CHAPTER 1 1.

INTRODUCTION
It is a industrial cum medical purpose robot with natural power source like solar energy. Tongue Drive system (TDS) is a tongue-operated unobtrusive wireless assistive technology, which can potentially provide people with severe disabilities with effective computer access and environment control. It translates users intentions into control commands by detecting and classifying their voluntary tongue motion utilizing a small permanent magnet, secured on the tongue,and an array of magnetic sensors mounted on a headset outside the mouth or an orthodontic braceinside.The main aim of this project is to design and construct a tongue controlled robot and device switching wirelessly using RF technology. This device is portable and this system operation is entirely driven by wireless technology. The user can control the Robot directions with the simple tongue movement and he can also request the basic needs like water, food or medicine using voice module. The control system consists of Hall Effect sensor and microcontroller. Microcontroller collects data from the sensor and transmits the encoded data through the RF transmitter. At receiver end RF receiver receives the data through the decoder and fed as input to the micro controller. The controller performs the corresponding actions i.e., Robot movement. This Project consists of two Microcontroller Units, Robot, relay, Triac, Hall Effect sensor and wireless communication through RF technology. Robot is made up of High torque Geared DC Motors, the Motors Directions can be changed through the set of instructions given from the Hall Effect sensor and the action of these Instructions is already loaded into the Microcontroller using Embedded C programming. The RF receiver provides the information to the microcontroller (on board computer) from RF transmitter and the controller judges whether the instruction is right movement or left movement based on the tongue movement and controls the direction. This device is portable and this system operation is entirely driven by wireless technology.This project makes use of a Relay and Triac for switching the devices and APR9600 voicechip for audio announcements, DC motors for Robot movement, wireless camera to view the 8 surroundings, TV for viewing live images and Micro controller, which is programmed, with the help of embedded C instructions. This microcontroller is capable of

communicating with transmitter and receiver modules. The Hall Effect sensor detects the movement of the tongue and provides the information to the microcontroller (on board computer) and the controller judges whether the instruction is right movement or left movement instruction and controls the operation respectively. To perform the task, the controller is loaded with intelligent program written using Embedded C language.

Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. Sensors allow robots to receive information about a certain measurement of the environment, or internal components. This is essential for robots to perform their tasks, and act upon any changes in the environment to calculate the appropriate response. They are used for various forms of measurements, to give the robots warnings about safety or malfunctions, and to provide real time information of the task it is performing.

1.1. Overview 1.1.1 Tongue Controller

An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to perform a dedicated task. Some of the main devices used in embedded products are Microprocessors and Microcontrollers. Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they simply accept the inputs, process it and give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts the data as inputs but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with various devices, controls the data and thus finally gives the result. The Tongue Controlled speaking robot using 16F877A Microcontroller is an exclusive project that can move the wheel chair according to the instructions given by the above said microcontroller.

Tongue Drive system (TDS) is a tongue-operated unobtrusive assistive technology, which can potentially provide people with severe disabilities with effective computer access and environment control. It translates users intentions into control commands by detecting and classifying their voluntary tongue motion utilizing a small permanent magnet, ecured on the tongue, and an array of magnetic sensors mounted on a headset outside the mouth or an orthodontic brace inside. We have developed customized interface circuitry and implemented four control strategies to drive a powered wheel chair (PWC) using an external TDS prototype. The magnetic sensors are nothing but hall-effect sensors. A Hall Effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to changes in magnetic field. In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analogue transducer, directly returning a voltage. With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. The control system consists of Hall Effect sensor and microcontroller. Microcontroller collects data from the sensor and Microcontroller makes to move the motors of the wheel chair in appropriate direction. The direction is decided by the microcontroller depending on the magnet present at different Hall Effect sensors. The microcontroller is loaded with intelligent program written using embedded C language.

Fig:1.1 Block Diagram Of Tongue Controller.

Tongue Drive system (TDS) is a tongue-operated unobtrusive wireless assistive technology, which can potentially provide people with severe disabilities with effective computer access and environment control. It translates users' intentions into control commands by detecting and classifying their voluntary tongue motion utilizing a small permanent magnet, secured on the tongue, and an array of magnetic sensors mounted on a headset outside the mouth or an orthodontic brace inside. We have developed customized interface circuitry and implemented four control strategies to drive a powered wheelchair (PWC) using an external TDS prototype. The system has been evaluated by five able-bodied human subjects. The results showed that all subjects could easily operate the PWC using their tongue movements, and different control strategies worked better depending on the users' familiarity with the TDS.

1.1.2. Obstacle Detector

In robotics, obstacle avoidance is the task of satisfying some control objective subject to nonintersection or non-collision position constraints. In unmanned air vehicles, it is a hot topic. What is critical about obstacle avoidance concept in this area is the growing need of usage of unmanned aerial vehicles in urban areas for especially military applications where it can be very useful in city wars. Normally obstacle avoidance is considered to be distinct from path planning in that one is usually implemented as a reactive control law while the other involves the pre-computation of an obstacle-free path which a controller will then guide a robot along. We have designed a simple robot which detects obstacles and correspondingly changes its direction to avoid collisions. We have used the mbed controller and interfaced it with an LCD display and 3 Infra-Red sensors. The LCD display indicates the distance of the robot from the obstacle when the robot is in the range of 80 cm to 10 cm and it also displays the direction in which the robot will turn when it sees an obstacle. The 3 infra-red sensors are used to detect obstacles in the front, right and left direction. The front sensor is the primary sensor which keeps checking if there are any obstacles in its path in the front direction. Simultaneously the right and left sensors also keep checking for obstacles in the right and left direction respectively. Whenever there is any obstacle detected in the range of 10 centimeters by the front sensor, the robot will stop and take a turn in either the right or left direction depending on which side is clear and free from obstacles. If both the right and left side are free from

obstacles, we have made the robot turn right (One could make it turn left by choice). When the front sensor and left sensor both detect obstacles within the range of 10 centimeters, the robot is made to turn right. Similar logic is used to make the robot left turn. If all the 3 sensors detect obstacles within the range of 10 centimeters, the robot moves in the reverse direction.

Fig.1.2 Obstacle Detector The main aim of this project is to design a robot that can follow a black path without collisions detect the end of the path and turn back. The black path below the car can be determined using the principle that black color absorbs all radiations and the presence of an obstacle is detected using ultrasonic waves.

1.1.2.1. Infrared Transmitter and Receiver

IR transmitter consists of a IR led while the receiver used is IR transistors L14G2. When the Infrared rays fall over base of the IR Led, it is turned on. To catch this variation, the collector of IR transistor is fed to a comparators in LM324 IC as shown in the circuit diagram. We use 4 such Tx Rx modules each at the corner of a rectangle. When the robot reaches the end of the path, only the forward Tx Rx detect white path while the backward Tx Rx module still detect the black path. This case is used to turn around the robot until the forward Tx Rx modules detect black path. In other cases, the robot turns left if one/both of the right Tx Rx module detect a white path. Similarly, the robot turns right if one/both of the left Tx Rx module detect white path. If all of the Tx Rx module detect a black path the robot moves forward.

Fig.1.3 IR Circuit

Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light extending from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (nm) to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a frequency range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Infrared radiation was discovered in 1800 by astronomer William Herschel, who discovered a type of invisible radiation in the light spectrum beyond red light, by means of its effect upon a thermometer. Slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has a critical effect on Earth's climate. Infrared light is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotationalvibration movements. Infrared energy elicits vibrationl modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and

transmission of photons in the infrared energy range. Infrared light is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected. Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space, such as molecular clouds; detect objects such as planets, and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe. Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatus. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes. Military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 m (micrometers). Nonmilitary uses include thermal efficiency analysis, environmental monitoring, industrial facility inspections, remote temperature sensing, short-ranged wireless communication, spectroscopy, and weather forecasting.

Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source. The use of infrared light and night vision devices should not be confused with thermal imaging, which creates images based on differences in surface temperature by detecting infrared radiation that emanates from objects and their surrounding environment.

