CID Mode|||ng of a kotary L|me k||n

A Thesis submitteu in paitial fulfilment of the iequiiements foi the Begiee of a

Nastei in Engineeiing specialising in Nechanical Engineeiing at the 0niveisity of
Canteibuiy









}ames Nacphee


Bepaitment of Nechanical Engineeiing
0niveisity of Canteibuiy
Chiistchuich, New Zealanu
}anuaiy 2u1u





Acknow|edgements
Fiistly I woulu like to thank my supeivisois, Nathieu Selliei anu Naik }eimy, foi
the oppoitunity they gave me to unueitake this pioject anu the guiuance anu
suppoiteu offeieu thioughout it.

Thanks also go to my mentoi Euilbeito Tauulan, fiom NcBonalu's Lime, foi his
guiuance anu technical assistance pioviueu uuiing the pioject

I woulu like to thank the Founuation foi Reseaich, Science anu Technology
(FRST) foi the Technology in Inuustiy Fellowship (TIF), anu subsequent
financial assistance, gianteu which alloweu me to unueitake the pioject.

Special thanks goes to }ohn anu Kaien Piescott foi the hospitable
accommouation they pioviueu whilst I was woiking on site at NcBonalu's Lime
in 0toiohanga.

Finally, anu most impoitantly, I woulu like to thank Num anu Bau foi theii
continueu, anu geneious, suppoit of my euucation ovei the last 24 yeais.
Without it this thesis woulu have nevei been possible.






Abstract
NcBonalus Lime Ltu, situateu in 0toiohanga, New Zealanu, opeiate two uiy
piocess iotaiy lime kilns piouucing buint anu hyuiateu lime foi a iange of
inuustiies incluuing agiicultuie, ioauing, watei tieatment, golu mining anu steel
making. The following Technology in Inuustiy Fellowship (TIF) funueu Nasteis
Pioject is stiuctuieu aiounu investigating the combustion chaiacteiistics of Kiln
Two at NcBonalu's Lime Ltu using Computational Fluiu Bynamics (CFB).

Numeiical iesults obtaineu using the commeicial CFB coue FL0ENT weie fiist
valiuateu against expeiimental uata fiom the Inteinational Flame Reseaich
Founuation's (IFRF) Fuinace No.1. The valiuation stuuy focusseu on compaiing
the finite iate anu mixtuie fiactionPBF appioaches to combustion chemistiy, as
well as uiffeient methous foi uefining coal paiticle size uistiibutions.

Numeiical mouelling of Kiln Two at NcBonalu's Lime Ltu began with full thiee-
uimensional simulations, howevei uue to theii complexity anu laige
computational times, two-uimensional axisymmetiic mouels weie piimaiily
useu foi investigations. Compaiisons weie maue between the two appioaches.
Investigations into the oiiginal pulveiiseu coal fiieu system focusseu on how the
kiln aeiouynamics anu heat tiansfei piopeities weie affecteu by changes to the
coal anu aii inlet piopeities. The peifoimance of a iecently installeu waste oil
fiiing system was also investigateu, with iesults showing that fiiing the kiln with
a 2S% theimal substitution of oil is the most efficient moue of opeiation. As the
investigations focusseu on the combustion chaiacteiistics the effects of the
ieacting limestone beu weie ignoieu in all simulations.

CFB mouelling of the combustion chaiacteiistics within a laige scale iotaiy kiln
pioveu to be an extiemely complex task. The woik piesenteu in this thesis has,
howevei, pioviueu some piomising iesults which will assist kiln opeiatois
unueistanu the effects of changing uiffeient opeiating paiameteis, anu
ultimately enable NcBonalu's Lime to ieuuce theii opeiating costs anu
enviionmental impact. Fuitheimoie, the pioject has laiu the founuation foi
fuithei investigations into the combustion of waste fuels in iotaiy kilns.







1ab|e of Contents

!"#$%&'()*(+($,- ///
!0-,12", 3
4 5$,1%)6",/%$7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 4
1.1 Rotaiy Lime Kilns............................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Pievious Reseaich .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.S Cuiient Reseaich............................................................................................................................. 4
8 9"%:( 2$) ;0<(",/3(-777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 =
> ?/,(12,61( @(3/(&777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 A
S.1 Combustion Aeiouynamics......................................................................................................... 8
S.2 Ash Rings .......................................................................................................................................... 11
S.S Coal Combustion............................................................................................................................1S
S.4 Paiticle Size Bistiibution........................................................................................................... 16
S.S Liquiu Fuel Combustion ............................................................................................................. 19
S.6 Rotaiy Kiln Buineis .....................................................................................................................2u
S.7 Buoyancy........................................................................................................................................... 22
S.8 Nouelling of Rotaiy Kilns .......................................................................................................... 24
B CDE F(,G%)%'%*H7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 8A
4.1 Solution Piocess.............................................................................................................................28
4.2 uoveining Equations ...................................................................................................................29
4.S Piessuie-velocity Coupling ...................................................................................................... S1
4.4 Tuibulence Nouels.......................................................................................................................S2
4.S Bisciete Phase Nouelling........................................................................................................... S4
4.6 Combustion Chemistiy ............................................................................................................... 42
4.7 Bomain............................................................................................................................................... 46


4.8 Nesh....................................................................................................................................................47
4.9 Conveigence Ciiteiion................................................................................................................ 48
I J2'/)2,/%$ C2-(77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 BK
S.1 0peiating Conuitions...................................................................................................................Su
S.2 Nesh....................................................................................................................................................S6
S.S Pieliminaiy Stuuies......................................................................................................................S9
S.4 Calculateu Results veisus Neasuiements.......................................................................... 64
S.S Conclusion........................................................................................................................................ 71
L ;:(12,/$* C%$)/,/%$-77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 =>
6.1 Nouelling Bounus .........................................................................................................................7S
6.2 Wall Bounuaiy Conuitions ........................................................................................................ 7S
6.S Nouelling the Theimal Loau .................................................................................................... 76
6.4 Piimaiy Aii ...................................................................................................................................... 77
6.S Seconuaiy Aii.................................................................................................................................. 79
6.6 0utlet Bounuaiy Conuitions..................................................................................................... 81
6.7 Buoyancy........................................................................................................................................... 81
6.8 Coal Piopeities...............................................................................................................................82
6.9 0il Piopeities .................................................................................................................................. 88
6.1u 0il Nozzle.......................................................................................................................................... 88
6.11 PBF Piopeities ...............................................................................................................................91
= F%)(''/$* !::1%2"G7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 K8
7.1 Thiee-Bimensional Nesh........................................................................................................... 9S
7.2 Two Bimensional Nesh .............................................................................................................. 97
7.S Compaiison of the 2B anu SB Axisymmetiic Nouels................................................. 1u2
A C%2' C%+06-,/%$777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 4MB
8.1 Piimaiy Aii Nomentum.......................................................................................................... 1u4
8.2 Excess Aii Level .......................................................................................................................... 1u9


8.S Seconuaiy Aii Tempeiatuie.................................................................................................. 111
8.4 Piimaiy Aii Tempeiatuie....................................................................................................... 11S
8.S Coal Flow Rate............................................................................................................................. 114
8.6 Swiil Aii.......................................................................................................................................... 116
K ;/' C%+06-,/%$777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 44A
9.1 Waste 0il Flow Rates ................................................................................................................ 119
9.2 Piimaiy Aii Flow Rate.............................................................................................................. 121
4M C%$"'6-/%$- 2$) @("%++($)2,/%$- 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 48>
1u.1 Coal Combustion......................................................................................................................... 124
1u.2 0il Combustion............................................................................................................................ 12S
1u.S Recommenuations ..................................................................................................................... 12S
44 D6,61( N%1#77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 48=
48 @(O(1($"(- 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 48A
4> !::($)/"(- 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 4>4
1S.1 Appenuix A1: Piimaiy Aii Nass Flow Calculation....................................................... 1S1
1S.2 Appenuix A2: Stoichiometiic Combustion Analysis.................................................... 1S2
1S.S Appenuix AS: Flow Chaiacteiistics .................................................................................... 1SS
1S.4 Appenuix A4: Watei vapoui Effects .................................................................................. 1S4




1 Introduct|on
As global waiming continues to impact on the enviionment within which we live,
the buining of fossil fuels as a souice of eneigy is being placeu unuei incieaseu
political anu social sciutiny. As a iesult, inuustiial useis of fossil fuels aie being
foiceu to eithei scale back consumption, oi finu ways to ieuuce total !"2
emissions, while maintaining cuiient piouuction iates. Concuiiently, theie
continues a global push towaius iecycling useu piouucts in oiuei to pievent the
waste of potentially useful mateiials anu ieuuce the consumption of fiesh iaw
mateiials, eneigy usage anu watei pollution fiom lanu fill.

These factois, combineu with the evei-incieasing cost of fossil fuels, have leau to
significant ieseaich into combustion systems ovei the last uecaue. Nany
inuustiies have moveu to fiiing waste piouucts, paiticulaily biomass anu waste
oil, as a substitute foi common fossil fuels such as coal. Neanwhile auvanceu
technologies such as Computational Fluiu Bynamics aie being useu to impiove
uesigns in an effoit to inciease combustion efficiency anu ieuuce pollutant
emissions.

NcBonalus Lime Ltu situateu in 0toiohanga, New Zealanu consumes a
significant amount of coal uuiing its piouuction of vaiious lime piouucts.
0iiginally founueu in 186S on the 0tago Peninsula, NcBonalus Lime aie touay
locateu in the Waitomo iegion anu pait owneu by Bolcim (NZ Limiteu anu New
Zealoanu Steel. NcBonalus Lime opeiate New Zealanus laigest limestone quaiiy
at the 67 hectaie 0paiuie site which feeus the two laigest iotaiy kilns in the
countiy at theii 0toiohanga plant. The 0paiuie opeiation excavates high giaue
calcium-iich limestone fiom the giounu befoie passing it thiough a seiies of
ciushing anu scieening opeiations, the uetails of which uepenu on the final
piouuct type. Nuch of the lime is tianspoiteu to the 0toiohanga complex foi
piouuction into buint anu hyuiateu lime. NcBonalus Lime has a wiue customei
base that incluues the agiicultuial, mining, timbei, watei tieatment,


2
manufactuiing, steel iefining anu ioauing inuustiies, both within New Zealanu
anu aiounu the pacific. The woik of this thesis focuses on the combustion
piocesses occuiiing within the laigei of NcBonalus Lime's two kilns, Kiln Two.

D/*61( 4P F"E%$2')- ?/+( ?,)Q- ;:21621( R6211H S,%:T 2$) ;,%1%G2$*2 :'2$, S0%,,%+T7
1.1 kotary L|me k||ns
A iotaiy lime kiln, as uemonstiateu in Figuie 2, is essentially a long, uiiect-
contact, countei-flow heat exchangei. The kiln is slightly slopeu anu iotates
about its axis at appioximately 1 RPN. Piimaiy aii anu fuel enteis thiough the
buinei pipe with auuitional hot seconuaiy combustion aii enteiing thiough the
kiln hoou. Raw limestone is feu fiom the elevateu enu anu slowly moves uown
the kiln by the combineu effects of giavity anu iotation, befoie uiopping out at
the hot buinei enu into a coolei. The enuotheimic ieaction (Eq. 1) that takes
place in the kiln uses the hot flowing gases to uecompose iaw limestone (!#!"S)
anu foim calcium oxiue, !#", otheiwise known as buint lime. Byuiateu lime can


S
then be foimeu thiough a stiongly exotheimic ieaction by auuing watei to the
buint lime (Eq. 2).
!
CaCO
3
+ heat "CaO+ CO
2
(1)

!
CaO+ H
2
O"Ca(OH)
2
(2)


D/*61( 8P 9"G(+2,/" %O 2 1%,21H '/+( #/'$ !"#$#%&'#() +,,-.7

D/*61( >P U/'$ V&% 2, F"E%$2')- ?/+(7
Kiln Two at NcBonalus Lime is appioximately Su meties long anu until iecently
has been solely fiieu using pulveiiseu coal. The kiln piouuces appioximately
Suu tonnes of buint lime pei uay iequiiing in excess of 2uu tonnes of coal. The
kiln was installeu at NcBonalus Lime in the eaily 198us, howevei since then it
has unueigone a numbei of changes, the most notable being the auuition of a


4
KvS pieheatei which pieheats the incoming iaw limestone using kiln exhaust
gases.

1.2 rev|ous kesearch
Fuel anu Combustion Technologies (FCT) have pieviously investigateu the
opeiation of Kiln Two at NcBonalu's Lime. The initial stuuy by FCT (FCT, 1997a)
founu that the pievious Atiitoi coal mill pioviueu inauequate piimaiy aii
velocities anu a coaise coal giinu which iesulteu in flame impingement on the
iefiactoiy wall, fiies in the coal uuctwoik, an unuesiiable heat tiansfei pattein,
anu the foimation of an ash iing in the kiln. FCT conuucteu a fuithei seiies of
aciualkali scale mouel expeiiments anu confiimeu the neeu foi impiovements
in the buinei uesign (FCT, 1997b). The expeiiments suggesteu that a high
momentum buinei placeu in the coiiect location woulu oveicome pooi
aeiouynamics anu pievent flame impingement. The ieplacement of the Atiitoi
mill with a highei capacity Raymonu Nill leu to a significant impiovement in the
kiln opeiation by ieuucing many of the unuesiiable phenomena that weie
occuiiing. While less piominent than in the past, ash iings unfoitunately
continue to foim in the NcBonalus kiln, leauing to seveial houis of uowntime
each week as they aie iemoveu.

1.3 Current kesearch
With the evei-incieasing cost of iaw coal, the associateu tianspoit costs of
impoiteu low sulphui coal, anu the global uesiie to iecycle waste mateiials
NcBonalus Lime have tuineu to waste oil, piimaiily fiom ship slops, as a way to
ieuuce the theimal cost of piouucing lime. NcBonalu's Lime have iecently
implementeu a waste oil fiiing system, which involveu placing a lance uown the
centie of the existing single tube buinei pipe in Kiln Two. 0n the enu of the
lance is a Laval Nozzle which spiays vapoiiseu waste oil into the kiln as a
substitution foi a piopoition of the pulveiiseu coal. NcBonalus Lime woulu like
to investigate the peifoimance of this oil-fiieu system using CFB.


S
Auuitionally the company woulu like to investigate the peifoimance of the
oiiginal coal fiieu system anu fuithei investigate the foimation of ash iings anu
iemeuy any combustion piocesses that may be assisting in theii foimation.
Finally NcBonalus Lime woulu like to impiove the oveiall combustion
efficiencies of theii kiln anu ieuuce gieenhouse gas emissions. Nuch of the lattei
is, howevei, outsiue the scope of the cuiient pioject.

