened for trade, and the first )ort$g$ese ships enter &agasa i. 158;% Bm$ra S$mitada cedes 8$risdiction o(er &agasa i and Mogi to the Society of Jes$s !a'so nown as the Jes$its". 1588% Toyotomi Hideyoshi eGerts direct contro' o(er &agasa i, Mogi, and Ira ami from the Jes$its. 153@71538% Japan wages war on Korea and 0hina >e1r$ary 5, 153. F The J@2 Martyrs of JapanK ,ncident4 @2 0hristians are cr$cified in &agasa i, Japan. Bcto1er @1, 12;;% The To $gawa Shog$nate defeats ri(a' war'ords at Matt'e of Se igahara 12;<% Japanese shog$n To $gawa ,eyas$ esta1'ishes his r$'e o(er Japan from his headN$arters in +do !present7day To yo" 12;3% The #$tch +ast ,ndia 0ompany opens a factory in Hirado. ,t c'oses in 12@<. 121@% JapanOs fe$da' go(ernment decrees that 0hristian prose'yti*ing on Ma $f$ 'ands is for1idden. 1212% A'' trade with foreigners eGcept that with 0hina is confined to Hirado and &agasa i. 12<4% The constr$ction of #e8ima 1egins4 #e8ima was an offshore is'and 'ocated neGt to &agasa i. 12<5% The To $gawa Shog$nate enforces JSa o $ +dict of 12<5K, restricting foreign trade and tra(e'. 12<2% #e8ima is comp'eted4 the )ort$g$ese are interned on #e8ima !>o$rth &ationa' ,so'ation +dict". 12<.712<8% Japanese 0hristian peasants engage in $prising against the To $gawa Shog$nate d$ring the Shima1ara Ae1e''ion. 12<3% )ort$g$ese ships are prohi1ited from entering Japan. 0onseN$ent'y, the )ort$g$ese are 1anished from #e8ima. 1241% The #$tch +ast ,ndia 0ompany on Hirado is mo(ed to &agasa i. 12.<% The +ng'ish ship LAet$rnL enters &agasa i, 1$t the Shog$nate ref$ses its reN$est for trade. 12.8% A 1ridge connecting #e8ima with the shore is rep'aced with a stone 1ridge.

>'ag of the #$tch +ast ,ndia 0ompany !a'so nown 1y its acronym 6B0"

#$tch7Japanese Ae'ations
, >,AST 0B&TA0T ,, TH+ JA)A&+S+7#IT0H A+=AT,B&SH,) ,,, TH+ #IT0H TAA#,&5 HBIS+ ,& H,AA#B, 12;371241 ,6 12417185<% TH+ #IT0H ,& #+SH,MA 6 =+AA&,&5 >ABM TH+ #IT0H% AA&5AKI 6, TH+ 0BIAT JBIA&+H 6,, ,M)A0T B& TH+ AATS 6,,, TH+ =AT+ +#B )+A,B# ,? TH+ MB#+A&,PAT,B& B> JA)A& ? #IT0H 0,6,= +&5,&++AS ,& TH+ M+,J, )+A,B# ?, TH+ EAA, 134@71345 ?,, )A+S+&T #AH A+=AT,B&S M+TE++& JA)A& A&# TH+ &+TH+A=A&#S, 1345 to the present ?,,, 0BMM+MBAAT,B& B> 4;; H+AAS B> A+=AT,B&S, @;;;

" #"R$T CO%TACT Bne fine J$ne afternoon in 1538, fi(e ships in Aotterdam ready their depart$re for a 'ong 8o$rney. The crew ha(e 1een to'd that their destination wi'' 1e the Mo'$ccas to 1$y spices, and to eGp'ore the LSi'(er7ryc eL !the Si'(er +mpire" of Japan. M$t once o$t on the high seas, the sai'ors of the fi(e (esse's, which are hea(i'y 'oaded with weaponry, are informed of their additiona' tas s 7 to raid and p'$nder )ort$g$ese and Spanish strongho'ds a'ong the ro$te in So$th America and Asia and to wrea damage on their enemies, $nderstanda1'e o18ecti(es in those t$r1$'ent times. The 8o$rney pro(ed a historic one. The first #$tch ship e(er to arri(e in Japan was the L=iefde L !L0harityL or L=o(eL"4 it was one of the fi(e that origina''y 'eft Aotterdam on J$ne @., 1538, and the on'y one to arri(e safe'y in Japan 7 on Apri' 13, 12;;. LT 5he'oo(e L!L>aithL" had t$rned 1ac for Aotterdam 1efore entering the Straits of Mage''an. The other three had 1een 'ost4 the L M'i8de Mootschap L !L5ood MessageL" in fights with the Spaniards, L Tro$weL !L>aithf$'nessL" to the )ort$g$ese and LHoopeL !Hope" to storm. Bn Apri' 13, 12;;, for the peop'e 'i(ing in Sashif$, in the M$ngo area !nowadays Is$ i in Bita )refect$re", the (iew o$t to sea was different from norma' days, for a ship strange'y shaped and rigged 'ay at anchor. Ehi'e the initia''y friend'y Japanese he'ped the comp'ete'y eGha$sted #$tch crew !which inc'$ded at 'east one +ng'ishman", they s$cc$m1ed to the (ery norma' temptations of that period to ta e from the (esse' whate(er they co$'d remo(e. The =iefde carried 13 canon, many rif'es, fire7arrows and assorted weaponry. Bf the origina''y 11; man crew on'y @4 had s$r(i(ed the 8o$rney. Among them were Jan Joosten (an =odensteyn, who wo$'d 'ater 1e nown as Haes$7san, and the +ng'ishman Ei''iam Adams, who wo$'d 1e ca''ed Mi$ra An8in in 'ater days. The fig$re7 head of the =iefde, representing #$tch scho'ar and phi'osopher +rasm$s, can sti'' 1e seen at the &ationa' M$se$m in To yo. The mi'itary r$'er of Japan, To $gawa ,eyas$, showed great interest in the #$tch ship, especia''y in the firearms it was carrying. +(erything was confiscated and Joosten and Adams were ordered to Bsa a and then to +do, the center of power !present7day To yo", to 1e interrogated thro$gh a )ort$g$ese interpreter. Their rep'ies '$c i'y pro(ed to the 'i ing of ,eyas$ and the s$r(i(ors were compensated for the 'osses they s$ffered in Is$ i. Some of them started careers as traders and married 'oca' women. Their (a'$a1'e now7how and $nderstanding of maps, na(igation, ship1$i'ding and warfare made Ei''iam Adams and Jan Joosten pop$'ar with the r$'er. ,t 1ro$ght them 'and, money and tit'es. TodayOs To yo 1oasts An8in7dori !An8in7street" and the Haes$ +Git of To yo station to remind $s of the 'ong distant ro'e of these two sai'or ad(ent$rers. Bne critica''y important conseN$ence was that the #$tch recei(ed officia' permission to trade with Japan, tho$gh it was to 1e a'most a decade 1efore this started $p in earnest. The first #$tch ships after the Q=iefdeQ arri(ed in Hirado in 12;3. To $gawa ,eyas$ made $se of the arri(a' of the #$tch for another reason. The r$'er had 8$st started his campaign against 0hristianity d$e to the o(er7enth$siastic prose'ytising of )ort$g$ese Jes$its threatening his a$thority, and the now'edge of the Lred haired 1ar1ariansL, as the #$tch came to 1e ca''ed, wo$'d pro(e $sef$'. The protestant #$tch, whose first o18ecti(e was trade and not the propagation of the 0hristian faith, had arri(ed and esta1'ished their credi1i'ity 8$st in time. This is how the specia' re'ationship 1etween Japan and the &ether'ands 1egan. "" T&' JAPA%'$'(D)TC& R'*AT"O%$&"P The )ort$g$ese had first arri(ed in Japan in 154<, so contacts 1etween Japan and the &ether'ands were not the o'dest and 'ongest Japan had en8oyed with a western co$ntry. 0ontacts with Asian co$ntries s$ch as Korea, 0hina and Taiwan nat$ra''y went 1ac to m$ch ear'ier times. Howe(er, d$ring the Qsa o $78idaiQ, the so7ca''ed sec'$sion period, Ho''and and 0hina were the on'y co$ntries permitted to trade and ha(e 'imited contacts with Japan. ,t was a stat$s which act$a''y 'asted o(er two cent$ries, from 1241 to 185<,

and as the on'y western co$ntry with s$ch pri(i'eges, Ho''and he'd a (ery specia' position. ,t was the door thro$gh which now'edge on science and medicine, and prod$cts and armaments from the &ether'ands and +$rope were imported into Japan thro$gh the #$tch sett'ement on #eshima, the man7made fan7shaped is'and in the May of &agasa i. Sim$'taneo$s'y the #$tch generated great wea'th eGporting Japanese prod$cts and now'edge to the west. >or 1oth sides, #eshima was more than 8$st a window on a new wor'd. """ T&' D)TC& TRAD"%G &O)$' "% &"RADO+ ,-./(,-0, The #$tch recei(ed a permit to trade from To $gawa ,eyas$, who in 12;< had 1estowed $pon himse'f the tit'e of Shog$n. ,n 12;5, when some s$r(i(ors of the Q=iefdeQ arri(ed on a Japanese 8$n in )attani in Thai'and, this Otrade passO was con(eyed to 0aptain Mate'ieff 7 the $nc'e of R$aec ernaec , one of the O=iefdeOsO s$r(i(ors. A short time 1efore, in 12;@, the #$tch had fo$nded the +ast ,ndian 0ompany !6B0", the idea 1ehind this 1eing to $nite many sma''er trading companies into the one powerf$' organisation which wo$'d ma e it easier to acN$ire (esse's and dominate the trading wor'd. The 6B0 can 1e seen as the wor'dOs first shareho'der company. Mesides trading, the #$tch go(ernment a$thori*ed the 6B0 to initiate contacts with foreign Oa$thoritiesO. A second trade permit recei(ed stated that the #$tch were to 1e a''owed to trade in a'' Japanese ports and eGpressed the hope that many #$tch ships wo$'d do so. This doc$ment is today in the &ationa' Archi(es in the Hag$e. The #$tch were first a1'e to comp'y with To $gawaQs hopes in 12;3, when two ships formed the first officia' #$tch 6B0 de'egation to Japan. They arri(ed in Hirado and after presentation of an officia' 'etter from Ma$rits, )rince of Brange, the #$tch recei(ed officia' permission to open a trading post. This first trading post was fo$nded 1y JacN$es SpecG on the is'and of Hirado on the north7west coast of Ky$sh$. Hirado was a con(enient 'ocation for trade with Taiwan and 0hina, 1$t did not o(er'y impress the #$tch 1eca$se most wea'thy merchants 'i(ed in near1y &agasa i. ,n the period 12;;71241, the #$tch co$'d mo(e aro$nd the co$ntry free'y and en8oyed $nrestricted contact with the Japanese. ,n Hirado they set $p a fo$ndry and 1$i't a we''. They were impressed 1y the N$a'ity and competence of Japanese craftsmen, who were freN$ent'y hired 1y the #$tch. Howe(er, in the ear'y period trade was not profita1'e d$e to the 'imited contacts with other 6B0 o$tposts. >$rthermore, the #$tch had no trading centre in 0hina and were th$s not a1'e to s$pp'y the Japanese with si' . This pro1'em was addressed 1y piracy of hea(i'y 'oaded )ort$g$ese trading ships. The )ort$g$ese $nderstanda1'y comp'ained and the Japanese go(ernment responded 1y 1anning piracy in Japanese waters. The threats of interference ca$sed the Shog$n to grad$a''y app'y a stricter po'icy in contacts with foreigners, 1oth the So$thern Mar1arians !)ort$g$ese" and the Aed7Haired Mar1arians !#$tch". ,n 1214 To $gawa ,eyas$ iss$ed a 1an on 0hristianity and e(icted missionaries and prominent Japanese 0hristians from Japan. This 1an was strict'y enforced and many Japanese 0hristians were martyred and had to f'ee or hide. ,n 12@1 Japanese s$18ects were for1idden to 'ea(e the co$ntry and 1oard foreign (esse's witho$t specia' passes, and soon afterwards a'' depart$res from the co$ntry were for1idden. ,n 12<3 the chi'dren of foreign fathers and Japanese mothers were forced to 'ea(e and the da$ghter of #$tch head merchant 6an &i8enroode of Hirado had to 'ea(e for Mata(ia, present day Ja arta in ,ndonesia. S$ch chi'dren were not a''owed to ha(e contact with the Japanese anymore 7 a r$'ing which 'ed to tearf$' scenes when they had to 1e parted from their mothers. The Hirado 0ity M$se$m disp'ays a to$ching 'etter of the time written on imono7si' , the so ca''ed Jagatara71$n 1y Koshioro. After 125. the Japanese go(ernment re'aGed the r$'es somewhat and fami'y news !OonshinO" was a''owed. 0orne'ia (an &i8enroode wrote QonshinQ to her fami'y in Hirado, which are sti'' preser(ed in Hirado. To 'imit contacts of the )ort$g$ese with the Japanese, the shog$nate decided to 1$i'd a specia' is'and for them. ,ts name was #eshima , and )ort$g$ese resided here from 12<2 to 12<3, when they were forced o$t of the co$ntry on s$spicion of s$pport to the 0hristian re1e's d$ring the Shima1ara re(o't. The #$tch had $ns$ccessf$''y fo$ght on the Shog$nQs side, and had stressed se(era' times that they co$'d pro(ide the Japanese with a'' the goods that the )ort$g$ese had pre(io$s'y s$pp'ied. LAain on the )ort$g$ese means dri**'es on the #$tchL was a #$tch saying of the time. Eith #eshima (acant, the shog$nate fo$nd ways to restrict the freedom of mo(ement of the #$tch. ,n 124; they fina''y fo$nd a good reason to confine the #$tch to #eshima. Head merchant >rancois 0aron had two wareho$ses 1$i't of stone to pre(ent 'oss 1y fire 7 a common threat in those days. Me'ow the roof arch, fo''owing +$ropean c$stom, the words QAnno 124;Q were engra(ed to show the year of comp'etion. Mentioning the 0hristian date pro(ed an insensiti(e mista e. The #$tch had to tear the wareho$ses down and mo(e to #eshima. The Shog$nQs decree meant the #$tch 'eft Hirado in 1241. >rom then on for more than @;; years Ho''and wo$'d 1e the on'y western co$ntry permitted to ha(e contact with Japan and the Japanese. "1 ,-0,(,234: T&' D)TC& "% D'$&"5A Aeho$sing the #$tch trading post on #eshima had the $neGpected effect of eGpanding the profi'e of the #$tch rather than restricting it. This fan shaped is'and in &agasa i 1ay meas$red 1$t 15,;;; sN$are meters !approGimate'y 15;,;;; sN$are feet", a1o$t the si*e of #am SN$are in Amsterdam. ,t meant the #$tch 1ecame JapanOs window on the wor'd. Eestern sciences and prod$cts were introd$ced to the Japanese and contacts res$'ted in so7ca''ed QAanga $Q or #$tch =earning. The most famo$s teacher is )hi'ip >ran* (on Sie1o'd, of 5erman origin, who ta$ght many scho'ars a1o$t western science, medicine and other matters of c$'t$ra' (a'$e. Many 'oan words from the #$tch entered the Japanese 'ang$age4 for instance L1iir$L 7 the Japanese word for 1eer 7 was deri(ed from the #$tch word L1ierL. ,n the conteGt of 'imited contacts 1etween Japanese and foreigners, the #$tch had to 'i(e $nder strict r$'es. They co$'d not 'ea(e witho$t officia' permission and #eshima was prohi1ited for women. An eGception was made for the p$1'ic women of M$rayama district, who were a''owed to stay one night at a time on the is'and. )ermission to 'ea(e the is'and was on'y granted for officia' (isits to

the go(ernor or the Shog$n, the so7ca''ed L+do Sanp$L or co$rt 8o$rney to +do. So 'ife was not idea' for the #$tch. Most of the time in a personOs year was spent id'e. Bn'y the arri(a' of ships, most'y in the period A$g$st to Bcto1er, was a 1$sy time. The (esse's had to 1e $n'oaded, cargoes $npac ed, repac ed, and traded. The ships had to 1e re'oaded with Japanese goods for the rich merchant traders of the 6B0. ,t was the time for stories and messages from home. At this time go(ernment reg$'ations made 1$siness 'ess profita1'e than it had 1een at the end of the Hirado period, when free trading was a''owed. 5oods had to 1e so'd at fiGed prices decided $pon in ad(ance. MaGim$m prices for import and eGport goods were set, and goods which remained $nso'd had to 1e ta en 1ac . M$t in spite of a'' these reg$'ations, the 6B0 sti'' made profits and contin$ed to trade main'y si' for go'd, si'(er, copper and camphor. A'so 'acN$erwor , porce'ain and tea were 1o$ght and eGported to Mata(ia or +$rope. 0ontrary to what one might conc'$de, #eshima was a pop$'ar posting among 6B0 emp'oyees. Bne reason for this was that the Japanese 5o(ernment, 1eside the officia' trade, ga(e permission for 'imited persona' trading as we'', a pri(i'ege which pro(ided emp'oyees with additiona' income sometimes reaching 'e(e's of more than @; times their norma' ann$a' sa'ary. The LopperhoofdL, whose sa'ary was 1@;; g$i'ders a year, was recorded as ma ing as m$ch as <;.;;; g$i'ders. >or po'itica' reasons, 1oth in Japan and +$rope, profits and trade on #eshima deteriorated in the 18th cent$ry. The Japanese a$thorities set o$t new reg$'ations on s$ch affairs as the n$m1ers of ships permitted and the eGchange rate 1etween si'(er and go'd 7 initiati(es that restricted profits for the trading #$tch. This was the era of the >rench Ae(o'$tion and the 'oss of the once mighty #$tch command of the seas. Metween 1.35 and 181< few 6B0 (esse's managed to reach #eshima as a res$'t of which 6B0 emp'oyees 'ost income. Bpperhoofd Hendri #oeff 1ecame dependent on the indness of the Japanese for food and c'othing. M$t #oeff did not waste his time. He contin$ed his writing of a #$tch7Japanese dictionary and in(ested specia' efforts in maintaining good re'ations with the Japanese a$thorities. #oeff ept the #$tch f'ag f'ying in #eshima% the on'y one 'eft in the wor'd. 1 *'AR%"%G #RO5 T&' D)TC&: RA%GA6) ,n the 12th cent$ry the L'ing$a francaL of trading with the Japanese had 1een )ort$g$ese, and first contacts 1etween the #$tch and the Japanese were cond$cted thro$gh a )ort$g$ese interpreter. After the )ort$g$ese were eGpe''ed, the #$tch 'ang$age grad$a''y too o(er and the ro'e of trans'ator and interpreter 1ecame critica''y important. )ositions were hereditary, with Japanese interpreters for the #$tch 1ecoming nown as LBranda Ts$8iL. Aare'y eGceeding 15; in n$m1er they were in charge of the administration of trade, dip'omacy and c$'t$ra' eGchanges. LBranda Ts$8iL p'ayed an important ro'e in the propagation of the western sciences. As the competence of the interpreters impro(ed, so it 1ecame c'ear to the Japanese r$'ing c'ass that the westerners had eGceptiona', and (a'$a1'e, now'edge in many fie'ds. ,n 1.@;, the eighth Shog$n, Hoshim$ne, 'ifted the 1an on western 1oo s, eGcept for 0hristian re'igio$s 'iterat$re, and short'y after scientific 1oo s 1egan to 1e imported into Japan. St$dy thro$gh the #$tch 'ang$age was ca''ed LAanga $L, or #$tch =earning, and scho'ars s$ch as S$gita 5enpa $ achie(ed remar a1'e res$'ts. The LBnt'eed $ndige Tafe'enL , a thoro$gh wor on anatomy 1y the 5erman K$'m$s, was trans'ated in 1..171..4 as the LKaitai ShinshoL. A1o$t the diffic$'ties of trans'ating this wor , S$gita 5enpa $ wrote the LAanga $ Kotoha8ime L !Meginnings of #$tch =earning". These two 1oo s 1ecame the 1asic st$dy materia's of many Aanga $ schoo's in Japan. Bf these schoo's the &ar$ta i J$ $, esta1'ished 1y 6on Sie1o'd in &agasa i, Shirando in +do 1y Bts$ i 5enta $ and Te i8$ $, esta1'ished 1y Bgata Koan in Bsa a were the most famo$s. Meside medica' science the s$18ects of astronomy, mathematics, 1otany, physics and chemistry, geography and mi'itary science were acti(e'y st$died. )ro(iding the Japanese with information on western sciences pro(ed an important tas for the 6B0 and res$'ted in many academics 1eing sent to Japan. 0aspar Scham1ergen ga(e his name to the medica' LKas$par$7Ay$L or 0aspar Schoo'. Hendri #oeff edited the LP$f$ Har$maL, a #$tch7Japanese dictionary 1ased on that of >rancois Ha'ma, and he a'so wrote Japanese poetry. 0oc M'omhoff co''ected Japanese artifacts and ho$seho'd goods. The most famo$s L#$tchL inte''ect$a' eGport was genera''y considered to 1e )hi'ip >ran* (on Sie1o'd. The 5erman 6on Sie1o'd was sent to Japan in 18@< with the mission to acN$ire as m$ch information a1o$t Japan, the peop'e and their c$'t$re as possi1'e. Thro$gh his thoro$gh now'edge of 1otany, medica' sciences and pharmacy, he 1ecame the most re(ered 6B0 emp'oyee of his time in ser(ice of the Japanese and #$tch a'i e. He was gi(en 'and near &agasa i, where he fo$nded the schoo' &ar$ta i J$ $. Here he treated patients, ta$ght medica' science and 1io'ogy, and ept a 1otanica' garden. Thro$gh his many contacts with scho'ars, patients and a$thorities, he was a1'e to co''ect (ast n$m1ers of artifacts of Japanese 'ife. Among goods recei(ed in eGchange for his teaching ser(ices, was a imono with the circ$'ar fami'y crest of the To $gawa Shog$n fami'y, and LsecretL maps of Japan, norma''y strict'y for1idden to foreigners. He was fo$nd o$t, and 1anned for 'ife $nder s$spicion of 1eing a spy. Many of his Japanese friends and st$dents had to pay for this acN$aintance with their 'i(es. His 18@3 e(iction 1ecame nown as the LSie1o'd ,ncidentL. He 'eft his wife and da$ghter Bine, who e(ent$a''y 1ecame JapanOs first fema'e medica' doctor. His (ast co''ection of artifacts is now at the &ationa' M$se$m of +thno'ogy in =eiden. 1" T&' CO)RT JO)R%'7