1.1.2.2. Ultrasonic Transmitter and Receiver

Ultrasonic signals are used to detect obstacles in the path of the robot. Ultrasonic signals scores over Infrared signals in that they can detect obstacles of irregular shape as well as that of black colUltrasonic sensors (also known as transceivers when they both send and receive, but more generally called transducers) work on a principle similar to radar or sonar which evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves respectively. Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is received back by the sensor. Sensors calculate the time interval between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object. This technology can be used for measuring wind speed and direction (anemometer), tank or channel level, and speed through air or water. For measuring speed or direction a device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from the relative distances to particulates in the air or water. To measure tank or channel level, the sensor measures the distance to the surface of the fluid. Further applications include: humidifiers, sonar, medical ultrasonography, burglar alarms and non-destructive testing. Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the ultrasonic range, above 18,000 hertz, by turning electrical energy into sound, then upon receiving the echo turn the sound waves into electrical energy which can be measured and displayed. The technology is limited by the shapes of surfaces and the density or consistency of the material. Foam, in particular, can distort surface level readings.
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1.2 Microcontroller
The microcontroller used here is 89c51. It is interfaced with DC motor driver H-Bridge IC L293D. The pins P0.0 to P0.3 receive the 4 IR signals indicating weather they are on black or white path. The microcontroller is programmed to drive the robot in either forward, left or right direction. The microcontroller also continuously monitors the pin P0.4 which is connected to the output of ultrasonic obstacle detection circuit. When the pin P0.4 detects a obstacle, the microcontroller stops the robot. On reaching the end of the path, the microntroller rotates the robot until it encounters the black path and then continues foward.

Fig.1.4 Normal motor Driving Block Diagram

1.3 RF TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER MODULE

These modules are now widely and cheaply available with the operating frequency of 433 MHz The transmitter module accepts serial data. The encoder IC takes in parallel data at the TX side packages it into serial format and then transmits it with the help of a RF transmitter module. At the RX end, the decoder IC receives the signal via the RF receiver module, decodes the serial data and reproduces the original data in the parallel format. 1.3.1 THE TX433 (Transmission Module)

The TX433 wireless RF transmitter uses on/off keying to transmit data to the matching receiver, RX433. The data input keys the saw resonator in the transmitter when the input is +3 volts or greater, AM modulating the data onto the 433 MHz carrier. The data is then demodulated by the receiver, which accurately reproduces the original data. The data input is CMOS level Compatible when the unit is run on +5 volts. When driving with a CMOS input, there must be enough level to achieve at least 3V on the data input, 5V is preferable. This is due to the start-up time of the oscillator needing to be fast to accurately reproduce your data. If the voltage is too low, the oscillator will not start fast enough to accurately reproduces your data, especially at higher data rates. Luckily not much drive is needed, so this should be easy since it is 22K ohms of load. Almost any CMOS output will drive this without any problems. There are some CMOS outputs which have very little drive capability which may not work, so testing the voltage at the data input may be a wise choice if you are having problems. The simplest antenna consists of a piece of wire approximately 6 to 7 inches long. If you desire more range you can try a ground plane antenna or a Yagi such as the Ramsey 400-4 model. The antenna should be tuned for the 433 MHz band for best operation. Having two Yagi antennas, one for the transmitter and one for the receiver will allow you to extend the range considerably, but since they are directional, this would be best for if your receiver and transmitter are in fixed positions.

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Fig 1.5. 433 MHz Transmitter

1.3.1.1 TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT CODIND #include<reg52.h> sbit en=P3^5; sbit rs=P3^7; sbit rw=P3^6; void delay(int a) {int i,j; for(i=0;i<=a;i++) for(j=0;j<=127;j++); } void cmd(int a)

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{ en=1; rw=0; rs=0; P1=a; delay(1); en=0; } void dat(int a) { en=1; rw=0; rs=1; P1=a; delay(1); en=0; } void lcddata(char* arr) { int i; for(i=0;arr[i]!='\0';i++) {dat(arr[i]);

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} } void main() {int i; cmd(0x38); cmd(0x0C); for(i=0;i<10;i++) { cmd(0x80); dat('0'+i); cmd(0xC0); dat('0'+i); delay(100); } while(1); } 1.3.2 The RX433 (Receiver Module)

The receiver shown in Figure also contains just one transistor. It is biased to act as a regenerative oscillator, in which the received antenna signal causes the transistor to switch to high amplification, thereby automatically arranging the signal detection. Next, the raw demodulated signal is amplified and shaped-up by op-amps. The result is a fairly clean digital

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signal at the output of the receiver. The logic high level is at about 2/3 of the supply voltage, i.e., between 3 V and 4.5 V. The range of the simple system shown in Figures is much smaller than that of more expensive units, mainly because of the low transmit power (approx. 1 mW) and the relative insensitivity and wide-band nature of the receiver. Moreover, amplitude-modulated noise is not suppressed in any way. The simplest antenna consists of a piece of wire approximately 6 to 7 inches long. If you desire more range you can try a ground plane antenna or a Yagi such as the Ramsey 400-4 model. The antenna should be tuned for the 433 MHz band for best operation. Having two Yagi antennas, one for the transmitter and one for the receiver will allow you to extend the range considerably, but since they are directional, this would be best for if your receiver and transmitter are in fixed positions.

Fig 1.6 433 MHz RF Receiver

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1.3.2.1 RECEIVER CIRCUIT CODING #include<reg52.h>

sbit en=P3^5; sbit rs=P3^7; sbit rw=P3^6;

void delay(int a) {int i,j; for(i=0;i<=a;i++) for(j=0;j<=127;j++); } void cmd(int a) { en=1; rw=0; rs=0; P1=a; delay(1); en=0; }

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void dat(int a) { en=1; rw=0; rs=1; P1=a; delay(1); en=0; } void lcddata(char* arr) { int i; for(i=0;arr[i]!='\0';i++) {dat(arr[i]); } } void main() {int i; cmd(0x38); cmd(0x0C); for(i=0;i<10;i++) {

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cmd(0x80); dat('0'+i); cmd(0xC0); dat('0'+i); delay(100); } while(1); } 1.4 H-Bridge and DC motors The robot is driven by DC motors. To drive the motors we use an H-bridge-L293d which boosts the microcontroller logic voltage to 9v that is required to drive these motors. In our case, we used a 9v, 100rpm DC motor. To achieve higher speeds, DC motors of higher torque and voltage can be used. 1.3.3 TSOP

Thin Small Outline Package or TSOP is a type of surface mount IC package. They are very low-profile (about 1mm) and have tight lead spacing (as low as 0.5mm). They are frequently used for RAM or Flash memory ICs due to their high pin count and small volume. In some applications, they are being supplanted by ball grid array packages which can achieve even higher densities. The prime application for this technology is memory. SRAM, Flash memory, FSRAM and E2PROM find this package symbiotic with end-use products. It answers the needs required by telecom, cellular, memory modules, PC Cards (PCMCIA cards), wireless, net books and countless other product applications.TSOP is the smallest leaded form factor for flash memory.

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The TSOP4P.. series are miniaturized receivers for Mid range proximity sensor systems. A PIN diode and a preamplifier are assembled on a lead frame, the epoxy package acts as an IR filter. The output pulse width of the TSOP4P.. has an almost linear relationship to the distance of the emitter or the distance of an reflecting object. The TSOP4P.. is optimized to suppress almost all spurious pulses from energy saving fluorescent lamps. This component has not been qualified according to automotive specifications.