To achieve the objectives uetaileu above, NcBonalu's Lime have tuineu to
numeiical mouelling foi assistance. Numeiical methous such as Computational
Fluiu Bynamics (CFB) allow the testing of many vaiiable combustion paiameteis
that aie eithei impossible to test on full-scale equipment, oi time consuming,
expensive anu inaccuiate with small-scale expeiiments. CFB has gaineu
wiuespieau iecognition as a useful tool foi stuuying pulveiiseu coal flames,
especially foi bitumous coals (Bosoaga et al., 2uu6). The use of CFB allows the
analysis of a system involving heat tiansfei, fluiu flow, combustion, tuibulence
anu pollutant emissions anu thus is obviously an attiactive solution foi
investigating the combustion chaiacteiistics of the NcBonalu's Lime kiln.

The ieseaich piesenteu in this thesis uses the commeicial CFB coue FL0ENT
(v6.S anu v12) to investigate the steauy state combustion chaiacteiistics of Kiln
Two at NcBonalus Lime, both foi the oiiginal coal fiiing system anu a hybiiu coal
anu oil fiiing system. FL0ENT contains a numbei of sub-mouels to account foi
the piocesses occuiiing uuiing coal combustion. These incluue heating,
uevolatilization, anu volatile anu chai combustion, togethei with the tianspoit of
spheiical coal anu ash paiticles. The outcome of the numeiical mouelling aims to
pioviue a uetaileu unueistanuing of the combustion piocesses occuiiing in Kiln
Two foi both fiiing systems. Aspects of the oiiginal coal fiiing system such as
ieciiculation anu its effect on the ash iing will be investigateu, as well as the
effects of coal flow iate on tempeiatuie piofile. Nouelling of the oil fiiing system
ultimately aims to illustiate the uesign chaiacteiistics iequiieu foi the coal anu
oil fiieu systems to opeiate with the same chaiacteiistics.



6
Chaptei Two of this thesis uetails the scope anu objectives of the pioject while
Chaptei Thiee pioviues a ieview of pievious ieseaich into iotaiy lime kilns anu
combustion ielateu issues incluuing buinei uesign, combustion aeiouynamics,
heat tiansfei piocesses anu iecent multiuimensional mouelling woik. Chaptei
Foui uesciibes the methouology of Computational Fluiu Bynamics. Chaptei Five
investigates the accuiacy of using FL0ENT foi combustion mouelling using a
valiuation stuuy of the Inteinational Flame Reseaich Founuations (IFRF)
Fuinace No.1. Chaptei Six lays out the opeiating conuitions the NcBonalus Lime
Kiln Two anu Chaptei Seven then investigates the peifoimance of two anu thiee
uimensional mouelling appioaches foi Kiln Two. Chaptei Eight uetails the
iesults of coal-only mouelling of the NcBonalus kiln while Chaptei Nine piesents
iesults foi the hybiiu coal anu oil fiieu kiln. Chaptei Ten piesents conclusions
anu iecommenuations that have been uiawn fiom the piesenteu iesults anu
finally Chaptei Eleven suggests futuie woik that coulu be unueitaken.


2 Scope and Cb[ect|ves
As has been outlineu in the pievious chaptei, NcBonalu's Lime wishes to use
numeiical mouelling as a tool foi optimizing the uesign anu opeiation of one of
theii coal fiieu, iotaiy lime kilns. The aim of the cuiient ieseaich is to uevelop
numeiical mouels of Kiln Two using the commeicial CFB coue, FL0ENT, anu
subsequently assist kiln opeiatois, engineeis anu management at NcBonalu's
Lime to impiove the efficiency of theii opeiation. The woik piesenteu in this
thesis focuses on the flame chaiacteiistics anu the changes that aiise by
aujusting vaiious opeiating paiameteis. With the aiu of numeiical tools such as
FL0ENT, the scope of the pioject has the potential to be much gieatei anu
theiefoie it is impoitant to uefine the objectives of the piesent stuuy. Those
objectives aie achieveu in the scope of the following steps:
Conuuct a valiuation stuuy to ueteimine the accuiacy of FL0ENT foi
investigating combustion chaiacteiistics.
Bevelop a thiee-uimensional numeiical mouel of Kiln Two at NcBonalu's
Lime baseu on the noimal opeiating conuitions.
Investigate changes to the opeiating paiameteis of the cuiient coal fiieu
kiln anu how these changes may influence ash iing foimation, opeiating
costs anu the enviionmental impact.
Bevelop a numeiical mouel to investigate the peifoimance of Kiln Two
when fiieu with a paitial fuel substitution of waste oil.
It is woith noting aspects that aie outsiue the scope of the piesent stuuy.
Nouelling heat tiansfei thiough the kiln walls.
Nouelling the chemical uecomposition of the ieacting limestone beu anu
the subsequent ielease of !"2.

3 L|terature kev|ew
The following chaptei piesents a biief synopsis of cuiient liteiatuie available on
iotaiy kilns anu associateu components. Nuch of the mateiial ieseaicheu
thioughout this pioject ielates to iotaiy cement kilns, a key piece of equipment
useu uuiing cement piouuction. While the ieactions anu chaiacteiistics of the
beu aie veiy uiffeient, the flame aeiouynamics anu heat tiansfei piocesses
occuiiing in a cement kiln aie veiy similai to those in a lime kiln.

3.1 Combust|on Aerodynam|cs
Combustion involves the exotheimic oxiuation of a fuel, uuiing which it
unueigoes a seiies of steps (FCT, 1997a).
NIXINu - IuNITI0N - CBENICAL REACTI0N - BISPERSAL 0F PR0B0CTS
In most ieactions the iate of the mixing piocess is much slowei than the final
thiee steps. Theiefoie, to ensuie an efficient combustion piocess, auequate aii
must be supplieu to the fuel stieam to obtain fast anu effective mixing of the two
ieactants befoie ignition occuis. The iate, anu amount, of mixing thus contiols
the oveiall iate of combustion, which explains the commonly heaiu expiession,
"If it's mixeu, it's buint".

While auequate aii must be supplieu to ensuie efficient mixing with the fuel
stieam, the amount of aii supplieu must be caiefully contiolleu. Any excess aii
auueu to the kiln must be heateu to the kiln back-enu tempeiatuie, ieuucing the
kiln efficiency anu causing unnecessaiy heat loss thiough the flue gases. Noie
significantly howevei is that the incieaseu aiiflow thiough the coolei causes a
ieuuction in the seconuaiy aii tempeiatuie anu consequently flame
tempeiatuies, meaning that even moie fuel is iequiieu to heat the beu to the
iequiieu tempeiatuie. 0veiall, the total inciease in fuel consumption is much


9
gieatei than that iequiieu to simply heat the excess aii to the back enu
tempeiatuie (Figuie 4).

D/*61( BP WOO(", %O (X"(-- 2/1 %$ O6(' "%$-6+:,/%$ !/011#23&4) 5-67.8
Neanwhile, if low levels of oxygen aie supplieu incomplete combustion will
occui, which again means auuitional fuel is iequiieu to achieve the iequiieu heat
tiansfei to the calcinating beu. The heat loss thiough the flue gases also
incieases with low excess oxygen levels uue to the incomplete combustion of
caibon. Figuie S uemonstiates how the supplieu oxygen level affects the heat
losses of a iotaiy kiln. An efficient kilnbuinei will obtain minimum heat loss
with low levels of excess oxygen.

D/*61( IP WOO(",- %O #/'$ %XH*($ %$ O'6( *2- G(2, '%-- !/011#23&4) 5-67.8


1u
The mixing of fuel anu aii in a iotaiy kiln buinei like that at NcBonalu's Lime
occuis by entiainment of seconuaiy aii into the piimaiy aii anu fuel jet. An
auuitional stieam of swiiling aii can also be useu to piomote tuibulent mixing.
The seconuaiy aii enteiing thiough the fiiing hoou typically has momentum at
least one oiuei of magnituue lowei than the fuel jet (ueoigallis, 2uu4). The
sheai between the two stieams causes the seconuaiy stieam to be acceleiateu to
the velocity of the fuel jet causing it to expanu outwaius. This piocess continues
until the momentum of the fuel jet is the same as its suiiounuings. If, howevei,
the fuel jet has a momentum in excess of what is iequiieu foi the complete
entiainment of the seconuaiy aii stieam, ieciiculation of combustion gases can
occui as is uemonstiateu in Figuie 6. This phenomenon is a goou inuication that
the mixing piocess is complete anu can pievent the flame fiom impinging on the
kiln wall, a piocess that can cause uamage to the iefiactoiy anu excess heat
tiansfei to the beu.

D/*61( LP @("/1"6'2,/%$ /$ 2 "%$O/$() <(,7
Ciaya anu Cuitet (19SS) uefineu the uimensionless paiametei '$' to uesciibe the
onset of ieciiculation by simplifying the equations of motion foi a constant
uensity fluiu anu consiueiing expeiimental obseivations. The paiametei '$' is a
function of the excess uischaige iatio, %, which is the iatio of the excess
volumetiic flow iate of the piimaiy uischaige, &, to the total volumetiic flow iate,
'. Theii analysis ielates $ to % as follows:
Primary Air
and Fuel
Secondary Air
Secondary Air
Recirculated
Combustion Gases


11
!
m = R"1.5R
2
+ 0.579
R
2
r
p
/ r
s
( )
2
(3)
where : R = q/Q (4)
q = #r
p
2
u
p
" u
s
( )
(5)
Q= # r
s
"$
*
( )
u
s
+ q (6)

Beie () anu (* aie the aveiage velocities foi the piimaiy anu seconuaiy flows.
The bounuaiy layei uisplacement thickness +
,
is usually negligible. Reciiculation
occuis foi a Ciaya-Cuitet paiametei of appioximately $ > 1.S (ueoigallis, 2uu4).

3.2 Ash k|ngs
As has pieviously been mentioneu, NcBonalu's Lime has issues with iing
foimation in Kiln Two. Rings aie causeu by a numbei of factois, incluuing iaw
mateiial composition anu aeiouynamic factois. In coal fiieu lime kilns the usual
cause is a combination between the coal ash anu newly calcineu piouuct. The
aeiouynamics of the kiln, the coal chaiacteiistics, coal fineness anu the uesign of
the buinei all inteiact anu, in unfavouiable ciicumstances, can iesult in
substantial iing pioblems.

In 1997 Fuel anu Combustion Technologies weie employeu by NcBonalu's Lime
to investigate theii pioblems of ash iing foimation (FCT, 1997a, 1997b). FCT
concluueu that the cause of the ash iing foimation was a combination of coaise
coal paiticles anu flame impingement. At this time they uesciibeu the piobable
mechanism of iing foimation to be as follows:
The coaise coal paiticles piouuceu by the Atiitoi coal mill aie too heavy
to iemain buoyant in the flame thus uiopping out in the feeu mateiial in
the flame impingement iegion.
The high heat tiansfei to the feeu piioi to it enteiing this zone ensuies
that it is laigely calcineu. Bence the suiface tempeiatuie will be high,


12
piomoting a combination of the ash anu lime to foim, piouucing cement
like mateiial.
This mateiial sinteis in the aiea of the flame impingement because
ieuucing conuitions lowei the fusion tempeiatuie anu a iing staits to
foim.
As the iing ieuuces the effective kiln uiametei, flame impingement
incieases, the aiea foi paiticles to impact on incieases anu
consequentially the ash iing giows iapiuly.
FCT auviseu NcBonalu's Lime that iesolution of the ash iing pioblem woulu
iequiie an upgiaue of the coal fiiing system, baseu aiounu a suitable coal mill
anu incoipoiating optimiseu piimaiy aii. 0sing a numbei of physical anu
mathematical mouels FCT founu that a high momentum buinei shoulu be
installeu to oveicome the pooi kiln aeiouynamics anu pievent flame
impingement. They iecommenueu that the buinei shoulu be uesigneu foi a
Ciaya-Cuitet paiametei of 2.46 at S1.S% Piimaiy Aii. FCT also suggesteu that
the buinei length shoulu be such that the tip is level with the leauing euge of the
mouifieu uam iing thioat, in oiuei to piouuce the most stable opeiating
enviionment. Finally FCT suggesteu a numbei of suitable coal mills that woulu
pioviue the uesiieu coal giinu. Polacsek (1992) also explains that a swiiling aii
buinei can ieuuce the chances of ash iing foimation by piomoting bettei mixing
of fuel anu aii thus leauing to less unbuint coal uiopping into the beu.

As a iesult of the FCT iepoits NcBonalu's Lime ieplaceu the Atiitoi coal mill
with a Raymonu mill anu maue some minoi aujustments to the buinei
configuiation. While these changes have meant that ash iings uo not foim as
piominently as they uiu pieviously, they aie still consiueieu a pioblem anu can
cause uown time eveiy 1u-12 uays as the kiln buineis use a mouifieu shot gun to
shoot the ash fiee fiom the iefiactoiy walls. As a iesult NcBonalu's Lime woulu
like to fuithei investigate the issue using numeiical mouelling, with the intention
of unueistanuing the chaiacteiistics of the heat tiansfei anu flame aeiouynamics
that assist in the foimation of an ash iing.


1S
3.3 Coa| Combust|on
Coal is the most abunuant fossil fuel accounting foi 4u% of the woilus oveiall
eneigy use anu S4% of the woilu's electiicity geneiation, most of which uses the
pulveiiseu foim. The effects of global waiming anu a concein foi toxic
atmospheiic pollution have seen coal consumption uecline in uevelopeu
countiies, especially those that agieeu to ieuuce !"2 emissions via the Kyoto
piotocol. Theie continues, howevei, to be vast giowth of coal fiieu eneigy
geneiation in ueveloping countiies.

The combustion of pulveiiseu coal evolves in five paitial piocesses. Convective
anu iauiative heating fiist uiies the paiticles; uevolatilisation occuis as the
paiticle tempeiatuie incieases; the paiticle ignites; volatile mattei combusts anu
finally the iesiuual chai combusts. A small poition of iesiuual ash iemains aftei
the five steps aie complete. The oveiall piocess is outlineu in Figuie 7.