0ontacts 1etween the #$tch and Japanese a$thorities a'so too p'ace d$ring the ann$a' Oco$rt 8o$rneyO. J$st 'i e regiona' Japanese 'eaders, the #$tch Bpperhoofd from #eshima had to pay ann$a' tri1$te to the Shog$n in +do and pro(ide a detai'ed report on affairs in the o$tside wor'd, the so7ca''ed Qf$sets$ ga iQ. Bn this ann$a' epic 8o$rney that co$'d ta e $p to three months, the Bpperhoofd was $s$a''y accompanied 1y the 6B0 s$rgeon and some emp'oyees together with the Branda7Ts$8i and ci(i' ser(ants of the &agasa i a$thorities 7a tota' of some 15; to @;; persons. The procession with the QAed Haired Mar1ariansQ attracted many c$rio$s on'oo ers 7 the trip was nown as the Q+do Sanp$Q and comp'eted some 1.; times. )art'y o(er 'and to Shimonose i in north Ky$sh$, the mission contin$ed 1y 1oat to the HyogoSBsa a area and then on to +do (ia the To aido7ro$te. A poignant reminder of this 8o$rney is the gra(e of Bpperhoofd 5i8s1recht Hemmi8 in the sma'' city of Ka egawa, Shi*$o a )refect$re, dated 1.38, which was restored with f$nding from the 0ity of Ka egawa and the +m1assy of the Kingdom of the &ether'ands in @;;5. The (isit to the Shog$n mandated many specia' and eGpensi(e gifts. Te'escopes, medica' instr$ments, medicines, canons, g'o1es, eGotic anima's s$ch as *e1ras, came's and mon eys were a'' eGamp'es of gifts presented to the Shog$n and other high ran ing officia's. Scientific 1oo s were especia''y pop$'ar. ,n 12<8 a 1ea$tif$' copper Lgrand chande'ierL with waG cand'es was presented to a''e(iate dip'omatic tensions. ,t can sti'' 1e seen in the Tosho7g$ shrine in &i o, the ma$so'e$m of To $gawa ,eyas$. ,n ret$rn the #$tch norma''y recei(ed eGpensi(e si' imonos. 1"" "5PACT O% T&' ART$ The presence of the #$tch in #eshima and their passing 1y whi'e tra(e'ing the +do Sanp$ a'so had a percepti1'e effect on Japanese artists. =ife on #eshima was the theme of many &agasa i7e , or &agasa i prints, 1o$ght as so$(enirs 1y Japanese to$rists (isiting &agasa i. #$tch fig$res were a'so painted on porce'ain. )aintings and 1oo s 1ro$ght from Ho''and inspired many 'oca' artists. Shi1a Ko an painted #$tch 'andscapes he had ne(er seen himse'f, perhaps the reason for the presence of mo$ntains in some of his paintings. Kawahara Keiga was the persona' assistant to 6on Sie1o'd and his paintings gi(e a detai'ed description of 'ife on #eshima at the 1eginning of the 13th cent$ry. Eonderf$' co''ections of &agasa i7e, porce'ain decorated with #$tch fig$res and other #$tch7re'ated art can today 1e seen in the &agasa i )refect$ra' M$se$m, &agasa i M$nicipa' M$se$m and the Ko1e 0ity M$se$m. 1""" T&' *AT' 'DO P'R"OD #$ring the 13th cent$ry the wor'dOs po'itica' sit$ation grad$a''y changed. Ho''and had 'ost its s$premacy of the seas, and the power of America and +ng'and was rising. #$ring the opi$m war !18<37184@" +ng'and forced 0hina to open fi(e ports for internationa' trade and to cede Hong Kong. 6on Sie1o'd, who after his e(iction from Japan had 1een 'i(ing and doing research in Ho''and, ad(ised #$tch King Ei''em ,, to inform the Shog$n of the warOs o$tcome and to ad(ise him to (o'$ntari'y open $p Japan to foreign co$ntries. Ei''em ,, wrote a LAoya' =etterL, which was handed o(er after a parade and ceremony in 1844 to the &agasa i a$thorities. Tho$gh the Japanese go(ernment re8ected the ad(ice it was gratef$' for the friend'y gest$re. The #$tch go(ernment warned the Shog$n once more thro$gh #on er 0$rti$s, who was appointed LBpperhoofdL of #eshima especia''y for this p$rpose. ,n 185@ he informed the Shog$n that the Americans had p'ans to open $p Japanese ports 1y force. The Japanese did not ta e the ad(ice to heart and ept the 'etter secret7 the 185< arri(a' of 0ommodore )erryQs L1'ac shipsL sN$adron sho$'d not ha(e come as the s$rprise it was. "8 T&' 5OD'R%"9AT"O% O# JAPA% The arri(a' of 0ommander )erry with his f'eet in 185< 'ed to the opening $p and modernisation of Japan. ,n 5; years the co$ntry changed from a fe$da' society to a modern western democracy. The eGc'$si(e ro'e of the #$tch ended, tho$gh c'ose contacts 1etween the two co$ntries contin$ed. ,n the 1eginning the #$tch 'ang$age contin$ed to 1e $sed in officia' contacts with foreign co$ntries, so the first contacts 1etween the Americans and the Japanese had to 1e cond$cted in #$tch.The Japanese N$ic 'y $nderstood the changing power 1a'ance in the wor'd and in order to catch $p with the west, the Japanese go(ernment dispatched scho'ars to America and +$rope. Eestern specia'ists were in(ited to Japan to assist in modernising the co$ntry. Assistance from the &ether'ands was offered in ship1$i'ding and mi'itary science, medicine and pharmacy, and ci(i' engineering. Soon after the arri(a' of 0ommodore )erry, the Shog$nate reN$ested #on er 0$rti$s to de'i(er steamships. The #$tch go(ernment presented the na(a' (esse' LSoem1ingL, renamed in Japanese LKan o Mar$L. The maritime schoo' of &agasa i was esta1'ished for the hand'ing and the maintenance of the ship and armaments. 0ommander >a1i$s of the #$tch na(y and his crew, who sai'ed the ship to Japan, were the first teachers, and Kats$ Kaish$ one of their st$dents. After e(a'$ating the achie(ements of the LKan o Mar$L, the Japanese go(ernment ordered a second ship. Brigina''y named LJapanL, it was renamed on its arri(a' in Japan into LKanrin Mar$L and was 'ater sai'ed to America 1y Kats$ Kaish$. A1oard the LJapanL were first engineer Hardes and medica' doctor )ompe (an

Meerder(oort. Hardes 1ecame the fo$nder of the first ship repair yard and steam engineering factory, o$t of which wor'd c'ass ship1$i'ders Mits$1ishi wo$'d 1e 1orn. )ompe (an Meerder(oort fo''owed in the footsteps of 6on Sie1o'd and esta1'ished the first modern western hospita' in &agasa i. He in his t$rn was soon afterwards fo''owed 1y A.>. Ma$d$in, 0.5. Mans(e't, K.E. 5ratama and A.0.J. 5eerts, who a'' p'ayed a ro'e in the de(e'opment of a modern medica' ed$cation system. They are responsi1'e for the fo$nding of the medica' fac$'ty at Bsa a Ini(ersity. 5ratama is re(ered as the fo$nder of the Lseimi yo $L, which was the first chemistry 'a1oratory in Japan. A'so a Lseimi yo $L was esta1'ished in Kyoto and this one was the predecessor of the fac$'ty of chemistry of the Kyoto Ini(ersity. The word LseimiL is direct'y deri(ed from the #$tch word for chemistry LchemieL. 5ratama and his st$dents de(e'oped the a''oy $sed for coins of the first modern Japanese money. 8 D)TC& C"1"* '%G"%''R$ "% T&' 5'"J" P'R"OD )erhaps the most (isi1'e traces were 'eft 1y the #$tch ci(i' engineers in(ited 1y the Japanese go(ernment to assist in addressing the cha''enges of f'ooding in mo$ntaino$s Japan. #$tch ci(i' engineers were a'so in(ited to assist in 1$i'ding and de(e'oping the co$ntryOs ports. 0.J. (an #oorn was the first. He designed an irrigation cana' in >$ $shima )refect$re, which 'ater earned him a 1ron*e stat$e of recognition, sa(ed 1y 'oca' peop'e from con(ersion into 1$''ets in the second wor'd war. At the reN$est of the Japanese go(ernment, 6an #oorn in(ited more engineers to 8oin him inc'$ding Johannis de Ai8 e, who did not ha(e an academic degree 1$t who had 'earnt his trade in hard practice, and 5.A. +scher, father of artist M.0. +scher, nown wor'dwide for his intrig$ing drawings. M.0. +scher was said to ha(e 1een strong'y inf'$enced 1y the $ iyoe prints his father 1ro$ght home from Japan. Johannis de Ai8 e t$rned o$t to 1e an eGce''ent choice. He stayed in Japan for more than <; years and $'timate'y 1ecame 6ice Minister 7pro1a1'y the on'y foreigner e(er to reach s$ch high ran . His impressi(e achie(ements inc'$ded ri(er1an impro(ements of the Hodogawa ri(er in Bsa a )refect$re, and the Kiso Sansen in centra' Japan 7 an area in which three ri(ers with different f'ows con(erged and reg$'ar'y ca$sed hea(y f'ooding. #e Ai8 e $sed techniN$es s$ch as groynes, de1ris 1arriers and p'anting trees to red$ce r$n7off erosion e(en tho$gh the a1sence of mo$ntains in his home co$ntry had denied him the eGperience of 1$i'ding a corrosion dam. He a'so designed many of JapanOs modern ports, inc'$ding that of Bsa a, &agasa i and Ho ohama. ,n tota' 1@ #$tch ci(i' engineers came to Japan in this period to ens$re Ldry feetL for the 'oca' peop'e. Mesides in(iting #$tch specia'ists to Japan, the Mei8i go(ernment a'so sent Japanese scho'ars to the &ether'ands. &ishi Amane and Ts$da Mamichi were sent to =eiden Ini(ersity and a'so >$ $*awa H$ ichi (isited Ho''and for st$dy. ,n the period fo''owing the opening of Japan, dip'omatic contacts were forma'ised. The first #$tch 0ons$'ate was opened in 1853 in Ho ohama, fo''owed 1y a 'egation in To yo and a cons$'ate in Ko1e in 1828. &otwithstanding the contacts across many different fie'ds and the 'ong history of m$t$a' cooperation they wo$'d $nfort$nate'y not stop war from 1rea ing o$t 1etween the two co$ntries in ,ndonesia. 8" T&' WAR+ ,/0:(,/03 Eor'd Ear ,, was the first and on'y 1rea in the friend'y contacts 1etween Japan and the &ether'ands. Eith the aim of sec$ring raw materia's and creating a 5reater +ast Asia 0o7prosperity Sphere, Japan in(aded ,ndonesia on 1; Jan$ary 134@. This then #$tch co'ony was rich in raw materia's from oi' and r$11er to pepper and spices. After two months of fighting the Aoya' &ether'ands ,ndian Army capit$'ated. Some 4;,;;; #$tch so'diers were ta en capti(e and sent to prisoner of war camps. Many in the ci(i'ian comm$nity were sent to 'a1o$r camps a'' o(er Japan, some as far away as Ho aido and &agasa i, and to mines in &orth Ky$sh$. The Japanese occ$pation of ,ndonesia fina''y 'ed to that co$ntryOs independence. After the war the &ether'ands 'ost its stat$s as ma8or co'onia' power, and Japan was occ$pied 1y American forces $nti' 1351. B'd historica' contacts had 1een $pset. The war sti'' eGerts inf'$ence on the re'ations 1etween the two co$ntries. 8"" PR'$'%T DA7 R'*AT"O%$ ;'TW''% JAPA% A%D T&' %'T&'R*A%D$+ ,/03 to the pre ent Aatification of the peace treaty with Japan in 135@ 'ed to the norma'isation of re'ations and renewa' of dip'omatic ties. M$t the eGc'$si(e and inf'$entia' ro'e of the &ether'ands was now a thing of the past. To most Japanese the &ether'ands 1ecame 8$st another +$ropean co$ntry. +conomic, c$'t$ra' and scientific contacts started anew towards the end of the fifties. K=M Aoya' #$tch Air'ines opened reg$'ar f'ights. )hi'ips was instr$menta' in the s$ccess of the Mats$shita +'ectric ,nd$stria' 0ompany. 0$t f'owers increasing'y fo$nd their way into the hands of the f'ower7'o(ing Japanese p$1'ic. ,n the siGties, c$'t$ra' contacts grew. The Aoya' Amsterdam 0oncertge1o$w Brchestra p'eased Japanese ears. +Ghi1itions of wor s 1y 6an 5ogh and Aem1randt attracted many (isitors. LAanga $L was fo''owed 1y contacts 1etween many $ni(ersities. ,t was, howe(er, perhaps a sporting e(ent that p$t the &ether'ands 1ac on the Japanese map. At the 1324 To yo B'ympics 8$do was de1$ting as B'ympic Sport, and it was eGpected that Japanese ath'etes wo$'d ma e a c'ean sweep of the go'd meda's. M$t that was 1efore #$tchman Anton 5eesin defeated Japanese champion A io Kaminaga in the open7weight c'ass. >or the o'der generation, 5eesin is sti'' the 1est nown #$tchman.

,n 138< re'ations 1etween the two co$ntries recei(ed a 1oost with the opening of the LHo''and 6i''ageL theme par near &agasa i. A #$tch windmi'' was the start. 6B0 ships, 1$i'dings and prod$cts fo''owed, attracting many (isitors. 5o$da cheese and wooden shoes 1ecame pop$'ar. #$tch chi'drenOs writer and i''$strator #ic Mr$naQs creation L&i8nt8eL, nown to e(ery #$tch person, capt$red the hearts of many Japanese chi'dren as LMiffy7chanL. LHo''and 6i''ageL was s$ch a s$ccess that the management decided to eGpand the pro8ect. The res$'t was LH$is ten MoschL, which was opened in 133<. &amed after the roya' pa'ace in the Hag$e, LH$is ten MoschL s$rpassed LHo''and 6i''ageL 1oth in sca'e and content. The idea of LH$is ten MoschL was not 8$st the creation of a theme par , 1$t a rea' (i''age in which peop'e co$'d 'i(e, wor and en8oy their 'eis$re. Tr$e sca'e copies of many famo$s #$tch 1$i'dings inc'$de the pa'ace H$is ten Mosch, that ser(es as a m$se$m. Aesta$rants ser(e #$tch and +$ropean c$isine, and eGtensi(e co''ections of #$tch art can 1e admired. Meca$se the #$tch Aoya' Ho$seho'd did not a''ow $se of the same paintings which co$'d 1e fo$nd in the rea' pa'ace, yo$ng #$tch artist Ao1 Scho'te was in(ited to design the artwor for the main ha''. LApres no$s 'e #e'$geL is a 1ea$tif$' piece of which LH$is ten MoschL can 1e pro$d. There are not on'y (isi1'e traces, 1$t a'so many 'ing$istic reminders of o$r 'ong m$t$a' history. Most'y Lhanded o(erL in the sa o $7 8idai period, 'oan words from the #$tch are sti'' $sed in present day Japanese, many perhaps witho$t the $sers 1eing conscio$s of that fact. Biiru !1eer", koohi !coffee", garasu !g'ass", pisutoru !pisto'", orugoru !m$sic 1oG", otemba !tom1oy" and 'itera''y trans'ated words 'i e byouin !hospita'", mouchou !appendiG" and tansan !car1onic acid" are 8$st a few eGamp'es of how #$tch history p'ays a modest ro'e in e(eryday Japanese 'ife. 8""" CO55'5ORAT"O% O# 0.. 7'AR$ O# R'*AT"O%$+ :... ,n the year @;;;, 4;; years of re'ations were ce'e1rated in Japan and the &ether'ands. ,n 1oth co$ntries committees were esta1'ished to prepare and eGec$te commemorati(e e(ents. The &ether'ands +m1assy and the &ether'ands 0ons$'ate 5enera' in Bsa a acted as representati(es in Japan of the #$tch LBrganisation for the 0ommemoration of 4;; Hears of #$tch7Japanese Ae'ationsL. They wor ed in c'ose cooperation with the Japanese committee headed 1y #r. Taro &a ayama. #$ring the year @;;; more than 4;; e(ents too p'ace in Japan. The e(ents, ranging from c'assica' and pop concerts, eGhi1itions on 1.th cent$ry art as we'' as modern ind$stria' design, to trade fairs and symposi$ms, presented the &ether'ands in a'' its facets. Bne of the most important e(ents d$ring the commemorati(e year was the LHo''and Eee L which started on Apri' 13, @;;;, the day the ship L=iefdeL arri(ed in Japan 4;; years ear'ier. #$ring this LHo''and Eee L the #$tch 0rown )rince and a 'arge n$m1er of 6,)s from the &ether'ands (isited Is$ i in Bita )refect$re, where o$r shared history 1egan, and then headed for &agasa i. The gro$p a'so (isited H$is ten Mosch, Hirado, the Kansai area and To yo. ,n a'' these cities a wide (ariety of commemorati(e e(ents too p'ace, s$ch as the opening of a part of the re1$i't trading post on #eshima !a #$tch sett'ement in &agasa i that 1ecame JapanOs so'e window on the western wor'd when Japan iso'ated itse'f from the rest of the wor'd", concerts 1y the Aotterdam )hi'harmonic Brchestra , the L#e Ai8 e Symposi$mL on water management, performances 1y the &ether'ands #ance Theater, a (isit 1y 4 (esse's of the Aoya' &ether'ands &a(y and n$mero$s eGhi1itions and other e(ents. ,n @;;8 Japan and the &ether'ands commemorated that 15; years had passed since officia' dip'omatic ties 1etween the two co$ntries were forged in 1858. ,n @;;3 we ce'e1rate the fact that 4;; years ago forma' commercia' ties 1etween o$r two seafaring nations were esta1'ished. 0ommemorati(e e(ents, 1oth in the &ether'ands and in Japan, inc'$de a'' facets of the arts, 1oth modern and traditiona', as we'' as economic e(ents and academic eGchanges. These two years ha(e seen a string of high 'e(e' (isits, in(o'(ing many ministers in different fie'ds. ,n the &ether'ands, the forma' ce'e1ration of the 4;; years of 1i'atera' trade too p'ace in A$g$st @;;3. The #$tch )rime MinisterOs (isit to Japan in Bcto1er is to 1e the high'ight of o$r commemorati(e e(ents he'd in Japan. So$rce% http%SS8apan.n'em1assy.orgSyo$7and7nether'andsSd$tch78apanese7re'ations.htm'

Japanese r$'ers To $gawa ,eyas$ ! , 'eft, 154<71212"4 To $gawa ,emits$ ! , right, 12;471251"

The Matt'e of Se igahara, fo$ght on Bcto1er @1, 12;;, was the 'ast ma8or 1att'e fo$ght 1etween the sam$rais4 the To $gawa fami'y conso'idated its r$'e o(er ri(a' factions and go(erned a $nified Japan 1eginning in 12;<.

To To To To To To To To

$gawa ,eyas$, 12;<F12;5 $gawa Hidetada, 12;5F12@< $gawa ,emits$, 12@<F1251 $gawa ,ets$na, 1251F128; $gawa Ts$nayoshi, 128;F1.;3 $gawa ,eno1$, 1.;3F1.1@ $gawa ,ets$g$, 1.1<F1.12 $gawa Hoshim$ne, 1.12F1.45

=ist of the To $gawa Shog$ns !Ear'ords" and their reign To $gawa ,eshige, 1.45F1.2; To $gawa ,ehar$, 1.2;F1.82 To $gawa ,enari, 1.8.F18<. To $gawa ,eyoshi, 18<.F185< To $gawa ,esada, 185<F1858 To $gawa ,emochi, 1858F1822 To $gawa Hoshino1$, 1822F182.

Time'ine of Bda &o1$naga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi:s $nification of Japan from 1581 to 153;

The Japanese 'and at M$san8in >ortress in M$san C)$sanD, Korea in 153@. Japan in(aded Korea on two separate occasions d$ring its war with Korea and 0hina from 153@ to 1538. The Japanese army was forced to e(ac$ate Korea after 15384 the To $gawa Shog$nate $nified Japan and esta1'ished its r$'e o(er Japan 1eginning in 12;<.

The Twenty7siG Martyrs of Japan ! Nihon Nijroku Seijin" Memoria' is a memoria' that honors a gro$p of 0hristians who were eGec$ted 1y cr$cifiGion in &agasa i, Japan on >e1r$ary 5, 153.. Japanese war'ord Hideyoshi Toyotomi ordered the eGec$tion of 0hristians in &agasa i after the Japanese go(ernment recei(ed messages of a possi1'e Spanish in(asion and co'oni*ation of Japan the pre(io$s year. Their martyrdom was a significant e(ent in the history of Aoman 0atho'icism in Japan.

=eft% Japanese en(oy Ao $emon Hase $ra, a 0hristian con(ert, chats with >ranciscan =$is Sote'o, s$rro$nded 1y other mem1ers of the Japanese em1assy, in a fresco showing the g'ory of )ope )a$' 6, d$ring Hase $ra:s (isit to Aome in &o(em1er 1215. Ao $emon Hase $ra and his en(oys tra(e'ed 1y ship to Aome (ia MeGico 0ity, Ha(ana, and Se(i''e. !Sa'a Aegia, R$irina' )a'ace, Aome, 1215" Aight% A stat$e of >rancis ?a(ier !midd'e" with his Japanese discip'es Ha8iro !'eft" and Mernardo !right" is 'ocated in ?a(ier )ar in Kagoshima, Japan.

Shimabara Rebellion: Japanese Christian Tax Revolt? Map of the siege of Hara cast'e d$ring the Shima1ara Ae1e''ion !12<.7 12<8". A gro$p of Japanese 0hristian peasants re1e''ed against the To $gawa Shog$nate o(er eGtreme taGation, famine, and re'igio$s persec$tion4 a gro$p of Japanese 0hristian peasants, $nder the 'eadership of Ama $sa ShirT, capt$red Hara cast'e $nti' they were o(erran 1y the To $gawa army in 12<8. Se(era' #$tch sai'ors assisted the To $gawa Shog$nate d$ring the Shima1ara Ae1e''ion. The Shima1ara More than <.,;;; re1e's and sympathi*ers were 1eheaded after the re1e''ion ended. The To $gawa Shog$nate eGpe''ed )ort$g$ese merchants and missionaries from Japan in 12<3 and o$t'awed 0hristianity !inc'$ding the Mi1'e" after the To $gawa Shog$nate acc$sed the )ort$g$ese of attempting to co'oni*e Japan $nder the preteGt of promoting Aoman 0atho'icism.

=eft% Ae1e''ing Japanese 0hristians 1eheaded the M$ddhist stat$es of Ji*T d$ring the Shima1ara Ae1e''ion !12<.712<8". Aight% A stat$e of Japanese 0hristian warrior and re1e' 'eader Ama $sa ShirT is 'ocated at the site of Hara 0ast'e in Japan. Ama $sa ShirT was a 127year7o'd warrior who fo$ght against the To $gawa Shog$nate d$ring the Shima1ara Ae1e''ion !12<.712<8" and was 1eheaded short'y after he was capt$red.

#$tch merchants chat with Japanese co$rtesans on #e8ima, a #$tch trading post and offshore is'and 'ocated neGt to &agasa i, in circa 18;;. Japanese scho'ars, with the appro(a' of the To $gawa Shog$nate, st$died +$ropean science and medicine a'ongside #$tch scientists and scho'ars on the is'and of #e8ima.

Two #$tch ships and n$mero$s 0hinese trading 8$n s are depicted at #e8ima and &agasa i May, circa 18@;. #e8ima today is a neigh1orhood in &agasa i. The To $gawa Shog$nate, who r$'ed Japan from 12;< to 1828, maintained 'imited trade with the #$tch and 0hinese at the port of #e8ima C&agasa iD from 1241 to 185<. The To $gawa Shog$nate imp'emented the Sa o $ +dict of 12<5, restricting tra(e' and trade with +$ropean J1ar1ariansK. The Sa o $ +dict of 12<5 prohi1ited the Japanese peop'e were prohi1ited from tra(e''ing a1road and restricted foreign merchants !#$tch and 0hinese" to trading at #e8ima.

&ihon1ashi district in +do CTo yoD, Japan. +do, the primary residence of the To $gawa fami'y and shog$nate, was the 'argest city in Japan d$ring the 1.;;s and 18;;s. !Ukiyo-e 1y Hiroshige"

The Japanese Tour of America (186 !

The )agoda 0ar containing the Japanese treaty 1oG, as it appeared in the procession of the reception in &ew Hor , J$ne 12, 182; !)ainting% >ran =es'ieOs ,''$strated &ewspaper"

&ew Hor 0ity Mayor >ernando Eood, who pre(io$s'y ser(ed as a I.S. 0ongressman and a 5rand Sachem of Tammany Ha'', and mem1ers of the 0ommon 0o$nci' of &ew Hor greet Japanese am1assadors d$ring a reception in the 5o(ernor:s Aoom at 0ity Ha'' in &ew Hor 0ity on J$ne 18, 182;. !)ainting% >ran =es'ieOs ,''$strated &ewspaper"

Sent 1y the To $gawa Shog$nate to eGchange instr$ments of ratification of the Treaty of Amity and 0ommerce, the gro$p of approGimate'y eighty sam$rai dip'omats arri(ed in San >rancisco on March @3, stopped in Eashington #0 on May 14 (ia )anama, then went on to Ma'timore, )hi'ade'phia, and, fina''y, to &ew Hor . =arge'y forgotten today, the Japanese mission of 182; was the first face7to7face c$'t$ra' eGchange 1etween Japanese and e(eryday Americans and was one of the 1iggest spectac'es of its time. ,n Manhattan, h$ndreds of tho$sands of &ew Hor ers pac ed the streets to watch the sword7toting sam$rai parade on Mroadway d$ring its two7wee Os stay in &ew Hor . The great Ea't Ehitman was on hand and composed a poem in their honor. The city hosted a grand ci(ic 1a'' for 1;,;;;, and mem1ers of &ew Hor society (ied to entertain the (isiting Japanese. !So$rce% http%SSwww.ny.$s.em178apan.go.8pS15;Japan&HSenSa1o$t.htm'"

Mem1ers of the Japanese +m1assy pose for a portrait d$ring their (isit to &ew Hor 0ity in 182;. !So$rce% http%SSwww.ny.$s.em178apan.go.8pS15;Japan&HSenSphoto.htm'"

I.S. )resident James M$chanan meets with mem1ers of the Japanese +m1assy in Eashington, #.0. in 182;. !)hoto 0redit% MettmanS0BAM,S"

The #$%& Japanese Mission to the 'nite( States pose "or a )roup portrait in Washin)ton, *+C+ in #$%&+ Japanese en,oys in -u(e .i eAm/assa(or Mura)a0i Norimasa 1thir( "rom -e"t2, Am/assa(or Shinmi Masao0i 1mi((-e2, an( 3)uri Ta(amasa 1se on( "rom ri)ht2+ 1Matthe4 5ra(y photo6Nationa- Ar hi,es2

Mem(ers o+ the #"81 apanese mission to eC*han'e rati+i*ations o+ the /arris &reaty meet with U.S. President ames B!*hanan at a 'ala *ele(ration in the White /o!se in #"81. 5Harpers Weekly, May D8, #"817

Salomon "e Rothschil" Tours America (1861!: #ersonal $etters of Je%ish financier Salomon "e Rothschil"

The &entlemen 'rom Japan

(e% )or*+ June 18+ ,6 ...=ast Monday the Japanese made their tri$mpha' entry into &ew Hor . According to the newspapers, s$ch a spectac'e wi'' ne(er again 1e presented to h$man eyes. The reception of R$een 6ictoria in )aris and the coronation of +mperor A'eGander in Moscow were nothing compared to the American magnificence. A'' the windows of ho$ses on the parade ro$te had 1een rented in ad(ance at eGor1itant prices. A'' stores and p$1'ic 1$i'dings were c'osed for this nationa' ce'e1ration. +(en the Stoc +Gchange was to 1e id'e. The city of &ew Hor , with its pretensions of 1eing a metropo'is and its fee1'e c'aim of 1eing the rea' capita' of the Inited States, wanted to disting$ish itse'f. >irst of a'', a po'ice order en8oined the p$1'ic to 1eha(e decoro$s'y. At Ma'timore the poor Brienta's had 1een ro11ed. At )hi'ade'phia peop'e sho$ted at them contempt$o$s'y, ca''ing them 1eggars, mon eys, etc., etc. These gent'emen donOt now m$ch +ng'ish, 1$t they now eno$gh to $nderstand that they werenOt 1eing comp'imented. =ast Sat$rday cannon shots anno$nced the 'anding of the representati(es of the Tycoon. To honor them, or rather to eGhi1it them to the p$1'ic, they were ta en on a fi(e7ho$r to$r of the entire city. A'' the troops were o$t, showing again how the &ationa' 5$ard 'oo ed 1efore O48. There was one difference, howe(er. +ach regiment co$'d choose its own $niform. As a res$'t, there was a Scotch regiment, a >rench regiment, a )r$ssian regiment, and so on. The Scotchmen, the >renchmen, and the >ifth, a nati(e regiment, were the on'y ones with any sem1'ance of mi'itary 1earing, 1$t they ne(er managed to eep ran s despite se(era' (ery comica' attempts.