Fig: 1.7 TSOP

1.3.4 MAGNETIC SENSOR

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field. Hall effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications.In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analog transducer, directly returning a voltage. With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of sensors, the relative position of the magnet can be deduced. Electricity carried through a conductor will produce a magnetic field that varies with current, and a Hall sensor can be used to measure the current without interrupting the circuit. Typically, the sensor is integrated with a wound core or permanent magnet that surrounds the conductor to be measured.Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that allows the device to act in a digital (on/off) mode, and may be called a switch in this configuration. Commonly seen in industrial applications such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer
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equipment; for example some computer printers use them to detect missing paper and open covers. When high reliability is required, they are used in keyboards. Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the pictured wheel with two equally spaced magnets, the voltage from the sensor will peak twice for each revolution. This arrangement is commonly used to regulate the speed of disk drives.

Fig:1.8 Magnetic Sensor

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CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW
2.1 Project Overview
It is the industrial cum medical purpose robot with help of natural power source with solar energy. In this project we want to implement multitask via our robot. This robot work as a obstacle detector, tongue controller etc. A proper mean by multitasking is multifeature we can run at a time via our multitasking robot. It is totally based on microcontroller configuration. Main concept of our project is we apply a natural power source. Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. Tongue Drive system (TDS) is a tongue-operated unobtrusive wireless assistive technology, which can potentially provide people with severe disabilities with effective computer access and environment control. It translates users' intentions into control commands by detecting and classifying their voluntary tongue motion utilizing a small permanent magnet, secured on the tongue, and an array of magnetic sensors mounted on a headset outside the mouth or an orthodontic brace inside. We have developed customized interface circuitry and implemented four control strategies to drive a powered wheelchair (PWC) using an external TDS prototype. The system has been evaluated by five able-bodied human subjects. The results showed that all subjects could easily operate the PWC using their tongue movements, and different control strategies worked better depending on the users' familiarity with the TDS.

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2.2 Robotics
2.2.1 Introduction to Robotics In practical usage, a Robot is a mechanical device which performs automated physical tasks, either according to direct human supervision, a pre-defined program, or a set of general guidelines using artificial intelligence techniques. Robots are typically used to do the tasks that are too dirty, dangerous, difficult, repetitive or dull for humans. This usually takes the form of industrial robots used in manufacturing lines. Other applications include toxic waste cleanup, underwater and space exploration, mining, search and rescue, and mine finding. Recently however, robots are finding their way into the consumer market with uses in entertainment, vacuum cleaning, and lawn mowing. A robot may include a feedback-driven connection between sense and action, not under direct human control, although it may have a human override function. The action may take the form of electro-magnetic motors or actuators (also called effectors) that move an arm, open and close grips, or propel the robot. The step by step control and feedback is provided by a computer program run on either an external or embedded computer or a microcontroller. By this definition, a robot may include nearly all automated devices. Ask a number of people to describe a robot and most of them will answer they look like a human. Interestingly a robot that looks like a human is probably the most difficult robot to make. It is usually a waste of time and not the most sensible thing to model a robot after a human being. A robot needs to be above all functional and designed with qualities that suit its primary tasks. It depends on the task at hand whether the robot is big, small, is able to move or nailed to the ground. Each and every task means different qualities, form and function; a robot needs to be designed with the task in mind.

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2.2.1.2 Mobile Robots Mobile robots are able to move, usually they perform task such as search areas. A prime example is the Mars Explorer, specifically designed to roam the mars surface. Mobile robots are a great help to such collapsed building for survivors Mobile robots are used for task where people cannot go. Either because it is too dangerous of because people Mars Explorer image cannot reach the area that needs to be searched.

Mobile robots can be divided in two categories: Rolling Robots: Rolling robots have wheels to move around. These are the type of robots that can quickly and easily search move around. However they are only useful in flat areas, rocky terrains give them a hard time. Flat terrains are their territory.

Walking Robots: Robots on legs are usually brought in when the terrain is rocky and difficult to enter with wheels. Robots have a hard time shifting balance and keep them from tumbling. Thats why most robots with have at least 4 of them, usually they have 6 legs or more. Even when they lift one or more legs they still keep their balance. Development of legged robots is often modeled after insects or crawfish..

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Stationary Robots Robots are not only used to explore areas or imitate a human being. Most robots perform repeating tasks without ever moving an inch. Most robots are working in industry settings. Especially dull and repeating tasks are suitable for robots. A robot never grows tired, it will perform its duty day and night without ever complaining. In case the tasks at hand are done, the robots will be reprogrammed to perform other tasks.. Autonomous Robots Autonomous robots are self supporting or in other words self contained. In a way they rely on their own brains. Autonomous robots run a program that give them the opportunity to decide on the action to perform depending on their surroundings. At times these robots even learn new behavior. They start out with a short routine and adapt this routine to be more successful at the task they perform. The most successful routine will be repeated as such their behavior is shaped. Autonomous robots can learn to walk or avoid obstacles they find in their way. Think about a six legged robot, at first the legs move ad random, after a little while the robot adjust its program and performs a pattern which enables it to move in a direction.

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Remote-control Robots An autonomous robot is despite its autonomous not a very clever or intelligent unit. The memory and brain capacity is usually limited. An autonomous robot can be compared to an insect in that respect. In case a robot needs to perform more complicated yet undetermined tasks an autonomous robot is not the right choice. Complicated tasks are still best performed by human beings with real brainpower. A person can guide a robot by remote control. A person can perform difficult and usually dangerous tasks without being at the spot where the tasks are performed. To detonate a bomb it is safer to send the robot to the danger area. Dante 2, a NASA robot designed to explore

volcanoes via remote control.

2.2.2 Virtual Robots Virtual robots dont exits in real life. Virtual robots are just programs, building blocks of software inside a computer. A virtual robot can simulate a real robot or just perform a repeating task. A special kind of robot is a robot that searches the world wide web. The internet has countless robots crawling from site to site. These WebCrawlers collect information on websites and send this information to the search engines. Another popular virtual robot is the chatterbot. These robots simulate conversations with users of the internet. One of the first chatterbots was ELIZA. There are many varieties of chatterbots now, including E.L.V.I.S.

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BEAM Robots 111 BEAM is short for Biology, Electronics, Aesthetics and Mechanics. BEAM robots are made by hobbyists. BEAM robots can be simple and very suitable for starters.

Biology Robots are often modeled after nature. A lot of BEAM robots look remarkably like insects. Insects are easy to build in mechanical form. Not just the mechanics are in inspiration also the limited behavior can easily be programmed in a limited amount of memory and processing power. Two basic ways of using effectors are to move the robot around (locomotion) or to move other objects around (manipulation). This distinction divides robotics into two mostly separate categories: mobile robotics (moving) and manipulator robotics (grabbing). Joints connect parts of manipulators. The most common joint types are: 1. rotary (rotation around a fixed axis) 2. prismatic (linear movement) A parallel robot is one whose arms (primary axes) have three concurrent prismatic joints or both prismatic and rotary joints. Degrees of freedom (DOF) means axes of movement. The human arm has seven Degrees of Freedom. A "6 DOF" arm is highly flexible. Proprioceptive sensors sense the robot's actuators (e.g., shaft encoders, joint angle sensors). Proprioception is one of the most important senses of the human body.

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Alternately, robot has been used as the general term for a mechanical man, or an automaton resembling an animal, either real or imaginary. It has come to be applied to many machines which directly replace a human or animal in work or play. In this way, a robot can be seen as a form of biomimicry. Lack of anthropomorphism is perhaps what makes us reluctant to refer to the highly complex modern washer-dryer as a robot. However, in modern understanding, the term implies a degree of autonomy that would exclude many automatic machine tools from being called robots. It is the search for ever more highly autonomous robots which is the major focus of robotics research and which drives much work in artificial intelligence. The term robot is also often used to refer to sophisticated mechanical devices that are remotely controlled by human beings, such as waldoes and ROVs, even though these devices are not autonomou.