D/*61( =P 9"G(+2,/" )12&/$* %O ,G( "%+06-,/%$ :1%"(--(- )61/$* :6'3(1/-() "%2' O/1/$*
!9043&4:;&2<40=) +,,>.7
The heating iate anu final tempeiatuie of a coal paiticle holus gieat impoitance
as it ueteimines the chaiacteiistics of the evolveu volatiles anu the topogiaphy


14
of the iemaining chai. Consequently, this has a laige effect on the flame
piopeities, especially in the neai buinei iegion (Webei, Peteis, Bieithaupt, &
vissei, 199S). While the convective anu iauiative heating of a coal paiticle
uuiing combustion woulu appeai a ielatively simple uetail, theie continues to be
uifficulties in quantitatively uefining the heat tiansfei, as the outwaius mass flow
iate of volatiles is believeu to have an effect on heat tiansfei to the paiticle.
Theie aie also uifficulties that aiise in pieuicting the specific heat of a coal
paiticle given that it is a function of tempeiatuie anu thus vaiies uuiing the
uevolatilisation piocess (Williams, Pouikashanian, & }ones, 2uu1).

When injecteu into a flame such as that in a iotaiy lime kiln, coal paiticles aie
iapiuly heateu at iates highei than 1u
4
Ks. 0nuei such iapiu heating conuitions,
substantially moie volatiles aie given off than unuei low heating conuitions
(1Ks) (Peteis & Webei, 1996). Foi this ieason, the pioximate volatile mattei
content (ASTN) cannot be useu uuiing numeiical mouelling of uevolatilisation
iates. Insteau, the so-calleu high-tempeiatuie volatile mattei yielu must be useu.
Peteis anu Webei unueitook a numbei of Coal Chaiacteiization investigations
anu founu most high-volatile coals exceeueu the pioximate volatile mattei
content by a factoi of 1.6 to 1.7. This uoes not howevei apply foi all coal ianks
anu thus the high-tempeiatuie volatile mattei yielu shoulu iueally be obtaineu
foi each inuiviuual coal being mouelleu.

The Chemical Peicolation Bevolatilisation (CPB) mouel (Pugmiie, Solum, &
uiant, 1992) can be useu to obtain the high-tempeiatuie volatile mattei yielu foi
a paiticulai coal. The CPB mouel uesciibes the uevolatilisation behavioui of
iapiuly heateu coal baseu on the chemical stiuctuie of the paient coal. The
chemical stiuctuie of the paient coal is obtaineu using C NNR spectioscopy, a
piocess which uesciibes featuies such as the numbei of aiomatic caibons pei
clustei anu the numbei of attachments pei aiomatic clustei (uenetti & Fletchei,
1999). Analysing the stiuctuie of coal paiticles using C NNR spectioscopy is
cleaily a veiy complex pioceuuie, not to mention expensive anu time consuming.
Foi these ieasons uenetti anu Fletchei uevelopeu a seiies of non-lineai


1S
coiielations to estimate the stiuctuial paiameteis of coal when iaw C NNR uata
is not available. Coiielateu C NNR uata can then be useu to finu the iequiieu
uevolatilisation infoimation.

Buiing the coal uevolatilisation piocess the volatiles unueigo a mass tiansfei
piocess fiom the soliu coal paiticle to the suiiounuing gaseous phase. Beie the
volatiles oxiuise with the suiiounuing combustion aii following the commonly
assumeu ieactions listeu below:
!
Volatiles + O
2
"CO+ H
2
O (7)
CO+ 0.5O
2
"CO
2
(8)

Theie aie a numbei of uiffeient volatile gases that evolve into the gaseous phase.
Figuie 8 pioviues infoimation on the composition of volatiles that evolve fiom a
selection of coals.

D/*61( AP C%+:%-/,/%$ %O 3%'2,/'(- )61/$* :H1%'H-/- O%1 2 -('(",/%$ %O "%2'-P Y/,,-061*G A SZ9!T[
VG%1(-0H SZUT[ U%%$O%$,(/$( S9!T[ ?2 \2*62 S5$)%$(-/2T !"#11#(=: &< (18) +,,5.8
0nce all of the volatile mattei has evolveu an oxiuising ieaction begins that
consumes the combustible fiaction of a coal paiticle. Bespite extensive ieseaich
into chai combustion ovei the last foity yeais the mechanism of the oxiuising


16
ieaction is still not fully unueistoou. Bowevei, factois that aie known to affect
the chai combustion ieaction incluue paiticle giowth, mass tiansfei effects,
paiticle size, chai mineial content anu fiagmentation of the chai paiticle. The
limiting step howevei foi the combustion piocess is commonly consiueieu to be
eithei the chemical ieaction oi gaseous uiffusion to the paiticle, oi a
combination of both these (Williams et al., 2uu1).

Webei et al. (199S) uoes uesciibe the geneially assumeu ieaction mechanism of
pulveiiseu coal paiticles. 0n the suiface anu in the poies of the paiticle the chai
fiist ieacts with oxygen to foim !" anu then insiue a ceitain paiticle bounuaiy
layei this !" ieacts fuithei to give !"2. The authois suggest that it is moie likely
that some of the chai ieacts uiiectly to !"2 in the veiy close vicinity of the coal
paiticle, the amount being uepenuant on the gaseous phase tempeiatuie. The
authoi pioposes that as the bounuaiy layei is piobably much smallei than the
suiiounuing tuibulent euuy, it coulu be saiu that all chai ieacts uiiectly to !"2
given that the !" cannot be tianspoiteu away fiom the paiticle befoie ieacting
to give !"2.

3.4 art|c|e S|ze D|str|but|on
A common methou foi uefining the size of pulveiiseu coal paiticles is by using a
Rosin-Rammlei uistiibution. The Rosin Rammlei uistiibution function is baseu
on the assumption that an exponential ielationship exists between the paiticle
uiametei, -, anu the mass fiaction of the paiticles with uiametei gieatei than -,
.-:
!
Y
d
= e
"( d / d )
n
(9)

Fluent iefeis to the quantity - in Equation 9 as the Nean Biametei anu to / as
the Spieau Paiametei. To solve foi these paiameteis, the pioviueu paiticle size
uata (ie. a sieve analysis) must be fitteu to the Rosin-Rammlei exponential
equation. To achieve this the uata must fiist be iecast in the Rosin-Rammlei
foimat, as shown in Table 1.


17
V20'( 4P WX2+:'( :21,/"'( -/]( )2,2 /$ @%-/$^@2++'(1 O%1+2,
E/2+(,(1[ ' S_+T
F2-- O12",/%$ &/,G E/2+(,(1
`1(2,(1 ,G2$ '[ ?'
7u u.9S
1uu u.8S
12u u.Su
1Su u.2u
18u u.uS
2uu (u.uu)

A plot of Yu vs u foi the example coal size uata is shown in Figuie 9.

D/*61( KP C6+6'2,/3( -/]( )/-,1/06,/%$ %O :21,/"'(-7
Fiom heie the values of
!
d anu / can be ueiiveu. The value foi
!
d is obtaineu by
noting that this is the value of - at which
!
Y
d
= e
"1
# 0.368. Fiom Figuie 9 it can be
estimateu that this occuis foi
!
d "131m. The numeiical value foi / is given by
u.uuu
u.1uu
u.2uu
u.Suu
u.4uu
u.Suu
u.6uu
u.7uu
u.8uu
u.9uu
1.uuu
Su 7u 9u 11u 1Su 1Su 17u 19u 21u 2Su 2Su
F
2
-
-

O
1
2
"
,
/
%
$

&
/
,
G

)
/
2
+
(
,
(
1

*
1
(
2
,
(
1

,
G
2
$

'
)

?
'

Y21,/"'( 9/]([ _ +


18
!
n =
ln("lnY
d
)
ln(d / d)
(10)

By substituting the given uata paiis foi .- anu
!
d / d into Equation 1u it is possible
to obtain values foi / anu then finu an aveiage. Boing so yielus an aveiage of
!
n = 4.52 foi the pioviueu uata. The iesulting Rosin-Rammlei cuive fit is
compaieu to the sieve analysis uata in Figuie 1u.

D/*61( 4MP @%-/$^@2++'(1 "613( O/, O%1 ,G( :1%3/)() -/(3( 2$2'H-/- )2,27
When using a Rosin-Rammlei size uistiibution in Fluent the complete iange of
sizes is uiviueu into an auequate numbei of uisciete inteivals, each of which is
iepiesenteu by a mean uiametei foi which tiajectoiy calculations aie peifoimeu.
u.uuu
u.2uu
u.4uu
u.6uu
u.8uu
1.uuu
u Su 1uu 1Su 2uu 2Su Suu
F
2
-
-

O
1
2
"
,
/
%
$

&
/
,
G

)
/
2
+
(
,
(
1

*
1
(
2
,
(
1

,
G
2
$

)
[

a
)

Y21,/"'( 9/]([ +/"1%$-


19
3.S L|qu|d Iue| Combust|on
In numeious piactical applications, the fuel supplieu to an engine oi buint in a
fuinace is a liquiu. Petiol foi inteinal combustion engines, heavy oil foi
inuustiial buineis anu keiosene foi tuibo-jets aie all liquiu fuels. Even in the
case of a canule it is actually the melteu wax that is soakeu up by the wick that
buins. In all of these cases, howevei, it is not the liquiu that buins, iathei it is
vapoiiseu by the heat of the flame, usually uecomposing to a ceitain extent in the
piocess, anu is then uiawn towaius the gaseous oxiuant at which point
combustion occuis (Boighi & Bestiiau, 1998).

To uemonstiate the piocess of liquiu fuel combustion fuithei we consiuei the
example of a small amount of alcohol heateu in a spoon anu then lit. 0nce
combustion is establisheu, a stable gaseous flame foims above the suiface of the
liquiu. The heat piouuceu by the flame acts in seveial ways. It heats up the
suiface of the liquiu by conuuction (anu often by iauiation) causing the liquiu to
vapoiise, anu then it heats these vapois as they appioach the flame. In auuition,
the flame heats the aii uiffusing towaius the flame, such that a ieaction zone is
sustaineu between the fuel anu oxiuant vapois in exactly the same way as a
classical gas-phase uiffusion flame. Figuie 11 shows the situations schematically.

D/*61( 44P ! -/+:'( (X:(1/+($, )(+%$-,12,/$* '/R6/) "%+06-,/%$ !9@43A# B C&:<4#(0) 5--6.8


2u
Since the flame is self-sustaining close to the liquiu suiface, in piactical
applications, the best way to inciease the amount of "combustion pei unit
volume" is to maximise the aii-liquiu contact aiea. This is the ieason why all
buineis that opeiate with liquiu fuel inject the fuel into the combustion aiea in
the foim of a spiay of uioplets. 0bviously the uegiee of vapoiisation will have an
effect on the flame chaiacteiistics anu this is one aiea that will be investigateu
foi the NcBonalu's Lime waste oil fiiing system.

3.6 kotary k||n 8urners
The buinei in a iotaiy kiln has a significant influence on the fuel consumption,
the final piouuct quality, the suiface life of iefiactoiy walls, the composition of
exhaust gases anu consequently, the enviionmental impact. 0ltimately howevei,
a buinei must geneiate a flame that ensuies suitable heat tiansfei to the chaige.
Although chemistiy anu fuel chaiacteiistics can play an impoitant iole in flame
stability, it is the kiln aeiouynamics, anu consequently the buinei, that almost
solely uictate the flame shape anu length. Combustion ieactions aie so fast at
flame tempeiatuies that the oveiall combustion of fuel, anu subsequent heat
ielease, pioceeu as fast as the fuel is biought in contact with the aii (oi moie
piopeily, with the oxygen in the aii) (uoiog & Auams, 1987).

In the case of a long "lazy" flame the beu iemains at a faiily constant tempeiatuie
thioughout the kiln, which may not be hot enough foi the calcination ieaction to
take place. Conveisely a flame that ieleases all of its heat in the fiist thiee
meties of a kiln woulu meiely oveiheat the fiont enu of the kiln anu the piouuct
woulu ieach the hot zone at too low a tempeiatuie foi any but the suiface of the
beu to ieact. What actually is iequiieu is a flame that is shapeu anu locateu so as
to give the uesiieu tempeiatuies in the piopei locations in the kiln, with the hot
piouucts of combustion peifoiming the pieheating, uiying anu heating functions
(uainick, 196S). Figuie 12 uisplays the optimum heat tiansfei chaiacteiistics of
a iotaiy kiln useu foi lime manufactuie.


21

D/*61( 48P ;:,/+6+ G(2, ,12$-O(1 "G212",(1/-,/"- O%1 '/+( +2$6O2",61( !DEF) 5--7(.8
Baving iecogniseu the neeu foi contiol of the flame shape anu location, the
pioblem becomes how to achieve this optimum flame. In the case of mouein
multi channel buineis theie is often a numbei of vaiiables that can be aujusteu,
such as axial anu swiil aii velocities; fuel type, iate anu supply piessuie; anu
lastly the buinei configuiation anu setup. Single channel pulveiiseu coal
buineis like those still useu by NcBonalu's Lime aie howevei long establisheu
technology anu allow foi little aujustment to the flame shape anu location.
Piimaiy aujustments of the flame chaiacteiistics aie maue by aujustment of the
piimaiy aii velocity with some auuitional aujustment possible thiough
movement of the buinei location.

The auuition of a waste oil lance in the centie of the single channel buinei pipe
at NcBonalu's Lime will allow foi gieatei aujustment of the flame shape anu
location. uainick (196S) iepoits on the gas anu oil fiiing of iotaiy kilns anu
uesciibes how fuel oil supplieu at 1uuupsig will have a high velocity leaving the
buinei anu will tenu to tiavel fai uown the kiln befoie it is all buineu out. 0n the
othei hanu feeuing gas oi oil at low piessuies in geneial tenus to cieate a shoitei
flame.

!
#!
$!
%!
&!
'!
(!
)!
*!
+!
! #! $! %! &! '! (!
!
"
#
$

&
'
(
)

$
*

+
,
#
-
.
"

/
0
1
#
'
2
3
4
5
6

785$#91" :-*3 ;(-9"- <*=='" /36


22
As most kilns use combustion aii fiom a coolei theie was a tenuency in the
196us to cut uown on piimaiy aii because it is usually supplieu at ambient, oi
close to ambient tempeiatuies, anu is theiefoie less efficient. uainick, howevei,
highlighteu the impoitance of piimaiy aii in oiuei to obtain the piopei flame
shape, inciease piouuctivity anu have a highei quality piouuct foi each N} of fuel
inputteu. Thus the use of 2u to Su peicent piimaiy aii is iecommenueu by the
authoi to give the uesiieu flame shape that may well outweigh the loss in
efficiency causeu by the use of colu piimaiy aii.

The final methou of contiolling flame shape foi an oil-fiieu system is thiough
changes to the buinei itself. The uegiee of atomization anu the spiay angle of
the oil issuing fiom the atomizei will likely affect the flame pattein. This can
often be aujusteu simply by changing the oil nozzle socket. Nany liquiu fuel
atomizeis foi iotaiy kilns aie howevei uesigneu to pievent fuel oil impingement
on the kiln lining. This means that they invaiiably have a naiiow spiay angle
which can only be obtaineu at the expense of atomizing efficiency (Ciesswell,
197u). Piimaiy aii flow, spiay angle, atomization anu supply piessuie aie all
aspects of the coal anu hybiiu coaloil fiiing systems at NcBonalu's Lime that
will be investigateu using Computational Fluiu Bynamics.