Parade of the Japanese Mission in New York, 1860 The procession went 1y 1efore $s in the fo''owing order% first came a fo$r7whee'ed ca1rio'et that carried one of the po'ice chiefs. He had a go'd7 no11ed cane, and $sed this instr$ment to ma e the crowd mo(e o$t of the way, and 'et the whee's of his carriage ro'' o(er the feet of those who didnOt get 1ac swift'y eno$gh. Then came a sN$ad of po'icemen on foot, and another sN$ad of mo$nted po'ice...who paid m$ch more attention to their anima's than to the p$1'ic. Then came the troops, who ept fi'ing 1y for two ho$rs, with an occasiona' stop for rest. The peop'e too ad(antage of this pa$se to sit down on the sidewa' s or to get a drin at a 1ar. The rich mi'itiamen had a negro at their side to ho'd their rif'es d$ring the moments of rest. After a 'ong wait, we fina''y got a g'impse of the principa' actors in this grotesN$e eGhi1ition. The city had rea''y done things in grand sty'e. +ach disting$ished Japanese had his own carriage. The three am1assadors were each accompanied 1y a na(a' officer

and rode in fo$r7horse (ehic'es adorned with the Japanese co'ors. The coachmen wore ro$nd hats, froc coats, waistcoats, tro$sers ad libitum; 1$t to compensate for this, they each wore a magnificent pair of dar canary ye''ow g'o(es. ,t m$st 1e admitted that the carriages were a 1it o'd and the coachmenOs dress was not 1eyond reproach. After the three am1assadors came the 1oG containing the treaty and two high f$nctionaries entr$sted with its care4 they were not s$pposed to 'et it o$t of their sight for any reason whatsoe(er. ,n other cities 'ess op$'ent than &ew Hor , a s$fficient'y spacio$s (ehic'e co$'d not 1e fo$nd to ho'd the precio$s 1oG. An omni1$s had therefore 1een chosen, and the case and its g$ardians were perched on top. This time there had 1een constr$cted a specia' type of carriage, a'' co(ered with co'ored paper and with Japanese7American streamers. ,f it had had a 'arge 1oG, it wo$'d ha(e made a (ery presenta1'e tra(e'ing theater. A yo$ng Japanese 1oy whom peop'e here ca'' Tommy was sitting tri$mphant'y on the case and ma ing faces at the men who were throwing isses to the 'adies. Then came the other foreigners of inferior ran , each accompanied 1y an a'derman or a common co$nci'man. !, ca'' them the Lcommon men of the co$nci'L". These gent'emen 'oo ed a 'ot 'i e the coachmen who dro(e their (ehic'es, the on'y difference 1eing that they had on their S$nday s$its, magnificent grey hats, and the same dar canary ye''ow g'o(es of which mention was made a1o(e. M$t inward'y they seemed irritated and i'' at ease, tho$gh their s$fferings seemed compensated for 1y the effect which they tho$ght they were prod$cing on the crowds ro$nd a1o$t them. The rest of the mi'itia 1ro$ght $p the rear of the procession. The Japanese are (ery $g'y777They are shri(e'ed 'i e 1a ed app'es and are often hea(i'y poc 7 mar ed. Their hair is sha(ed to a point from the forehead to the crown...Their hands are white, sma'', and (ery aristocratic, and their fingernai's wo$'d ma e the prettiest )arisienne 8ea'o$s. They ma e enormo$s p$rchases here, 1$t a'ways 1$y o18ects of (ery 'itt'e (a'$e, for which they hagg'e eGcessi(e'y. Se(era' shop eepers offered them as presents the artic'es which they admired most. They accepted witho$t the s'ightest shame, ta ing ad(antage of their pri(i'eged position as 1ar1arians to ignore the 'aws of reciprocity. they ha(e no taste for the arts and prefer a chi'dOs toy or a c'oc worth fifteen francs to a we''7wro$ght piece of si'(erware... +(ery day there are ce'e1rations gi(en in their honor. Monday there is the great 1a'' gi(en 1y the city, and T$esday Mrs. Me'mont is recei(ing them... So$rce% Jewish7American History >o$ndation4 http%SSwww.8ewish7history.comSsa'omonSsa'o;8.htm'

New York, May 1, '60. ...I should like to ask you to co e in June, to spend so e ti e in !anada, where the Prince of "ales is e#pected, and where his arri$al will ser$e as a prete#t for $ery ela%orate !anadian and Indian cele%rations. &he Prince is then scheduled to $isit the 'nited (tates, where there is a )reat deal of e %arrass ent as to how to recei$e hi . (ince it will %e i possi%le to esta%lish cate)ories and to declare which social class will ha$e the ri)ht to entertain the future *in) of +n)land, ,ust a%out no one e#cept )o$ern ent officials will %e a%le to recei$e hi , and since these persons usually ha$e only a du%ious education, the )ood Yankees fear, and ri)htly so, that people will ake fun of the . -i)ht now they are in a dither tryin) to fi)ure out how to recei$e properly the Japanese e %assy which is )oin) to arri$e in "ashin)ton, and I can.t tell you how a usin) the newspapers are with their ad$ice on how to recei$e these no%le %ar%arians. &hey want to i press these new )uests with / erican ci$ili0ation. 1ut since + peror &ei 2o.s representati$e is scheduled to )o to +urope afterwards, they are afraid of a co parison, and don.t know what to do, especially since they do not want to untie their purse strin)s. &his Japanese e %assy will share the honors of pu%lic interest with 3eneral &o &hu % and the 1arnu useu ...

So$rce% Jewish7American History >o$ndation4 http%SSwww.8ewish7history.comSsa'omonSsa'o;4.htm'

I.S. )resident A1raham =inco'n:s &o(em1er 14, 1821 'etter to the JTycoonK of Japan !To $gawa shog$nate" anno$ncing the depart$re of I.S. Minister to Japan Townsend Harris.

=eft% I.S. =egation at Penp$ $78i Temp'e in present7day To yo, Japan in circa 1821. Aight% Townsend Harris !18;4718.8", the first I.S. Minister to Japan

The >a'' of the To $gawa Shog$nate

Ae(ere the +mperor, +Gpe' the Mar1arians !, Sonn ji"

A$ssian 6ice Admira' He(fimy )$tyatin arri(ed in &agasa i on A$g$st 1@, 185<, 8$st one month after the first (isit of I.S. &a(y 0ommodore Matthew 0. )erry. )$tyatin made a demonstration of a steam engine on his ship the )a''ada, which 'ed to JapanOs first man$fact$re of a steam engine the same year $nder the direction of Hisashige Tana a. A$ssian 6ice Admira' He(fimy )$tyatin ret$rned to Japan in Bcto1er 1854 to contin$e the negotiations, 'anding at Shimoda. The negotiations were s$ccessf$''y conc'$ded on Jan$ary @2, 1855 with the signing of the Treaty of Shimoda.

A$ssian 6ice Admira' He(fimy )$tyatin negotiated the Treaty of 0ommerce and &a(igation 1etween Japan and A$ssia, a'so nown as the Treaty of Shimoda, in Shimoda, Japan on . >e1r$ary 1855. A$ssia recogni*ed Japan:s so(ereignty o(er the >o$r ,s'ands F K$nashiri, +torof$, Shi otan, and Ha1omai F in 1855. Artic'e 6 of the Treaty of Shimoda stip$'ated that trade wo$'d 1e performed thro$gh the har1ors of Ha odate, &agasa i, and Shimoda.

A Japanese painting of A$ssian 6ice Admira' He(fimy )$tyatin in &agasa i, Japan in 185<.

The Tsushima .nci"ent occ$rred in 1821 when the A$ssians attempted to esta1'ish a year7ro$nd anchorage on the coast of the is'and of Ts$shima, a Japanese is'and 'ocated 1etween Ky$sh$ and Korea Bn March 1<, 1821, the A$ssian cor(ette Posadnik, captained 1y &ico'ai Miri'e(, arri(ed in Ts$shima is'and in the in'et of B*a i, and the A$ssian captain demanding 'anding rights. Bn 1< May 1821, the A$ssians sent a 'a$nch to eGp'ore the eastern coast of the is'and, despite the presence of two Saga #omain warships, the Kan T Mar$ and the #enryU Mar$, as we'' as one Mritish warship. Bn May @1, 1821, a c'ash too p'ace 1etween the A$ssian sai'ors of a 'a$nch and a gro$p of sam$rai and farmers, in which one farmer was i''ed and one sam$rai, who soon committed s$icide, was capt$red 1y the A$ssians. ,n mid7J$'y, >oreign Magistrate M$raga i &arimasa went direct'y to the A$ssian 0ons$'ate in Ha odate, demanding the depart$re of the ship to the A$ssian 0ons$' 5osh e(itch. The Japanese as ed the Mritish to inter(ene, as they a'so had an interest in pre(enting the A$ssians from eGtending their inf'$ence in Asia. Admira' Hope arri(ed in Ts$shima with two warships on @8 A$g$st 1821, and on 13 Septem1er 1821 the Posadnik fina''y had to 'ea(e Ts$shima. A$ssia acN$ired 0hinese territory so$th of Am$r Ai(er, inc'$ding present7day 6'adi(osto , from 0hina in 182;.

&he Namam!'i In*ident 5, Namam!'i;Piken7 5also known as the -ana'awa In*ident or Ji*hardson )++air7, was an a++air involvin' a sam!rai assa!lt on +o!r British mer*hants near -ana'awa on Septem(er #., #"8D. &he sam!rai assa!lted +o!r British mer*hants, who were to!rin' apan on horse(a*k, a+ter they disrespe*ted the +ather o+ the daimyo o+ Sats!ma. ) sam!rai killed British mer*hant Charles LennoC Ji*hardson d!rin' the in*ident, the tra'i* in*ident res!lted in the )!'!st #"8% (om(ardment o+ -a'oshima. British mer*hant Charles LennoC Ji*hardson, who was killed at the s*ene, is at the *enter o+ the s*ene, British nationals had BCtraterritoriality !nder )n'lo; apanese :riendship &reaty and were eCempt +rom respe*tin' and honorin' the sam!rais and daimyos.

Initial settlement (etween the Bak!+! < apan= and B!ropean Powers, on (oard the :ren*h Navy warship Smiramis on !ly D, #"8%. Center9 Saikai /ida;No;-ami 6aimyo 5vi*e;minister7, on his le+t 6!*hesne de Belle*o!rt, :ren*h Minister in apan, on his ri'ht, Lt.;Colonel Neale, representative o+ Great Britain, )dmiral a!rQs and )dmiral -!per o+ the Joyal Navy. &he apanese 'overnment <&ok!'awa Sho'!nate= was ordered to pay reparations +ollowin' the Namam!'i In*ident.

MirdOs7eye (iew of the 1om1ardment of Kagoshima, Japan 1y the Mritish Aoya' &a(y on A$g$st 15, 182<. The Mom1ardment of Kagoshima, a'so nown as the Ang'o7Sats$ma Ear ! Satsu- i Sens", occ$red on 1571. A$g$st 182<. Kagoshima was the capita' of the Sats$ma domain. !=e Monde ,''$strV"

The Mritish en(oys prepare to recei(e a payment of reparations 1y Sats$ma c'an in Japan in 182<. The Mritish na(y assisted Japan in forcing the A$ssian na(y to e(ac$ate Ts$shima ,s'and d$ring the Ts$shima ,ncident in 18214 the A$ssian na(y attempted to esta1'ish a na(y 1ase on Ts$shima ,s'and in 1821. !,''$strated =ondon &ews, 182<"

British )rmy soldiers pose +or a portrait shortly a+ter *apt!rin' a Chosh! (attery at Shimonoseki, apan d!rin' the Battle o+ Shimonoseki in #"8.. Shimonoseki is a small apanese town lo*ated on the island o+ /onsh! neCt to -anmon Straits, a waterway separatin' /onsh! +rom -y!sh!. &he B!ropean *olonial powers led (y Great Britain and :ran*e wa'ed war a'ainst apan <&ok!'awa Sho'!nate= over apan2s eCp!lsion o+ +orei'ners. 5)l(!m silver print (y :eli*e Beato, #"8.7

Le+t9 )meri*an Navy sailors o+ the USS Wyoming (attles a'ainst the apanese Chosh! steam warships Daniel Webster, Lanrick and Lancefield d!rin' the Battle o+ Shimonoseki Straits near Shimonseki, apan on !ly #.;#8, #"8%. 5&he Battle o+ Gettys(!r' o**!rred +rom !ly #O%, #"8%.7 Ji'ht9 U.S. Navy o++i*er 5later Jear )dmiral7 6avid M*6o!'al was the *aptain o+ USS Wyoming in !ly #"8% d!rin' the Battle o+ Shimonoseki Straits in apan.

The re1e''ion at the Hamag$ri 5ate ! )a'ace in KyTto on A$g$st @;, 1824

!" !amagurigomon no !en, a'so #

!" "inmon no !en" of the ,mperia'

Mito re(els !nder the RSonnS SiR (anner, (attles the Sho'!nal army in &s!k!(a, apan in #"8.;#"8$.

Sam!rai in Western *lothin' in #"88 5Ill!strated London News7

&he Na'asaki Naval &rainin' Center, in Na'asaki, apan d!rin' the late #"$1s, the 6!t*h *ons!late in Na'asaki 5ri'ht, the 6!t*h +la' +lyin' atop a +la' pole7 is lo*ated on the island o+ 6ePima

0ampaign map of the Moshin Ear !182871823". The So$thern domains of Sats$ma, 0hTshU and Tosa !in red" 8oined forces to defeat the Shog$nate forces at To1a7>$shimi, and then progressi(e'y too contro' of the rest of Japan $nti' the fina' stand7off in the northern is'and of Ho aidT. The Moshin Ear !$%, Boshin Sens, JEar of the Hear of the #ragonK" was a ci(i' war in Japan that was fo$ght from Jan$ary 1828 to May 1823 primari'y 1etween the r$'ing To $gawa shog$nate and s$pporters of the +mperor, inc'$ding the Sats$ma and 0hosh$ c'ans.

Hoshino1$ To $gawa !&', Bcto1er @8, 18<.F&o(em1er @@, 131<", the fina' Shog$n of +do !A$g$st @3, 18227&o(em1er 13, 182."

Japanese citi*ens i'' 11 >rench sai'ors at the port of Sa ai d$ring the Sa ai ,ncident near Bsa a, Japan on March 8, 1828. !)ainting% #e $onde %llustr&, 1828"

Training of Japanese Ma $f$ CTo $gawaD troops 1y the >rench Mi'itary Mission to Japan in 182.71828.

#estr$ction of the )a'ace of Sats$ma 1y To $gawa shog$nates in +do CTo yoD, Japan on Jan$ary 13, 1828.

Attac on the de'egation of Sir Harry Smith )ar es to the Mei8i +mperor in >e1r$ary 1828. !So$rce% L=e Monde ,''$streL, J$ne 1<, 1828"

The To $gawa war'ords, with the assistance of >rench mi'itary ad(isors, esta1'ished a secessionist rep$1'ic nown as the Aep$1'ic of +*o !()*+, 'o "y(akoku", on the is'and of Ho aido on #ecem1er 15, 1828. The To $gawa war'ords in charge of the Aep$1'ic of +*o s$rrendered to the ,mperia' Japanese go(ernment on May 1., 18234 the Aep$1'ic of +*o was forma''y dis1anded on J$ne @., 1823. The city of Ha odate was the capita' of the Aep$1'ic of +*o.

The >rench mi'itary ad(isors and their Japanese a''ies. >ront row, second from 'eft% J$'es Mr$net, 1eside Mats$daira Taro, 6ice )resident of the +*o Aep$1'ic

=eaders of the Aep$1'ic of +*o in 1823, with the )resident +nomoto Ta ea i seated in the front row on the right.

The go(ernmenta' ha'' of the Aep$1'ic of +*o, inside the fortress of 5oryT a $ at Ha odate

The new'y formed ,mperia' Japanese &a(y wages a 1att'e against remnants of the To $gawa shog$nate na(y of the Aep$1'ic of +*o from May 471;, 1823 d$ring the (aval /attle of 0a*o"ate /a1 !,-./ !akodate(an "aisen" in Ha odate, Ho aido, Japan d$ring the fina' stages of the Moshin Ear.

Admira' Ta ea i +nomoto !0 12, 18<2713;8", who once ser(ed as the on'y )resident of the Aep$1'ic of +*o !182871823", imprisoned for treason !for esta1'ishing a secessionist rep$1'ic, co''a1orating with the >rench mi'itary, and maintaining po'itica' a''egiance to the To $gawa regime" and 'ater pardoned, was a career 1$rea$crat in the Mei8i go(ernment. +nomoto was a &a(y Minister !188;", Minister of 0omm$nications !188571888", Minister of Agric$'t$re and 0ommerce !1888, 18347183.", Minister of +d$cation !18837183;", and >oreign Minister !18317183@". Ta ea i +nomoto st$died in +$rope from 182@ to 182. and was a high7ran ing na(a' officer in the Japanese &a(y $nder the To $gawa Shog$nate in 1828. >o''owing the s$rrender of +do !To yo" to the Mei8i go(ernment in 1828, +nomoto and his To $gawa7esta1'ished Japanese &a(y e(ac$ated to Ha odate and esta1'ished a secessionist rep$1'ic in an attempt to a(oid recogni*ing the new'y7esta1'ished Mei8i go(ernment 'ocated in To yo.

The K$ri' ,s'ands o(er(iew map with c$rrent A$ssian names !+ng'ish trans'iteration". Morders of Shimoda Treaty !1855" and Treaty of St. )eters1$rg !18.5" shown in red. A'' is'ands northeast of Ho aido are c$rrent'y administered 1y A$ssia, inc'$ding K$nashir !K$nashiri", Ha1omai, Shi otan, and ,t$r$p !+torof$".

J,n the 18.;s, a generation 1efore the crowds sho$ted their appro(a' of Japan:s wartime (ictories, the Mei8i 'eaders 'a1ored to restr$ct$re the co$n1ryOs traditiona' re'ationships with its neigh1ors in Asia. The Eest no 'onger wo$'d to'erate JapanOs c$stomary practice of restricting contacts with foreign nations, and in the (iew of men 'i e ,to Hiro1$mi and Hamagata Aritomo, theirs was a sma'' and re'ati(e'y power'ess co$ntry that had to comp'y with Eestern dip'omatic norms. Those new criteria reN$ired nations to c'arify their 1orders so that they co$'d 1e drawn precise'y on maps, sign forma' treaties with other so(ereign mem1ers of the internationa' comm$nity, and eGchange dip'omatic representati(es to manage re'ationships and so'(e $nforeseen pro1'ems that might arise in the f$t$re. According'y, in the 18.;s the Mei8i o'igarchs set a1o$t the twin tas s of fiGing JapanOs territoria' 'imits and ad8$sting re'ations with its nearest neigh1ors in a way that conformed to Eestern eGpectations. The Mei8i go(ernment especia''y wanted to esta1'ish a c'ear 1o$ndary somewhere to the north of Ho aido, a name it $sed officia''y from 1823. The o'igarchs shared the ass$mption that Japan needed that ma8or is'and for 1oth economic and strategic reasons. ,n partic$'ar, the A$ssian ad(ance across the northern )acific and the memory of the incidents spar ed 1y the =aGman and Ae*ano( eGpeditions p'ayed on the minds of the yo$ng Mei8i 'eaders, who hoped to stymie A$ssiaOs am1itions in the north 1y eeping its so'diers and traders as far from the heart of Japan as possi1'e. To the o'igarchs: re'ief, the A$sso7Japanese Treaty of Amity, signed ear'y in 1855, had recogni*ed Japanese so(ereignty o(er Ho aido and the offshore is'ands in the K$ri' chain as far north as +torof$, a'tho$gh it 'eft open the stat$s of Sa ha'in.K F )apan* + $odern !istory 1y James =. Mc0'ain, p. @85

0$'t$ra' Ae(o'$tionW Mei8i Aestoration and the Moderni*ation of Japan

J+nrich the &ation, Strengthen the ArmiesK CJrich co$ntry, strong mi'itaryKD !3+45, ,ukoku kyhei"

The 127year o'd Mei8i +mperor mo(es from Kyoto to To yo !+do" in 1828 d$ring the 1eginning of the Mei8i Aestoration. Kyoto was the capita' of Japan for o(er a tho$sand years $nti' 1828, when To yo 1ecame the new capita' of Japan. The city of +do !! 67" was renamed To yo on Septem1er <, 18284 +do was the primary residence of the To $gawa shog$nate from 12;< to 1828.

,wa $ra Tomomi !center", the 'eader of the Japanese dip'omats, and other 'eading mem1ers of the ,wa $ra Mission, inc'$ding / $1o Toshimichi !right, 'ater >inance Minister of Japan", Kido Ta ayoshi, and ,tT Hiro1$mi !'ater )rime Minister of Japan", pose for a gro$p portrait in =ondon in 18.@. The ,wa $ra Mission !89:;<, %(akura Shisetsudan" was a Japanese dip'omatic 8o$rney aro$nd the wor'd, initiated in 18.1 1y the o'igarchs of the Mei8i go(ernment.

,wa $ra Mission (isits =o$is Ado'phe Thiers !standing siGth from right, wearing g'asses", the )resident of >rance, in 18.<. !=e Monde ,''$stre 18.<. Aeprod$ction in Bmoto LR$and 'e Japon sOo$(rit a$ mondeL"

Japanese &unboat 2iplomac1+ #art 1: Japanese so'diers of the ,mperia' Japanese Army and ,mperia' Japanese &a(y 1att'e against a gro$p of nati(e Taiwanese tri1es d$ring the Matt'e of Stonegate ! = >?" on the is'and of Taiwan on May @@, 18.4. A tota' of 54 mem1ers of a crew of 22 Ay$ y$an sai'ors were 1eheaded 1y the )aiwan a1origines in #ecem1er 18.1 after a Ay$ y$an !B inawa" (esse' was shipwrec ed near the so$thern tip of Taiwan.

Japanese &unboat 2iplomac1+ #art 3: The ,mperia' Japanese &a(y, a'ong with the Japanese na(y ship Unyo, engage in a 1att'e against so'diers of Korea:s r$'ing Joseon #ynasty at 5anghwa ,s'and, 'ocated near Seo$' and ,nchon, on Septem1er @;, 18.5. The ,mperia' Japanese mi'itary inter(ention was nown as the 5anghwa ,s'and ,ncident, a'so nown as the Japanese Matt'e of 5anghwa !Japanese% 6@ABC LKT atT 8i enL", !Korean% JInyo7ho sageonK, +ng'ish% JInyo incidentK".