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2.3 INFRARED EMITTER DETECTOR

The infrared emitter detector pair act as an eye with a flashlight in the infrared spectrum. The detector (a transistor) detects all ambient infrared light. The emitter (a LED) emits infrared light into an otherwise dark (in the infrared spectrum) room. Requirements Low, typical LED power requirements. Tips and Uses 1. Dont bother using this circuit outside, the sun will flood your IR detector and make it useless. 2. Certain indoor lighting can also emit IR interference 3. Only if you modulate the IR emitter and set the detector to only detect modulated IR can you use this outside. This is commonly done with Sharp IR rangefinders. 4. Tweaking is necessary to determine sensitivity of your circuit. Sensitivity will help increase range but also increase ambient interference. 5. By using certain resistor values, your IR emitter detector can also detect color, such as for line tracking.

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2.3.1 Sonar

Basic Description

Detects obstacles and can determine object softness/hardness through echolocation. Typical sonar require ground, power, signal transmit, and signal recieve lines. Transmit a short square wave and the sonar emits a mostly inaudible sound. The sonar keeps the signal recieve line low before the emission and after detecting the return of the emission, high. The distance can be determined by measuring in time how long the recieve line is kept high. FYI, the speed of sound at sea level is 340.29 m/s. Availability and Cost

Available online for around $20-$30. Power Low, but depends on how active sonar are set to. Tips and Uses 1. Using multiple sonar can be a challenge in that they can trigger each other inadvertently. 2. If using multiple sonar, you must trigger each independently and wait for a return. Requirements

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3. This can take a long time if you have 10+ sonar on your robot, so you will have to fiddle with combinations of sonar running simultaneously 4. Sonar does not work at very short distances (several inches) 5. Remember, sound bounces off of walls and can interfere with later emission readin

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2.3.2 DIGITAL COMPASS

Basic Description The digital compass gives measurements based on Earth's magnetic field for robot navigation. Inside this commonly available MEMS are tiny nano-structures that bend due to electromagnetic fields. When this MEMS experiences any form of EM field, the tiny structures bend by an amount which can be electrically detected. Cheaper digital compasses usually have a resolution of around +/- 5 degrees, but newer and better ones can detect with a better accuracy. Availability and Cost It is easily available for $30-$100. It is best to buy them with supporting circuitry included to avoid any interference from bad electrical design. Power Requirements Minimal, typical logic only. Tips and Uses Keep digital compasses far away from anything that emits EM, such as motors, transformers, inductors, etc. Large conductive items significantly altar magnetic fields (cars, fridges, steel plates, etc.) Use this device to help for navigation, such as robot race tracks or navigating a maze

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2.3.3 SENSORS - ACCELEROMETER

Basic Description

It

detects

motion,

vibration,

and

angle

with

respect

to

gravity.

Inside this commonly available MEMS are tiny nano-structures that bend due to momentum and gravity. When this MEMS experiences any form of acceleration (gravity is a downward acceleration) the tiny structures bend by an amount which can be electrically detected. This means accelerometers can be used to detect and/or control for vibration of a device, acceleration of a robot actuator, or even the angle of the accelerometer with respect to gravity (useful for biped robots).

Note that an accelerometer works on only a single axis, so if you wish to detect on X, Y, and Z planes you need 3 of them. Today many accelerometer MEMS's come with multiple axis for simplicity. Availability and Cost They are easily available and very affordable. Usually require support circuitry. Dimension Engineering has a great plug and play dual axis accelerometer which requires no additional support circuitry. Power Requirements Minimal, typical logic only. Tips and Uses

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1. Placing an accelerometer on a mobile robot that experiences bumps can trigger the accelerometer unintentionally. 2. Use a large capacitor to smooth out output over several hundred milliseconds (testing required) to prevent this.

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2.3.4 TACTILE BUMP SENSOR CIRCUIT

Tactile Bump Sensors are great for collision detection, but the circuit itself also works fine for user buttons and switches as well.

There are many designs possible for bump switches, often depending on the design and goals of the robot itself. But the circuit remains the same. They usually implement a mechanical button to short the circuit, pulling the signal line high or low. An example is the microswitch with a lever attached to increase its range, as shown above. There are several versions below, depending on how you plan to use the circuit and your available switches. For the resistor use a very high value, such as 40kohms. Tactile Bump Sensor Circuits

Voltage goes high

Voltage goes with contact low

with contact

More efficient switch for 3 lead switches (use for microswitches)

Tactile switches only work if your robot can stop instantaneously (like when moving slowly). There is no point ramming the wall, then the switch saying 'oops, wall here.

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2.4 Types of Motors DC Motors

From the start, DC motors seem quite simple. Apply a voltage to both terminals, and it spins. But what if you want to control which direction the motor spins? Correct, you reverse the wires. Now what if you want the motor to spin at half that speed? You would use less voltage. But how would you get a robot to do those things autonomously? How would you know what voltage a motor should get? Why not 50V instead of 12V? What about motor overheating? Operating motors can be much more complicated than you think.

DC motors are non-polarized - meaning that you can reverse voltage without any bad things happening. Typical DC motors are rated from about 6V-12V. The larger ones are often 24V or more. But for the purposes of a robot, you probably will stay in the 6V-12V range. So why do motors operate at different voltages? As we all know (or should), voltage is directly related to motor torque. More voltage, higher the torque. But don't go running your motor at 100V because thats just not nice. A DC motor is rated at the voltage it is most efficient at running. If you apply too few volts, it just wont work. If you apply too much, it will overheat and the coils will melt. So the general rule is, try to apply as close to the rated voltage of the motor as you can. Also, although a 24V motor might be stronger, do you really want your robot to carry a 24V battery (which is heavier and bigger) around? So a standard recommendation is do not surpass 12V motors unless you really need the torque.
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Stepper Motors

Stepper Motors work under a very similar principle to DC motors, except they have many coils instead of just one. So to operate a stepper motor, one must activate these different coils in particular patterns to generate motor rotation. So stepper motors need to be sent patterned commands to rotate. These commands are sent as high and low logic over several lines, and must be pulsed in a particular order and combination. Steppers are often used because each 'step,' separated by a set step angle, can be counted and used for feedback control. For example, a 10 degree step angle stepper motor would require 36 commands to rotate 360 degrees. However external torque can force movement to a different step, invalidating feedback. Therefore external torque must never exceed the holding torque of a stepper. The Robologic stepper motor is a four phase unipolar motor with a step angle of 7.5 degrees. It has 6 wires coming from it in 2 sets of 3. Each set is connected to its own winding. The central pin is the ground pin, and the 2 pins to the left (pin 1) and right (pin 2) are connected to each

35

winding.

The

arrangement

is

the

same

on

the

second

set

of

pins.

Fig:2.1 magnetic sensor circuitary The Robocore can control up to 2 stepper motors using its standard dc motor connections. To follow this example attaches pin 1 and 2 to the Robocore's first motor output and pins 3 and 4 to the second motor output. The two ground pins can be connected together and attached to the batteries negative terminal. The following sequence steps the motor through one complete cycle. Step 1 2 3 4 1 Pin1 ON ON OFF OFF ON Pin2 OFF OFF ON ON OFF Pin3 ON OFF OFF ON ON Pin4 OFF ON ON OFF OFF

The motor can be made to rotate anticlockwise by stepping backwards through the sequence. I.E. Step 4, 3, 2,1,4,3 etc

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Notes on Stepper Motors

1. 2. 3. 4.

Stepper motors can be easily found in any 3.5" disk drive Require special stepper motor controllers Have a set resolution, higher resolutions mean higher accuracy but lower holding torque If torque applied to stepper is greater than holding torque, stepper will lose accurate position measurements

Voltage
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Polarized (current cannot be reversed) Typically from 5-12V, but can range to extremes in special application motors Higher voltages generally mean more torque, but also require more power Steppers can run above or below rated voltage (to meet other design requirements) Most efficient at rated voltage

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2.4.2 Servo Motors Servos are DC motors with built in gearing and feedback control loop circuitry. And no motor drivers required! Servos are extremely popular with robot, RC plane, and RC boat builders. Most servo motors can rotate about 90 to 180 degrees. Some rotate through a full 360 degrees or more. However, servos are unable to continually rotate, meaning they can't be used for driving wheels (unless modified), but their precision positioning makes them ideal for robot legs and arms, rack and pinion steering, and sensor scanners to name a few. Since servos are fully self contained, the velocity and angle control loops are very easy to implement, while prices remain very affordable. To use a servo, simply connect the black wire to ground, the red to a 4.8-6V source, and the yellow/white wire to a signal generator (such as from your microcontroller). Vary the square wave pulse width from 1-2ms and your servo is now position/velocity controlled. Servos can operate under a range of voltages. Typical operation is from 4.8V to 6V. There are a few micro sized servos that can operate at less, and now a few Hi-tech servos that operate at much more. The reason for this standard range is because most microcontrollers and RC receivers operate near this voltage. So what voltage should you operate at? Well, unless you have a battery voltage/current/power limitation, you should operate at 6V. This is simply because DC motors have higher torque at higher voltages.