3.7 8uoyancy
Theie is often little mention of the effects of buoyancy when investigating the
combustion chaiacteiistics of iotaiy cement oi lime kilns. The following section
piesents a biief uiscussion using funuamental concepts to sheu some light on the
topic.

Consiuei a hoiizontal tuibulent flame issuing fiom an oiifice into still colu aii
within a confinement. Bepenuing on the flame tempeiatuie, a veitical uensity
giauient is expeiienceu uownstieam of the oiifice. As a iesult of this uensity
giauient, a sheaiing motion, i.e. an inciease of upwaius velocity expiesseu as
-12-3, wheie 3 is the veitical axis, is cieateu (Alyasei, 1998).


2S
0sing Pianutl's theoiy the uiauient Richaiuson Numbei can be uevelopeu, which
uesciibes the iatio of the iate at which eneigy is expenueu oveicoming the
buoyancy foice, to the iate at which eneigy is piouuceu by sheai.
!
Ri =
"g(d# / dz)
#
dU
dz
$
%
&
'
(
)
2
(11)

Tuibulence is completely suppiesseu when %4 ieaches u.4S oi moie. Bioauly
speaking, a laige %4 inuicates that impoitant giavity foices aie piesent.

0sing the theoiy of Buckling Flows, Bejan ueiiveu an expiession foi the
Richaiuson numbei of hoiizontal jets thiough a uensity-stiatifieu ieseivoii
(Alyasei, 1998):
!
Ri =
"
g
#
d#
dz
U
D
$
%
&
'
(
)
2
(12)

wheie B is the uiametei of the jet.

At the uimensional scale of the confinement, an expiession of the chaiacteiistic
measuie of the ielative effects of the giavity foice to the ineitial foice of the
flame can be suggesteu fiom the uimensional consiueiations, as follows:
!
Ri =
r
c
g"#
#
f
U
f
2
(13)

wheie 56 is the iauius of the cylinuiical confinement, 17 is the mean velocity at
the oiifice anu the subsciipts 7 anu # (useu latei) iefei to the flame anu aii,
iespectively. In teims of tempeiatuie, Equation 1S becomes:
!
Ri =
r
c
g"#T
U
f
2
(14)

anu


24
!
Ri =
r
c
g T
f
"T
a
( )
T
f
U
f
2
(15)

wheie as this iatio incieases, the flame becomes buoyant anu less steauy. In the
case of a iotaiy lime the piimaiy aii velocity anu seconuaiy aii tempeiatuies
ieplace kiln the flame velocity anu aii tempeiatuie iespectively. In piactice,
many iotaiy kilns opeiate at a high piimaiy jet momentum anu with pieheateu
seconuaiy aii, wheie the Richaiuson numbei is typically 11u
-S
. This typical
piactice is assumeu to pievent buoyancy fiom having a significant effect on the
flame uynamics.

3.8 Mode|||ng of kotary k||ns
Theie aie two appioaches taken to mouelling the piocesses occuiiing in iotaiy
kilns; physical anu mathematical. Physical mouelling most commonly involves
aciualkali plexiglass mouels, as was uone by FCT foi NcBonalus Lime in the miu
199u's. In this case the piimaiy jet was a solution of caustic soua, stiongly
uiluteu with watei anu mixeu with thymolphthalein inuicatoi. A uilute solution
of hyuiochloiic aciu was useu foi the suiiounuing seconuaiy aiiflow. As the
piimaiy jet exits the buinei nozzle anu mixes with the suiiounuing hyuiochloiic
aciu, a neutialising ieaction occuis changing the coloui of the piimaiy flow fiom
blue to cleai, anu uisplaying the mouelleu flame length.

Eaily mathematical mouels weie mostly one-uimensional wheie the uimension
of inteiest was the kiln longituuinal axis. 0ne of the gieatest uisciepancies in
using one-uimensional mouels is the assumption that constant conuitions aie
piesent ovei the cioss section of the gas, wall anu beu iegions. The uesign of
buineis anu flame chaiacteiistics pioves to be extiemely uifficult when these
assumptions aie maue, given that the flame is known to move consiueiably in
the buinei uue to effects of the complex kiln aeiouynmaics.



2S
Appieciating the iequiiement foi a mathematical mouel that coulu pieuict flame
aeiouynamics, Pai, Ritchei anu Lowes (197S) cieateu one of the fiist CFB mouels
of the flow anu mixing in a iotaiy cement kiln. While this eaily CFB mouel was
encouiaging foi the uevelopment of CFB coues, the calculations of heat, mass anu
momentum tianspoit uiu not simulate iealistic conuitions of the flame in a
iotaiy kiln. Since this time howevei CFB has uevelopeu immensely anu is now
useu foi solving full thiee-uimensional systems involving heat tiansfei, fluiu
flow, combustion, tuibulence anu pollutant emissions. CFB is a common tool foi
the optimization of iotaiy kiln opeiations, gaining wiuespieau iecognition ovei
the last uecaue as a useful tool foi stuuying pulveiiseu coal flames, especially foi
bitumous coals (Bosoaga et al., 2uu6).

Alyasei (1998) cieateu an axisymmetiic CFB mouel of the combustion
aeiouynamics anu heat tiansfei in a natuial gas fiieu iotaiy kiln, in the absence
of a beu (but still accounting foi the theimal loau). Alyasei then valiuateu his
mouel with theimal measuiements fiom the 0niveisity of Biitish Columbia's
(0BC) pilot kiln. Alyasei's woik focusseu on the how a CFB mouel may be useu
to show the effects of changing inlet conuitions, such as the piimaiy aii iatio anu
momentum, on the flame chaiacteiistics. Be founu the buinei configuiation to
have a significant influence on the flame aeiouynamics anu heat tiansfei in the
kiln. The combustion zone is also influenceu by the buinei configuiation anu the
piimaiy aii iatio. Fuitheimoie the effects of ieciiculation aie founu to be veiy
influential.

Bui, Simaiu, Chaiette, Kocaefe anu Peiion (199S) weie the fiist people to
uevelop a full thiee-uimensional mouel foi a iotaiy petioleum calcinei.
Although a coke calcinei opeiates in a slightly uiffeient mannei to lime kilns,
evaluating the woik of Bui et al. is woithwhile as, to the knowleuge of the authoi,
they weie the fiist to employ a full SB CFB mouel that consiueis all the physical
phenomena of a iotaiy kiln unuei compaiable plant conuitions. The CFB coue
PB0ENICS was useu to solve the phenomena of inteiest such as the combustion
of fuel, evolution anu combustion of volatile species, evapoiation of moistuie, the


26
geneiation anu combustion of coke uust, beu motion anu theimal behavioui of
the kiln walls. Bue to the laige size anu complexity of the coke-calcining kiln
mouel, the oveiall mouel was bioken uown into seveial sub mouels tieu togethei
by the heat fluxes flowing between anu the tempeiatuies at the bounuaiies. 0ne
mouel is built to uenote each physical component of the kiln, those being the gas
phase, iefiactoiies anu the coke beu, each having theii own giiu uomain.

ueoigallis (2uu4) also uevelopeu a full thiee-uimensional mouel that consiueis
all the phenomena of inteiest occuiing in a natuial gas fiieu lime kiln. The hot
flow solution cieateu by ueoigallis was foimulateu using an existing in-house
CFB coue cieateu at 0BC by Nowak within the Bepaitment of Nechanical
Engineeiing (Be, Salcuuean, uaitshoie, & Nowak, 1996). The coupleu iesults of
the hot flow anu wall mouels, which accounteu foi iotation anu losses to the
ambient, weie useu to investigate the effects of flame impingement on the
iefiactoiy anu how the seconuaiy flow uynamics affect this phenomena. Betails
of the hoou anu kiln inteiactions aie incluueu along with the flame zone
chaiacteiistics. The woik of ueoigallis also focusseu on the calcination
piocesses in the beu anu the iesulting !"2

tiansfei that occuis between the beu
anu the hot gaseous phase.

Wang, Lu, Li, Li anu Bu (2uu6) continueu the woik of Bui et al. (199S) anu
ueoigallis (2uu4) to uevelop a full thiee-uimensional mouel foi a cement iotaiy
kiln. 0f gieatest impoitance is that Wang et al. consiueieu all aspects of the
pulveiiseu coal combustion piocess useu to fuel the kiln. The authois noteu that
while uetaileu coal combustion mouels hau been consiueieu in vaiious fielus,
those mouels of iotaiy kilns faileu to consiuei the effects of the clinkei
foimation, which influences the gas phase tempeiatuie anu fuitheimoie, the
coal combustion. 0veiall the woik aimeu to piesent a compiehensive
mathematical mouel that incluueu all phenomena of the gaseous phase, beu
ieactions anu pulveiiseu coal combustion, anu the iesulting inteiactions
between them. While beyonu the scope of woik piesenteu in this thesis, the
zone heat flux mouel applieu by Wang et al. to account foi clinkei foimation is


27
woith mentioning. The beu of the kiln was uiviueu into foui zones (cooling,
sinteiing, tiansition anu uecomposition). The heat flux was obtaineu foi each
zone by calculating the enthalpy changes that occui uuiing the physical anu
chemical piocesses of each iespective zone. The authois then useu a usei-
uefineu function within the commeicial CFB coue FL0ENT to implement the
zone mouel as a wall theimal bounuaiy conuition.

0vei time coal combustion has been mouelleu using a vaiiety of uiffeient
appioaches. Recent ieseaich has focusseu on using the mixtuie fiactionPBF
appioach, howevei the finite iate appioach uevelopeu by Nagnussen anu
Bjeitagei (1976) is also common, especially in eaily ieseaich coues uevelopeu
specifically foi combustion mouelling. Sahajwalla, Eghlimi anu Faiiell (1997)
peifoimeu a compaiison between the finite iate anu mixtuie fiactionPBF
appioaches anu founu the lattei to pieuict moie iealistic iesults foi oxygen
concentiation anu chai buinout. Also, since the PBF mouel uoes not iequiie the
solution of a laige numbei of tianspoit equations, it is moie computationally
efficient.

The pievious woik piesenteu has shown that CFB will be a veiy useful tool foi
investigating the opeiation of a iotaiy lime kiln. CFB mouels can be cieateu that
account foi the many uiffeient piocesses occuiiing in a iotaiy kiln anu the
inteiaction between the gaseous phase, beu anu walls. The capabilities of CFB
uo in fact well exceeu the scope of woik that is to be piesenteu in this thesis.




4 CID Methodo|ogy
Investigations into the combustion chaiacteiistics of the NcBonalus Lime kiln
have piimaiily been conuucteu using Computational Fluiu Bynamics anu
theiefoie it is necessaiy to pioviue some backgiounu on the subject. This
chaptei intiouuces the basic concepts anu teiminologies of numeiical mouelling
with FL0ENT, as well as some of the moie complex sub-mouels iequiieu when
mouelling combustion.

Computational Fluiu Bynamics, oi CFB as it is commonly known, is the analysis
of systems involving fluiu flow, heat tiansfei anu associateu phenomena such as
chemical ieactions by means of a computei baseu simulation (Nalalasekeia &
veisteeg, 199S). CFB methous weie uevelopeu as eaily as the 192us but it was
not until the 196us that it became an integiateu ieseaich anu uesign tool,
paiticulaily within the aeiospace inuustiy. With the auvent of high-poweieu
woikstations ovei the last few uecaues, CFB has become an establisheu tool foi a
vaiiety of inuustiies. Applications iange fiom the uesign of inteinal combustion
engines, boat hulls, electionics anu chemical plants, to the mouelling of human
bloou flow anu weathei pieuiction.

4.1 So|ut|on rocess
Nouelling a flow fielu with a CFB package geneially consists of thiee steps; pie-
piocessing, solving anu post-piocessing. Pie-piocessing consists of the input of
a flow pioblem to a CFB piogiam by means of an opeiatoi-fiienuly inteiface anu
the subsequent tiansfoimation of this input into a foim suitable foi use by the
solvei. The usei-activities uuiing the pie-piocessing stage incluue:
Befinition of geometiy of the iegion of inteiest: the computational
uomain.
Sub-uiviuing the geometiical uomain into a numbei of smallei, non
oveilapping sub uomains: a giiu (oi mesh) of cells (oi contiol volumes).


29
Selection of the physical anu chemical phenomena to be mouelleu
Befinition of fluiu anu paiticle piopeities.
Specification of appiopiiate bounuaiy conuitions at the bounuing faces
of the computational uomain.
Foi the woik piesenteu in this thesis foui pieces of softwaie weie useu uuiing
the pie-piocessing stage. Soliuwoiks 2uu8 was useu to cieate the initial
geometiies. The uefinition of solution uomains anu cieation of meshes was
unueitaken using a combination of uambit v2.2 (ANSYS) anu Baipoon v2.S
(SBARC). All bounuaiy conuitions anu fluiu piopeities weie then uefineu in
FL0ENT.

Both FL0ENT v6.S anu v12 weie useu foi solving the fluiu flow pioblem. This
solution piocess iequiies no usei inteiaction anu is theiefoie usually caiiieu out
as a batch piocess. Backgiounu into the computations peifoimeu uuiing the
solution piocess is explaineu in subsequent sections of this chaptei.

Post-piocessing involves taking the numeiically geneiateu uata anu piesenting it
in a visual mannei. Nouein CFB coues aie equippeu with a wealth of post-
piocessing tools ianging fiom obtaining point values anu x-y plots to tiacking
uisciete phase tiajectoiies anu cieating animations.

4.2 Govern|ng Lquat|ons
CFB is a bianch of fluiu mechanics that utilises numeiical methous anu
algoiithms to solve the goveining equations of fluiu flow in oiuei to pieuict the
flow fielus in anu aiounu objects of engineeiing inteiest. The goveining
equations of fluiu flow iepiesent mathematical statements of the conseivation
laws of physics. The conseivation laws of physics known as 'Continuity',
'Newtons Seconu Law', anu the 'Fiist Law of Theimouynamics' state that mass,
momentum anu eneigy aie conseiveu iespectively.