JThe o'igarchs were 'ess certain a1o$t how to esta1'ish a presence on Sa ha'in and the northern K$ri' ,s'ands, where Japanese fami'ies 'i(ed interspersed with A$ssians and nati(e is'anders. There seemed to 1e 'itt'e compe''ing reason to eGtend Japanese so(ereignty to those sparse'y sett'ed 1ay and in'ets, an action that wo$'d raise comp'icated N$estions of administration and defense since, in the new (oca1$'ary of Eestern7sty'e dip'omacy, peop'e 'i(ing there wo$'d 1ecome Jciti*ensK entit'ed to the protection of the state. Sti'', the Mei8i o'igarchs hesitated to draw the nationa' 1orders too c'ose to the shores of Ho aido, 'est they appear timid of A$ssia and th$s create an $nf'attering image that might tarnish the new regimeOs prestige. Eith those concerns in mind, the Mei8i go(ernment in 18.5 sent representati(es to A$ssia to negotiate a sett'ement to the northern N$estion. #isc$ssions proceeded smooth'y, and on May . the two sides conc'$ded the Treaty of St. )eters1$rg, 1y which the Japanese recei(ed tit'e to the entire K$ri' archipe'ago in eGchange for a1andoning c'aims to Sa ha'in. To the west, the Mei8i go(ernment incorporated Ts$shima into &agasa i )refect$re to 1$ttress its assertion that JapanOs 1order with Korea ran 1etween the former is'and domain of the So fami'y of daimyo and the penins$'a. Ad8$sting other aspects of the re'ationship with Korea, howe(er, pro(ed tro$1'esome. Traditiona''y, Korea considered itse'f a (assa' ingdom within the 0hinese tri1$tary system. #espite the eGc'$si(e nat$re of that patron7c'ient re'ationship, the 0hinese s$*erains permitted the penins$'ar co$ntry to send dip'omatic em1assies to +do d$ring the To $gawa period and to cond$ct 'imited trade with Japan thro$gh the a$spices of the So daimyo. >o''owing their ass$mption of power in 1828, the new Mei8i 'eaders reN$ested the Korean co$rt to recogni*e the Jrestoration of imperia' r$'e.K >r$strated 1y Korea:s contin$ing re1$ffs, some mem1ers of the Japanese inner circ'e, nota1'y Saigo Ta amori, proposed in 18.< that Japan send a p$niti(e eGpedition to Korea. Saigo:s o$t1$rst to$ched off a fierce de1ate among the o'igarchs, 1$t in the end coo'er heads, s$ch as ,to and B $1o Toshimichi, pre(ai'ed 1y ad(ancing the arg$ment that a Korean eGpedition wo$'d in(ite Eestern co$ntermo(es against a sti''7($'nera1'e Japan. ,to and B $1o ta1'ed their reser(ations 8$st three years 'ater, when the Mei8i 'eaders tapped fe''ow o'igarch K$roda Kiyota a, who had 1een ser(ing as the director of the Ho aido 0o'oni*ation Bffice, to reopen negotiations with Korea. Stealin4 a pa4e from Commo"ore #err1,s primer on "iplomac1+ in Januar1 1856 6uro"a sent a flotilla of mo"ern %arships into 6orean %aters- Ehen Korea:s traditiona' mentor fai'ed to respond to JapanOs ho'd mane$(er, the Korean monarchy fe't it had 'itt'e choice 1$t to accede to Japanese demands. The Treaty of Kanghwa, signed on >e1r$ary @2, 18.2, stip$'ated that JKorea, an independent so(ereignty, and Japan, her compeer, in f$rtherance of their m$t$a' desire for 'asting peace and friendship, do here1y sett'e and conc'$de the forms and conditions of their interco$rse $pon terms of eN$a'ity and m$t$a' regard.K #espite s$ch no1'e sentiments, the s$1seN$ent Jartic'es of eterna' peace and amityK were decided'y in JapanOs fa(or inasm$ch as they opened three Korean ports to Japanese trade and a$thori*ed Japan to esta1'ish cons$'ates in those ports so that resident Japanese co$'d en8oy the pri(i'ege of eGtraterritoria'ity. ,ronica''y, 'ess than two decades after the +$ro7American powers had $sed g$n1oat dip'omacy to red$ce Japan to semico'onia' stat$s, Japan forced its nearest neigh1or to accept a Eestern7sty'e $neN$a' treaty that se(ere'y compromised its so(ereignty. Settin4 Japan7s southern bor"ers an" recastin4 relations %ith the R1u*1u .slan"s also involve" China- $i*e 6orea+ the R1u*1u .slan"s at the be4innin4 of the To*u4a%a era existe" both as a self8containe" *in4"om an" as a Chinese tributar1 state- To comp'icate matters f$rther, sam$rai from Sats$ma domain in 12;3 too the Ay$ y$an ing hostage and two years 'ater compe''ed him to sign an agreement, ept secret from the 0hinese, that ac now'edged Sats$ma:s o(er'ordship and a$thori*ed trade 1etween the is'ands and the daimyo domain. ,n the a$t$mn of 18.1, when JapanOs new go(ernment a1o'ished the o'd domains, it decided to c'aim nomina' so(ereignty o(er the Ay$ y$ chain 1y p'acing the is'ands $nder the administrati(e o(ersight of Kagoshima )refect$re, which encompassed the territory of the former Sats$ma domain. The yo$ng regime confirmed its reso'(e to eGtend JapanOs officia' domination so$thward when some fifty fishermen from the Ay$ y$ ,s'ands were massacred after 1eing shipwrec ed on Taiwan, officia''y part of 0hinaOs >$8ian )ro(ince. Eithin Japan, p$1'ic opinion ca''ed for the Mei8i go(ernment to a(enge the harm done to JJapanese citi*ens,K the Ay$ y$an fishermen, 1y Jp$nishingK the J$nci(i'i*edK peop'e of Taiwan. A mi'itary campaign against Taiwan seemed an attracti(e po'icy option, and after ta' s with 0hinese officia's ended inconc'$si(e'y, the Japanese go(ernment dispatched a p$niti(e eGpeditionary force ear'y in 18.4. Japanese troops 'anded in Taiwan on May @@ and N$ic 'y o(ercame 'oca' resistance. ,n post7eGpedition negotiations, the 0hinese co$rt recogni*ed the J8$sticeK of JapanOs actions, and the fo''owing year the Mei8i go(ernment ordered Ay$ y$an 'eaders to discontin$e the tri1$tary re'ationship with 0hina. 'inall1+ in 1859+ the Japanese 4overnment force" the last R1u*1uan *in4 to ab"icate an" formall1 incorporate" the islan"s into Japan proper as :*ina%a #refecture- #$ring the 18.;s the Japanese go(ernment mane$(ered forcef$''y to promote the co$ntryOs dip'omatic interests. The o'igarchs: actions, howe(er, did not add $p to a premeditated p'an for continenta' eGpansion. Aather, in the first decade of its eGistence the new Mei8i go(ernment had the more 'imited o18ecti(es of c'arifying the nation:s 1orders and reorgani*ing its re'ations with its c'osest neigh1ors to correspond with Eestern practices. My the end of the decade the o'igarchs had achie(ed those goa's% Japanese so(ereignty eGtended o(er Ho aido, the K$ri' archipe'ago, Ts$shima, and the B inawan is'ands4 p$1'ic opinion app'a$ded the go(ernment for negotiating a treaty with A$ssia that demonstrated Japan:s reso'(e to stand $p to a Eestern nation4 and most peop'e hai'ed the Treaty of Kanghwa as e(idence that Japan had ad(anced far eno$gh that it co$'d 1egin to en8oy some of the same prerogati(es that the powerf$' Eestern states considered their d$e.K F )apan* + $odern !istory 1y James =. Mc0'ain, p. @887@3;

JJapanese attit$des toward their neigh1ors changed dramatica''y in the 188;s as a new and more (ir$'ent strain of Eestern imperia'ism threatened to o(erwhe'm +ast Asia. #$ring the 'ate nineteenth cent$ry the powerf$' nations of the Eest that had so fascinated the ,wa $ra Mission7Mritain, >rance, 5ermany, ,ta'y, and the Inited States7achie(ed new 'e(e's of po'itica' centra'i*ation and commercia' de(e'opment. Bne o$tgrowth of the American 0i(i' Ear and a series of mi'itary confrontations in +$rope was an awareness of how the prod$ction of nationa' wea'th enhanced the a1i'ity of any one co$ntry to maintain domestic po'itica' cohesion and to protect itse'f against hosti'e neigh1ors. 0onseN$ent'y, to promote nationa' strength and prosperity, go(ernments in western +$rope and &orth America in the 'ate nineteenth cent$ry championed ind$stria'i*ation, created nationwide transportation and mar eting networ s, enco$raged cooperation 1etween 'a1or and capita', and protected domestic ind$stry and agric$'t$re against foreign competition. The impulse to buil" po%erful national economies brou4ht %ith it ne% 4eopolitical attitu"es- .ncreasin4l1+ the so8calle" &reat #o%ers that %ere 4oin4 throu4h the process of political centrali;ation an" economic mo"erni;ation felt the nee" to possess colonial empires that coul" contribute to the metropolitan nations, "evelopment- Since the inception of the .n"ustrial Revolution in the ei4hteenth centur1+ <uro8 American tra"ers+ ban*ers+ an" in"ustrialists ha" sou4ht to maximi;e their personal profits b1 exploitin4 sales to overseas mar*ets an" b1 bu1in4 up cheap ra% materials an" foo"stuffs to ship home- &overnments+ none more so than /ritain,s+ routinel1 supporte" their merchant chiefs b1 assertin4 =special ri4hts> in far corners of the 4lobe- .n the closin4 "eca"es of the nineteenth centur1+ ho%ever+ imperialistic con?uest became a more overtl1 "efine" state polic1+ an" man1 nations be4an to place the full %ei4ht of their bureaucratic an" militar1 resources behin" efforts to ac?uire colonies+ protectorates+ an" spheres of influence so as to au4ment the %ealth+ po%er+ an" presti4e of the mother countries- The belief that an1 successful mo"ern po%er must boast an empire touche" off a fierce rivalr1 for overseas possessions- The +$ropean states N$ic 'y go11'ed $p Africa% ,n 1881 >rance c'aimed T$nis as a protectorate, the neGt year 5reat Mritain occ$pied +gypt, and in 188< 5ermany 1egan to ma e its inf'$ence fe't in the so$thwest corner of the continent. The Inited States mo(ed into the )acific, o(erthrowing the Hawaiian monarchy in 183< and then competing with 5ermany and 5reat Mritain for inf'$ence in the Samoan, 5i'1ert, and Marsha'' is'and gro$ps. ,n Asia the Sino7>rench Ear of 188471885 1ro$ght 6ietnam into the >rench co'onia' empire, 8$st as Mritain was fo'ding M$rma into its own. +(eryone c'amored for concessions in 0hina. My the 188;s the 'ist of Eestern nations with specia' rights and pri(i'eges in 0hina inc'$ded not 8$st 5reat Mritain, >rance, A$ssia, and the Inited States 1$t a'so )ort$ga', #enmar , Ho''and, Spain, Me'gi$m, and ,ta'y. My the time the passion for empire 1$i'ding pea ed in the first decade of the twentieth cent$ry, most of Africa, the Midd'e +ast, Asia, and the )acific had fa''en (ictim to Eestern imperia'ism, and across that 1road swath of the g'o1e on'y se(en co$ntries sti'' eGisted as f$''y independent, so(ereign nations. The aggressi(e Eestern penetration of Asia pers$aded many Japanese that their nation had to rethin its re'ationship with its neigh1ors in Asia and the 1e''igerent powers of the Eest. Eithin the ha''s of power, the person most responsi1'e for form$'ating Japanese foreign po'icy was Hamagata Aritomo, the (eteran o'igarch who had o(erseen the creation of the Japanese conscript army, designed the system of 'oca' go(ernment when he ser(ed as home minister in the 188;s, and accepted the position of prime minister 'ate in #ecem1er 1883. Hamagata was a ca$tio$s pragmatist, preocc$pied with Japan:s sec$rity. He saw the wor'd in the 1'ea terms of rea'po'iti , and Korea in partic$'ar drew his do$r attention. ,n his perception, Japan:s neigh1or was a wea and 1ac ward nation, possi1'e f$t$re prey for the predatory Mritish or the am1itio$s A$ssians, who were a1o$t to 1$i'd the Trans7Si1erian Aai'way across northern Asia to 6'adi(osto . The comp'etion of that transportation 'in , Hamagata conc'$ded, posed a 'ong7term threat to JapanOs (ita' interests since it wo$'d position the c*arOs armies to mo(e on Manch$ria or e(en Mei8ing. @oreover+ he *ne%+ Russia hun4ere" to have a 1ear8roun" port as the terminus for its ne% railroa"+ an" since Ala"ivosto* ice" over "urin4 the %inter+ Russia,s 4enerals %oul" be tempte" to secure access to 6orea,s more temperate harbors- .f either /ritain or Russia secure" even a toehol" on the 6orean peninsula+ )ama4ata feare"+ Japan,s in"epen"ence ultimatel1 %oul" be place" in Beopar"1- According'y, in an address to JapanOs >irst #iet on #ecem1er 2, 183;, )rime Minister Hamagata o$t'ined his foreign po'icy o18ecti(es. The primary goa' of his administration, he said, m$st 1e to Jpreser(e o$r independence and enhance o$r nationa' position.K To that end, he went on, Japan m$st 1e prepared to defend 1oth a L'ine of so(ereigntyL and a J'ine of ad(antage.K The former was contig$o$s with the new'y sett'ed nationa' 1orders, whi'e the 'atter defined a s$rro$nding 1$ffer *one whose ne$tra'ity was essentia' to JapanOs sec$rity needs. As Japan approached the new cent$ry, Hamagata a(erred, its 'ine of so(ereignty h$gged Ts$shima:s shore 'ine, and the 'ine of ad(antage ran thro$gh Korea. J,f we wish to maintain the nation:s independence among the powers of the wor'd at the present time,K the prime minister ended, Jit is not eno$gh to g$ard on'y the 'ine of so(ereignty, we m$st a'so defend the 'ine of ad(antage.K That said, he introd$ced a 1$dget pro(iding for the rapid eGpansion of Japan:s 'and and na(a' forces. B$tside go(ernment, the ed$cator and 8o$rna'ist >$ $*awa H$ ichi a'so ang$ished o(er e(ents in Asia. ,n the 182;s and 18.;s >$ $*awa had enco$raged the a''7o$t importation of Eestern ideas and instit$tions in the 1e'ief that the wor'd was a 1enign p'ace where nations Lteach and 'earn from each other, pray for each other:s we'fare, and associate with each other in accordance with the 'aws of nat$re and man.L ,n the ear'y 188;s, howe(er, he grew more cynica' as he fretted a1o$t the approach of Eestern imperia'ism and pondered the 'essons of Socia' #arwinism. )re(io$s'y, >$ $*awa confessed, he had 1e'ie(ed that the 1ene(o'ent and impartia' app'ication of internationa' 'aw go(erned re'ations among nations. .n realit1+ he no% reali;e"+ the %orl" operate" accor"in4 to the la% of the Bun4le+ jakuniku kyoshoku- All countries stru44le" for po%er an" %ealth+ an" the mi4ht1 "evoure" the %ea*- The Cnite" States an" the a"vance" nations of <urope+ he %arne"+ %ere far stron4er than such countries as China an" 6orea+ an" the encroachment of the Dest threatene" Asia %ith the same sort of humiliation an" material "estruction bein4 visite" upon Africa an" the @i""le <ast- That course of events+ 'u*u;a%a

cautione"+ en"an4ere" Japan "irectl1- 0e passionatel1 believe" that his nation %as "ifferent from its nei4hbors- Alone amon4 the countries of Asia+ he claime" %ith pri"e+ Japan ha" be4un to mo"erni;e+ to reshape itself in the ima4e of the Dest+ an" thus ha" prove" itself rea"1 to stri"e the path of pro4ress arm in arm %ith other civili;e" nationsCnfortunatel1+ he %ent on+ the Dest "i" not+ coul" not reco4ni;e that fact- <uro8Americans+ he lamente"+ %ore racial blin"ers an" "i" not "istin4uish one Asian countr1 from another- .n their perception+ China an" 6orea %ere "espotic+ half civili;e"+ an" obstinatel1 boun" to the scorne" customs of the past+ an" the1 %oul" assume that Japan %as too- 0o%+ he shoo* his hea"+ coul" Japan avoi" bein4 crushe" b1 the Destern Bu44ernaut? 'u*u;a%a propose" t%o ans%ers to his o%n ?uestion- 'irst+ he "eclare"+ Japan must buil" up its militar1 stren4th+ an" it must stan" rea"1 to use it- EDhen others use violence+E he %rote+ E%e must be violent too-E Secon"+ he ar4ue"+ Japan nee"e" to encoura4e its Asian nei4hbors to reform themselves so that the1 coul" %ithstan" the Destern onslau4ht- ,f they ref$sed, he reasoned, Japan sho$'d compe' them to do so. He reminded his co$ntrymen of a para1'e% A man who 'i(es in a stone ho$se is not safe from fire if his neigh1or 'i(es in a wooden one. The person with the more sec$re a1ode sho$'d try to pers$ade his neigh1or to re1$i'd, of co$rse, 1$t if Ja crisis sho$'d 1e at hand, he is 8$stified in ar1itrari'y in(ading his neigh1or:s 'and not 1eca$se he co(ets his neigh1or:s 'and or hates his neigh1or, 1$t simp'y to protect his own ho$se from fire.K >$ $*awa restated his arg$ment in an inf'$entia' essay he p$1'ished in March 1885 in his newspaper, the )iji shinpo. He chose as his tit'e L#ats$7AronL !OThe Arg$ment for A1andoning AsiaL" and 1egan 1y repeating the fami'iar contrasts 1etween a progressi(e Japan and a 1ac ward 0hina and Korea. 5i(en the Eest:s proc'i(ities, >$ $*awa intoned, Japan m$st not associate too c'ose'y with either Asian neigh1or4 to do so wo$'d mere'y $ndermine its own rep$tation. Japan, he conc'$ded, sho$'d 1e prepared to act r$th'ess'y to protect itse'f. LEe cannot wait for neigh1oring co$ntries to 1ecome en'ightened and $nite to ma e Asia strong,K he wrote. JEe m$st rather 1rea o$t of formation and 8oin the ci(i'i*ed co$ntries of the Eest on the path of progress. Ee sho$'d not gi(e any specia' treatment to 0hina and Korea 1$t sho$'d treat them in the same way as do the Eestern nations.K Bther inf'$entia' writers d$ring the 'ate 188;s and ear'y 183;s proc'aimed the ad(antages of imperia'ism more open'y. ,n his first 1oo , p$1'ished in 1882, To $tomi Soho accepted the idea, artic$'ated 1y Her1ert Spencer and other Eestern inte''ect$a's, that a'' ad(anced ind$stria' societies were 1y nat$re peacef$' and nonaggressi(e. ,t did not ta e To $tomi 'ong, howe(er, to change his mind comp'ete'y. Japan had cha' ed $p some remar a1'e accomp'ishments in po'itics, ed$cation, and commerce, he o1ser(ed in 183<, 1$t it sti'' co$'d not pers$ade the Eest to re(ise the damna1'e $neN$a' treatiesL o$r shame, o$r dishonor,L as he characteri*ed them7that the is'and nation had end$red for more than thirty years. =i e >$ $*awa, he p'aced the 1'ame on racist attit$des. Japan was the Lmost progressi(e, de(e'oped, ci(i'i*ed, and powerf$' nation in the Brient,L he wrote, 1$t it seemed, he added remorse f$''y, that his co$ntry wo$'d ne(er escape Jthe scorn of the white peop'e.K ,mperia' eGpansion, To $tomi contin$ed, presented JapanOs 'ast good chance to earn the respect of the 5reat )owers, ens$re its sec$rity and s$r(i(a' as a nation, and e(en 1ring ci(i'i*ation to other co$ntries in +ast Asia. 5o(ernment 'eaders and opinion ma ers a'so were sensiti(e to the notion that the acN$isition of greater economic ad(antages in Korea co$'d ser(e Japan:s sec$rity needs. 0ertain'y, the swe''ing (o'$me of trade fo''owing the signing of the Treaty of Kanghwa a$g$red we'' for f$t$re prospects% Metween 18.. and 183< the (a'$e of Japanese commodities shipped to the penins$'a increased fo$rfo'd, and in ret$rn Japanese traders p$rchased a1o$t 3; percent of a'' Korean eGports of rice and soy1eans. ,n J$ne 1834 Mats$ ata Masayoshi, whose po'icies as finance minister a decade ear'ier had prepared a sec$re 1ase for JapanOs modern economic growth, contemp'ated ways to de(e'op the Korean economy to Japan:s ad(antage. Specifica''y, he wrote his fe''ow o'igarchs, Japan sho$'d Jma eK Korea open new ports and Jsec$re rights to mine coa', 'ay te'egraph 'ines, and 1$i'd a rai'road 'ine 1etween )$san and Seo$',K concessions, he c'aimed, that wo$'d Jtr$'y 1e to the ad(antage of 1oth co$ntries.K That same s$mmer the pop$'ar press a'so c'amored for new economic pri(i'eges in Korea. Spirited'y, "okumin no tomo !JThe &ation:s >riendK", which N$ic 'y 1ecame JapanOs most wide'y read po'itica' 8o$rna' after its fo$nding 1y To $tomi in 188., repeated most of Mats$ ataOs wish 'ist and demanded the end to eGisting restrictions on Japanese 1$siness acti(ities in Korea. The Japanese who pondered the fate of their nation as Eestern imperia'ism spread across Asia were not ma'icio$s indi(id$a's. They did not har1or any partic$'ar animosity toward fe''ow Asians, and no person in a position of a$thority concocted or endorsed any concrete p'an ca''ing for the acN$isition of territory o(erseas or the economic domination of Asia. 0o''ecti(e'y, howe(er, men 'i e Hamagata, Mats$ ata, >$ $*awa, and To $tomi were de(e'oping a menta'ite that co$ntenanced imperia'istic 1eha(ior. /1 the earl1 189 s the1 an" man1 of their countr1men+ from the political ri4ht an" left+ both insi"e an" outsi"e 4overnment+ ha" reache" the same conclusion: The %orl" %as a "an4erous place+ Destern imperialism an" racist attitu"es pose" 4rave threats to Japanese in"epen"ence+ an" their countr1 %as Bustifie" in contemplatin4 action outsi"e its national bor"ers in or"er to preserve its national inte4rit1- Sei;in4 upon the rhetoric of expansionism that fille" the air+ the1 helpe" for4e an emer4in4 consensus that Japan must be assertive+ must even victimi;e others+ if it %ishe" to avoi" bein4 victimi;e" itself- K F )apan* + $odern !istory 1y James =. Mc0'ain, p. @3;7@35

Le+t9 apanese sam!rai and re(el &akamori Sai'S 5DE FG, #"D";#">>7 Center9 ShS &ai 5HI7, the last kin' o+ the JyTkyT -in'dom <@kinawa= 5rei'n, #".";#">?7 Ji'ht9 /iro(!mi ItS 5JK LM, #".#;#?1?7 was the Prime Minister o+ apan 5#""$;#""", #"?D;#"?8, #"?", #?11;#?1#7 and Jesident General o+ -orea 56e*em(er D#, #?1$; !ne #., #?1?7. )n !n';'e!n, a -orean nationalist, assassinated /iro(!mi ItS at the /ar(in Jailway Station in /ar(in, China <Man*h!ria= on @*to(er D8, #?1? as Ito prepared to meet with Fladimir -okovtsov, a J!ssian representative in Man*h!ria.

Le+t photo9 :ield Marshal )ritomo Yama'ata 5NO PQ, #"%";#?DD7 was the Prime Minister o+ apan 5#""?;#"?#, #"?";#?117, President o+ the Privy Co!n*il 5#"?%;#"?. and #?1$;#?DD7, War Minister o+ apan 5#">%7, and Chie+ o+ the )rmy General Sta++ 5#">";#""D, #"".;#""$, #?1.;#?1$7. )ritomo Yama'ata, who visited Pr!ssia 5later a kin'dom within the German Bmpire7 and st!died Pr!ssian politi*al and military do*trines, moderniAed the Imperial apanese )rmy and modeled the Imperial apanese )rmy a+ter the Pr!ssian army. Yama'ata, also known as the +ather o+ modern Imperial apanese militarism, esta(lished a system o+ military *ons*ription in #">%. Center photo9 Prin*e Masayoshi Mats!kata 5 , #"%$;#?D.7 was the Prime Minister o+ apan 5#"?#;#"?D, #"?8;#"?"7 and :inan*e Minister o+ apan. Prin*e Mats!kata2s 'randda!'hter /ar! Mats!kata Jeis*ha!er was the wi+e o+ U.S. )m(assador to apan Bdwin @. Jeis*ha!er 5am(assadorship, #?8#;#?8$7, Bdwin @. Jeis*ha!er was a mem(er o+ the Co!n*il on :orei'n Jelations, a private or'aniAation in New York City. Ji'ht photo9 Mar0!is General 5and later )dmiral7 &s!'!mi*hi Sai'S 5DE RS, #".%;#?1D7 served as Navy Minister o+ apan 5#""$;#""8, #"">;#"?1, #"?%;#"?"7 and as a genro in the Privy Co!n*il in #"?D. &s!'!mi*hi Sai'S was the yo!n'er (rother o+ apanese sam!rai and re(el &akamori Sai'S.

-lemens Wilhelm a*o( Me*kel 5#".D;#?1$7 was a Pr!ssian German army 'eneral who served as a military adviser to the Imperial apanese )rmy +rom #""$ to #""".