While the black and red wires provide power to the motor, the signal wire is what you use to command the servo. The general concept is to simply send an ordinary logic square wave to your servo at a specific wave length, and your servo goes to a particular angle (or velocity if your servo is modified). The wavelength directly maps to servo angle. So how do you apply this square wave to your servo? If your robot is remote controlled, your RC receiver will apply the proper square wave for you. If however your robot is running from a microcontroller, you must:

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So how many milliseconds do you keep the port high? It all depends on the servo. You may have to tweak for each individual servo some several microseconds difference. The standard time vs angle is represented in this chart:

Fig:2.2 Waveform of servo motor

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2.5 ROBOT BATTERIES

The robots are no longer limited to bulky low power non-rechargeable batteries, and today there is a large assortment to suit your robots' demands. How are batteries rated? With any battery you will see a voltage and a power rating. Battery voltages can be somewhat complicated. When fully recharged, a battery will often be 15% above its voltage rating. When fully discharged, about 15% below its rating. A fully charged battery will also immediately drop below its rating when driving heavy loads, such as a DC motor. To increase battery voltage, wire multiple of them in series. Batteries also cannot supply an infinite current. So expect batteries of different types but equal voltages to have different current outputs. To increase battery current output, wire multiple of them in parallel. This is why batteries often come in assembled packs of smaller cells. So when using a battery, make sure your circuit handles changes in battery voltage. For the power rating you will see something like 1200mAh. mAh means milliamps per hour. So if it is 1200mAh, that means the battery can supply 1.2 amps for one hour or 2.4 amps for 30 minutes or 0.6 amps for two hours. Alkaline batteries are the most common, easiest to get, and cheapest too. However they are useless, dont buy them. They have low power capacities, are heavy, have trouble supplying large amounts of current in short time periods, and get expensive to constantly replace. The same goes for Zinc-carbon

40

batteries, which suck even more. Lead Acid batteries were developed in the late 1800s, and were the first commercially practical batteries. They remain popular because they are easy and inexpensive to manufacture. Rechargeable lead-acid

batteries have been available since the 1950s and have become the most widely used type of battery today.

Their drawback is remember that lead acid batteries have the serious problem of being very large and heavy, need to always be kept charged, and do not have the high discharge rates as the more modern batteries.

There are three main types of lead acid batteries. Wet Cell (flooded) Gel Cell, and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM). The Gel Cell and the AGM batteries are specialty batteries that typically cost twice as much as a premium wet cell. However they store very well and do not tend to sulfate or degrade as easily or as easily as wet cell. Lithium (Li-ion) is the new standard for portable power. Li-ion batteries have the same high energy capacity as NiMHs, power output rates of NiCads, and weigh about 20%-35% less. They also have zero memory effect problems, meaning you can recharge whenever. Although lithium batteries are the most advanced for portable power, they are also the most expensive. Also, they are made out of totally non-toxic

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material, making them safe for cute squirrels and pretty trees. What is to be remembered is to, lithium ignites very easily, and forms large quantities of hydrogen when put in contact with water, so don't shoot at it or blow it up or anything of that nature. Also, fire extinguishers are usually water based, so dont use them on lithium battery fires.

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Interesting points about Robotics

Building robots involves the development of a wide range of skills, including creative thinking, design, mechanics, electronics and programming - all of which are highly valued in industry. Our interest in the subject could lead us into an exciting and fulfilling career at the cutting edge of technology!

Before the 1960s, robot usually meant a manlike mechanical device (mechanical man or humanoid) capable of performing human tasks or behaving in a human manner. Today robots

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come in all shapes and sizes, including small robots made of LEGO, and larger wheeled robots that play robot football with a full-size ball. What many robots have in common is that they perform tasks that are too dull, dirty, delicate or dangerous for people. Usually, we also expect them to be autonomous, that is, to work using their own sensors and intelligence, without the constant need for a human to control them. Looked at this way, a radio controlled aero plane is not a robot, nor are the radio controlled combat robots that appear on television. However, there is no clear dividing line between fully autonomous robots and human-controlled machines. For example, the robots that perform space missions on planets like Mars may get instructions from humans on Earth, but since it can take about ten minutes for messages to get back and forth, the robot has to be autonomous during that time. Where did the word robot originate? The word robot was introduced in 1920 in a play by Karel Capek called R.U.R. or Rossum's Universal Robots. Robot comes from the Czech word robota, meaning forced labour or drudgery. In the play, human-like mechanical creatures produced in Rossum's factory are docile slaves. Since they are just machines, the robots are badly treated by humans. One day a misguided scientist gives them emotions, and the robots revolt, kill nearly all humans and take over the world. However, because they are unable to reproduce themselves, the robots are doomed to die. What are the Laws of Robotics? The term robotics was coined in the 1940s by science fiction writer Isaac Asimov. In a series of stories and novels, he imagined a world in which mechanical beings were mankind's devoted helpmates. They were constrained to obey what have become known as Asimov's Laws of Robotics: 1. A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.

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2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. 3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law. What was the first practical robot? A prototype industrial robot arm named Unimate (designed by George Devol and Joseph Engelberger) was sold to General Motors in 1959. It plucked hot automobile parts out of a diecasting machine and quenched them in water. The 1960s and 1970s saw a revolution in manufacturing as robots replaced humans for many repetitive jobs. However, these robots were not intelligent by todays standards. Usually they were programmed by humans training their movements, and they had very little decisionmaking capabilities. There are still many robots like this in factories today, but the trend is towards more intelligent general-purpose robots that can do more than just paint a panel or screw in a bolt. What can't robots do? It is very difficult to give a robot the ability to perform a wide variety of tasks, move around in cluttered surroundings, recognize objects in the real world, understand normal speech, and think for itself. These are exciting areas of current research in robotics and artificial intelligence. For example, the robot shown here has the problem of deciding where to cross the river. How can it make this decision? How would you do it? Perhaps you have come across a similar situation before. Perhaps you could look it up in a guide book. Perhaps you would reason that B is better than C because the water is likely to be shallower? Perhaps you would choose A, because you tried it before.

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All these ways of making decisions come very naturally to humans, but they are very difficult to program into robots. Another great problem in robotics is getting them to understand language. This is very important in problem-solving. For example, the four cards below have a letter on one side and a number on the other. If a card has a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) on one side then it has an even number on the other. Which cards do you have to turn over to see if this is true? Think about your answer, and then point to a card to turn it over.

Now consider the following cards where the rule is every time I go to Paris I go by plane. Which cards have to be turned over to test this? Again, think about your answer before turning the card over.

The answer to the first question is that you have to turn over the E to see if it has an even number on the back and you have to turn over the 7 to check that it does not have a vowel on the back. In an experiment, only 12% of people got this second part right (did you?). The answer to the second question is much easier. Of course you have to turn over the Paris card to check that it has the word plane on the back, but now its much more obvious that you have to turn over the train card to make sure it does not have Paris on the back. In the experiment mentioned above, 60% of people got the second part right.