Su
By applying the thiee conseivation laws to a small fluiu volume the goveining
equations of fluiu flow can be ueiiveu. The goveining equations of the flow of a
compiessible Newtonian fluiu aie piesenteu in Table 2.
V20'( 8P `%3(1$/$* WR62,/%$- %O 2 C%+:1(--/0'( b(&,%$/2$ D'6/) !/(1(1(:&$&4( B G&4:<&&3) 5-->.
Continuity
!
"#
"t
+ $% #U
( )
= 0 Eq. 16
x-momentum
!
"
Du
Dt
= #
$p
$x
+ %& (& %u) + S
Mx
Eq. 17
y-momentum
!
"
Dv
Dt
= #
$p
$y
+ %& (& %v) + S
My

Eq. 18
z-momentum
!
"
Dw
Dt
= #
$p
$z
+ %& (& %w) + S
Mz

Eq. 19
Eneigy
!
" #i
( )
"t
+ $% #iU
( )
= &p% $U + $ k % $T
( )
+ '+ S
i
Eq. 2u
Equations of State
!
p = p(",T) anu
!
i = i(",T) Eq. 21
wheie 8 = fluiu uensity; 9 = time; 0 = velocity vectoi; ( = :-component velocity;
; = <-component velocity; = = 3-component velocity; > = uynamic viscosity; ?@ =
momentum souice teim in :A <A 3 uiiections; 4 = inteinal (theimal) eneigy; ) =
piessuie; B = theimal conuuctivity; C = tempeiatuie; D = uissipation function;
anu ?4 = inteinal eneigy souice teim.

The equations shown in Table 2 aie all seen to have a similai foim. Foi a geneial
vaiiable
!
", the conseivative foim of all fluiu flow equations is.


!
"
#$
#t
+ % "$u
( )
= %& '& %$
( )
+ S
$
(22)
This equation is the tianspoit equation foi piopeity
!
", the meaning of which can
be moie cleaily expiesseu in the woius below.
!
Rate of increase of " of fluid element + Net rate of flow of " out of fluid element =
Rate of increase of " due to diffusion + Rate of increase of " due to sources

By substituting
!
" foi vaiious tianspoit piopeities, Equation 22 can be useu to
obtain special foims of each of the five paitial uiffeiential equations in Table 2.
The aim of any pieuictive stuuy is to solve these special foim tianspoit
equations foi piessuie, uensity, velocities anu tempeiatuie thioughout a flow


S1
uomain. Computational Fluiu Bynamics involves solving these equations
numeiically using, in the case of FL0ENT, a Finite volume Nethou. To achieve
this the tianspoit equations aie appioximateu by algebiaic expiessions at a
numbei of uisciete points in the flow uomain, a piocess known as uiscietisation.

4.3 ressure-Ve|oc|ty Coup||ng
The momentum tianspoit equations solveu by a CFB coue yielu values foi each
velocity component. The continuity equation also incluues all thiee velocity
components meaning that it is coupleu with all thiee momentum equations. A
piessuie giauient teim is also piesent in the momentum equations, howevei
theie is no tianspoit equation foi piessuie. In most engineeiing pioblems the
piessuie fielu is a uesiieu output of the final solution anu theiefoie is not
noimally known piioi to solving.

If the flow is compiessible the continuity equation may be consiueieu as a
tianspoit equation foi uensity anu the eneigy equation as a tianspoit equation
foi tempeiatuie. The piessuie may then be obtaineu fiom the uensity anu
piessuie using the equation of state,
!
p = p(",T) .

If the flow is incompiessible howevei the uensity is constant anu is thus no
longei linkeu to the piessuie. In this case an iteiative pioceuuie is intiouuceu.
If the coiiect piessuie fielu is applieu in the momentum equations the iesulting
velocity fielu shoulu satisfy continuity. Theie aie seveial iteiative piessuie-
velocity coupling algoiithms that have been uevelopeu, the most suitable
uepenuing on the flow type. FL0ENT incluues the SINPLE, SINPLEC anu PIS0
algoiithms. The SINPLE algoiithm uses a ielationship between velocity anu
piessuie coiiections to enfoice mass conseivation anu obtain the piessuie fielu.
SINPLEC is veiy similai howevei theie is a uiffeience in the expiession useu foi
the face flux coiiection. 0ne of the limitations of the SINPLE anu SINPLEC
algoiithms is that new velocities, anu coiiesponuing fluxes, uo not satisfy the
momentum balance aftei the piessuie-coiiection equation is solveu. As a iesult,


S2
the calculation must be iepeateu until the balance is satisfieu. To impiove the
efficiency of this calculation, the PIS0 algoiithm peifoims two auuitional
coiiections: neighboui coiiection anu skewness coiiection. Each of these
algoiithms can also be useu in the case of compiessible flow insteau of using a
coupleu system, with auvantages anu uisauvantages of both appioaches. All the
mouelling piesenteu in this thesis uses the SINPLE algoiithm.

4.4 1urbu|ence Mode|s
The vast majoiity of fluiu flows expeiienceu in engineeiing piactice, incluuing
iotaiy kiln flames, aie tuibulent in natuie. Tuibulent flow exists when the
Reynolus numbei is above a ciitical value causing the flow stiuctuie to become
ianuom anu chaotic. At low Reynolus numbeis a flow is laminai.

The basic foim of the continuity, momentum anu eneigy equations can coiiectly
uesciibe flows in the laminai iegime. uieatei consiueiation must howevei be
given to tuibulent iegimes as flow piopeities such as velocity anu piessuie aie
uncoiielateu ovei uistances gieatei than the euuy size. The equations
uesciibing the mean velocity anu piessuie of a tuibulent flow aie obtaineu by
uecomposing the instantaneous fielus into mean anu fluctuating components anu
then time aveiaging the Naviei-Stokes equations. This piocess iesults in an
extia teim known as the Reynolus Stiesses, which is the piouuct of the
fluctuating velocities. These equations aie known as the Reynolus Aveiageu
Naviei-Stokes (RANS) equations anu aie the equations goveining the mean
velocity anu piessuie fielus in a tuibulent flow. With the auuition of the
Reynolus Stiess teim theie aie insufficient equations to solve foi all the
unknowns. A tuibulence mouel is intiouuceu to mouel the Reynolus stiess anu
consequently close the RANS equations.

The tuibulence mouel useu foi the ieseaich piesenteu in this thesis was the
stanuaiu k-epsilon mouel (Launuei & Shaima, 1974), one of the most wiuely
useu tuibulence mouels. The two-equation k-epsilon mouel solves tianspoit
equations foi the tuibulent kinetic eneigy (B) anu its iate of uissipation (E). The


SS
euuy viscosity can be ueiiveu fiom B anu E using the mixing length mouel
intiouuceu by Pianutl in 192S.
!

t
= "C

k
2
#
(23)
wheie !> is a uimensionless coefficient. The euuy viscosity is ielateu to the
Reynolus stiesses in the RANS equations using Boussinesq's euuy viscosity
concept, the basis of many tuibulence mouels. Boussinesq pioposeu that the
Reynolus Stiesses shoulu be piopoitional to the local mean stiain iate in the
fluiu (Nalalasekeia & veisteeg, 199S).

The stanuaiu mouel uses the following tianspoit equations to calculate k anu c.
!
"
"t
#k
( )
+
"
"x
i
#ku
i
( )
=
"
"x
j
+

t
$
k
%
&
'
(
)
*
"k
"x
j
+
,
-
.
/
0 + G
k
+ G
b
1 #2 1Y
M
+ S
k
(24)

!
"
"t
#$
( )
+
"
"x
i
#$u
i
( )
=
"
"x
j
+

t
%
$
&
'
(
)
*
+
"$
"x
j
,
-
.
/
0
1 + C
1$
$
k
G
k
+ C
3$
G
b
( )
2C
2$
#
$
2
k
(25)

In these equations, FB iepiesents the geneiation of tuibulence kinetic eneigy uue
to the mean velocity giauients, FG is the geneiation of tuibulence kinetic eneigy
uue to buoyancy, anu .@ iepiesents the contiibution of the fluctuating uilatation
in compiessible tuibulence to the oveiall uissipation iate. !1E, !2E, anu !SE, aie
constants. HB anu HE aie the tuibulent Pianutl numbeis foi B anu E, iespectively.
?B anu ?E aie usei-uefineu souice teims.

The equations contain five aujustable constants !1E, !2E, !SE, HB anu HE. The
stanuaiu BIE mouel employs values foi the constants that aie aiiiveu at by
compiehensive uata fitting foi a wiue iange of tuibulent flows.
!
C
1"
=1.44 C
2"
=1.92 C

= 0.09 #
k
=1.0 #
"
=1.3
It is possible to mouify these constants to suit a paiticulai application howevei
this woulu iequiie significant valiuation testing using known expeiimental uata.
Foi this ieason all mouelling piesenteu in this thesis useu the uefault values.


S4
As with any tuibulence mouel theie aie a numbei of stiengths anu weaknesses
making each one bettei suiteu to uiffeient applications. The auvantages anu
uisauvantages of the BIE tuibulence mouel aie listeu below.
!)32$,2*(-
Simplest mouel.
Excellent peifoimance foi many inuustiially ielevant flows, compaieu to
othei two-equation RANS mouels.
Well establisheu anu valiuateu.
E/-2)32$,2*(-
Noie expensive to implement than mixing length mouel (two extia
PBE's).
Pooi peifoimance in unconfineu, iotating anu swiiling flows.
Application of the B-epsilon foi mouelling the swiiling pulveiiseu coal flame
piesenteu in the valiuation case of Chaptei Five is likely to be questioneu. As
mentioneu above the B-epsilon mouel is commonly consiueieu to peifoim pooily
when mouelling isotheimal swiiling flows. In the swiiling pulveiiseu coal flame
consiueieu, the volatile mattei enteiing the gaseous phase is iapiuly mixeu with
the combustion aii anu the ignition fiont is locateu in the close vicinity of the fuel
injectoi. The inlet swiiling flow is combustion acceleiateu in the vicinity of the
fuel injectoi anu the impoitance of centiifugal foices, when compaieu to ineitial
foices, is ieuuceu, as the lattei inciease significantly. It has been uemonstiateu
that foi these type-2 flames little can be gaineu by applying a highei oiuei
tuibulence mouel anu that B-epsilon is auequate (Peteis & Webei, 1996).
Neanwhile ueoigallis (2uu4) iepoits the stanuaiu B-epsilon uoes a ieasonable
job in pieuicting the mean anu tuibulent piofiles along the length of a iotaiy
lime kiln that is fiieu in a similai mannei to the one at NcBonalus Lime.

4.S D|screte hase Mode|||ng
In auuition to solving tianspoit equations foi the continuous phase, FL0ENT
allows the simulation of a uisciete seconu phase in a Lagiangian fiame of


SS
iefeience. This seconu phase consists of spheiical paiticles (which may also be
taken to iepiesent uioplets oi bubbles) uispeiseu in the continuous phase.
FL0ENT computes the tiajectoiies of these uisciete phase entities, as well as the
heat anu mass tiansfei tofiom them. The coupling between phases anu the
iesulting impact on both the uisciete phase tiajectoiies anu the continuous
phase gas flow can be incluueu.

The uisciete phase foimulation useu by FL0ENT contains the assumption that
the seconu phase is sufficiently uilute that paiticle-paiticle inteiactions anu the
effects of the paiticle volume fiaction on the gas phase aie negligible. In piactice
these issues imply that the uisciete phase must be piesent at a faiily low volume
fiaction, peihaps less than 1u-12% (FL0ENT, 2uu6), a value which is justifieu foi
the mouelling woik piesenteu in this thesis.

4.S.1 Ca|cu|at|on of d|screte phase tra[ectory
Fluent pieuicts the tiajectoiy of a uisciete phase paiticle by integiating the foice
balance on the paiticle, which is wiitten in a Lagiangian iefeience fiame. This
foice balance equates the paiticle ineitia with the foices acting on the paiticle.
The foice balance incluues the effects of giavity, howevei it is impoitant to note
that in FL0ENT the uefault giavitational acceleiation is zeio.

The uispeision of paiticles uue to tuibulence in the fluiu phase is calculateu
using the stochastic tiacking mouel. This mouel incluues the effects of
instantaneous tuibulent velocity fluctuations on the paiticle tiajectoiies thiough
the use of stochastic methous.

4.S.2 neat]Mass 1ransfer Ca|cu|at|ons
Seveial heat anu mass tiansfei ielationships, teimeu "laws", aie available in
FL0ENT foi mouelling ieacting uisciete phase paiticles anu theii impact on the
continuous phase. Which laws aie active uepenus on the paiticle type that is
selecteu. The sequence of laws useu foi uioplets anu combusting paiticles aie
listeu below.


S6
V20'( >P !",/3( :21,/"'( '2&- O%1 )/OO(1($, :21,/"'( ,H:(-7
9,(: Y1%"(-- C%11(-:%$)/$* ?2&
E1%:'(,
1 Ineit Beating 1
2 Bioplet vapouiisation 2
S Bioplet Boiling S
4 Ineit Cooling 6
C%+06-,/$* Y21,/"'(
1 Ineit Beating 1
2 Bevolatilisation 4
S Suiface Combustion S
4 Ineit Cooling 6

JK#= L2K#= MNO P/Q59 RQ#94/S T5 !TTU4/S
The ineit heating law is applieu when the tempeiatuie of a paiticle is less than
the usei uefineu vapoiisation tempeiatuie, C;#)VV Above this tempeiatuie a non-
ineit paiticle oi uioplet may pioceeu to obey one of the mass-tiansfei laws (2, S,
4, anuoi S). The ineit cooling law is applieu towaius the enu of the ieaction
piocess when the volatile poition, 7;AW, of a paiticleuioplet has been consumeu.
These conuitions may be wiitten as:
!
Law 1: T
p
< T
vap
(26)
!
Law 6 : m
p
" (1# f
$ ,0
)m
p,0
(27)
wheie C) is the paiticle tempeiatuie, $)AW is the initial mass of the paiticle anu $)
is its cuiient mass.

When using the ineit heating oi cooling laws FL0ENT uses a simple heat balance
to ielate the paiticle tempeiatuie to the convective heat tiansfei anu the
absoiptionemission of iauiation at the paiticle suiface. This piocess assumes
that theie is negligible inteinal iesistance to heat tiansfei (paiticles aie assumeu
to behave as a theimally thin mateiial). The heat lost oi gaineu by the paiticle as
it tiaveises each computational cell appeais as a souice oi sink of heat in
subsequent calculations of the continuous phase eneigy equation.


S7
JK#= XNO Y5T)UQ9 Z#)T54*#94T/
Law 2 is applieu to pieuict the vapoiisation fiom a uisciete phase uioplet. Law 2
is initiateu when the tempeiatuie of the uioplet ieaches the vapoiisation
tempeiatuie, C;#), anu continues until the uioplet ieaches the boiling point, CG),
oi until the uioplet's volatile fiaction is completely consumeu.
!
T
p
< T
bp
(28)

!
m
p
> (1" f
# 0
)m
p0
(29)

The onset of the vapoiisation law is ueteimineu by the setting of C;#), a
tempeiatuie that has no othei physical significance.