Le+t9 Gerhard Christiaan Coenraad 5Gerrit7 Pels JiP*ken was the +irst Prin*ipal o+ the Na'asaki Naval &rainin' Center in Na'asaki, apan +rom #"$$ to#"$> and served as Navy Minister o+ the Netherlands +rom #"88 to #"8". Ji'ht9 Willem ohan Cornelis, -ni'ht /!iPssen van -attendiPke was the se*ond Prin*ipal o+ the Na'asaki Naval &rainin' Center in Na'asaki, apan +rom #"$> to #"$? and served as Navy Minister o+ the Netherlands +rom #"8# to #"88

&he Seikanron 5 apanese9 TUV, 36e(ate to *on0!er -orea47 de(ate was a maPor politi*al a++air in apan in #">%. apanese (!rea!*rat and sam!rai &akamori Sai'S and his s!pporters insisted that apan *on+ront -orea d!e to the -orean 'overnment2s re+!sal to re*o'niAe the le'itima*y o+ the Bmperor MeiPi as head o+ apan, and ins!ltin' treatment meted o!t to apanese envoys attemptin' to esta(lish trade and diplomati* relations with -orea. &he war;party saw the iss!e in -orea as an ideal opport!nity to +ind meanin'+!l employment +or the tho!sands o+ !nemployed sam!rai, who lost most o+ their in*ome and so*ial standin' in the new MeiPi so*ial and e*onomi* order. &he !nemployed sam!rai posed a threat to the MeiPi 'overnment, and &akamori Sai'S sympathiAed with the sam!rais2 sit!ation, &akamori Sai'S event!ally resi'ned +rom the apanese 'overnment and ret!rned to -a'oshima, where he wo!ld parti*ipate in the Sats!ma Je(ellion in #">>.

apanese sam!rai 5warrior7 and re(el &akamori Sai'o 5!pper ri'ht7 and his +ellow sam!rais wa'e a (loody (attle a'ainst the B!ropean;trained Imperial apanese )rmy at the Battle o+ Shiroyama in -a'oshima, apan on Septem(er D., #">>, the Battle o+ Shiroyama was the +inal (attle o+ the Sats!ma Je(ellion. &akamori Sai'o, who opposed the WesterniAation 5B!ropeaniAation7 o+ apan, was killed in a*tion d!rin' the Battle o+ Shiroyama, the MeiPi Bmperor pardoned Sai'o &akamori posth!mo!sly on :e(r!ary DD, #""?.

U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant and his Ca(inet re*eives *redentials +rom apanese diplomats in the Bast Joom o+ the White /o!se in Washin'ton, 6.C., U.S.). in #">D. 5Li(rary o+ Con'ress7

:ormer U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant visits the Bmperor o+ apan in &okyo, apan in !ne;Septem(er #">?. Grant and his wi+e em(arked on an aro!nd;the;world trip shortly a+ter leavin' o++i*e in #">>.

To )rince K$ng and ,wa $ra Tomomi To io, Japan. A$g$st 1<, 18.3. Since my arri(a' in Japan , ha(e 1een fa(ored with se(era' inter(iews with the ca1inet of His Ma8esty The +mperor, on the s$18ect which His Highness )rince K$ng and His +Gce''ency the 6iceroy =i H$ng 0hang ha(e so m$ch at heart, to wit an honora1'e and satisfactory sett'ement of the =oo 0hoo CAy$ y$D N$estion4 a sett'ement which wi'' 1e a'i e honora1'e to 1oth nations. Ehi'e the statement of facts re'ating to this N$estion as stated 1y the Japanese side differ in many materia' points from the statements made to me 1oth in )e ing and Tientsin yet , fee' that what , ha(e heard wi'' 8$stify me in saying that the Japanese are most anGio$s to preser(e the most amica1'e re'ations with 0hina, and to this end wo$'d magnanimo$s'y ma e sacrifices of what she 1e'ie(es to 1e her 8$st rights if 0hina wo$'d meet her in the same spirit. M$t in the heated contro(ersy which has a'ready ta en p'ace 1etween the two go(ernments on the =oo 0hoo N$estion there ha(e 1een one or more comm$nications on the part of 0hina so threatening in tone, or if not threatening so offensi(e, that , do not 1e'ie(e that the Japanese wo$'d consent to treat with any commission from the other side, $nti' 0hina consented to withdraw s$ch dispatch or dispatches. This 1eing done , 1e'ie(e Japan wo$'d g'ad'y appoint a commission or commissioners from among her a1'e citi*ens, to meet a 'i e commission or commissioners, appointed in 'i e manner, 1y 0hina from among her own representati(e citi*ens. They wo$'d not on'y meet to confer, 1$t wo$'d meet determined to 1ring a1o$t permanent good fee'ing among the two peop'es if 0hina wo$'d meet them ha'fway in concessions. &o foreign power sho$'d 1e 1ro$ght into s$ch a con(ention, nor sho$'d any foreigner, eGcept it might 1e as interpreter and with the consent of 1oth parties. ,t might 1e that s$ch a con(ention wo$'d fai' to agree entire'y, or fai' $pon some minor points, in which contingency the two nations might agree $pon an ar1itrator whose decision on the disp$ted points, after hearing 1oth sides, sho$'d 1e 1inding. ,n s$ch case, whi'e it is entire'y the 1$siness of the two nations, , wo$'d earnest'y s$ggest that no representati(e of a foreign go(ernment a1road sho$'d 1e se'ected. ,n the (ast +ast, em1racing more than two7thirds of the h$man pop$'ation of the wor'd, there are 1$t two nations e(en partia''y free from the domination and dictation of some one or other of the +$ropean powers with inte''igence and strength eno$gh to maintain their independence. Japan and 0hina are the two nations. The peop'e of 1oth are 1ra(e, inte''igent, fr$ga' and ind$strio$s. Eith a 'itt'e more ad(ancement in modern ci(i'i*ation, mechanics, engineering, -c., they co$'d throw off the offensi(e treaties which now cripp'e and h$mi'iate them, and co$'d enter into competition for the wor'd:s commerce. M$ch more emp'oyment for the peop'e wo$'d res$'t from the change and (ast'y more effecti(e wo$'d it 1e. They wo$'d 1ecome m$ch 'arger cons$mers as we'' as prod$cers, and then the ci(i'i*ed wor'd wo$'d 1e (ast'y 1enefited 1y the change, 1$t none so m$ch as 0hina and Japan. Japan is rapid'y reaching a condition of independence, and if it had now to 1e done o(er s$ch treaties as eGist co$'d not 1e forced $pon her. Ehat Japan has done, and is now doing, 0hina has the power, and , tr$st the inc'ination, to do. , can readi'y concei(e that there are many foreigners, partic$'ar'y among those interested in trade, who do not 'oo 1eyond the present, and who wo$'d 'i e to ha(e the present condition remain, on'y grasping more from the +ast, and 'ea(ing the nati(es of the soi' mere'y Jhewers of wood and drawers of water,K for their 1enefit. , ha(e so m$ch sympathy for the good of their chi'dren if not for them, that , hope the two co$ntries wi'' disappoint them. , 'ea(e Japan in two wee s from now, for my American home. ,f , co$'d hear there, that amica1'e and most friend'y re'ations had 1een esta1'ished 1etween 0hina and Japan , sho$'d fee' de'ighted. ,f anything , may ha(e said or done sho$'d ha(e any effect in prod$cing so desira1'e a res$'t , sha'' fee' that my (isit has not 1een in (ain, tho$gh made witho$t tho$ght of ta ing any part in the affairs of the two co$ntries. Eith many than s for the great co$rtesy shown me 1y a'' 0hinese officia's d$ring my (isit to the co$ntry, and with the ass$rances of my highest consideration, , am (ery tr$'y - respectf$''y Ho$r B1edient Ser(ant I.S. 5rant. So$rce% -he Papers o, Ulysses S. .rant* /ctober 01 0232-September 451 0225 1y I'ysses Simpson 5rant, John H. Simon, I'ysses S. 5rant Association, p. @1<7@15

J5rant was enchanted with the >ar +ast. 0hina intrig$ed him, and he was especia''y ta en with =i H$ng70hang, the great (iceroy of the Midd'e Kingdom, whom 5rant compared to Mismarc and #israe'i. M$t he noted and dep'ored the o(er1earing attit$de of Eesterners 'i(ing in 0hina. JThe co$rse of the a(erage minister, cons$', and merchant in this co$ntry towards the nati(e is m$ch 'i e the co$rse of the former s'a(e owner towards the freedman when the 'atter attempts to thin for himse'f in matters of choice of candidates.K 5rant saw a 0hina mired in the past, with change coming s'ow'y 1$t ine(ita1'y. JEhen it does come,K he wrote Madea$, J0hina wi'' rapid'y 1ecome a powerf$' and rich nation. Her territory is (ast and f$'' of reso$rces. The pop$'ation is ind$strio$s and fr$ga', inte''igent and N$ic to 'earn. They m$st, howe(er, ha(e the protection of a 1etter and more honest go(ernment to s$cceed.K Bf a'' the co$ntries he (isited, the =and of the Aising S$n was 5rant:s fa(orite. =@1 visit to Japan has been the most pleasant of all m1 travels+> he wrote from To yo at the 1eginning of A$g$st 18.3. =The countr1 is beautifull1 cultivate"+ the scener1 is 4ran"+ an" the people+ from the hi4hest to the lo%est+ the most *in"l1 an" the most cleanl1 in the %orl"-> A month 'ater he informed Madea$ he was coming home, sti'' enth$siastic a1o$t Japan, 1$t most of a'', a1o$t the Japanese. JThe progress they ha(e made in the 'ast twe'(e years is a'most incredi1'e. They ha(e now Mi'itary and &a(a' Academies, 0o''eges, +ngineering schoo's, schoo's of science and free schoo's, for ma'e and fema'e, as thoro$gh'y organi*ed, and on as high a 1asis of instr$ction, as any co$ntry in the wor'd. Tra(e' in the interior is as safe for an $narmed, $nprotected foreigner as it is in the &ew +ng'and States. M$ch safer from eGtortion. This is mar(e'o$s when the treatment their peop'e F and a'' eastern peop'es F recei(e at the hands of the a(erage foreigner residing among them is considered. , ha(e ne(er 1een so str$c with the heart'ess of &ations as we'' as indi(id$a's as since coming to the +ast. M$t the day of retri1$tion is s$re to come.K 5rant sai'ed for San >rancisco on the 6ity o, -okio, Septem1er <, 18.3. He had 1een in Japan three months, and his 'ea(e7ta ing was poignant. The imperia' ca(a'ry escorted him to the pa'ace, where +mperor M$ts$hito and the empress were waiting to say good1ye. Thro$gho$t his career, 1oth as genera' in chief and president, and in a'' the co$ntries (isited, 5rant had a'ways spo en eGtemporaneo$s'y on s$ch occasions. This time he wrote o$t his remar s 1eforehand, so concerned was he to say the right thing. The emperor, as he had done at their first meeting, ad(anced to meet the genera', an eN$a''y $nprecedented gest$re. 5rant recogni*ed that a'tho$gh he was not an officia' representati(e of the go(ernment, he was ne(erthe'ess spea ing for the Inited States. The brief a""ress+ one of &rant7s finest+ stresse" the importance of an in"epen"ent an" vi4orous Japan+ free of forei4n "omination . 5rant:s send7off in Ho ohama pro(ided a story1oo ending for the wanderings of this modern I'ysses. The ro$te from To yo was 'ined with cheering m$'tit$des wa(ing American and Japanese f'ags. At the Admira'ty Eharf, 5rant was greeted 1y the Japanese na(a' command, the f'eet riding at anchor in the distance. A na(y 1and 1ro e into JHai' 0o'$m1ia,K firewor s 'it the s y, and the Admira'ty 1arge, festooned with co'or, mo(ed o$t into the har1or, carrying the genera' to his steamer. After another ro$nd of good1yes, the 6ity o, -okio, the 'argest steamer on the )acific r$n, got $nderway, con(oyed to the open seas 1y a Japanese man7of7war, the imperia' ca1inet drawn $p on dec . Bne 1y one, as 5rant:s (esse' passed, the na(a' ships in the har1or 1e''owed a twenty7one7g$n sa'$te, cheering crewmen a'oft in the rigging and manning the yards. As Mo$nt >$8iyama CMo$nt >$8iD faded in the distance, the accompanying Japanese man7of7war t$rned homeward and fired a fina' sa'(o in sa'$te. 5rant, with hea(y heart, was going home.K F .rant 1y Jean +dward Smith !@;;1", p. 21@721<

Remem/erin) '-ysses S+ Grant7s ,isit to Japan

5y 8iroshi Chi(a Stars an( Stripes Pu/-ishe(9 Apri- $, :&&;

After a stressf$' eight years as the 18th president of the Inited States, in the diffic$'t reconstr$ction period fo''owing the 0i(i' Ear, I'ysses S. 5rant !18@@7 1885" so$ght a N$ieter 'ife as a pri(ate citi*en and p'anned a (acation to +ng'and with his wife and one of his sons to meet his da$ghter &e''ie. M$t this (oyage m$shroomed into an $nprecedented 8o$rney. The 5rants em1ar ed on a two7year wor'd ad(ent$re on May 1., 18.., to$ring +$rope, the Midd'e +ast and Asia. They were we'comed at e(ery p'ace they (isited. They recei(ed a most enth$siastic we'come in 0hina and in Japan. ,n 0hina, they were greeted 1y h$ge crowds and dined on de'icacies s$ch as p'o(er eggs and shar fins. 5rant eGpressed sympathy for the 1igotry the 0hinese faced thro$gho$t the wor'd, stating J, am not prepared to 8$stify the treatment the 0hinese ha(e recei(ed at the hands of the foreigner.K 0hinese 5enera' =i H$ng 0hang was so impressed with 5rant that he as ed him to carry a message to the Japanese go(ernment regarding a territoria' disp$te o(er Ay$ y$ !B inawa". 5rant:s desire to see disp$tes sett'ed peacef$''y pers$aded him to ser(e as an $nofficia' dip'omat 1etween the two nations. 0ama Ri*1u an" the meetin4 This year mar s the 1@5th anni(ersary of 5rant:s (isit to Japan. 5rant and his fami'y arri(ed at &agasa i, Japan on J$ne ., 18.3. He eGpressed that he tho$ght was Japan J1ea$tif$' 1eyond description.K They were gi(en a hearty reception where(er they went and were treated 'i e a genera' ma ing a tri$mpha' entrance. Since his name was we'' nown thro$gho$t the wor'd, the Japanese go(ernment tho$ght it was fitting that Japan sho$'d accord him a specia' reception, eGce''ing that gi(en to other foreign g$ests. 5rant, after tra(e'ing in Japan and seeing conditions for himse'f, aided 1y his eGperience as president and as a genera' d$ring the 0i(i' Ear, was a1'e to gi(e the +mperor ad(ice which was of great (a'$e in the administration of Japan d$ring that period. 5rant and +mperor Mei8i !@2 years o'd at that time" met at Hama #etached )a'ace in To yo on A$g. 1; and 5rant:s ad(ice was recei(ed with great confidence. >or instance, he ga(e his (iewpoint regarding the foreign po'icy of +$rope, the danger of foreign 'oans, $ni(ersa' s$ffrage, the affairs of the Ay$ y$ ,s'ands !a territoria' disp$te with 0hina", the taGes of the peop'e, the re(ision of $nfair treaties to Japan, nationa' ed$cation and the engagement of the ser(ices of foreign teachers. The +mperor rep'ied, J, ha(e paid c'ose attention to what yo$ ha(e said and sha'' consider it. , than yo$ for yo$r indness.K FoBoBi Temple+ plantin4 a tree Bn J$'y 15, 18.3, the 5rants (isited the To $gawa:s fami'y temp'e Po8o8i Temp'e at Shi1a in To yo and p'anted a cedar tree which has grown to a giant tree today. After ,eyas$ To $gawa started to r$'e the Kanto region !eastern Japan", he accorded cordia' protection to Po8o8i as the fami'y temp'e of the To $gawa fami'y. ,n para''e' to the eGpansion of the +do 0ast'e, a 'arge7 sca'e constr$ction pro8ect was a'so commenced for Po8o8i and an $npara''e'ed grand cathedra' was 1$i't. The cathedra', temp'es and the ma$so'e$m of the To $gawa fami'y were 1$rnt down 1y air raids d$ring Eor'd Ear ,,. Howe(er, its cathedra' and other str$ct$res ha(e 1een re1$i't. =ocated in its precincts are the tom1s of siG To $gawa Shog$ns and their wi(es and chi'dren. &ran" part1 at Ceno Ehi'e the 5rants were in To yo, on A$g. @5, 18.3, the citi*ens of To yo he'd a fete for them at Ieno )ar , which His Ma8esty was p'eased to attend. ,t was an e(entf$' day, the ce'e1ration 1eginning at @ p.m. and contin$ing $nti' 1; p.m. There was fencing, feats of horsemanship, archery and great feasting X and in the e(ening, disp'ays of firewor s. #$ring the day the 5rants were each as ed to p'ant a tree and he p'anted a hino i, =awson 0ypress, and she, a gyo $ran, M$'' May !Magno'ia grandif'ora" at Ieno )ar . Sei1o*en @enu The men$ at the party for the 5rants at the residence of the Minister of the Aight Tomomi ,wa $ra on J$'y 8, 18.3 is ept at Ieno Seiyo en Aesta$rant X the o'dest 'arge7sca'e western7sty'e resta$rant 1$i't in Japan. ,t was as fo''ows% )otage 0onsommV !so$p"4 0ha$d7froid 0otte'ette Mo$ton !m$tton"4 Mo$chVe a 'a 1Vchame' !white sa$ce chic en"4 >i'et 0hatea$1riand !1eef"4

0ai''e a$ ri* !N$ai'"4 Asperges Me$rre >ond$ !asparag$s"4 )$nch !'iN$ored sher1et"4 #indonnea$ Tr$ff Jam1on sa'ada !t$r ey and ham sa'ad"4 5'acVe !ice cream"4 0har'ette )arisienne !ca e"4 5Ytea$ !ca e"4 and fr$its. #$ring his stay in Japan, 5rant (isited a'' parts of the co$ntry inc'$ding his trip to &i o. The rai'ways were not as de(e'oped as they are today, so these trips meant 8o$rneying on foot, horse1ac or ric shaw. 5rant and his fami'y sai'ed from Ho ohama on Sept. <, 18.3. @onument at Ceno >ifty years 'ater in A$g$st 13@3, 6isco$nt Shi1$sawa and Maron Mas$da who were the mem1ers of the origina' reception committee to we'come the 5rants, erected a mon$ment near the spot where the 5rants p'anted trees so that the history of the trees were not forgotten. They wished to ha(e a memoria' of 5rant:s (isit to eep his memory fresh in the minds of the Japanese peop'e, as do the trees that are a'ways green. ,n this anni(ersary year his memory wi'' 1e honored with specia' ceremonies on May @8. So$rce% http%SSwww.stripes.comSmi'itary7'ifeStra(e'Sremem1ering7$'ysses7s7grant7s7(isit7to78apan71.@@315

) mon!ment, ins*ri(ed with 0!otations +rom the spee*hes o+ Grant, 'iven d!rin' his visit to apan in #">?, was ere*ted in #?D? (y Fis*o!nt Shi(!sawa and Baron Mas!da, who were mem(ers o+ the re*eption *ommittee o+ the *ity o+ &okyo at the time o+ Grant2s visit. 5Photo9 /iroshi Chida K Stars HStripe7

Ulysses S. Grant, +ormer President o+ the U.S., visits Chinese Fi*eroy Li /!n' Chan' in &ientsin, China in #">? d!rin' his aro!nd;the;world trip that lasted +rom #">> to #">?. Ulysses S. Grant visited London, Berlin, Paris, Jome, St. Peters(!r' 5J!ssia7, )thens, B'ypt, er!salem, Constantinople, Sai'on 5Fietnam7, &ientsin 5China7, and &okyo 5 apan7 d!rin' his aro!nd;the;world to!r +rom #">> to #">?. Ulysses S. Grant served as a mediator d!rin' China2s disp!te a'ainst apan over *ontrol o+ the Jy!ky! Islands 5Loo;*hoo, present;day @kinawa7 and advised the Bmperor o+ apan to seek pea*e thro!'h ne'otiations instead o+ a *ostly war. &he Imperial apanese 'overnment administered the -in'dom o+ Jy!ky!, in*l!din' @kinawa, in #">D and anneCed the -in'dom o+ Jy!ky! on )pril ., #">?. 5Photo9 Wikimedia7

Map o+ the Jy!ky! Islands <+ormerly LooChoo Islands= and the island o+ &aiwan

6oshisha University 5WXYZ[, Dshisha daigaku7, a private Christian *olle'e in -yoto, apan, was +o!nded in #">$. 6wi'ht Whitney Learned 5B.). Yale #">1, Ph.6. Yale #">%7, a member of $<ull & ;one at 7ale )ni=er ity, was a Pro+essor o+ Chinese /istory, Bi(li*al &heolo'y, and Greek at 6oshisha Colle'e <later 6oshisha University= +rom #">8 to #?D".

oseph /ardy Neesima 5\A ], ii!ima ", #".%;#"?17 was the +o!nder and ina!'!ral president o+ 6oshisha University +rom #">$ to #"?1. Neesima 5NiiPima7 earned a Ba*helor o+ S*ien*e de'ree at )mherst Colle'e in #">1 and (e*ame the +irst apanese person to earn a *olle'e de'ree in the United States o+ )meri*a.

>;oy ;e Ambitiou ?9 ) stat!e o+ )meri*an pro+essor 6r. William Smith Clark 5 !ly %#, #"D8;Mar*h ?, #""87, alon' with his +amo!s words, appears in Sapporo, /okkaido, apan. 6r. William Smith Clark, a devo!t Christian, served as the ina!'!ral president o+ Sapporo )'ri*!lt!ral Colle'e 5today known as /okkaido University7 +rom #">8 to #">>. William Smith Clark, who 'rad!ated +rom )mherst Colle'e with a Ba*helor o+ )rts de'ree in #"." and a Ph.6. at the University o+ Goettin'en 5Germany7 in #"$D, was the President o+ Massa*h!setts )'ri*!lt!ral Colle'e 5present;day University o+ Massa*h!setts;)mherst7 +rom #"8> to #">?.
%otable American profe or in Japan @incompleteA: /enry &aylor &erry 5B.). Yale #"8?7 O Pro+essor o+ Law at &okyo Imperial University 5#">8;#"".7, Pro+essor o+ Bn'lish Law at University o+ &okyo 5#"?.;#?#D7 William )ddison /o!'hton 5B.). Yale #">%, S*roll H -ey #">%7 O Pro+essor o+ Bn'lish Literat!re at &okyo Imperial University 5#">>;#""D7 Brnest :ran*is*o :enollosa 5).B. /arvard #">.7 O Pro+essor o+ Philosophy at &okyo Imperial University 5#">";#""87 &homas Ser'eant Perry 5).B. /arvard #"887 O Pro+essor o+ Bn'lish Lan'!a'e and Literat!re at -eio University in &okyo 5#"?";#?1#7 ohn /enry Wi'more 5).B. /arvard #""%, LL.B. /arvard #"">7 O Pro+essor o+ )n'lo;)meri*an Law at -eio University in &okyo 5#""?;#"?D7 Garrett 6roppers 5).B. /arvard #"">7 O Pro+essor o+ Politi*al B*onomy and :inan*e at &okyo University in &okyo 5#""?;#"?"7

&he MeiPi Bmperor meets with his Privy Co!n*ilors in &okyo in #""". 5Ukiyo;e wood(lo*k prints (y YSshT Chikano(!, #"""7

&he MeiPi Bmperor 5Bmperor M!ts!hito7 anno!n*es the prom!l'ation o+ &he MeiPi Constit!tion 5^_`a #ei!i $en%7, also known as the Constit!tion o+ the Bmpire o+ apan 5Zb+`a, Dai& i%%on 'eikoku $en%7 on :e(r!ary ##, #""?. &he MeiPi Constit!tion was ena*ted +rom Novem(er D?, #"?1 !ntil May D, #?.>. &he MeiPi Constit!tion was a repli*a o+ the Pr!ssian 5German7 Constit!tion, the soverei'nty o+ the apanese Bmpire revolved aro!nd the Bmperor and the Imperial apanese armed +or*es.

&he *onvenin' o+ a diet, or parliament, !nder the new MeiPi Constit!tion in#"?1 was hailed in B!rope and the United States as a si'n o+ apan2s impressive 3WesterniAation.4 )ltho!'h property re0!irements restri*ted the ele*torate in the lower ho!se to a small n!m(er at the o!tset, (y #?D$ the diet had approved !niversal male s!++ra'e. 5 apanese women did not 'et the vote !ntil #?.8.7 In this depi*tion o+ the new diet, the emperor overlooks the s*ene +rom a (oC on the (al*ony on the +ar le+t. Government o++i*ials and ele*ted diet mem(ers all wear +ormal Western;style dress. 5(llustration of the (m%erial Diet of "a%an) by *ot+ ,oshikage- ./017 http9KKo*w.mit.ed!Kans>">1KD#+KD#+.1D>Kthrowin'Uo++UasiaU1#KemperorU1D.html

Central to the *reation o+ the modern emperor system was the *are+!lly promoted asso*iation o+ the emperor with the indi'eno!s Shinto reli'ion, and this in t!rn with the *reation o+ a militarily stron' modern nation;state. ) key step in this dire*tion was the esta(lishment o+ the Yas!k!ni Shrine in &okyo, where the so!ls o+ those who died +i'htin' +or the imperial *a!se (e'innin' in the #"$1s were enshrined. &he h!'e (ronAe torii or 'ateway at Yas!k!ni was ere*ted in #"">. Yas!k!ni (e*ame a maPor sym(ol o+ apanese patriotism in the )sia;Pa*i+i* War o+ the #?%1s and early #?.1s, and remains a +o*!s today +or payin' respe*t to apanese who died in World War &wo. 52(llustration of *rand Festi3al at ,asukuni Shrine) by Shinohara $iyooki- ./047 http9KKo*w.mit.ed!Kans>">1KD#+KD#+.1D>Kthrowin'Uo++UasiaU1#KemperorU1D.html

+mperor M$ts$hito, a'so nown as the Mei8i +mperor, r$'ed Japan from >e1r$ary <, 182. $nti' his death on J$'y <;, 131@.