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These problems are logically the same, so the experimenters drew the conclusion that the meaning of the symbols is an important part of problem solving. Since robots have very poor language capabilities, their ability to use this kind of reasoning is very limited. Another of the great problems in robotics is getting them to see. Although it is easy to put a camera on a robot, it is much more difficult to get the robot to understand what is in an image. Most humans have miraculously good vision. We are able to resolve great ambiguity in scenes. It has proved much more difficult to get robots to understand what is in their universe, and machine vision remains one of the big unsolved problems in robotics research. There are other problems in robotics that make progress slow. For example, your body is covered with skin, and this contains millions of sensors that allow you to do many fantastically precise things. For example, try typing at a computer with gloves on. The lack of touch feedback will make it very difficult. Also your muscles enable you to have very fine control. Even if you are rather clumsy, you are probably much better at manipulating objects than the average robot. Most people would not let a robot dust their favorite china. Will robots ever be as good as humans? Many futurists believe that robots will eventually and inevitably become more capable than humans, but some experts in artificial intelligence assert that machines will never be able to develop the consciousness and emotions needed for reasoning and creativity. Nonetheless, there are already commercially available robots that can live in our houses and do basic chores for us. Robots are very good at processing certain kinds of information, and they are ideally suited to answering the telephone and being controlled over the Internet. The International RoboCup Federation has set itself the challenge of having a team of humanoid robot football players beat the human world champions by 2050. Can you image that? It means that robots will have to become as nimble and skilful as Beckham. It will require the invention of many new materials for example, a human soccer player could be badly hurt if it clashed with a robot made of metal. It will also require an enormous improvement in

47

machine vision. If you play sports such as football, tennis, or even snooker, next time you play think about the huge amount of information that comes through your eyes. Will robots take over from humans? This is a popular science fiction theme, and the answer depends on whether robots will ever attain consciousness and emotions. In stories like 2001: A Space Odyssey and Terminator, humans always find a way to outwit intelligent machines that try to take over control. That's fiction, however, and fact is often stranger than fiction! The suggestion that robots will take over because they might become more intelligent than humans overlooks one critical fact: the people who have power in human societies are usually not the most intelligent in the obvious, intellectual way. They have di fferent kinds of human intelligence, including the ability to understand other people, and to influence their behavior. The sensible answer to the question as to whether robots will take over is that they probably wont in the near future. There are many reasons for this. The first is that the robots of today have puny brains compared to humans, and they do not have the ability to organise in the same way as humans. Our societies are very complex and allow us to achieve many very advanced things. It is unlikely that robots could overtake us in the near future. Even so, it is something that we should keep an eye on, since all scientists have a responsibility not to do things that damage society. However, for the most part, robots play a very positive role in our societies, and we can expect them to be used in many ways that make life better for us all.

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CHAPTER 3 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

3.1 INTRODUCTION OF MAIN COMPONENT
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Microcontroller Dc Motors Motor Driving IC Interfacing IC Voltage Regulator IC Resistors Capacitors

3.1.1. 8051 Microcontroller AT89C51

AT89C51 is an 8-bit microcontroller and belongs to Atmel's 8051 family. ATMEL 89C51 has 4KB of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM) and 128 bytes of RAM. It can be erased and program to a maximum of 1000 times. In 40 pin AT89C51, there are four ports designated as P1, P2, P3 and P0. All these ports are 8-bit bi-directional ports, i.e., they can be used as both input and output ports. Except P0 which needs external pull-ups, rest of the ports have internal pull-ups. When 1s are written to these port pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. These ports are also bit addressable and so their bits can also be accessed individually.

Fig.3.1 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER

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Port P0 and P2 are also used to provide low byte and high byte addresses, respectively, when connected to an external memory. Port 3 has multiplexed pins for special functions like serial communication, hardware interrupts, timer inputs and read/write operation from external memory. AT89C51 has an inbuilt UART for serial communication. It can be programmed to operate at different baud rates. Including two timers & hardware interrupts, it has a total of six interrupts.

Fig. 3.2 Pin Diagram of AT89C51

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3.1.2 DC MOTORS
A brushed DC motor is an internally commutated electric motor designed to be run from a direct current power source. Brushed motors were the first commercially important application of electric power to driving mechanical loads, and DC distribution systems were used for more than 100 years to operate motors in commercial and industrial buildings. Brushed DC motors can be varied in speed by changing the operating voltage or the strength of the magnetic field. Depending on the connections of the field to the power supply, the speed and torque characteristics of a brushed motor can be altered to provide steady speed or speed inversely proportional to the mechanical load. Brushed motors continue to be used for electrical propulsion, cranes, paper machines and steel rolling mills. Since the brushes wear down and require replacement, brushless motors using power electronic devices have displaced brushed motors from many applications.

Fig.3.3 DC Motor (150 rpm) 3.1.3. Motor Driving IC L293D

L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to drive on either direction. L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors simultaneously in any direction. It means that you can control two DC motor with a single L293D IC.

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The l293d can drive small and quiet big motors as well, check the Voltage Specification at the end of this page for more info. It can be found in any electronic shop very easily and it costs around 80 Rupees (INR) or around 1.3 $ Dollar. You can find the necessary pin diagram, working, a circuit diagram, Logic description and Project as you read through.

Fig.3.4 L293D Motor Driving IC It works on the concept of H-bridge. H-bridge is a circuit which allows the voltage to be flown in either direction. As you know voltage need to change its direction for being able to rotate the motor in clockwise or anticlockwise direction, Hence H-bridge IC are ideal for driving a DC motor. In a single l293d chip there two h-Bridge circuit inside the IC which can rotate two dc motor independently. Due its size it is very much used in robotic application for controlling DC motors. Given below is the pin diagram of a L293D motor controller. There are two Enable pins on l293d. Pin 1 and pin 9, for being able to drive the motor, the pin 1 and 9 need to be high. For driving the motor with left H-bridge you need to enable pin 1 to high. And for right H-Bridge you need to make the pin 9 to high. If anyone of the either pin1 or pin9 goes low then the motor in the corresponding section will suspend working. Its like a switch. The there 4 input pins for this l293d, pin 2,7 on the left and pin 15 ,10 on the right as shown on the pin diagram. Left input pins will regulate the rotation of motor connected across left side

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and right input for motor on the right hand side. The motors are rotated on the basis of the inputs provided across the input pins as LOGIC 0 or LOGIC 1.

Fig.3.5 Circuit Diagram For l293d motor driver IC controller

3.1.3.1. Voltage Specification

VCC is the voltage that it needs for its own internal operation 5v; l293D will not use this voltage for driving the motor. For driving the motor it has a separate provision to provide motor supply VSS (V supply). L293d will use this to drive the motor. It means if you want to operate a motor at 9V then you need to provide a Supply of 9V across VSS Motor supply.

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The maximum voltage for VSS motor supply is 36V. It can supply a max current of 600mA per channel. Since it can drive motors Up to 36v hence you can drive pretty big motors with this l293d. VCC pin 16 is the voltage for its own internal Operation. The maximum voltage ranges from 5v and up to 36v.

Fig.3.6 Pin Diagram of L293D IC

3.1.3.2. L293D Logic Table

Lets consider a Motor connected on left side output pins (pin 3,6). For rotating the motor in clockwise direction the input pins has to be provided with Logic 1 and Logic 0.

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Pin Pin

2 2

= =

Logic Logic

1 0

and and

Pin Pin 7

7 =

Logic Logic 1

0 |

Clockwise

Direction Direction

Anticlockwise

Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Idle [No rotation] [Hi-Impedance state] Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Idle [No rotation] In a very similar way the motor can also operated across input pin 15,10 for motor on the right hand side.

3.1.4. Interfacing IC MAX 232

The MAX232 is an IC, first created in 1987 by Maxim Integrated Products, that converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals. The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs (approx. 7.5 V) from a single + 5 V supply via on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing RS232 in devices that otherwise do not need any voltages outside the 0 V to + 5 V range, as power supply design does not need to be made more complicated just for driving the RS-232 in this case. The receivers reduce RS-232 inputs (which may be as high as 25 V), to standard 5 V TTL levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V, and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V.