Buiing Law 2 the iate of vapoiisation is goveineu by giauient uiffusion, with the
flux of uioplet vapoui into the gas phase ielateu to the giauient of the vapoui
concentiation between the uioplet suiface anu the bulk gas. Finally, the uioplet
tempeiatuie is upuateu accoiuing to a heat balance that ielates the sensible heat
change in the uioplet to the convective anu latent heat tiansfei between the
uioplet anu the continuous phase. The heat tiansfeiieu to oi fiom the gas phase
becomes a souicesink of eneigy uuiing subsequent calculations of the
continuous phase eneigy equation.

JK#= [NO Y5T)UQ9 \T4U4/S
Law S is applieu to pieuict the convective boiling of a uisciete phase uioplet
when the tempeiatuie of the uioplet has ieacheu the boiling tempeiatuie, CG),
anu while the mass of the uioplet exceeus the non-volatile fiaction, (1I7]AW):
!
T
p
" T
bp
(30)

anu
!
m
p
> (1" f
# ,0
)m
p,0
(31)

When the uioplet tempeiatuie ieaches the boiling point, a boiling iate equation
is applieu. The uioplet is assumeu to stay at constant tempeiatuie while the
boiling iate is applieu. 0nce the boiling law is enteieu is it applieu foi the


S8
uuiation of the paiticle tiajectoiy. The eneigy iequiieu foi vapoiisation appeais
as a negative souice teim in the eneigy equation foi the gas phase. The
evapoiateu liquiu enteis the gaseous phase as species 4A as uefineu by the usei.

JK#= ^NO YQ;TU#94U4*#94T/
The uevolatilisation law is applieu to a combusting paiticle when the
tempeiatuie of the paiticle ieaches the vapoiisation tempeiatuie, C;#)A anu
iemains in effect while the mass of the paiticle, $), exceeus the mass of the non-
volatiles in the paiticle:
!
T
p
" T
vap
(32)

anu
!
m
p
> (1" f
# ,0
)m
p,0
(33)

Fluent pioviues a choice of thiee uevolatilisation mouels:
The constant iate mouel.
The single kinetic iate mouel.
The two competing iates mouel (not consiueieu in the piesent woik).
The constant iate uevolatilisation law uictates that the volatiles aie ieleaseu at a
constant iate:
!
"
1
f
# ,0
(1" f
w,0
)m
p,0
dm
p
dt
= A
0
(34)

wheie _W is the iate constant in *
IL
#/- 7=AW is the mass fiaction of the
evapoiatingboiling mateiial if Wet Combustion is selecteu (otheiwise 7=AW = u).

The single iate mouel (Bauzioch & Bawksley, 197u) assumes that the iate of
uevolatilisation is fiist-oiuei uepenuent on the amount of volatiles iemaining in
the paiticle:
!
"
dm
p
dt
= k(m
p
"(1" f
v,0
)m
p,0
) (35)



S9
wheie B is the kinetic iate (s
-1
). This equation has the appioximate analytical
solution:
!
m
p
(t + "t) = (1# f
v0
)m
p0
+ m
p
(t) #(1# f
v0
)m
p0
[ ]
e
#k"t
(36)

which is obtaineu by assuming that the paiticle tempeiatuie vaiies only slightly
between uisciete time integiation steps. The kinetic iate, BA is uefineu by input
of an Aiihenius type pie-exponential factoi anu an activation eneigy.
!
k = A
1
exp("E / RT) (37)

Buiing uevolatilisation the uiametei of a combusting paiticle changes accoiuing
to the swelling coefficient, !*=A which is usei uefineu. Beat tiansfei to the
paiticle uuiing the uevolatilisation piocess incluues contiibutions fiom
convection, iauiation anu the heat consumeu uuiing uevolatilisation.

JK#= ^NO ?(57#6Q !T$G(*94T/
Aftei the volatile component of the paiticle is completely evolveu, a suiface
ieaction begins, which consumes the combustible fiaction, 76T$G, of the paiticle.
Law S is thus active (foi a combusting paiticle) aftei the volatiles aie evolveu:
!
m
p
> (1" f
# 0
)m
p0
(38)

anu until the combustible fiaction is consumeu:
!
m
p
> (1" f
# 0
" f
comb
)m
p0
(39)

When the combustible fiaction, 76T$G, has been consumeu in Law S, the
combusting paiticle may contain some iesiuual ash that ieveits to the ineit
heating law, Law 6.

The suiface combustion law consumes the ieactive content of the paiticle as
goveineu by the stoichiometiic iequiiement, ?G, of the suiface buinout ieaction:
!
char(s) + S
b
O(g) "Products(g) (40)

wheie ?G is uefineu in teims of mass of oxiuant pei mass of chai.


4u
Fluent pioviues a choice of thiee heteiogeneous suiface ieaction iate mouels foi
combusting paiticles:
The uiffusion-limiteu iate mouel.
The kineticuiffusion-limiteu iate mouel (useu foi the piesenteu woik).
The intiinsic mouel.
The kineticuiffusion-limiteu ieaction iate mouel assumes that the suiface
ieaction iate is ueteimineu eithei by kinetics oi a uiffusion iate. FL0ENT uses
the mouels of Baum anu Stieet (1971) anu Fielu (1969) in which the uiffusion
iate
!
R
1
= C
1
T
p
+ T
"
( )
2
[ ]
0.75
D
p
(41)

anu a kinetic iate
!
R
2
= C
2
exp("E / RT
p
) (42)

aie weighteu to yielu a chai combustion iate of
!
dm
p
dt
= "#D
p
2
P
0
R
1
R
2
R
1
+ R
2
(43)

wheie `" is the paitial piessuie of oxiuant species in the gas suiiounuing the
combusting paiticle, anu the kinetic iate %X incoipoiates the effects of chemical
ieaction on the inteinal suiface of the chai paiticle anu poie uiffusion. FL0ENT
iecasts Equation 4S in teims of the oxiuant mass fiaction, $", as
!
dm
p
dt
= "#D
p
2
$RTm
O
M
O
R
1
R
2
R
1
+ R
2
(44)

The paiticle size is assumeu to iemain constant in this mouel while the uensity is
alloweu to ueciease.

Buiing chai combustion the suiface ieaction consumes the oxiuant species in the
gas phase anu consequently supplies a negative souice teim uuiing the


41
computation of the tianspoit equation of that species. Similaily, the suiface
ieaction is a souice species in the gas phase: the piouuct of the heteiogeneous
suiface ieaction appeais in the gas phase as a usei selecteu chemical species.
The suiface ieaction also consumes oi piouuces eneigy in an amount
ueteimineu by the heat of ieaction of the combusting paiticle.

4.S.3 Coup||ng 8etween the D|screte and Cont|nuous hases
As the tiajectoiy of a paiticle is computeu, FL0ENT keeps tiack of the heat, mass
anu momentum gaineu oi lost by the paiticle stieam that follows that tiajectoiy.
These quantities can be incoipoiateu in the subsequent continuous phase
calculations. Thus, while the continuous phase always impacts on the uisciete
phase, the effects of the uisciete phase tiajectoiies on the continuum can also be
incluueu. This two way coupling is accomplisheu by alteinately solving the
uisciete anu continuous phase until the equations in both phases have stoppeu
changing. This inteichange of heat, mass anu momentum fiom the paiticle to the
continuous phase is uepicteu qualitatively in Figuie 1S.

D/*61( 4>P c(2,[ +2-- 2$) +%+($,6+ ,12$-O(1 0(,&(($ ,G( )/-"1(,( 2$) "%$,/$6%6- :G2-(-
!DHIJKF) +,,L.8




42
4.S.4 In|t|a| Cond|t|ons
The initial conuitions of a uisciete phase paiticle oi uioplet aie uefineu by
cieating a paiticle injection anu assigning a numbei of piopeities to it. FL0ENT
pioviues five types of injections.
Single
uioup
Cone
Suiface
Reau fiom a file
The following initial conuitions pioviue the staiting values foi all of the
uepenuant uisciete phase vaiiables that uesciibe the instantaneous conuitions of
an inuiviuual paiticle.
Position of the paiticle: This can eithei be expiesseu as an :A <A 3 location
oi fiom a paiticulai suiface.
velocities ((A ;A =) of the paiticles: velocity magnituues anu spiay cone
angle can also be useu (in SB) to uefine the initial velocities.
Biametei of the paiticle: This can eithei be uefineu as a unifoim value oi
as a iange of uiameteis using eithei a Rosin-Rammlei oi logaiithmic
Rosin-Rammlei uiametei uistiibution.
Paiticle Tempeiatuie
Nass flow iate of the paiticle stieam that will follow the tiajectoiy of the
inuiviuual paiticleuioplet.
These uepenuant vaiiables aie upuateu accoiuing to the equations of motion anu
accoiuing to the heatmass tiansfei ielations applieu as the paiticleuioplet
moves along its tiajectoiy.

4.6 Combust|on Chem|stry
Buiing any combustion piocess theie aie a numbei of chemical ieactions
occuiiing. uaseous phase ieactions exist that may involve a": anu othei


4S
pollutant foimation. Theie may also be paiticle suiface ieactions in the case of
coal chai combustion, foi example wheie a ieaction occuis at the suiface of a
uisciete-phase paiticle. FL0ENT is able to mouel both of these ieaction types
anu pioviues seveial appioaches to uo so. Foi the woik piesenteu in this thesis
both the ueneializeu Finite-Rate Nouel anu Non-Piemixeu Combustion Nouel
weie useu.

4.6.1 Genera||zed I|n|te-kate Mode|
The geneialiseu finite-iate mouel solves the species tianspoit equations foi
ieactants anu piouuct concentiations, in which the chemical ieaction
mechanism is explicitly uefineu. Fluent pieuicts the local mass fiaction of
species, .4, thiough the solution of a convection-uiffusion equation foi the 4th
species. This conseivation equation takes the following geneial foim:

!
"
"t
#Y
i
( )
+ $% #
!
& Y
i
( )
= $%
!
J
i
+ R
i
+ S
i
(45)

wheie %4 is the net iate of piouuction of species 4 by chemical ieaction anu ?4 is
the iate of cieation by auuition fiom the uispeiseu phase. An equation of this
foim is solveu foi aIL species wheie a is the total numbei of fluiu phase
chemical species piesent in the system.

Tuibulent mixing foi most fuels contiols the oveiall iate of buining. Fluent
pioviues a tuibulence-chemistiy inteiaction mouel baseu on the woik of
Nasnussen anu Bjeitagei (1976), calleu the euuy-uissipation mouel. The net
iate of piouuction of species 4 uue to ieaction 5, %4A5, is given by the smallei of the
two expiessions below:
!
R
i,r
= " #
i,r
M
w,i
A$
%
k
min
H
Y
H
" #
H,r
M
w, H
&
'
(
)
*
+
(46)

!
R
i,r
= " #
i,r
M
w,i
AB$
%
k
&
P
Y
P
&
j
N
" " #
j,r
M
w, j
(47)



44
wheie ;b is the stoichiometiic coefficient foi ieactants, ;N is the stoichiometiic
coefficient foi piouucts anu @ is the moleculai weight. .) is the mass fiaction of
any piouuct species, `A anu .R is the mass fiaction of a paiticulai ieactant, R. _
anu \ aie empiiical constants equal to 4.u anu u.S iespectively. This mouel
ielates the iate of ieaction to the iate of uissipation of the ieactant anu piouuct
containing euuies.

4.6.2 Non-rem|xed Combust|on Mode|
The non-piemixeu combustion mouel, commonly iefeiieu to as the mixtuie
fiactionPBF appioach, was specifically uevelopeu foi the simulation of
tuibulent uiffusion flames anu simplifies the combustion piocess into a mixing
pioblem. In this appioach inuiviuual species tianspoit equations aie not solveu.
Insteau, tianspoit equations foi one oi two conseiveu scalais (the mixtuie
fiactions) aie solveu anu the theimo-chemical piopeities of the fluiu aie ueiiveu
fiom the pieuicteu mixtuie fiaction uistiibution. Since the non-piemixeu
combustion mouel uoes not iequiie the solution of multiple species tianspoit
equations it is moie computationally efficient than the geneialiseu finite iate
appioach. Foi all mouelling piesenteu in this thesis the equilibiium chemistiy
mouel was useu, which assumes that combustion chemistiy is iapiu enough foi
chemical equilibiium to exist at a moleculai level. The mixtuie fiaction can be
wiitten in teims of the atomic mass fiaction as:
!
f =
Z
i
" Z
i,ox
Z
i, fuel
" Z
i,ox
(48)

wheie c4 is the elemental mass fiaction foi element 4. The subsciipts T: anu 7(QU
uenote the values at the oxiuisei anu fuel stieam inlets iespectively. The mixtuie
fiaction is a conseiveu scalai anu its value at each contiol volume is calculateu
via the solution of the following tianspoit equation foi the Favie mean (uensity-
aveiageu) value of f.

!
" # $
!
% f
( )
= " #

t
&
t
" f
'
(
)
*
+
,
+ S
m
(49)



4S
The souice teim, ?$ is uue to the tiansfei of mass into the gas phase fiom
ieacting coal paiticles. In auuition to solving foi the Favie mean mixtuie
fiactions, Fluent solves a conseivation equation foi the mixtuie fiaction vaiiance
!
f
' 2
.

!
" # $
!
% f
' 2
( )
= " #

t
&
t
" f
' 2
'
(
)
*
+
,
+ C
g

t
" # f
( )
2
-C
d
$
.
k
f
' 2
(50)

wheie
!
f
'
= f " f . The uefault values foi the constants H9, !S anu !- aie u.8S, 2.86
anu 2.u iespectively. 0nuei the assumption of chemical equilibiium all theimo-
chemical scalais (species fiactions, tempeiatuie anu uensity) aie uniquely
ielateu to the instantaneous fuel mixtuie fiaction.
!
"
i
= "
i
( f ) (51)

wheie
!
"
i
iepiesents the instantaneous species concentiation, tempeiatuie oi
uensity. In a non-auiabatic systems such as the two cases piesenteu in this
thesis the effect of heat lossgain is paiameteiiseu as
!
"
i
= "
i
( f , H) (52)

foi a single mixtuie fiaction system wheie B is the instantaneous enthalpy.

The effects of tuibulence on combustion chemistiy aie accounteu foi using an
assumeu shape piobability uensity function (PBF) appioach. The piobability
uensity function, )d7eA which uesciibes the tempoial fluctuations of the mixtuie
fiaction, 7, in the tuibulent flow is useu to compute the aveiageu values of
vaiiables that uepenu on 7.