@ilitar18.n"ustrial Complex in .mperial Japan+ #art 1:

7aibatsu, Man of Japan, and the ,mperia' Japanese +conomic Ear Machine

The Man of Japan !cd", 'ocated in the 0h$o district !efg" of To yo !", Japan, is Japan:s centra' 1an . The Man of Japan was fo$nded in 188@.

,nternationa' 1an ers attend The Second 0hina 0onsorti$m meeting in &ew Hor 0ity in Bcto1er 13@;. =eft to right% >rederic E. Ste(ens, >rederic E. A''en, Henri Ma*ot, 0har'es +. Mitche'', Aene Thion de 'a 0ha$me, John A. A11ott, M$rnett Ea' er, 5eorges )icot, Mortimer =. Schiff, Thomas E. =amont, Sir 0har'es Addis, Kinpei Ta e$chi, E.+. =e(eson, J. Aoss Ti'ford, Sydney >. Mayers, Ma'co'm #. Simpson, A'1ert H. Eiggin, A. ,nchinomiya, and A.0. Eitt. 0har'es +. Mitche'', Mortimer =. Schiff, Thomas E. =amont, and A'1ert H. Eiggin were mem1ers of the 0o$nci' on >oreign Ae'ations. >rederic E. A''en was a mem1er of S $'' Mones at Ha'e Ini(ersity. !)hoto% 8inance and mpire* Sir 6harles +ddis1 09:0-09;< 1y Ao1erta A''1ert #ayer"

5o(ernors of the Man of Japan

Shi'etoshi Yoshihara Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5@*to(er 8, #""D;6e*. #?, #"">7

-oi*hiro -awada Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5Sept. %, #""?;Nov. >, #"?87 Sino; apanese War 5#"?.;#"?$7

Yanos!ke Iwasaki Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5Nov. ##, #"?8O@*t. D1, #"?"7 Spanish;)meri*an War 5#"?"7

&ats!o Yamamoto Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5@*to(er D1, #"?";@*t. #?, #?1%7 BoCer Je(ellion 5#?117

Baron Shi'eyoshi Mats!o Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5@*to(er D1, #?1%; !ne #, #?##7 J!sso; apanese War 5#?1.; #?1$7, apanese anneCation o+ -orea 5#?#17

Fis*o!nt Yataro Mishima Governor o+ apan 5:e(. D", #?#%;Mar*h >, #?#?7 World War I 5#?#.;#?#"7

/isaakira /iPikata Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5 !ne #D, #?D"; !ne ., #?%$7 Sto*k Market Crash in New York City 5@*to(er #?D?7, M!kden In*ident 5Septem(er #", #?%#7, Jei*hsta' :ire 5:e(. D>, #?%%7

&oyotaro Y!ki Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5 !ly D>, #?%>;Mar*h #", #?..7 apan2s invasion o+ Shan'hai 5)!'!st;Novem(er #?%>7, Jape o+ Nankin' 56e*em(er #?%>7, and Pearl /ar(or 56e*. >, #?.#7

!nnos!ke Ino!e Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5Mar*h #%, #?#?;Sept. D, #?D%, May #1, #?D>; !ne #D, #?D"7

Bi'o :!kai Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5 !ne ., #?%$;:e(r!ary ?, #?%>7

Fis*o!nt -eiAo Shi(!sawa, Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5Mar*h #", #?..;@*t. ?, #?.$7

/isato I*himada Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan 5 !ne #, #?.8;6e*. #1, #?$.7, )meri*an @**!pation and -orean War

Man of Japan 5o(ernor Toyotaro H$ i:s Septem1er @5, 134< 'etter to the )resident of the Man for ,nternationa' Sett'ements in Mase', Swit*er'and !)hoto% http%SSwww.f'ic r.comSphotosScoo ingthe1oo sS4.3<;2153.SinSphotostreamS"

Man of Japan 5o(ernor Kei*o Shi1$sawa:s March 18, 1344 'etter to the )resident of the Man for ,nternationa' Sett'ements in Mase', Swit*er'and !So$rce% http%SSwww.f'ic r.comSphotosScoo ingthe1oo sS4.3<232;.4S"

U.S. President :ranklin 6elano Joosevelt entertains his '!ests at l!n*heon in the White /o!se in Washin'ton, 6.C., U.S.). on May D>, #?%%. &hey were mem(ers o+ the apanese +inan*ial mission who dis*!ssed international e*onomi*s with him (e+ore leavin' +or the London *on+eren*e. Le+t to ri'ht is -ats!Pi 6e(!*hi, apanese )m(assador to the U.S., :irst Lady Bleanor Joosevelt, Bi'o :!kai, prominent apanese +inan*ier and later Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan, Fis*o!nt -ik!Piro Ishii, *hie+ o+ the apanese dele'ation to the *on+eren*e, President Joosevelt, and U.S. Navy Captain Walter Ferno!, a Naval )ide. 5Photo9 Underwood H UnderwoodKC@JBIS7

apanese dele'ates to the se*ond International &e*hni*al Jaw Silk Con+eren*e, whi*h was held in New York in @*to(er #?D?, pose +or a 'ro!p photo in +ront o+ the White /o!se in Washin'ton, 6.C., U.S.). on @*to(er #1, #?D? a+ter a short visit with U.S. President /er(ert /oover. In the *enter o+ the 'ro!p is -ats!Pi 6e(!*hi, the apanese )m(assador to the U.S. 5Photo9 BettmannKC@JBIS7

#rom To<yo With *o=eB Mem(ers o+ the apanese dele'ation to the World B*onomi* Con+eren*e in London (id 'ood(ye to U.S. President :ranklin 6elano Joosevelt at the White /o!se in Washin'ton, 6.C., U.S.). on May D>, #?%%. Le+t to ri'ht9 Fis*o!nt -ik!Piro Ishii, head dele'ate and +ormer apanese )m(assador to the U.S. 5#?#";#?#?7, !!k!io -a(ono, B*onomi* adviser, President Joosevelt, apanese (anker Bi'o :!kai 5Governor o+ the Bank o+ apan +rom #?%$ to #?%>7, and -ats!Pi 6e(!*hi, apanese )m(assador to the U.S. 5Ima'e9 V BettmannKC@JBIS7

Nihon(ashi Street in &okyo, apan in *ir*a #?#? 5Photo9 V Lake Co!nty M!se!mKC@JBIS7

J@itsui+ @itsubishi+ Sumitomo+ an" )asu"a stan" apart in Japanese business histor1 as the four 4reat zaibatsu, the financial cli?ues that be4an to ta*e shape "urin4 the @eiBi perio"+ althou4h the term zaibatsu itself %as not hear" much until the 191 s+ach cong'omerate consisted of a far7f'$ng networ of 'ega''y distinct companies and s$1sidiaries. Eithin each *ai1ats$, indi(id$a' firms engaged in their own specia'i*ed 1$siness acti(ities 1$t were 'in ed together 1y persona' and historica' re'ationships, common ownership, co''ecti(e goa's set 1y a centra'i*ed ad(isory committee, inter'oc ing 1oards of directors, and access to a shared poo' of capita' and techno'ogy. ,n contrast with the sma''7sca'e enterprises pre(a'ent in 'ight ind$stry, each *ai1ats$ contro''ed its own financia' instit$tions, which pro(ided it a so$nd 1asis for 'ong7range corporate p'anning and finance. The *ai1ats$ a'so 1enefited from go(ernment fa(ors and patronage, which f$rther he'ped the Mig >o$r to pioneer and 'ater dominate the so7ca''ed modern sector of the economy F that is, hea(y ind$stries s$ch as mining, ship1$i'ding, and the man$fact$re of machinery, meta's, and chemica's. Strong 'eadership, another characteristic of the 'aibatsu1 ena1'ed the Ho$se of Mits$i to weather the chaos of the restoration years and e(ent$a''y 1ecome JapanOs 'argest cong'omerate. The man who 1egan to mo(e the Mits$i fami'y away from its roots as merchandisers par eGce''ence, sym1o'i*ed 1y the s$ccess of the +chigoya chain of dry goods stores, was the shrewd, ca'c$'ating Minom$ra Ai*aemon. ,f we are to 1e'ie(e the co'orf$' 'ife history that Minom$ra constr$cted for himse'f, he was the son of a poor, master'ess sam$rai in Shinano )ro(ince in 18@1 and in his yo$th wor ed as a common 'a1orer and pedd'er 1efore 1ecoming a money'ender in +do. As '$c wo$'d ha(e it, his shop was 1$t a short distance from the mansion and office compo$nd of Bg$ri Tadamasa, the shog$nateOs chief commissioner of finance from 182< $nti' 1828. ,mpressed 1y Minom$raOs N$ic way with the a1ac$s and his canny a1i'ity to profit from c$rrency manip$'ations, Bg$ri recommended the yo$ng man to the head of Mits$iOs operations in +do, who emp'oyed Minom$ra as his chief c'er . Minom$ra pro(ed his worth to the merchant ho$se in short order. As a 1o'd ad(ocate of re(ita'i*ing the mi'itary power of the To $gawa regime and p$nishing dissident domains, 0ommissioner of >inance Bg$ri freN$ent'y imposed eGtraordinary 'e(ies on 'eading merchant ho$ses to pay for his proposed mi'itary and financia' reforms. Ehen a series of s$ch raids on its p$rse in 1822 threatened the s$r(i(a' of the Mits$i dry goods esta1'ishment, Minom$ra in(eig'ed his former 1enefactor to red$ce the shog$nateOs demands s$1stantia''y. 5ratit$de, howe(er, does not seem to ha(e 1een part of Minom$raOs emotiona' repertoire. J$st two years 'ater, e'e(ated to the Mits$i inner co$nci', he anticipated the downfa'' of the shog$nate and pers$aded his firm to ma e genero$s 'oans to the imperia' forces, which he'ped Saigo and his confederates to march on +do and pre(ai' in the Moshin 0i(i' Ear. My the time those hosti'ities ended, Bg$ri was dead, the on'y To $gawa officia' to 1e eGec$ted 1y the new Mei8i go(ernment, and Minom$ra Ai*aemon had emerged as the most inf'$entia' mem1er of the Mits$i ho$se co$nci'. Minom$ra and the Mits$i fami'y soon reaped a handsome reward for ha(ing p'aced their 1et on the roya'ist side. +ar'y in 1828 the new Mei8i 'eadership entr$sted the s$per(ision of its taG receipts to the Ho$se of Mits$i. )reocc$pied with 1eating 1ac its opponents and eGtending its po'itica' contro' o(er the co$ntry, the regime ga(e the pri(ate 1$siness firm wide 'atit$de in setting $p proced$res for co''ecting p$1'ic taG re(en$es, with the res$'t that $nti' 188@, when Mats$ ata created the Man of Japan, the Ho$se of Mits$i en8oyed interest7free $se of taG receipts 1etween the time of their payment and their e(ent$a' dis1$rsement. That windfa'' prompted the ho$se co$nci' to see appro(a' from the go(ernment to fo$nd its own 1an , chartered in 18.2 as JapanOs first pri(ate commercia' 1an . B(er the s$1seN$ent decades, as the Mits$i Man opened 1ranches in more than thirty ma8or cities aro$nd the co$ntry, the ho$se co$nci' too the deposits acN$ired from its 1an ing c$stomers, added them to the profits deri(ed from the dry goods 1$siness, and fi''ed a war chest to 1an ro'' Mits$iOs eGpansion into trading and mining. Mas$da Ta ashi s$ccessf$''y g$ided the firm in that new direction fo''owing Minom$raOs death in 18... The son of a minor shog$na' officia', Mas$da tra(e'ed to the Eest as part of the 1824 shog$na' mission and 'ater was 1efriended 1y the o'igarch ,no$e Kaor$, a 0hosh$ acti(ist who had he'ped p$'' together the a''iance of dissident domains that topp'ed the shog$nate. M'essed with an insiderOs connections, Mas$da won a '$crati(e commission to pro(ision go(ernment forces d$ring the Sats$ma Ae1e''ion and 'ater o1tained eGc'$si(e rights for the recent'y organi*ed Mits$i Trading 0ompany to mar et a'' coa' from the go(ernmentOs rich Mii e Mines on Ky$sh$. Ehen the o'igarchs decided to se'' the mining operations in 1888, Mas$da 1id aggressi(e'y to p$rchase them and then t$rned Mii e coa' into JMits$i go'd.K Mo(ing rapid'y, Mas$da acN$ired other mines, fo'ded them into the new'y incorporated Mits$i Mining 0ompany, set $p 1ranch offices from Tian8in to Singapore, c'aimed AsiaOs mar ets as his own, and e(en dro(e his competitors from A$stra'ia. &a amigawa Hi o8iro mapped o$t Mits$iOs neGt phase of de(e'opment, steering the firm into new ind$stria' endea(ors and initiating the reorgani*ation of the (ario$s Mits$i enterprises into a f$'' 7f'edged 'aibatsu. &a amigawa was a nephew of >$ $*awa H$ ichiOs and in 1823, at age fifteen, 'eft his Ky$sh$ home to tra(e' to +do, where he enro''ed in his $nc'eOs Keio Academy. After trans'ating a n$m1er of wor s on economics, American po'itics, and wor'd geography from +ng'ish into Japanese, &a amigawa 8o$rneyed to =ondon in the mid718.;s. Ipon his ret$rn to Japan, he fo$nd emp'oyment in the Ministry of )$1'ic Eor ers, headed then 1y ,no$e Kaor$, and fo''owed his new mentor to the Ministry of >oreign Affairs in 18.3. &a amigawa N$it go(ernment ser(ice in 1881, emerging the neGt year as the head editor of >$ $*awaOs new dai'y newspaper, the )iji shinpo1 which the rest'ess &a amigawa 'eft in 188. to ass$me the presidency of a pri(ate rai'way company. ,n the s$mmer of 1831, ha(ing rac ed $p accomp'ishments in ed$cation, go(ernment ser(ice, 8o$rna'ism, and pri(ate 1$siness, &a amigawa, $pon the recommendation of 'ongtime Mits$i confidant ,no$e, was tapped to 1ecome the director of the Mits$i Man , whose care'ess 'ending practices .t' the end of the 188;s had 8eopardi*ed its f$t$re s$ccesses. &a amigawa made his presence fe't immediate'y. A'armed 1y the state of the 1an :s acco$nts, he a1r$pt'y ended the c$stom of granting $nsec$red 'oans to go(ernment officia's, a consideration the 1an had eGtended in gratit$de for the n$mero$s fa(ors the Ho$se of Mits$i recei(ed from the Mei8i regime. Moreo(er, he sei*ed the pri(ate residences of certain high officia's when they neg'ected to repay their mortgages as sched$'ed, and he reca''ed a sha y 'oan from the inf'$entia' Higashi Hongan8i temp'e in Kyoto, ma ing the 1an er the 1ete noire of M$ddhist faithf$' e(erywhere when the temp'eOs head a11ot had to 'a$nch a nationwide co''ection campaign. Strengthened 1y his 1an ing s$ccesses, &a amigawa con(inced fe''ow 'eaders within the Mits$i circ'e to 1egin in(esting in ind$stria' enterprises. >oreseeing contin$ed eGpansion in wor'dwide demand for teGti'es, he p$rchased se(era' cotton7spinning companies, inc'$ding the Kanegaf$chi mi'', which he 1$i't into one of the 'argest in Japan. Moreo(er, when the go(ernment anno$nced a p$1'ic a$ction of its Tomio a fi'at$re in the a$t$mn of 183<,

the Mits$i Man snapped it $p at a 1argain 1asement price and, with additiona' in(estments to eGpand the sca'e of prod$ction, t$rned it into a profit7ma ing (ent$re. To those acN$isitions, &a amigawa added s$ch firms as the B8i )aper 0ompany and the Shi1a$ra +ngineering Eor s, 'aying the fo$ndation for Mits$iOs emergence in the twentieth cent$ry as one of the wor'dOs most powerf$' ind$stria' com1ines. J$st as he reformed the 1an , so &a amigawa 1ecame a sta$nch ad(ocate of rep'acing the o'd Mits$i fami'y co$nci' with what he saw as a more rationa', modern form of 1$siness organi*ation. 0onseN$ent'y, in 183< he con(erted the 1an , the +chigoya dry goods chain !'ater renamed the Mits$ oshi #epartment Stores", and the trading and mining operations into separate 8oint7stoc companies and created an eGec$ti(e 1oard to coordinate p'anning. Inder the new str$ct$ra' arrangements, comp'eted in 13;3, mem1ers of the Mits$i fami'y he'd a'' o$tstanding shares of e(ery Mits$i firm, s i''ed career 1$sinessmen, recr$ited increasing'y from Keio and other 'eading $ni(ersities, managed the enterprises4 and a ho'ding company decided genera' po'icy, p'otted common strategies, and made important management decisions a1o$t matters that affected a'' the a''ied firms. The other 'aibatsu e(o'(ed in a manner simi'ar to Mits$iOs, a'tho$gh each de(e'oped its own distincti(e corporate c$'t$re. ,wasa i Hataro, remem1ered as a hard71itten man of no 'itt'e arrogance, fo$nded Mits$1ishi, which 1ecame JapanOs second 'argest 'aibatsu. The son of a farmer in Tosa domain, ,wasa i in his yo$th p$rchased the ran of a minor sam$rai and in 182. 8oined the domainOs trading operations in &agasa i, where Tosa had opened faci'ities in order to acN$ire Eestern techno'ogy and weapons. ,wasa i soon made a minor rep$tation for himse'f 1y sett'ing a rather 'arge de1t to foreigners that TosaOs traders had acc$m$'ated o(er the years. ,n gratit$de, when the domains passed o$t of eGistence in 18.14 the daimyo of Tosa 1estowed $pon ,wasa i e'e(en ships, a considera1'e s$m of cash, and the right to ass$me contro' of the domainOs camphor, tea, dried 1onito, and '$m1er enterprises. ,wasa iOs good fort$nes soared in 18. 4, when the Mei8i o'igarchs decided to se'' thirteen steamships to him at a nomina' price, since they 1e'ie(ed that a we''7eN$ipped, pri(ate'y owned marine shipping company, endowed with assistance from the go(ernment, wo$'d ser(e JapanOs strategic needs as we'' as he'p correct its persistent 1a'ance of payment pro1'ems 1y red$cing dependence on foreign carriers. ,n confirmation of the po'icy of pri(ate ownership7p$1'ic s$pport, the go(ernment in Septem1er 18.5 transferred the 1a'ance of its modern steamships to ,wasa i and agreed to pro(ide him with operating s$1sidies as we''. #e'ighted, ,wasa i painted his soon7to71e7famo$s three7diamond 'ogo on the ships and fo$nded the Mits$1ishi Steamship 0ompany, headN$artered in To yo. The (esse's of the new company N$ic 'y dominated JapanOs waters and, in accordance with instr$ctions from the go(ernment, 1egan ser(ice 1etween Ho ohama and Shanghai. Eithin a short time, to the shoc of many, ,wasa i $sed his fa(orite tactic of deep'y s'ashing prices to force the Mritish )enins$'ar and Brienta' Steam &a(igation 0ompany !)-B" from the Shanghai7Ho ohama ro$te. =ater ,wasa iOs f'eet too the name &HK !&ippon H$sen Kaisha" and ina$g$rated ser(ice to 0hina, Korea, and A$ssia. My cent$ryOs end &HK had eGpanded 1eyond its Asian 1ase to 1ecome a wor'd 'eader on ro$tes that 'in ed JapanOs ports with those in A$stra'ia, the Inited States, and +$rope. The Mits$1ishi diamonds had 1ecome a sym1o' the wor'd wo$'d remem1er. As the profits ro''ed in, ,wasa i N$ic 'y 'a$nched new endea(ors. ,n 18.8 he esta1'ished the To yo Maritime ,ns$rance 0ompany, and two years 'ater he 1egan a wareho$sing operation and a money'ending enterprise that f$nctioned as a so$rce of credit for Mits$1ishi 1$sinesses and 'ater e(o'(ed into the Mits$1ishi Man . The year after that, he added the go(ernment owned Ta ashima 0oa' Mine, 'ocated on a sma'' is'and so$th of &agasa i, to his growing co''ection of companies, and in 188. Mits$1ishi p$rchased the &agasa i Shipyards from the Mei8i go(ernment on easy terms. That same year the growing cong'omerate (ent$red into rea' estate spec$'ation 1y acN$iring, again at a fa(ora1'e price, a 'arge tract of go(ernment 'and in downtown To yo 8$st to the east of the ,mperia' )a'ace, which the firm 'ater de(e'oped into the aff'$ent Mar$no$chi 1$siness district. ,n 183<, ,wasa i Hanos$ e, who had s$cceeded his yo$nger 1rother, esta1'ished Mits$1ishi =imited. Bwned o$tright 1y the ,wasa i fami'y, the new company imposed centra'i*ed contro' o(er the acti(ities of the (ario$s Mits$1ishi endea(ors, which were incorporated as di(isions of the 'imited partnership. The enterprises of the S$mitomo and Has$da 'aibatsu c'$stered more tight'y aro$nd a principa' core 1$siness. The S$mitomo fami'y constit$ted one of the great merchant ho$ses of Bsa a d$ring the ear'y modern era, 1$i'ding a fort$ne from the ore that it eGtracted from its Messhi 0opper Mine and winning appointment as the officia' p$r(eyor of copper to the shog$nate. )rod$ction from the Messhi 'ode dipped considera1'y in the ear'y nineteenth cent$ry, 1$t the economic e1$''ience and promise of the Mei8i era re(ita'i*ed the S$mitomo fami'y, which hired foreign engineers, introd$ced Eestern7sty'e techno'ogy at the mine, and trip'ed o$tp$t 1etween 1828 and 1885. ,ts 1ase in mining sec$re, the S$mitomo then 1ranched o$t. My the end of the Mei8i period its interests inc'$ded 1an ing, wareho$sing, and meta' processing, and its genera' trading department eGported copper, coa', tea, and raw si' , carried a1road on the (esse's of the BSK shipping company, the Bsa a Shosen Kaisha, fo$nded in 188@, when some fifty sma'' firms came together $nder S$mitomo g$idance. The Has$da 'aibatsu concentrated on 1an ing. ,ts fo$nder, Has$da Pen8iro, c'aimed that he earned his first money pedd'ing f'owers in his nati(e Toyama 1efore going to +do in 1824, where he 1ecame a street corner money changer. Has$da showed remar a1'e instincts for mastering the c$tthroat techniN$es of eGchange manip$'ations in the conf$sing years s$rro$nding the restoration, amassing profits that he $sed to fo$nd his own 1an in 188;. An $na1ashed s inf'int7he pac ed his own '$nch for the office and 'eft home at the crac of dawn in order to get the ear'y F morning disco$nt on To yoOs new streetcars F Has$da died one of JapanOs wea'thiest indi(id$a's, the principa' owner of nineteen 1an s, three ins$rance companies, three rai'ways, and an e'ectric company.K F )apan* + $odern !istory 1y James =. Mc0'ain, p. @<;7@<5

)rominent M$sinessmen of the Mits$1ishi Pai1ats$

/isaya Iwasaki Yanos!ke Iwasaki 5#"8$;#?$$7 5#"$#;#?1"7 President o+ Mits!(ishi President o+ Mits!(ishi 5#"?%;#?#87, B.S. U. o+ 5#""$;#"?%7, Governor o+ the Pennsylvania Bank o+ apan 5Novem(er ##, #"?8;@*to(er D1, #"?"7 Note9 :irst Sino; apanese War o**!rred +rom )!'!st #, #"?. to )pril #>, #"?$. Note9 Spanish;)meri*an War o**!rred +rom )pril D$, #"?" to )!'!st #D, #"?". Note9 J!sso; apanese War o**!rred +rom :e(r!ary ", #?1. to Septem(er $, #?1$. Note9 Se*ond Sino; apanese War o**!rred +rom !ly >, #?%> to Septem(er D, #?.$.

Yataro Iwasaki 5#"%$;#""$7 President o+ Mits!(ishi 5#">%;#""$7

-oyata Iwasaki 5#">?;#?.$7 President o+ Mits!(ishi 5#?#8; #?.$7, B.). University o+ Cam(rid'e 5Pem(roke Colle'e7 #?1$

)re713@< postcard with a (iew of the Mits$1ishi headN$arters in the Mar$no$chi district of To yo, Japan, 'oo ing towards the ,mperia' )a'ace.