Fig.3.7. MAX 232 Interfacing IC

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The later MAX232A is backwards compatible with the original MAX232 but may operate at higher baud rates and can use smaller external capacitors 0.1 F in place of the 1.0 F capacitors used with the original device. The newer MAX3232 is also backwards compatible, but operates at a broader voltage range, from 3 to 5.5 V. The MAX232 (A) has two receivers (converts from RS-232 to TTL voltage levels), and two drivers (converts from TTL logic to RS-232 voltage levels). This means only two of the RS232 signals can be converted in each direction. Typically, a pair of a driver/receiver of the MAX232 is used for TX and RX signals, and the second one for CTS and RTS signals. There are not enough drivers/receivers in the MAX232 to also connect the DTR, DSR, and DCD signals. Usually these signals can be omitted when e.g. communicating with a PC's serial interface. If the DTE really requires these signals, either a second MAX232 is needed, or some other IC from the MAX232 family can be used. Also, it is possible to directly wire DTR (DB9 pin 4) to DSR (DB9 pin 6) without going through any circuitry. This gives automatic (brain dead) DSR acknowledgment of an incoming DTR signal.

Fig.3.8 Pin Diagram of MAX 232 Interfacing IC

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3.1.5 Voltage Regulator IC 7805

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Fig.3.9 7805 Voltage Regulator IC

Voltage regulator IC's are the ICs that are used to regulate voltage.IC 7805 is a 5V Voltage Regulator that restricts the voltage output to 5V and draws 5V regulated power supply.

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It comes with provision to add heat sink. The maximum value for input to the voltage regulator is 35V. It can provide a constant steady voltage flow of 5V for higher voltage input till the threshold limit of 35V. If the voltage is near to 7.5V then it does not produce any heat and hence no need for heat sink. If the voltage input is more, then excess electricity is liberated as heat from 7805. It regulates a steady output of 5V if the input voltage is in rage of 7.2V to 35V. Hence to avoid power loss try to maintain the input to 7.2V. In some circuitry voltage fluctuation is fatal (for e.g. Microcontroller), for such situation to ensure constant voltage IC 7805 Voltage Regulator is used. For more information on specifications of 7805 Voltage Regulator please refer the data sheet here (IC 7805 Voltage Regulator Data Sheet). IC 7805 is a series of 78XX voltage regulators. Its a standard, from the name the last two digits 05 denotes the amount of voltage that it regulates. Hence a 7805 would regulate 5v and 7806 would regulate 6V and so on. The schematic given below shows how to use a 7805 IC, there are 3 pins in IC 7805, pin 1 takes the input voltage and pin 3 produces the output voltage. The GND of both input and out are given to pin 2.

Fig.3.10 Pin Diagram of 7805 Voltage Regulator IC

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Voltage Regulator is one of the most important and commonly used electrical components. Voltage Regulators are responsible for maintaining a steady voltage across an Electronic system. Voltage fluctuations may result in undesirable effect on an electronic system, so to maintaining a steady constant voltage is necessary according to the voltage requirement of a system. Let us assume a condition when a simple light emitting diode can take a max of 3V to the max, what happens if the voltage input exceeds 3V ?, of course the diode will burn out. This is also common with all electronic components like, leds, capacitors, diodes etc. The slightest increase in voltage may result in the failure of entire system by damaging the other components too. For avoiding Damage in such situations voltage regulator are used for regulated power supply.

Fig.3.11 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC CIRCUIT

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3.1.6 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits.Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

In crystal oscillators, the usual electrical resonant circuit is replaced by a mechanically vibrating crystal. The crystal (usually quartz) has a high degree of stability in holding constant at whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to operate. The crystal oscillators are, therefore,

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used whenever great stability is needed, for example, in communication transmitters, and receivers, digital clocks etc. A quartz crystal exhibits a very important property known as piezo-electric effect. When a mechanical pressure is applied across the faces of the crystal, a voltage proportional to the applied mechanical pressure appears across the crystal. Conversely, when a voltage is applied across the crystal surfaces, the crystal is distorted by an amount proportional to the applied voltage. An alternating voltage applied to a crystal causes it to vibrate at its natural frequency. Besides quartz, the other substances that exhibit the piezo-electric effect are Rochelle salt and tourmaline. Rochelle salt exhibits the greatest piezoelectric effect, but its applications are limited to manufacture of microphones, headsets and loudspeakers. It is because the Rochelle salt is mechanically the weakest and strongly affected by moisture and heat. Tourmaline is most rugged but shows the least piezo-electric effect. Quartz is a compromise between the piezoelectric effect of Rochelle salt and the mechanical strength of tourmaline. It is inexpensive and readily available in nature. It is mainly the quartz crystal that is used in radio-frequency (RF) oscillators.

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CHAPTER 4
4.1. Introduction of Layout and PCB Designing
PCB(Printed Circuit Board) is a device which connects all the electronic components in single substrate. PCB design is a software technique to draw and simulate the working of the PCB keeping all the electrical components required for our board.

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCB's can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer. Conductor on different layers is connected with plated-through holes called vias. Advanced PCB's may contain components - capacitors, resistors or active devices - embedded in the substrate. Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs are more costly to design but allow automated manufacturing and assembly. Products are then faster and cheaper to manufacture, and potentially more reliable. When the board has only copper connections and no embedded components it is more correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Although more accurate, the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly (CCA), for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used informally both for bare and assembled boards.

4.2 DESIGN
Printed circuit board artwork generation was initially a fully manual process done on clear Mylar sheets at a scale of usually 2 or 4 times the desired size. The schematic diagram was first

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converted into a layout of components pin pads, then traces were routed to provide the required interconnections. Pre-printed non-reproducing mylar grids assisted in layout, and rub-on dry transfers of common arrangements of circuit elements (pads, contact fingers, integrated circuit profiles, and so on) helped standardize the layout. Traces between devices were made with selfadhesive tape. The finished layout "artwork" was then photographically reproduced on the resist layers of the blank coated copper-clad boards.

Fig.5.1 PCB Layout

4.3 Manufacturing Process

Subtractive methods remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board: 1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may be conductive, printed on a blank (non-conductive) board. The latter technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits. 2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and developer to selectively remove a photoresist coating. The remaining photoresist protects the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper.

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3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is extracted from files generated in PCB design software and stored in HPGL or Gerber file format.

4.4 Chemical Etching

Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium per sulfate or ferric chloride. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of electro less deposition are done after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away. The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride. Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production rates. As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper, with some as high as 150 grams of copper per litre of solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the dissolved copper recovered and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal content.

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The etchant removes copper on all surfaces exposed by the resist. "Undercut" occurs when etchant attacks the thin edge of copper under the resist; this can reduce conductor widths and cause open-circuits. Careful control of etch time is required to prevent undercut. Where metallic plating is used as a resist, it can "overhang" which can cause short-circuits between adjacent traces when closely spaced. Overhang can be removed by wire-brushing the board after etching.

4.5 Transmitter Layout

Fig.4.2 Layout Of Transmitter

4.6 Receiver Layout

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Fig.4.3 Layout Of Receiver

4.7 Line Follower Layout

Line-following robots with pick-and-placement capabilities are commonly used in manufacturing plants. These move on a specified path to pick the components from specified locations and place them on desired locations.

Basically, a line-following robot is a self-operating robot that detects and follows a line drawn on the floor. The path to be taken is indicated by a white line on a black surface. The control system used must sense the line and manoeuvre the robot to stay on course while constantly correcting the wrong moves using feedback mechanism, thus forming a simple yet effective closed-loop system.

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Fig.4.4 Simulation Circuitry Of Industrial Cum Medical Purpose Robot.

The source program for the project is written in Assembly language and assembled using Metalinks ASM51 assembler, which is freely available on the Internet for download. It is well commented for easy understanding and works as per the flow-chart. The hex file robot.hex is to be burnt into the microcontroller.