FL0ENT also allows foi a seconuaiy stieam to be incluueu. This may consist of
anothei fuel oi oxiuant oi a non-ieacting stieam. If a seconuaiy stieam is
incluueu the fuel anu seconuaiy mixtuie fiactions aie simply the elemental mass
fiactions of the fuel anu seconuaiy stieams, iespectively. The sum of all thiee
mixtuie fiactions in the system (fuel, seconuaiy stieam, anu oxiuisei) is always
equal to 0ne:


46
!
f
fuel
+ f
sec
+ f
ox
=1 (53)

Nouelling a seconuaiy stieam anu the associateu tianspoit equations is
uesciibeu in full in the FL0ENT 0sei uuiue.

4.7 Doma|n
Nouelling a fluiu flow pioblem with a thiee-uimensional uomain pioviues the
most accuiate solution, howevei theie aie times when a two-uimensional
uomain may be moie appiopiiate uue to the simplei mesh setup anu smallei
computational times. Within Fluent theie aie seveial appioaches to mouelling a
two-uimensional (2B) uomain as is explaineu below.

4.7.1 1wo D|mens|ona|
The simplest foim of the two-uimensional uomain involves solving the 2B
Caiteisan foim of the goveining equations. The mouelleu uomain assumes plane
flow with a unit wiuth of one metie.

4.7.2 1wo D|mens|ona| Ax|symmetr|c
Axisymmetiic inuicates that the uomain is axisymmetiic about the : axis. When
axisymmetiic is enableu the 2B axisymmetiic foim of the goveining equations is
solveu insteau of the 2B Caitesian foim.

4.7.3 1wo D|mens|ona| Ax|symmetr|c w|th Sw|r|
This situation applies when the pioblem is axisymmetiic with iespect to
geometiy anu flow conuitions but still incluues swiil oi iotation. In this case the
flow can be mouelleu in 2B (i.e., by solving the axisymmetiic pioblem) but also
incluue the pieuiction of the ciicumfeiential (oi swiil) velocity. It is impoitant
to note that while the assumption of axisymmetiy implies that theie aie no
ciicumfeiential giauients in the flow, theie may still be non-zeio swiil velocities.

The tangential momentum equation foi 2B swiiling flows may be wiitten as


47
!
"
"t
(#w) +
1
r
"
"x
(r#uw) +
1
r
"
"r
(r#vw) =
1
r
"
"x
r
"w
"x
$
%
&
'
(
)
+
1
r
2
"
"r
r
3

"
"r
w
r
*
+
,
-
.
/
$
%
&
'
(
)
0 #
vw
r
(54)

wheie : is the axial cooiuinate, 5 is the iauial cooiuinate, ( is the axial velocity, ;
is the iauial velocity anu = is the swiil velocity.

4.8 Mesh
In oiuei to simulate the fluiu chaiacteiistics in a given flow uomain, the uomain
must be bioken uown into smallei sub-uomains, oi cells, to cieate a mesh. The
tianspoit equations aie then solveu foi each of these cells. Caie must be taken
uuiing mesh geneiation to ensuie that no gaps aie piesent between the cell faces
so that the uisciete solutions can be concatenateu togethei to piesent a complete
pictuie of the flow in the entiie uomain.

Theie aie thiee uiffeient types of mesh that can be geneiateu anu useu in CFB
coues, namely stiuctuieu, unstiuctuieu anu hybiiu meshes. Bybiiu meshes aie a
combination of stiuctuieu anu unstiuctuieu meshes anu aie intenueu to
incoipoiate the auvantages of both types anu excluue the uisauvantages.

Stiuctuieu meshes aie computationally moie efficient uuiing solving, use less
memoiy anu often pioviue gieatei accuiacy, howevei they can take a long time
to set up especially foi complex geometiy. 0nstiuctuieu meshes, howevei, aie
much simplei to set up anu offei gieatei flexibility in iepiesenting complex
geometiies, which often leaus to moie accuiate solvei iesults. The
uisauvantages of unstiuctuieu meshes aie that theie is a lack of usei contiol anu
they neeu moie memoiy uue to the stoiage of connectivity infoimation.

As with many paiameteis within a CFB simulation, the iueal mesh is not known
piioi to solving beginning. While expeiienceu CFB engineeis aie likely to be
well infoimeu on suitable mesh sizes, it is a common exeicise to peifoim a mesh
conveigence stuuy. A mesh conveigence stuuy involves iefining the mesh, eithei
thioughout the entiie uomain oi in specific aieas, until the peiceiveu accuiacy of


48
the solution conveiges to an acceptable eiioi level. As a mesh is iefineu the
computational cost incieases anu theiefoie a CFB engineei must finu a mesh that
has a feasible solve time while maintaining an acceptable level of accuiacy.

4.9 Convergence Cr|ter|on
Aftei ieviewing FL0ENT uocumentation anu pievious combustion mouelling
pioblems, a seiies of steps weie chosen that woulu be useu to ueteimine
whethei a coal combustion simulation hau ieacheu a conveigeu solution. This
set of conveigence ciiteiion, listeu below, was applieu to both the valiuation case
anu NcBonalu's Lime kiln simulations.
Incoming anu outgoing mass fluxes shoulu have an imbalance of less than
1%.
Incoming anu outgoing enthalpy fluxes shoulu have an imbalance of less
than S%.
values of tempeiatuie anu velocity monitoieu at uisciete points in the
flow uomain have conveigeu to a constant value. Small fluctuations will
be neglecteu.
The exit gas tempeiatuie has conveigeu to a constant value. Small
fluctuations will again be neglecteu.
Tianspoit equation iesiuuals aie of acceptable values anu aie not
uiveigent.
A minimum of 7u Bisciete Phase Nouel iteiations is peifoimeu to obtain
conveigeu paiticle tiajectoiy calculations.
Theie is less than S% incomplete paiticle tiacking.
A uecision is maue as to whethei a mouel is conveigeu aftei taking into account
all of the above consiueiations.

S Va||dat|on Case
Computational Fluiu Bynamics (CFB) has become an incieuibly populai tool
thioughout the engineeiing community as it is an easy anu convenient way of
investigating fluiu flow chaiacteiistics, without having to caiiy out cumbeisome,
anu often impiactical, expeiimental tests. Bowevei, it is ciucial that the accuiacy
of any CFB coue is ueteimineu befoie being implementeu as a ieseaich anu
uesign tool. The following chaptei focuses on valiuating the accuiacy of FL0ENT
foi mouelling combustion applications such as the opeiation of a iotaiy lime
kiln. This is achieveu by compaiing publisheu expeiimental measuiements to
the iesults of numeiical simulations peifoimeu by FL0ENT. Fuitheimoie, the
valiuation stuuy investigates the effects of uiffeient combustion sub mouels, anu
methous foi uefining the paiticle size uistiibution of pulveiiseu coal. The best
pioceuuie foi solving a combustion mouel with FL0ENT is also exploieu.

The valiuation stuuy is baseu on a 2.SNW aeiouynamically aii stageu buinei
(AASB), fiiing a type two, pulveiiseu coal flame into the Inteinational Flame
Reseaich Founuations (IFRF) No. 1 Fuinace (Figuie 14 & Figuie 1S).
Expeiimental measuiements aie obtaineu fiom a papei by Peteis anu Webei
(1996), uuiing which the authois compaie the measuiements to the iesults of
theii own combustion mouelling coue. The papei pioviues measuieu in-flame
tempeiatuies, chemical species concentiations, anu coal buinout at seven
tiaveises within the fuinace. velocity anu tuibulence measuiements aie given
at foui tiaveises; iauiative heat fluxes neai the fuinace iefiactoiy aie pioviueu,
as well as the heat extiaction of the seven cooling loops insiue the fuinace.

Fuithei assistance was gaineu fiom Eastwick, Pickeing anu Aioussi (1999) who
useu the same expeiimental measuiements to compaie the valiuity anu accuiacy
of an eailiei veision of FL0ENT with anothei commeicial CFB coue, FL0WSB
(now CFX). A FL0ENT tutoiial, which uses the IFRF fuinace to uemonstiate coal
combustion mouelling using the Finite Rate chemistiy mouel, was also consulteu.


Su

D/*61( 4BP 9"G(+2,/" %O 5D@D D61$2"( !M&<&4: B "&N&4) 5--L.8

D/*61( 4IP d61$(1 C%$O/*612,/%$ !M&<&4: B "&N&4) 5--L.8
S.1 Cperat|ng Cond|t|ons
The opeiating conuitions of the IFRF Fuinace weie piimaiily extiacteu fiom the
papei wiitten by Peteis anu Webei (1996), with auuitional iefeience maue to
the coal combustion tutoiial fiom FL0ENT.



S1
S.1.1 Coa| ropert|es
The IFRF Fuinace was fiieu using a pulveiiseu Saai Coal: uottelboin hvBb. Table
4 uetails the chemical piopeities of the Saai coal while Table S contains
infoimation about the coal paiticle size.
V20'( BP CG(+/"2' Y1%:(1,/(- %O ,G( 9221 "%2' !M&<&4 B "&N&4) 5--L.8
Y1%X/+2,( !$2'H-/- N(/*G, e[ E1H
volatile mattei S7.4
Fixeu Caibon S4.S
Ash 8.S
Z',/+2,( !$2'H-/- N(/*G, e[ E!D
Caibon 8u.S6
Byuiogen S.u8
Nitiogen 1.4S
Sulphui u.94
0xygen 12.17
;,G(1 Y1%:(1,/(-
LCv (N}kg BAF) S2.S2
Bensity (kgm
S
, uiy) 1uuu
Specific Beat (}kg.K, uiy) 11uu

V20'( IP 9/]( )/-,1/06,/%$ %O :6'3(1/-() 9221 "%2' !OKP?P) +,,6.7
9/(3( !$2'H-/- E/2+(,(1 F2-- e
1 1 m 1
2 S m 4
S 1u m 7
4 2S m 24
S Su m S2
6 7S m 19
7 1uu m 8
8 2uu m 4
9 Suu m 1
@%-/$^ @2++'(1 Y212+(,(1-
Ninimuim Biametei 1 m
Naximum Biametei Suu m
Nean Biametei 4S m
Spieau Paiametei 1.29


S2
b%,(P Theie is a slight uisciepancy between the spieau paiametei pioviueu in
the papei by Peteis anu Webei anu that calculateu fiom the sieve-type analysis
pioviueu in the FL0ENT tutoiial. All othei vaiiables listeu in the two uocuments
aie the same, howevei, anu theie is negligible uiffeience between iesults
obtaineu using the two uiffeient spieau paiameteis.

S.1.2 Mater|a| ropert|es
Table 6 on the following page lists the mateiial piopeity settings in FL0ENT foi
the gaseous mixtuie anu the combusting coal paiticle, all of which aie baseu on
the settings of the FL0ENT tutoiial useu as a guiue.
V20'( LP J2'/)2,/%$ "2-( +2,(1/2' :1%:(1,/(-
D'6/) F/X,61(
Specific Beat mixing-law
Theimal Conuuctivity u.u2S Wm.K
viscosity 2e-uS kgm.s
Absoiption Coefficient
Weighteu Sum of uiey uases Nouel -
cell baseu
Scatteiing Coefficient u.S m
-1

Scatteiing Phase Function Isotiopic
Refiactive Inuex 1
C%+06-,/$* Y21,/"'(
Bensity 1Suu kgm
S

Cp 1uuu }kg.K
Theimal Conuuctivity u.u4S4 kgm.s
Latent Beat u }kg
vapoiisation Temp Suu K
Binaiy Biffusivity u.uuuS
Paiticle Emissivity u.9
Swelling Coefficient 1
Bevolatilisation Nouel
Single
A = 1uuuuu
E = 7.4 x 1u
7
jkgmol
Combustion Nouel
KineticsBiffusion-Limiteu
Rate Constant = S x 1u
-12

Pie-Exponential Factoi = u.uu2
Activation Eneigy = 7.9 x1u
7
jkgmol




SS
S.1.3 In|et Cond|t|ons
The inlet conuitions of the buinei aie listeu in Table 7. The combustion aii flow
iate of 2684 kgh, tianspoit aii flow iate of 421 kgh anu the coal flow iate of
26S kgh pioviue the buinei with a theoietical fuel theimal input of 2.16S NW
anu an excess aii level of 22%. When the sensible heat flow iates of the
combustion aii, tianspoit aii anu coal aie also consiueieu the oveiall theimal
input to the fuinace becomes 2.S86 NW.
V20'( =P d61$(1 5$:6, C%$)/,/%$- !M&<&4 B "&N&4) 5--L.8
C%+06-,/%$ !/1 5$'(,
Nass flow iate (Biy) u.74S6 kghoui
Inlet aiea 2.7611 x 1u
-2
m
2

Tempeiatuie S7S.1S K
Bensity u.616 kgm
S

Nean axial velocity 4S.8S ms
Nean swiil velocity 49.42 ms
Tuibulence intensity 2u%
Chaiacteiistic length 2S.S mm
V12$-:%1, !/1 2$) C%2' 5$'(,
Coal mass flow iate (Biy) u.u7S1 kghoui (Suiface Injection)
Aii mass flow iate (Biy) u.1169 kghoui
Inlet aiea 4.9417 x 1u-
S
m
2

Tempeiatuie S4S.1S K
Bensity 1.u28 kgm
S

Nean Axial velocity 2S.u2 ms
Tuibulent Intensity 1u%
Chaiacteiistic length 6.S mm

S.1.4 Wa|| 8oundary Cond|t|ons
The seven cooling loops weie each mouelleu as a 24umm wiue section aiounu
the fuinace wall. While not tiuly iepiesentative of the ieal cooling loop
geometiy this methou simplifies mesh geneiation anu pioviues the same suiface
aiea in oiuei to ieplicate the heat extiaction of the loops. Fuithei theimal
bounuaiy conuitions aie listeu in Table 8V



S4
V20'( AP F%)(' ,G(1+2' 0%6$)21H "%$)/,/%$- !M&<&4 B "&N&4) 5--L.8
d%6$)21H V(+:(12,61( SUT W+/--/3/,H
Inlet uuct walls S4SS7S u.6
Coal gun fiont wall 8uu u.6
Buinei quail wall 127S u.6
Fuinace fiont wall 14uu u.S
Fuinace cylinuei wall 14uu u.S
Cooling loops 1uuu u.4
Fuinace back wall 1Suu u.S
Chimney wall 1Suu u.S

S.1.S 8uoyancy
The Richaiuson numbei foi the tuibulent flame insiue the IFRF Fuinace was
calculateu to be appioximately u.uuS anu theiefoie any effects of buoyancy aie
consiueieu negligible baseu on the explanation pioviueu in the Liteiatuie
Review.