Mits!(ishi was one o+ the lar'est +amily;owned apanese *orporations, also known as Aai(ats! 5hi7, in Imperial apan. Mits!(ishi 5jk7, Mits!i 5jl7, S!mitomo 5mn7, and Yas!da 5o7 <(ankin' and ins!ran*e +irm= were +o!r o+ the primary Aai(ats! in Imperial apan d!rin' World War II and an inte'ral part o+ the Imperial apanese military;ind!strial *ompleC. Mits!(ishi *orporation in Imperial apan is the e0!ivalent o+ I.G. :ar(en *orporation in NaAi Germany and /alli(!rton *orporation in the United States o+ )meri*a.

&he Man Who Started It )ll

Yataro Iwasaki 5#"%$;#""$7 Yataro Iwasaki was the (old and am(itio!s entreprene!r who started Mits!(ishi. &he son o+ a provin*ial +armer, Yataro (e'an his *areer in the employ o+ the &osa *lan. &he *lan held (!siness interests in many parts o+ apan, whi*h whetted the yo!n' manWs am(ition. YataroWs 'reat 'rand+ather had sold the +amilyWs sam!rai stat!s to *over de(ts. )ltho!'h well o++, the am(itio!s yo!n' man knew that the only way to 'ain tr!e power was ed!*ation. )t #?, Yataro +ollowed an o++i*ial o+ the &osa *lan to Bdo 5&okyo7 to +!rther his st!dies. &he serio!s inP!ry o+ YataroWs +ather in a disp!te with the villa'e headman (ro!'ht him home +rom Bdo a year later. When the lo*al ma'istrate re+!sed to hear his *ase, Yataro a**!sed him o+ *orr!ption. &hat landed him in prison +or seven months. Yataro Iwasaki st!died !nder the re+ormist &oyo Yoshida. It was Yoshida who in+l!en*ed him with ideas a(o!t openin' !p the then;*losed nation and o+ development and ind!stry. &hro!'h his asso*iation with Yoshida, Yataro landed a position as a *lerk +or the &osa 'overnment. /e saved dili'ently and (o!'ht (a*k the +amilyWs sam!rai stat!s. YoshidaWs assassination in #"8D *a!sed Yataro to lose his *onne*tions. It wasnWt !ntil YoshidaWs nephew 'ained stat!s that he was appointed to the *lanWs tradin' o++i*e in Na'asaki. Yataro rose to the top position at the o++i*e in only three months. /is Po( was to (!y ships, weapons, and amm!nition +or the &osa *lan. Yataro eCported *amphor oil, apanese paper and other prod!*ts to +inan*e those p!r*hases. &he %11;year r!le o+ the Sho'!nate ended with the MeiPi Jestoration o+ #"8". @saka repla*ed Na'asaki as the main tradin' port and Yataro +ollowed the a*tion there. &he new 'overnment +or(id the *lans to r!n (!sinesses. Yataro took over the newly privatiAed @saka o++i*e, know then as &s!k!mo &radin' Company, when the &osa *lan dis(anded. /e a**epted part o+ the *lanWs de(t in ret!rn +or ships and tradin' ri'hts. &he *ompany adopted the name Mits!(ishi in Mar*h #">%, when Yataro (e*ame president o++i*ially. RMits!(ishiR means the three;diamond *rest whi*h is a (lend o+ the &osa and Iwasaki em(lems. /e 'rad!ally a*0!ired more ships and eCpanded its passen'er and +rei'ht servi*es. Yataro ta!'ht the sons o+ +ormer aristo*rats to p!t the *!stomer +irst.

'Cpan ion and di=er ification

Yataro Iwasaki was d!ti+!l to the new apanese 'overnment, as well as to his *ompany. Mits!(ishi provided the ships that *arried apanese troops to &aiwan. &hat earned him more ships and a lar'e ann!al s!(sidy. /e a'reed, in t!rn, to *arry mail and other 'overnment s!pplies. With 'overnment s!pport, he was a(le to p!r*hase more ships and in*rease Mits!(ishiWs shippin' lines. &hat helped him drive two lar'e +orei'n shippers o!t o+ the prospero!s Shan'hai ro!te. &he now;'iant shippin' *ompany also *arried troops to p!t down a re(ellion in -y!sh!. Mits!(ishi diversi+ied +ast. Yataro had the *ompany invest in minin' and ship repair. /e started an eC*han'e o++i*e, o++erin' do*!mentary +inan*in'.Yataro also leased the Na'asaki shipyard +rom the 'overnment, whi*h was Mits!(ishiWs start in man!+a*t!rin'. &he politi*al winds t!rned a'ainst Mits!(ishi when an in+l!ential patron in the 'overnment lost power. Competition with a rival apanese shippin' *ompany nearly (ankr!pted (oth *ompanies. &he two *ompanies a'reed to halt their *!tthroat *ompetition in #""$ and they event!ally mer'ed to +orm NY- Line. Yataro, however, never saw the mer'er, as he lost his li+e to stoma*h *an*er at the a'e o+ $1, P!st ei'ht months (e+ore the mer'er. So!r*e9 http9KKwww.mits!(ishi.*omKeKhistoryKseriesKyataroKindeC.html

&he )r*hite*t o+ 6iversi+i*ation

Yanos!ke Iwasaki 5#"$#;#?1"7 Yanos!ke Iwasaki took over leadership o+ Mits!(ishi on the death o+ his elder (rother, Yataro. &he se*ond Mits!(ishi president was the ar*hite*t o+ diversi+i*ation who set the 'ro!p on the path it +ollows today.&he se*ond president o+ Mits!(ishi 'rew !p in an era o+ rapid *han'e. Seventeen years yo!n'er than his (rother, he rea*hed ad!lthood P!st as apan did away with its anti0!ated +e!dal system o+ 'overnment. &he two Iwasaki (rothers were *lose, despite their opposin' personalities. Where Yataro was hotheaded and emotional, always a**eptin' a *hallen'e, Yanos!ke was mild, *olle*ted, and a**ommodatin'. Yataro in+l!en*ed his (rotherWs ed!*ation (y enrollin' him in a &osa *lan s*hool, where the yo!n'er Iwasaki proved an ast!te st!dent. )t #", Yanos!ke went to st!dy in @saka where his (rother was workin'. )t YataroWs !r'in', Yanos!ke later traveled to st!dy in the United States. Yanos!ke is said to have st!died U.S. history and Bn'lish with a private instr!*tor in New York. &he death o+ his +ather meant that Yanos!ke was needed in apan. Yanos!ke Poined the newly +ormed Mits!(ishi Shokai, where his elder (rother promptly appointed him vi*e president. -nowled'e o+ the workin's o+ Mits!(ishi, alon' with +irst;hand dealin's with people +rom other nations, helped Yanos!ke in (!siness. /e proved an inval!a(le reso!r*e to Yataro. )nd he strove to moderniAe the *ompany.

Pre ident
Yanos!ke Iwasaki (e*ame president o+ Mits!(ishi in #""$. &he *ompany was in the midst o+ (itter *ompetition with a rival shippin' *ompany. Yanos!ke a**epted 'overnment mediation, trans+errin' Mits!(ishiWs shippin' (!siness to the new Nippon Y!sen. Loss o+ Mits!(ishiWs shippin' operations motivated +!rther diversi+i*ation. Yanos!ke shi+ted +rom a sea; to land;(ased operation. /e +ormed Mits!(ishi Sha, or Mits!(ishi Company, in #""8. It *entered its (!siness aro!nd the minin' and ship(!ildin' operations that Yataro started. Yanos!keWs Mits!(ishi p!t a lot o+ e++ort into the minin' (!siness. It p!r*hased *oal and metal mines and invested in moderniAin' e0!ipment and minin' te*hni0!es. &he Na'asaki shipyard, whi*h Yataro had leased +rom the 'overnment, also (e*ame Mits!(ishi property in #"">. In perhaps his most +amo!s a*t as president, Yanos!ke p!r*hased a +ield near the Imperial Pala*e in #"?1. Constr!*tion started two years later on apanWs +irst modern (!siness street. People wo!ld *ome to *all the Mar!no!*hi area a (lo*k o+ London. Yanos!ke also took over mana'ement o+ the ##?th National Bank. Mits!(ishi Bank wo!ld later a(sor( its operations. /e also esta(lished the +orer!nner o+ Mits!(ishi Lo'isti*s, &okyo Wareho!se. With the ena*tment o+ apanWs *ommer*ial *ode in #"?%, Mits!(ishi reor'aniAed into Mits!(ishi Goshi -aisha 5Limited Partnership7. Yanos!ke then stepped down as president in +avor o+ his nephew, /isaya. )ltho!'h president +or only ei'ht years, Yanos!ke had *onsidera(le in+l!en*e +or years to *ome. /isaya so!'ht his advi*e on important Mits!(ishi a++airs. Yanos!ke also held 'overnment positions. /e represented the (!siness *omm!nity in the Imperial )ssem(ly. )nd the prime minister re*ommended him +or the post o+ 'overnor;'eneral o+ the Bank o+ apan. &here he oversaw apanWs *han'eover to the 'old standard. Yanos!ke Iwasaki had set Mits!(ishi on the *o!rse o+ diversity that enlivens the *omm!nity o+ *ompanies today. /e passed away in #?1" at $> at his &okyo home. So!r*e9 http9KKwww.mits!(ishi.*omKeKhistoryKseriesKyanos!keKindeC.html

&he ModerniAer

/isaya Iwasaki 5#"8$;#?$$7 /isaya Iwasaki ran Mits!(ishi +or DD years. &he third Iwasaki president p!t the *ompany on the path o+ moderniAation in (oth te*hnolo'y and *orporate *!lt!re. &he third president o+ Mits!(ishi was the son o+ the *ompanyWs +o!nder, Yataro Iwasaki. /isaya Iwasaki was (orn on the island o+ Shikok! in #"8$ and moved to &okyo at the a'e o+ nine to attend s*hool at -eio GiP!k!. )t -eio, he re*eived personal instr!*tion +rom the s*hoolWs +o!nder, Y!ki*hi :!k!Aawa. &hat MeiPi;era s*holar and promoter o+ western learnin'Ws in+l!en*e played a (i' role in /isayaWs development. )t #D, /isaya trans+erred to the Mits!(ishi Commer*ial S*hool that his +ather +o!nded. &here, he st!died *ommer*e and e*onomi*s +rom western teCts. )+ter his +atherWs death, D1;year;old /isaya traveled to the United States to st!dy. /e spent +ive years there and earned a Ba*helor o+ S*ien*e de'ree +rom the University o+ Pennsylvania. @n his ret!rn to apan, /isaya (e*ame vi*e president o+ Mits!(ishi !nder his !n*le Yanos!ke. /e ass!med the mantle o+ president two years later when the *ompany reor'aniAed into Mits!(ishi Goshi -aisha 5Limited Partnership7. )s president, /isaya proved a 'entle, modest man o+ stri*t ethi*al standards. /e demanded p!rity o+ *hara*ter and +airness in a*tions thro!'ho!t Mits!(ishi operations. )nd !nder his leadership the *ompany *ontin!ed to 'row.

5oderniDation
apanese ind!stry in /isayaWs time was moderniAin' rapidly to *at*h !p to the West. Mits!(ishi had diversi+ied widely !nder Yanos!ke, and that diversi+i*ation was (e'innin' to pay o++ in rapid 'rowth. In minin', /isaya *ontin!ed Yanos!keWs drive to p!r*hase mines that yielded the *oal and *opper that ind!stry needed. /e also p!r*hased the 'overnment;owned @saka Je+inery to pro*ess *opper. BCports o+ Mits!(ishiWs mineral prod!*ts were an important so!r*e o+ +!ndin' +or +!rther diversi+i*ation. /isaya also eCpanded Mits!(ishiWs ship(!ildin' (!siness. /e inPe*ted +!nds to eCpand and moderniAe the Na'asaki Shipyard. &he *ompany opened two new shipyards in -o(e and Shimo;noseki, makin' Mits!(ishi apanWs lar'est private;se*tor ship(!ilder. Jeal estate (!siness, too, 'rew !nder /isaya. /e *ontin!ed Yanos!keWs plan o+ developin' &okyoWs Mar!no!*hi (!siness distri*t and (e'an to o++er rental o++i*e spa*e there. Bankin' and tradin' operations also 'rew in siAe and importan*e. Mana'ement (e*ame a *hallen'e as Mits!(ishi 'rew in siAe and diversity. So, /isaya made what was a very pro'ressive de*ision +or the time9 he had the (!siness divisions adopt a!tonomo!s a**o!ntin' systems. &hat provided the (asis +or the the modern system o+ operational divisions. /isaya was also a*tive in all;new ind!stries. /e started *oke prod!*tion, the *ompanyWs +irst vent!re in *ar(on;(ased *hemi*als. @verseas, Mits!(ishi (!ilt a steel plant in northern -orea. )nd he (a*ked other entreprene!rial (!sinesses, s!*h as -irin Brewery. &he o!t(reak o+ World War I meant a (i' P!mp in (!siness +or Mits!(ishi. /isaya took the opport!nity provided (y *ontin!ed 'rowth to retire in #?#8. /is *o!sin -oyata, son o+ se*ond president Yanos!ke Iwasaki, took over the presiden*y. )+ter Mits!(ishi, /isaya devoted himsel+ to r!nnin' a'ri*!lt!ral and *attle (!sinesses and Mits!(ishi Paper Mills. /isaya loved the o!tdoors and ran several +arms. @ne o+ those, -oiwai :arms, is a maPor dairy prod!*er even today. /isaya also operated a'ri*!lt!ral and *attle proPe*ts in -orea, &aiwan, S!matra, the Malay Penins!la, BraAil, and other pla*es. /isaya lost most o+ his personal property in the (reak!p o+ apanWs Aai(ats! +inan*ial and ind!strial *om(ines a+ter World War II. /e led the rest o+ his li+e in se*l!sion on his S!ehiro :arm. /isaya passed away in #?$$ at the a'e o+ ?1. So!r*e9 http9KKwww.mits!(ishi.*omKeKhistoryKseriesKhisayaKindeC.html

&he Last President

-oyata Iwasaki 5#">?;#?.$7 -oyata Iwasaki was the +o!rth and last president o+ a !ni+ied Mits!(ishi. /e took Mits!(ishi p!(li* and t!rned the *ompany into a 'iant *orporate 'ro!p *entered on heavy and *hemi*al ind!stries. -oyata also arti*!lated the (!siness prin*iples that *ontin!e to '!ide Mits!(ishi *ompanies today. &he eldest son o+ Mits!(ishiWs se*ond president, Yanos!ke Iwasaki, -oyata was (orn in &okyo in #">?. /e proved his a(ility early, 'ettin' hi'h marks in elementary s*hool and s!(se0!ently. /e entered the University o+ &okyo, (!t dropped o!t in his +irst year to st!dy in Bn'land at the University o+ Cam(rid'eWs Pem(roke Colle'e. &here, he o**!pied himsel+ with history, 'eo'raphy, so*iolo'y, and other s!(Pe*ts, earnin' a Ba*helor o+ )rts de'ree in #?1$. -oyata also 'ained an introd!*tion at Cam(rid'e to idealisti* British *on*epts o+ so*ial re+orm, whi*h later in+l!en*ed his approa*h to mana'ement. -oyata (e*ame vi*e president o+ Mits!(ishi on his ret!rn +rom st!dy a(road. /e ass!med the presiden*y in #?#8 at the hei'ht o+ the *ompanyWs s!r'in' 'rowth d!rin' World War I and headed the or'aniAation +or the neCt D? years. /is leadership trans+ormed Mits!(ishi into a *orporate 'ro!p o+ more than >1 *ompanies !nder the !m(rella o+ the Mits!(ishi head0!arters.

%eE companie and neE field

-oyata *oped with Mits!(ishiWs 'rowin' siAe and diversity (y spinnin' o++ (!siness divisions as separate *ompanies. &he minin', ship(!ildin', (ankin', tradin', and real estate divisions (e*ame Point;sto*k *ompanies !nder the !m(rella o+ the holdin' *ompany. Mana'ement a!tonomy 'ave those divisions 'reater latit!de +or 'rowth and development than wo!ld have (een possi(le in the old or'aniAation. &he rapid ind!strial development that took pla*e in apan while B!rope was en'!l+ed in World War I *entered on and heavy and *hemi*al ind!stries. Mits!(ishi +ostered vent!res in ele*tri*al ma*hinery, air*ra+t, oil re+inin', *hemi*als, and steel makin', amon' others. Mits!(ishi also was a*tive in international (!siness. -oyata (elieved stron'ly in learnin' +rom other nations. Under his leadership, Mits!(ishi assimilated te*hnolo'y, +inan*ial eCpertise, and mana'ement know;how +rom the worldWs (est *ompanies. /e made allian*es with *ompanies worldwide, in*l!din' Point vent!res +or se*!rin' world;*lass te*hnolo'y. Mits!(ishi en'ineers improved on the imported te*hnolo'ies and also (e'an to a*hieve ori'inal (reakthro!'hs. BC*ellen*e in te*hnolo'y (e*ame a distin'!ishin' stren'th +or Mits!(ishi.

Going public
-oyata re*o'niAed that loosenin' the Iwasaki +amilyWs dire*t *ontrol o+ Mits!(ishi wo!ld help the or'aniAation 'row. /e made sto*k o+ Mits!(ishi s!(sidiaries availa(le to the p!(li*. In #?%>, he even in*orporated the holdin' *ompany as a Point;sto*k *orporation. Nearly one;hal+ o+ the *ompanyWs sto*k passed into the hands o+ investors other than the Iwasaki +amily and Mits!(ishi *ompanies. ) !ni0!e miC o+ British idealism and apanese national *ons*io!sness de+ined -oyataWs mana'ement. @ne o+ his le'a*ies is the three *orporate prin*iples;;modeled a+ter -oyataWs instr!*tions;;that still steer mana'ement at the Mits!(ishi *ompanies9 *orporate responsi(ility to so*iety, inte'rity and +airness, and 'lo(al !nderstandin' thro!'h (!siness. &he end o+ the se*ond world war (ro!'ht to a *lose the Iwasaki *hapter in Mits!(ishi history. &he )llied o**!pation +or*es demanded the (reak!p o+ Mits!(ishi and other lar'e +amily;*ontrolled *orporate 'ro!ps. Mits!(ishi head0!arters *losed in #?.8, >1;some years a+ter the or'aniAation (e'an. -oyataWs health deteriorated !nder the o**!pation, and he died at 88 in 6e*em(er #?.$. /e le+t (ehind this poem9 )!t!mn, a season o+ 'reat variety ) diseased 'oose, motionless Lies still on the +rosty 'ro!nd So!r*e9 http9KKwww.mits!(ishi.*omKeKhistoryKseriesKkoyataKindeC.html

)rominent M$sinessmen of the Mits$i Pai1ats$

Sa1$ros$ e Mits$i Head of the Mits$i >ami'y

Shigea i , eda A.M. Har(ard Ini(ersity 1835 5o(ernor of the Man of Japan !13<."4 Minister of >inance !13<8713<3"4 Mem1er, ,mperia' )ri(y 0o$nci' !1341"

Ta $ma #an Head of the Mits$i >inancia' 5ro$p

Saburosu*e @itsui !185;7131@", M$sinessman. Morn in Kyoto as the e'dest son of Ta ayoshi Mits$i. ,n 18.@, he went to the Inited States with fi(e other chi'dren of the Mits$i >ami'y to st$dy. After ret$rning to Japan, he engaged in (ario$s 1$sinesses contro''ed 1y the Mits$i >ami'y. ,n 188., he 1ecame head of the >ami'y. ,n 183@, he 1ecame president when the mining 1$siness of Mits$i was organi*ed into an $n'imited partnership. >rom then on, he de(oted himse'f to the fami'yOs mining 1$siness, the constr$ction of Mii e Har1or and other pro8ects. So$rce% &ationa' #iet =i1rary, Japan4 http%SSwww.nd'.go.8pSportraitSeSdatasS138.htm'WcZ11 Shi4ea*i .*e"a !182.7135;", M$sinessman and financier. Morn in Hamagata, the son of a sam$rai of the Hone*awa 0'an. He st$died at the Keio 5i8$ $, and 4ra"uate" from 0arvar" Cniversit1 in 189G. After ret$rning to Japan, he wor ed at the newspaper company Ji8i7Shinpo7Sha, and then entered the Mits$i Man , =td. He 1ecame the top managing director in 1313, and 1oosted the 1an to the top in the Japanese financia' wor'd. After Ta $ma #an was assassinated, he 1ecame the standing director of Mits$i 5omei and imp'emented Mits$i >inancia' Aeforms s$ch as offering shareho'dings to the p$1'ic and introd$cing an age retirement system. He was appointed 5o(ernor of the Man of Japan in 13<., >inancia' Minister and Minister of 0ommerce and ,nd$stry in the first Konoe ca1inet in 13<8, and 0o$nci'or of the )ri(y 0o$nci' in 1341. So$rce% &ationa' #iet =i1rary, Japan4 http%SSwww.nd'.go.8pSportraitSeSdatasS@@3.htm'WcZ11 Ta*uma 2an !1858713<@", M$sinessman and 'eader of the Mits$i >inancia' 5ro$p. Morn in >$ $o a as the son of a sam$rai of the >$ $o a 0'an. He went to the Inited States in 18.1 and st$died mining engineering $nti' ret$rning to Japan in 18.8. Joining the ,nd$stry Ministry in 1884, he wor ed at the Mii e 0oa' Mines. Ehen the Mii e 0oa' Mines were so'd to Mits$i in 1888, #an 1ecame 5enera' Manager of Mii e 0oa' Mine 0ompany, where he eGercised his capa1i'ities as a whee'er and dea'er. ,n 1833, he 1ecame a #octor of +ngineering. Ehen Mits$i 5omei Kaisha was esta1'ished as the headN$arters of Mits$i financia' gro$p in 13;3, he was se'ected as 0o$nci'or and 'ater promoted to #irector in 1314. Ehi'e 'eading Mits$i, he conc$rrent'y $ndertoo many eGec$ti(e posts in the financia' wor'd, inc'$ding #irector of the ,nd$stry 0'$1 of Japan. ,n 13@8, he was e'e(ated in ran to dansha $ !1aron". #an was assassinated 1y a mem1er of the rightist gro$p Kets$meidan !=eag$e of M'ood" in 13<@. So$rce% &ationa' #iet =i1rary, Japan4 http%SSwww.nd'.go.8pSportraitSeSdatasS@31.htm'WcZ11

5in*a district of To yo, Japan in Bcto1er 13<<. Ea o #epartment Store is 'ocated at the $pper 'eft corner of the intersection in the foregro$nd.