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Fig.4.5 Flow Chart Of Robot.

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CHAPTER 5 FUTURE SCOPE

5.1. Future Scope and Applications
Robotics is the art and commerce of robots, their design, manufacture, application, and practical use. Robots will soon be everywhere, in our home and at work. They will change the way we live. This will raise many philosophical, social, and political questions that will have to be answered. In science fiction, robots become so intelligent that they decide to take over the world because humans are deemed inferior. In real life, however, they might not choose to do that. Robots might follow rules such as Asimovs Three Laws of Robotics, that will prevent them from doing so. When the Singularity happens, robots will be indistinguishable from human beings and some people may become Cyborgs: half man and half machine. Table of Contents [show] 1 Social Impact 1.1 Minimal requirements 2 Types of Robots 3 Applications 4 Home Applications 5 Medical Applications 6 Military applications 7 Technical challenges 8 Timeline 9 Robotics in 2020 10 See also 11 Links 12 References edit Social Impact Given that in the next two decades robots will be capable of replacing humans in most manufacturing and service jobs, economic development will be primarily determined by the advancement of robotics. Given Japan's current strength in this field, it may well become the economic leader in the next 20 years (part 1, part 2). Marshall Brain also discusses the emergence of robotic economy.

i.

Caterpillar plans to develop remote controlled machines and expects to develop fully autonomous heavy robots by 2021. Some cranes already are remote controlled.

ii. iii.

It was demonstrated that a robot can perform a herding task. Robots are increasingly used in manufacturing (since 1960s). In the auto industry they can amount for more than half of the "labor". There are even "lights off" factories such as an IBM keyboard manufacturing factory in Texas that is 100% automated.

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iv.

Robots such as HOSPI are used as couriers in hospitals, etc. Other hospital tasks performed by robots are receptionists, guides and porters helpers, (not to

mention surgical robot helpers such as Da Vinci)

v.

Robots can serve as waiters and cooks.

5.1.1. Future Development

5.1.1.1 Technological trends Various techniques have emerged to develop the science of robotics and robots. One method is evolutionary robotics, in which a number of differing robots are submitted to tests. Those which perform best are used as a model to create a subsequent "generation" of robots. Another method is developmental robotics, which tracks changes and development within a single robot in the areas of problem-solving and other functions. 5.1.1.2 Technological development Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much technological research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the Trade Ministry. As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating system designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating System is an open-source set of programs being developed at Stanford University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Technical University of Munich, Germany, among others. ROS provides ways to program a robot's navigation and limbs regardless of the specific hardware involved. It also provides highlevel commands for items like image recognition and even opening doors. When ROS boots up on a robot's computer, it would obtain data on attributes such as the length and movement of robots' limbs. It would relay this data to higher-level algorithms. Microsoft is also developing a "Windows for robots" system with its Robotics Developer Studio, which has been available since 2007. 5.1.1.3 New functions and abilities The Caterpillar Company is making a dump truck which can drive itself without any human operator.

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Many future applications of robotics seem obvious to people, even though they are well beyond the capabilities of robots available at the time of the prediction. As early as 1982 people were confident that someday robots would: 1. clean parts by removing molding flash 2. spray paint automobiles with absolutely no human presence 3. pack things in boxesfor example, orient and nest chocolate candies in candy boxes 4. make electrical cable harness 5. Load trucks with boxesa packing problem 6. handle soft goods, such as garments and shoes 7. shear sheep 8. prosthesis 9. cook fast food and work in other service industries 10. household robot.

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CHAPTER 6 APPLICATION
6.1 Advantages
i. The use of robotics is widely spread in the 21st century. There is not a single sector that doesn't use robotic systems in carrying out technical processes. Robotic systems have come a long way since their invention, and are getting more and more advanced. They can perform flawless work in very less time. They have many advantages that contribute to various factors such as time,quality,safety,etc. ii. Robotic systems have the capability of impressively meliorating the quality of work. They don't make any mistakes and errors as humans do. This saves a lot of important output and production time. They provide optimum output in regards to quality as well as quantity. In the medical field, they are used to carry out complicated surgeries which are very difficult for doctors and surgeons to perform. In the industrial sector they prevent any errors in the production of goods. iii. If robots are used for production purposes, the throughput speed rises, which directly has an effect on production. They have the capability to work at a constant speed without the need to take short breaks, sleeps, vacations, and some other time-spending factors. Moreover, they have the potential to produce considerably more than a human worker. iv. The use of robotic systems in the industrial sector is a necessity nowadays, as more and more products are to be manufactured in a very less time, and that too with high-quality and accuracy. Big industrial manufacturing giants have robotic systems that work 24/7. Such systems can even do the work of approximately 100 or more human workers at a time.

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v.

Car and electronic manufacturing companies mostly make use of such automated systems. They employ robotic systems in several testing and assembling procedures which would be difficult and time-consuming for human workers to carry out. Robotic arms are a simple example of such technologies. They also may be utilized for robotic painting and robotic welding jobs. Robotic packaging machinery is used in companies which manufacture daily-use products.

vi.

Robotic systems have also proven to play a very important role in the medicinal and surgical sector, be it in manufacturing medicines and drugs or carrying out simple tasks in specific surgeries. However, robots don't perform the whole procedure in surgeries, but certainly assist the surgeons to perform the task accurately. A surgeon may use a 'robotics surgery coordinator' to perform a surgery without making big incisions, and also in lesser time than normal. The use of robotics in nursing is increasing due to the shortage of efficient manpower. Moreover, a robot may be used in performing an unmanned operation which is known as a robotic surgery.

vii.

Nowadays, robots that can perform house duties are also being manufactured. However, the technology of house robots is not being used commercially. Some examples include robotic pool cleaners and robotic vacuum cleaners. Robotics programming is a way of feeding information into the robots regarding what tasks are to be performed and how. After more development in this field, the use of robots in household may be common. Scientists are working on technologies that can be incorporated in future robotic pets, which can enable the pets to better mingle with families, and also provide care and protection.

viii.

Future robotics systems may come up with benefits that we can't even imagine of. In many films, the robotic hand has been showed, who knows it may become a reality in the near future. The advantages of robotics are certainly predicted to grow in several other fields over time.

6.2 Disadvantages
There are several disadvantages for robots. The main one is that robots are expensive to build and maintain. Another disadvantage is that they have limited duties as they will only do what is programmed and cannot think for themselves. A robot can have problems and not be able to fix

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that problem, since it's not programmed to do that. Robots create massive job losses and usually require more. i. ii. iii. The main disadvantages of automation are: Causing unemployment and poverty by replacing human labor. Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have a limited level of intelligence, and is therefore more susceptible to committing errors outside of its immediate scope of knowledge (e.g., it is typically unable to apply the rules of simple logic to general propositions). iv. Unpredictable/excessive development costs: The research and development cost of automating a process may exceed the cost saved by the automation itself. v. High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant typically requires a very large initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of automation may be spread among many products and over time.

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CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION
1. Tongue Drive system (TDS) is a tongue-operated unobtrusive wireless assistive technology, 2. which can potentially provide people with severe disabilities with effective computer access and environment control. It translates users intentions into control commands by detecting andclassifying their voluntary tongue motion utilizing a small permanent magnet, secured On the tongue,and an array of magnetic sensors mounted on a headset outside the mouth or an orthodontic braceinside. 3. The main aim of this project is to design and construct a tongue controlled robot and deviceswitching wirelessly using RF technology. This device is portable and this system operation isentirely driven by wireless technology. The user can control the Robot directions with the simple tongue movement 4. .The control system consists of magnetic sensor and microcontroller. Microcontroller collects data from the sensor and transmits the encoded data through the RF transmitter. At receiver end RF receiver receives the data through the decoder and fed as input to the micro controller. The controller performs the corresponding actions i.e., Robot movement.

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REFERENCES
www.google.com www.wekipedia.com www.roboticworld.com www.IEEE.com www.naturalpowersource.com

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