A (iew of a 1$sy intersection in downtown To yo, Japan in the 13@;s

Hamanote !)assenger" Aai'way =ine in To yo, Japan in 13@5

Has$ $ni Shrine in To yo in the ear'y 13;;s

6isitors at the Brange Bi' >ie'd, near Brange, TeGas, I.S.A., circa 13@<, photo ta en 1y Sh$n ichi &om$ra. >rom 'eft to right% Kats$nori Ea asa !+ngineer, 'ater changed to Ta ahashi", .soro*u )amamoto !0ommander, ,mperia' Japanese &a(y", $n nown !possi1'y 0ommander Ka $, ,mperia' Japanese &a(y", Kichimats$ Kishi, and Ken8i ,de !Admira', ,mperia' Japanese &a(y" !)hoto% http%SShirasa i.netS>ami'y[StoriesSTa ahashi.htm"

6isitors to the Brange )etro'e$m 0ompany, Brange, TeGas, I.S.A. circa 13@<, photo ta en 1y Sh$n ichi &om$ra. >rom 'eft to right% .soro*u )amamoto !0ommander, ,mperia' Japanese &a(y" Kichimats$ Kishi, Ken8i ,de !Admira', ,mperia' Japanese &a(y", $n nown !possi1'y 0ommander Ka $, ,mperia' Japanese &a(y", Kats$nori Ea asa !'ater changed to Ta ahashi, +ngineer". Japan %as "epen"ent on forei4n oil an" relie" on American petroleum to sustain its econom1 an" militar1!)hoto% http%SShirasa i.netS>ami'y[StoriesSTa ahashi.htm"

American 1an er Thomas E. =amont !TE=" !third from right", a partner of &ew Hor 0ity 1an ing firm J.). Morgan - 0o., and American 'awyer Jeremiah Smith Jr. !second from right", a mem1er of Herric , Smith, #ona'd - >ar'ey 'aw firm in Moston, (isit the Mei8i !Shinto" Shrine !^_pq" in To yo !", Japan !" in Bcto1er 13@.. Thomas E. =amont and Jeremiah Smith Jr. were mem1ers of the Council on 'orei4n Relations, a pri(ate organi*ation in &ew Hor 0ity that promotes g'o1a'i*ation, in 13@.. Moth Thomas E. =amont and Jeremiah Smith Jr. earned a Mache'or of Arts degree at Har(ard Ini(ersity in 183@. !So$rce% -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street* -he Story o, -homas =. #amont1 ). P. $organ>s 6hie, ?ecuti@e 1y +dward M. =amont"

+Gcerpts from -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street 1y +dward M. =amont

J#espite its $nwi''ingness to ma e 'oans to 0hina the consorti$m remained in eGistence. The American and Mritish go(ernments tho$ght that it had 1een (a'$a1'e in c$r1ing $ni'atera' eGpansion 1y Japan in 0hina. Moreo(er, the impro(ed re'ations 1etween Japan and America, gi(en impet$s 1y Japan:s mem1ership in the consorti$m, heightened the 'i e'ihood of Japanese 1orrowing in the Inited States, a prospect that whetted the 1an ers: appetites. =amont had corresponded with 5o(ernor ,no$ye of the Man of Japan since his (isit there in 13@;. The Japanese were especia''y interested in o1taining financing to 1$i'd the So$th Manch$ria Aai'road. The State #epartment, howe(er, (iewed this enterprise as Japan:s chief instr$ment to de(e'op and dominate Manch$ria F to the eGc'$sion of American and other foreign interests. The American go(ernment emphatica''y did not want this pro8ect assisted with American capita'. &or did =amont thin that it was ad(isa1'e for Morgan to associate itse'f with Japanese eGpansion on the 0hina main'and in its first 'oan for Japan. According'y, he t$rned aside ,no$ye:s s$ggestion that the Morgan 1an organi*e a 'oan for the So$th Manch$ria Aai'way, to 1e g$aranteed 1y the Japanese go(ernment. The first 'oan, =amont wrote ,no$ye in March 13@@, sho$'d 1e Jsomething more p$re'y Japanese, rather than intimate'y re'ating to the main'and of Asia.K >$rthermore, K$hn, =oe1 - 0ompany had ser(ed ear'ier as the American in(estment 1an er for the ,mperia' Japanese 5o(ernment, and it was not proper for Morgan to intr$de on this eGisting 1an er7c'ient re'ationship. JEe ha(e in this co$ntry and in Ea'' Street the same $nwritten code that , pres$me eGists with yo$\The 'eading ho$ses of the comm$nity are (ery scr$p$'o$s in refraining from in(iting 1$siness from one another:s c'ients.K Main'y tr$e, 1$t artf$' and N$iet s$ggestion, perhaps citing changed circ$mstances s$ch as great'y increased capita' needs, co$'d 'ead a c'ient to switch 1an s on his own. At the time =amont contemp'ated that the Morgan 1an might do its first Japanese 1ond iss$e with a 1'$e7chip pri(ate instit$tion s$ch as the Ho ohama Specie Man rather than the Japanese go(ernment.K F -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street* -he Story o, -homas =. #amont1 ). P. $organ>s 6hie, ?ecuti@e 1y +dward M. =amont, p. 135 JEhen Kengo Mori, the former Japanese finance commissioner in &ew Hor with whom =amont had negotiated the 13@4 'oan, proposed that =amont re(isit Japan in 13@., TE= was happy to o1'ige. The time was ripe to ma e a goodwi'' trip to strengthen the firm:s re'ations with the go(ernment and 1$siness comm$nity. More foreign 1an ers were (isiting Japan to see o$t promising 1$siness opport$nities, and no Morgan partner had 1een there since =amont:s ear'ier trip. The Morgan 1an was he'd in high esteem in 8apan for organi*ing the $rgent'y needed 'oan for reconstr$ction after the 13@< earthN$a e, and Morgan had s$1seN$ent'y $nderta en sma''er reconstr$ction 'oans for the cities of To yo and Ho ohama. 'urthermore+ the Japanese 4overnment consi"ere" $amont to be a lo1al frien"- J$st months ear'ier, TE= had to'd a Japan Society dinner, J, 1e'ie(e in the Japanese peop'e. &othing wi'' e(er arise in my 8$dgment to 1rea the traditiona' friendship 1etween America and 8apan. That ta' of war 1etween these two co$ntries which we sometimes hear is 1oth wic ed and si''y.K )rior to his depart$re =amont met with Secretary of State >ran Ke''ogg at his (acation office in St. )a$', Minnesota. The secretary was p'eased with the c$rrent state of I.S.7Japan re'ations4 the Japanese had shown a (ery cooperati(e attit$de at the recent 5ene(a &a(a' #isarmament conference. He ass$red =amont that the I.S. go(ernment wo$'d s$pport new American 'oans to Japan\The =amont party sai'ed from 6anco$(er on the mpress o, Aussia on Septem1er @@ C, 13@.D. This time it was an a''7ma'e contingent F =amont4 Jeremiah Smith, Jr., his friend and 'ega' ad(iser4 and Martin +gan !1oth Smith and +gan had accompanied =amont on his 13@; trip to the Brient"4 +dward Sa$nders, a secretary, from the Morgan staff4 #r. +.). +g'ee to minister to the medica' needs of the gro$p4 and 5eorge Metca'fe, =amont:s (a'et. The mpress doc ed in Ho ohama on Bcto1er <, where the =amont party was met 1y a 'arge we'coming de'egation, headed 1y the mayor and a horde of reporters\A press re'ease handed o$t 1y Martin +gan stated% $r. #amont is not @isiting )apan to discuss any ,inancial operation1 but in response to in@itations that he has recei@ed ,rom many o, his ,riends here acti@e in banking and ,inance. The Japanese press remained s eptica'. The Japanese go(ernment had seen to it that =amont was warm'y we'comed. As the (isitors dro(e to the ,mperia' Hote' in To yo from Ho ohama har1or, troops of schoo'chi'dren 'ining the streets sho$ted JMan*ai, =amontosanK as the party passed 1y. =arge 'ithographs of =amont were disp'ayed in shop windows a'ong the ro$te identifying him as Jthe sa(ior of Japan.K Bn the second e(ening of their (isit, 5o(ernor ,no$ye of the 1an of Japan and #r. Ta $na #an, managing director of the Mits$i ho'ding company hosted a dinner at the Man ers: 0'$1 in =amont:s honor attended 1y ninety go(ernment officia's, ind$stria'ists, and 1an ers. ,n his remar s TE= was genero$s in his praise of 8apan and its peop'e. After the great earthN$a e, the Eestern wor'd had mar(e'ed at the (igor and s$ccess of Japan:s 'eaders in o(ercoming the disaster and at the ind$stry and co$rage of the Japanese peop'e in re1$i'ding their co$ntry. >$rthermore, he 1e'ie(ed that the Japanese economy was reco(ering we'' fo''owing a 1an ing panic and 1$siness depression ear'ier in the year, a (iew his a$dience was de'ighted to hear from the prominent American financier. The )apan -imes head'ined tis story on the dinner% JEor'd has >aith in Japan, States Thomas =amont. To yo Man ers and M$siness Magnates Ee'come 5reat >inancier.K +ach day was f$''y 1oo ed. The prime minister, Maron Tana a, ga(e a '$nch attended 1y a n$m1er of ca1inet ministers and former prime ministers. The powerf$' Mits$i fami'y, American am1assador 0har'es Mac6eagh, and the Har(ard 0'$1 of Japan entertained the (isitors, and the mayor of To yo ga(e them a g$ided city to$r to o1ser(e the progress of reconstr$ction since the earthN$a e. TE= and his friends a'so made sightseeing trips to other parts of the co$ntry, and =amont descri1ed a sy1aritic eGperience in Kyoto in a 'etter to the fami'y\The Japanese go(ernment too the occasion of TE=:s (isit to confer specia' honors on him a and his &ew Hor 1an ing co''eag$es who had participated in f'oating the earthN$a e 'oans. ,mperia' decorations were awarded to =amont, and in a1sentia to J.). Morgan4 Mortimer Schiff and Btto Kahn of K$hn, =oe14 0har'es +. Mitche'' of the &ationa' 0ity4 and 5eorge >. Ma er, Jr., of the >irst &ationa'. =amont recei(ed the highest7ran ing decoration of the gro$p% the Second 0'ass Brder of the Aising S$n with #o$1'e Aays.K F -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street* -he Story o, -homas =. #amont1 ). P. $organ>s 6hie, ?ecuti@e 1y +dward M. =amont, p. @<17 @<<

JAt 1;%15 on Bcto1er 5 C, 13@.D, TE= CThomas E. =amontD, attired in a 'ong 1'ac froc coat with the insignia of his new decoration in his 1$tton ho'e, was escorted to the a$dience cham1er of the ,mperia' )a'ace to 1e presented to +mperor Hirohito. The yo$ng monarch had ascended to the 0hrysanthem$m Throne the year 1efore. =amont descri1ed the e(ent in a 'etter home% ,n accordance with instr$ctions, , made a s'ight 1ow 8$st 1efore , crossed the thresho'd of the a$dience cham1er4 a second 8$st o(er the thresho'd, a third ha'f way $p the cham1er, and the fo$rth a1o$t fo$r feet in front of the +mperor, each 1ow 1eing a 'itt'e more prono$nced than the one 1efore it. The +mperor stood at one end of the room c'othed in mi'itary ha i, a yo$ng man of medi$m Japanese si*e with hea(y eye1rows and rather protr$ding 'ips. He had a p'easant and cordia' eGpression. At his right stood one of the Japanese no1'emen, and at his 'eft fair'y c'ose to him Admira' C,soro $D Hamamoto, a (ery 8o''y Japanese admira' who was to act as interpreter. After , had made my 'ast 1ow to the +mperor he ga(e me a cordia' handsha e. The <mperor: , am (ery g'ad to we'come to Japan and to the pa'ace so disting$ished an American as yo$rse'f. $amont: Ho$r ma8esty, it was (ery good of yo$ to we'come me so cordia''y. , ha(e come se(en tho$sand mi'es in order to show to yo$ and to yo$r peop'e the good wi'' which my ho$se and o$r friends ha(e for Japan. The <mperor: , want to ta e this occasion to eGpress my persona' gratit$de and that of o$r peop'e for the great assistance which yo$ rendered to $s in the diffic$'t days fo''owing the earthN$a e. $amont: Ho$r ma8esty, we were g'ad to 1e of any assistance and it was the co$rage the Japanese peop'e showed that in 'arge meas$re ser(ed to enco$rage $s to $nderta e the hea(y 'oan operation.K F -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street* -he Story o, -homas =. #amont1 ). P. $organ>s 6hie, ?ecuti@e 1y +dward M. =amont, p. @<<7 @<4 JAfter eGchanging a few p'easantries the +mperor and =amont shoo hands, and TE= wa' ed 1ac wards from the roya' presence, caref$''y remem1ering to repeat his ceremonia' 1ows. &ot s$rprising'y, the Japanese had a more concrete p$rpose in mind for =amont:s (isit than the eGchange of m$t$a' eGpressions of goodwi''. Bn the day 1efore his a$dience with the +mperor, =amont recei(ed from 5o(ernor ,no$ye a detai'ed st$dy of the So$th Manch$ria Aai'way and its financia' reN$irements. The go(ernor proposed that the Morgan 1an organi*e a ]<; mi''ion 'oan for the SMA, which the Japanese go(ernment wo$'d g$aranty. The SMA, contro''ed and s$1stantia''y owned 1y the Japanese go(ernment, needed f$nds to eGpand its 2827mi'e system in the 0hinese pro(ince of Manch$ria. There were (ast areas of prod$cti(e agric$'t$ra' 'and in the region, and Japan:s reN$irements for imported foodst$ffs were mo$nting steadi'y. The state of 0hina:s administration F di(ided, corr$pt, inefficient, and torn 1y strife F r$'ed o$t any possi1i'ity that 0hina co$'d de(e'op the pro(ince itse'f. ,n fact, the Japanese fe't that the presence of the SMA in Manch$ria was an important sta1i'i*ing inf'$ence. Many tho$sands of 0hinese had f'ed the 1anditry and 'aw'ess ness of other regions to sett'e in Manch$ria. =amont ca1'ed Morgan o$t'ining the proposa' and stating his s$pport for the 'oan. Morgan agreed, and the coded ca1'es f'ew 1ac and forth de(e'oping the terms and conditions. =amont s$ggested that the SMA 1ond iss$e co$'d 1e offered as ear'y as &o(em1er 1. After his con(ersation with Secretary Ke''ogg in St. )a$', he was confident that the State #epartment wo$'d s$pport the 'oan, e(en tho$gh it had opposed American 'oans for the SMA in the past.K F -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street* -he Story o, -homas =. #amont1 ). P. $organ>s 6hie, ?ecuti@e 1y +dward M. =amont, p. @<47 @<5 JThe Morgan 1an , headN$artered in the 'ow fortress7'i e 1$i'ding at the 8$nct$re of Ea'' and Mroad streets, was common'y referred to as Jthe 0orner.K #irect'y across Ea'' Street were the o'd S$17Treas$ry M$i'ding and the I.S. Assay Bffice4 the &ew Hor Stoc +Gchange and the Man ers Tr$st tower stood at the so$thwest and northwest corners of the intersection. Most of the important &ew Hor 1an s and in(estment firms were within a few h$ndred yards. J.). Morgan - 0o. was tr$'y at the financia' center of the nation and deser(ed its premi$m 'ocation. 0omparati(e $nderwriting statistics $nderstated the powerf$' inf'$ence of the firm, ref'ecting its standing at the s$mmit of the financia' comm$nity for o(er three decades. ,ts po'itica' connections were at the highest 'e(e's in Eashington and =ondon. .n a real sense the @or4an ban* %as the 4ate*eeper controllin4 access to the hu4e sums of capital nee"e" b1 the bi44est an" best corporations an" forei4n 4overnments- C-S- Steel+ &eneral @otors+ &eneral <lectric+ A-T-HT-+ &reat /ritain + 'rance+ an" the list %ent on I %ere all @or4an clients- Man ers reg$'ar'y spec$'ated as to how the 0orner wo$'d regard a proposa'4 Morgan:s s$pport or re8ection co$'d ma e or 1rea a dea'.K F -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street* -he Story o, -homas =. #amont1 ). P. $organ>s 6hie, ?ecuti@e 1y +dward M. =amont, p. @<3

JBn &o(em1er 1; C, 13@.D, =amont ca''ed on Inder Secretary of State Ao1ert +. B'ds to present the case for appro(a' of the So$th Manch$ria Aai'way CSMAD 'oan, and he s$mmari*ed his (iews in a 'etter to B'ds the fo''owing day. Mased on his con(ersation with Secretary Ke''ogg in St. )a$', said =amont, he pres$med the State #epartment wo$'d not o18ect to the 'oan. TE= CThomas E. =amontD 1e'ie(ed that the SMA presence was a sta1i'i*ing inf'$ence in Manch$ria to the 1enefit of the 'arge 0hinese pop$'ation growing steadi'y thro$gh immigration from other parts of the co$ntry. .t %as $amont7s firm belief that Japan ha" aban"one" militar1 force as a means of expansion in Asia an" ha" no imperialist "esi4n on its nei4hbor- >riendship and strong ties with the Inited States were important to Japan, and the SMA pro8ect pro(ided an eGce''ent opport$nity for the two co$ntries to wor together for their m$t$a' 1enefit and that of 0hina. Bn &o(em1er 1., =amont, accompanied 1y 0har'es +. Mitche'', president of &ationa' 0ity Man , which wo$'d 1e a ma8or participant in the 'oan, met with Secretary of State Ke''ogg, Inder Secretary B'ds, and Assistant Secretary &e'son T. Johnson in Eashington to go o(er the matter again. The State #epartment had opposed SMA 'oans in the past 1eca$se it 1e'ie(ed that Japanese eGpansion in Manch$ria wo$'d 1'oc the de(e'opment of American interest in the area. M$t the Japanese had not interfered with American 1$siness in the region, and 5o(ernor ,no$ye confirmed the Japanese go(ernment:s nondiscriminatory po'icy toward American interest in Manch$ria in a ca1'e which =amont had s$ggested that he send. The rea'ity was that Manch$ria he'd 'itt'e in(estment interest for Americans. The State #epartment, with the s$pport of Am1assador Mac6eagh in To yo, was now 'eaning toward appro(ing the 'oan. M$t the SMA 'oan was no 'onger a secret in the >ar +ast or the Inited States, and the American press pic ed $p the story N$ic 'y, pinpointing the =amont7Mitche'' meeting with Secretary Ke''ogg to disc$ss the proposa'. B(er the neGt few wee s p$1'ic opposition to the SMA 'oan mo$nted. >rist, the 0hinese minister to the Inited States 'odged a protest with the State #epartment on 1eha'f of the Shanghai 0ham1er of 0ommerce and simi'ar gro$ps. Bfficia' protests against the proposed 'oan were made 1y representati(es of 1oth the K$omintang and )e ing regimes. A 1oycott of American goods in 0hina was threatened, and artic'es opposing the 'oan 1egan to appear in 'i1era' American 8o$rna's. Aegarding the SMA 'oan the Nation stated% J,t is an ins$'t to 0hina, a pro(ocation to A$ssia\a'most an act of war.K 6ario$s associations F ch$rch gro$ps, peace organi*ations, and 0hinese friendship societies F 8oined the h$e and cry. Assisting the So$th Manch$ria Aai'way was (iewed as aiding a Japanese mo(e toward f$rther penetration and dominance o(er Manch$ria. +(en the directors of the Standard Bi' 0ompany ad(ised =amont against the 'oan 1eca$se of their fear of a 0hinese 1oycott of American imports if it was cons$mmated. The State #epartment was coo'ing toward the 'oan. Bn #ecem1er 1, =amont ca1'ed ,no$ye that whi'e the department had not forma''y o18ected to the proposition, department officia's were $neasy 1eca$se of the s$rge of protests a1o$t the transaction. The department wo$'d 'i e to ha(e the 'oan postponed $nti' Jthe storm had 1'own o(er\,t wo$'d 1e tactf$' 1oth from yo$r and o$r point of (iew to 1e a1'e to gratify their wishes in this way.K >$rthermore, the $nfa(ora1'e press had Jso$red the mar etK for the 'oan. =amont recommended that the 'oan negotiations sho$'d 1e N$iet'y s$spended $nti' a 'ater time, and ,no$ye conc$rred in his ca1'e two days 'ater. =amont and ,no$ye a'so agreed to say nothing to the press a1o$t the stat$s of the 'oan, 1$t on #ecem1er 5 1oth the Ne( Bork =orld and the )ournal o, 6ommerce reported that the 1an ers had ta1'ed the SMA 'oan 1eca$se of the storm of protest on 1eha'f of 0hina that it had pro(o ed. $amont an" his partners simpl1 refuse" to comment on the subBect- $amont %as serious about pursuin4 the S@R loan at a more opportune time+ an" he continue" to promote his vie% of Japan7s liberal an" peaceful intentions in the 'ar <ast,n an address at a dinner of the ,nstit$te for )acific Ae'ations on #ecem1er 1<, 13@., TE= said that in their own se'f7interest the 0hinese sho$'d Jcompose their differences to the point of 8oint'y in(iting the amica1'e co7operation of foreign interests, the Americans, Mritish, and Japanese.K =amont added, =De shall see no %ars over Japanese interests on the mainlan" of Asia-> K F -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street* -he Story o, -homas =. #amont1 ). P. $organ>s 6hie, ?ecuti@e 1y +dward M. =amont, p. @<27 @<. JJ$st 1efore 'ea(ing for +gypt =amont had written 5o(ernor ,no$ye his (iew s on how the So$th Manch$ria Aai'way 'oan reN$est sho$'d 1e re(ised and res$1mitted 'ater in the spring, when the anti7SMA c'amor had died down. The amo$nt sho$'d 1e red$ced to ]@; mi''ion to 1e $sed so'e'y for ref$nding mat$ring de1t. Th$s Morgan and its associates co$'d not 1e charged with he'ping to eGpand the rai'way itse'f. A'' p$1'icity a1o$t the SMA sho$'d stress its good re'ations with the 0hinese a$thorities, the Jcontentment and prosperityK of the 0hinese immigrants in Manch$ria, and Jtheir desire to ha(e the Japanese contin$e economic de(e'opment.K ,no$ye conc$rred, and on Apri' 18 =amont s$1mitted the recast 'oan proposa' to the #epartment of State, which saw no reason to o18ect to the norma' ref$nding operation. Bn the same day )rime Minister Tana a of Japan sent 5,;;; troops to Shant$ng, a''eged'y to protect Japanese nationa's in the 0hinese pro(ince, whi'e the army of 5enera' 0hiang Kai7she , 'eader of the K$omintang regime in the so$th, dro(e northward to depose the )e ing go(ernment. The 0hinese and Japanese forces c'ashed at Tsinan on May <, and se(era' days 'ater the Japanese sei*ed the city. ,n the face of this f'agrant eGamp'e of Japanese readiness to emp'oy mi'itary force in 0hina, the State #epartment did a (o'te7face and withdrew appro(a' of the SMA 'oan. The incident dea't a 1'ow to =amont:s credi1i'ity at the department as the eGpert who had proc'aimed that Japan had forsa en mi'itarism. /ut althou4h the S@R loan %as "ea"+ TD$ JThomas D- $amontK ha" no thou4ht of coolin4 his %arm relations %ith @or4an7s client+ the Japanese 4overnment-> F -he +mbassador ,rom =all Street* -he Story o, -homas =. #amont1 ). P. $organ>s 6hie, ?ecuti@e 1y +dward M. =amont, p. @4<7 @44

Map of ,mperia' Japan, Manch$ $o, and the J5reater +ast Asia 0o7)rosperity SphereK

Mits$1ishi Pero Mode' 5@ !A2M5" !Mits$1ishi Pero Sengo $ >ighter". The Mits$1ishi A2M Pero was a Japanese fighter aircraft of Eor'd Ear ,,. !)hoto% http%SSen.wi ipedia.orgSwi iS>i'e%Mits$1ishi[Pero7Has$ $ni.8pg"

Japanese st$dents practice a1ac$s !Japanese ca'c$'ator" in Japanese go(ernment schoo's !Jp$1'ic schoo'sK" d$ring the 13@;s.

=eft% A gro$p of Japanese farmers 'i(e in po(erty in Japan d$ring the 13@;s. Japan imported a significant amo$nt of food from Manch$ria, Korea, and Taiwan d$ring the 13@;s and 13<;s. Aight% Japanese women in the cities, inc'$ding To yo, dress fashiona1'y in +$ropean o$tfits d$ring the 13@;s. The ,mperia' Japanese go(ernment $nder the Taisho +mperor to'erated the 'i1era'i*ation of Japanese society d$ring the ear'y 13@;s4 the Japanese 0omm$nist )arty was esta1'ished in Japan in 13@@ despite attempts 1y the ,mperia' Japanese go(ernment to o$t'aw the party.

The ,mperia' )a'ace in To yo, Japan

HeadN$arters of the &a(y Ministry of Japan in To yo, Japan

Le+t9 Bmperor /irohito o+ apan 5rs7, who as*ended to the throne as the Showa Bmperor 5t*u7 on 6e*em(er D$, #?D8, appears on the +ront *over o+ the !ne 8, #?%D edition o+ 'ime ma'aAine. Bmperor /irohito o+ apan was (orn on )pril D?, #?1# and died on an!ary >, #?"?. Ji'ht9 Prin*e :!mimaro -onoe 5vw Mx7, who served as Prime Minister o+ apan 5#?.1;#?.#7, appears on the +ront *over o+ the !ly DD, #?.1 edition o+ 'ime ma'aAine.

Le+t9 General /ideki &oPo 5yz {7, Prime Minister o+ apan 5#?.#;#?..7, Minister o+ War 5#?.1;#?..7, and *onvi*ted war *riminal who was eCe*!ted (y han'in' in &okyo on 6e*em(er D%, #?.", appears on the +ront *over o+ the Novem(er %, #?.# edition o+ 'ime ma'aAine.

Ji'ht9 -oki /irota 5| }~7, Prime Minister o+ apan 5#?%8;#?%>7, :orei'n Minister o+ apan 5#?%%;#?%8, #?%>;#?%"7, and *onvi*ted war *riminal, appears on the +ront *over o+ the May D#, #?%. edition o+ 'ime ma'aAine.

Le+t9 )dmiral Mits!masa Yonai 5 7, Prime Minister o+ apan 5#?.17 and Navy Minister o+ apan 5#?%>;#?%?, #?..;#?.$7, appears on the +ront *over o+ the Mar*h ., #?.1 edition o+ 'ime ma'aAine. )dmiral Yonai opposed the &ripartite Pa*t. Ji'ht9 Sadao )raki 57, Minister o+ War 5#?%#;#?%.7, appears on the +ront *over o+ the an!ary D%, #?%% edition o+ 'ime ma'aAine.

Le+t9 Yos!ke Mats!oka, :orei'n Minister o+ apan 5#?.1; !ly #?.#7 and President o+ So!th Man*h!ria Jailroad Company 5#?%$;#?%?7 who was tried as a war *riminal, appears on the +ront *over o+ the !ly >, #?.# edition o+ 'ime ma'aAine.

Ji'ht9 -Ssai <Yas!ya= U*hida 5 7, :orei'n Minister o+ apan 5#?##;#?#D, #?#";#?D%, #?%D;#?%%7 and President o+ the So!th Man*h!ria Jailroad Company 5 !ne #?%#; !ly #?%D7, appears on the +ront *over o+ the Septem(er $, #?%D edition o+ &ime ma'aAine.