S.1.6 So|ut|on rocedure
0sing the valiuation case, a stuuy was unueitaken to finu the best combustion
mouelling pioceuuie that woulu leau to the fastest conveigence. The same
methou also pioveu veiy effective when solving the NcBonalu's Lime kiln
simulations. The solution pioceuuie useu thioughout the CFB mouelling
piesenteu in this thesis is uetaileu in Table 9, while Table 1u lists the unuei-
ielaxation factois foi each step.

Buiing the initial setup the coal uevolatilisation tempeiatuie shoulu be set to
~2uuK below the seconuaiy aii tempeiatuie, both in the mateiials panel anu
when cieating the PBF table. The uevolatilisation tempeiatuie is loweieu to
begin with anu then once the flame is establisheu it shoulu be incieaseu to the
coiiect value.





SS
V20'( KP CDE 9%'6,/%$ Y1%"()61(
9VWY 4P Z$1(2",/3( D'%& 5,(12,/%$-
Tuin off PBF equations anu uisciete phase inteiaction. >MM
9VWY 8P 5*$/,( D'2+(
Tuin on PBF equations anu uisciete phase inteiaction.
Patch a high tempeiatuie to the flame iegion.
4
9VWY >P @(2",/3( D'%&
Set the numbei of continuous phase iteiations pei uisciete
phase iteiation to Su.
>MM
9VWY BP @2)/2,/%$ F%)('
Tuin on Bisciete 0iuinates iauiation mouel (incluuing paiticle
iauiation ineiaction).
IMM
9VWY IP E/-"1(,/]2,/%$ 9"G(+(
Change uiscietization scheme to Seconu 0iuei 0pwinu foi all
equations, except Bisciete 0iuinates which is left as Fiist 0iuei
>MM
9VWY LP C%$3(1*() F%)('
Set the coal uevolatilisation tempeiatuie to the coiiect value.
This iequiies a new PBF table.
Z$,/'
C%$3(1*()


V20'( 4MP Z$)(1^1('2X2,/%$ 9(,,/$*-
Z@D 4 8 > B I L
Piessuie u.S u.S u.S u.S u.S u.S
Bensity u.S u.S u.S u.S u.S u.S
Bouy Foices 1 1 1 1 1 1
Nomentum u.7 u.7 u.7 u.7 u.7 u.7
Tuibulent Kinetic Eneigy u.7 u.7 u.7 u.7 u.6 u.6
Tuibulent Bissipation Rate u.7 u.7 u.7 u.7 u.6 u.6
Tuibulent viscosity 1 1 1 1 1 1
Eneigy 1 u.9S u.9S u.9S u.8 u.8
Tempeiatuie 1 1 1 1 u.8 u.8
Bisciete 0iuinates 1 1 1 1 1 1
Nean Nixtuie Fiaction 1 1 1 1 u.8 u.8
Seconuaiy Nean Nixtuie Fiaction u.9 u.9 u.9 u.9 u.7 u.7
Nixtuie Fiaction vaiiance 1 1 1 1 u.8 u.8
Seconuaiy Nixtuie Fiaction vaiiance u.9 u.9 u.9 u.9 u.7 u.7
Bisciete Phase Souices - 1 u.1 u.1 u.1 u.1



S6
S.2 Mesh
A thiee-uimensional, quaitei-geometiy mesh containing S2,uuu tetiaheuial cells
was initially constiucteu using uambit. As with any CFB simulation, it is
impoitant to unueitake a giiu-inuepenuence stuuy to asceitain the accuiacy of a
mesh. Theiefoie, aftei iunning a basic coal combustion simulation with the
initial mesh, thiee fuithei meshes weie geneiateu using the giauient auaption
tool in FL0ENT. Nesh iefinements weie maue in aieas of high velocity anu
tempeiatuie giauients to piouuce meshes with 114,uuu, 22u,uuu anu 44u,uuu
cells iespectively.

To check the mesh inuepenuence two lines weie cieateu on the foui iespective
meshes at consistent aibitiaiy points. Both lines weie situateu on one siue of
the quaitei-uomain geometiy (ie, on the miu plane). The two lines weie u.2S
meties anu 1.2S meties iespectively fiom the buinei quail outlet. Axial velocity
anu tempeiatuie piofiles weie obtaineu at each line foi the foui meshes anu
combineu in Niciosoft Excel to allow foi investigation of the mesh inuepenuence.

D/*61( 4LP 9G%&- '%"2,/%$ %O ,G( ,&% '/$(- 6-() O%1 /$3(-,/*2,/$* +(-G /$)(:($)($"(7


Line 2 Line 1
1250 mm
250 mm


S7

D/*61( 4=P !X/2' 3('%"/,H :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 4 O%1 ,G( IA[MMM "('' S!T[ 44B[MM "('' S!T[ 88M[MMM "('' S!T
2$) BBM[MMM "('' S!T +(-G(-7



D/*61( 4AP !X/2' 3('%"/,H :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 8 O%1 ,G( IA[MMM "('' S!T[ 44B[MM "('' S!T[ 88M[MMM "('' S!T
2$) BBM[MMM "('' S!T +(-G(-7

u
u.2
u.4
u.6
u.8
1
-S u S 1u 1S 2u 2S Su SS 4u 4S
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

O
6
1
$
2
"
(

"
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

S
+
T

J('%"/,H S+f-T
u
u.2
u.4
u.6
u.8
1
-S u S 1u 1S 2u 2S Su
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

O
6
1
$
2
"
(

"
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

S
+
T

J('%"/,H S+f-T


S8

D/*61( 4KP V(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 4 O%1 ,G( IA[MMM "('' S!T[ 44B[MM "('' S!T[ 88M[MMM "('' S!T
2$) BBM[MMM "('' S!T +(-G(-7



D/*61( 8MP V(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 8 O%1 ,G( IA[MMM "('' S!T[ 44B[MM "('' S!T[ 88M[MMM "('' S!T
2$) BBM[MMM "('' S!T +(-G(-7


u
u.2
u.4
u.6
u.8
1
12uu 1Suu 14uu 1Suu 16uu 17uu 18uu 19uu 2uuu 21uu
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

O
6
1
$
2
"
(

"
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

S
+
T

V(+:(12,61( SUT
u
u.2
u.4
u.6
u.8
1
12uu 1Suu 14uu 1Suu 16uu 17uu 18uu 19uu 2uuu 21uu
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

O
6
1
$
2
"
(

"
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

S
+
T

V(+:(12,61( SUT


S9
Figuie 17 anu Figuie 18 show velocity piofiles of each mesh at Lines 1 anu 2.
Refinements of the oiiginal mesh in aieas of high velocity giauient aie seen to
have a notable effect on the velocity piofiles; howevei theie is little uiffeience
between the two laigei meshes. The same situation is seen in the tempeiatuie
piofiles of Figuie 19 anu Figuie 2u, especially close to the buinei outlet. The
mesh inuepenuence stuuy has shown that the 22u,uuu cell mesh is the most
suitable foi investigating the IFRF fuinace pioviuing an accuiate iesult while
using minimal computational iesouices.

S.3 re||m|nary Stud|es
The fiist stage of the valiuation case involveu investigating the sensitivity of
uiffeient paiameteis anu sub mouels useu foi coal combustion simulations in
FL0ENT. vaiiations in the chemistiy anu uevolatilisation sub mouels anu the
way in which the coal paiticle size is uefineu all ietuineu inteiesting iesults, as
explaineu in the following sections
.
S.3.1 Coa| S|ze D|str|but|on
Simulations of the valiuation case weie iun with the size uistiibution of the
pulveiiseu coal injections uefineu in two uiffeient ways, albeit foi the same coal
sample. In the fiist case multiple injections weie useu, with each injection
having a uiffeient unifoim paiticle size. This essentially meant taking the sieve
analysis uata fiom Table S anu setting an injection foi each sieve size, with the
coiiesponuing uiametei anu mass flow iate. In the seconu case a single injection
was useu with a Rosin Rammlei uistiibution baseu on the same sieve analysis
uata. The centieline tempeiatuie piofile foi each case is shown in Figuie 21,
plotteu against the expeiimental measuiements. The species tianspoit appioach
to combustion chemistiy was useu in this compaiison.


6u

D/*61( 84P C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'( %O ,G( 5D@D D61$2"( O%1g (X:(1/+($,2' 1(-6',- S"T[
+6',/:'( /$<(",/%$- &/,G 2 6$/O%1+ -/]( )/-,1/06,/%$ S!T[ 2$) -/$*'( /$<(",/%$ &/,G 2 @%-/$^@2++'(1
)/-,1/06,/%$ S!T
Insiue the buinei iegion neithei of the two simulations piesenteu in Figuie 21
piouuces an accuiate iepiesentation of the ieal fuinace. Fuithei uownstieam
howevei the multiple injection case simulates the ieal fuinace veiy well.
Neanwhile the single Rosin-Rammlei injection case ietuins a centieline
tempeiatuie piofile that is 1uu-2uuK hottei than the expeiimental
measuiements.

These finuings suggest that foi futuie woik it woulu be best to use multiple
unifoimeu sizeu injections when mouelling pulveiiseu coal combustion as they
ietuin the most accuiate iesult. Bowevei, foi the case of the NcBonalu's Lime
iotaiy kiln, the sieve analysis uata is of iathei pooi quality with neaily S7% of
the aveiage sample's mass passing thiough the smallest SS m sieve. Theiefoie
the authoi felt it woulu be best to use a Rosin Rammlei uistiibution to ensuie
auequate iepiesentation of the iange of small paiticles. Futuie woik will look at
obtaining a moie accuiate sieve analysis of the pulveiiseu coal piouuceu at
NcBonalu's Lime.

1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
22uu
-u.S u u.S 1 1.S 2 2.S
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

!X/2' E/-,2$"( O1%+ h621' ;6,'(, S+T


61
Suggestions have howevei been maue that the inaccuiacies seen when using a
Rosin Rammlei paiticle size uistiibution may have aiisen uue to an inauequate
amount of iepiesentative paiticle uiameteis being useu foi the coal paiticle
injection. Time constiaints meant that this issue was not fuithei investigateu
anu theiefoie it is iecommenueu that if woik continues on the cuiient pioject
the setup of paiticle injections with a Rosin Rammlei size uistiibution be
investigateu.

S.3.2 Devo|at|||sat|on Sub-Mode|s
Compaiisons weie maue between the single kinetic iate anu constant iate
uevolatilisation mouels. Paiameteis foi the single iate mouel weie taken
uiiectly fiom the papei of Peteis anu Webei (1996). Foi the constant iate mouel
a constant of Su s
-1
was useu which was the setting useu in the FL0ENT tutoiial
that has been iefeiieu to. The centieline tempeiatuie piofile foi each case is
shown in Figuie 22, plotteu against the expeiimental measuiements. The
species tianspoit appioach was again useu in this compaiison.

D/*61( 88P C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'( %O ,G( 5D@D D61$2"( O%1g (X:(1/+($,2' 1(-6',- S"T[ -/$*'(^
12,( )(3%'2,/'/-2,/%$ +%)(' S!T[ 2$) "%$-,2$, 12,( SO,iIMT )(3%'2,/'/-2,/%$ +%)(' S!T7
Figuie 22 shows that the constant iate mouel ietuins the most accuiate
iepiesentation of the ieal fuinace anu thus all futuie mouelling useu this
uevolatilisation mouel.

1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
22uu
-u.S u u.S 1 1.S 2 2.S
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

!X/2' E/-,2$"( O1%+ h621' ;6,'(, S+T


62
S.3.3 Combust|on Sub-Mode|s
At the veiy beginning of the cuiient pioject a significant amount of time was
spent iesolving which woulu be the best combustion chemistiy appioach to use;
species tianspoit oi mixtuie fiactionPBF. As a iesult a stuuy was unueitaken
to compaie the uiffeiences between the two appioaches. The stuuy piimaiily
focuseu on the valiuation case, howevei mouels weie also iun on the SB Kiln
Two mesh, at which point pioblems such as slow conveigence anu even
uiveigence weie encounteieu when using the species tianspoit appioach. This
pioblem was put uown to the high computational expense neeueu to solve the
many tianspoit equations of the species tianspoit mouel. In compaiison, the
mixtuie fiactionPBF appioach woikeu veiy well on the SB Kiln Two mesh anu
theiefoie this mouel was useu foi all futuie mouelling.

In spite of the neeu to use the mixtuie fiactionPBF appioach foi mouelling the
NcBonalu's Lime kiln, a compaiison of the two combustion chemistiy mouels
has been peifoimeu using the IFRF fuinace. The centieline tempeiatuie piofile
foi each case is shown in Figuie 2S, plotteu against the expeiimental
measuiements. Both mouels use the constant iate uevolatilisation mouel anu
multiples unifoim sizeu injections.

D/*61( 8>P C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'( %O ,G( 5D@D D61$2"( O%1g (X:(1/+($,2' 1(-6',- S"T[ ,G(
+/X,61( O12",/%$fYED 2::1%2"G S!T[ 2$) ,G( -:("/(- ,12$-:%1, 2::1%2"G S!T7
1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
22uu
-u.S u u.S 1 1.S 2 2.S
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

!X/2' E/-,2$"( O1%+ h621' ;6,'(, S+T


6S
As shown pieviously, the species tianspoit mouel accuiately uuplicates the
expeiimental measuiements, except in the neai buinei iegion. The mixtuie
fiactionPBF mouel is less accuiate in the poition of the kiln that has
expeiimental measuiements iecoiueu; howevei well uownstieam theie appeais
to be ieasonable agieement between the two mouels.

The authoi suggests that the mixtuie fiactionPBF appioach may not cope with
swiiling flow as well as the species tianspoit appioach. As will be seen latei in
the velocity contoui plots, the intensity of the swiiling flow uiminishes
uownstieam of the buinei anu this may be a ieason foi the accuiacy of the
mixtuie fiactionPBF appioach impioving. Theie is little eviuence to suppoit
this theoiy howevei anu theiefoie it is a suggestion that futuie woik may
investigate the peifoimance of the two combustion chemistiy appioaches foi
both swiil anu non-swiil buineis.

S.3.4 McDona|ds L|me k||n mode|||ng approach
As a iesult of the pieliminaiy valiuation case investigations it was ueciueu that
futuie mouelling of the NcBonalu's Lime iotaiy kiln woulu be conuucteu using
the mixtuie fiactionPBF appioach to combustion chemistiy, the constant iate
uevolatilisation mouel anu a single paiticle injection with a Rosin Rammlei size
uistiibution. Figuie 24 shows a plot of the centie line tempeiatuie piofile using
these submouels, plotteu against the expeiimental iesults. Subsequent sections
of this chaptei will continue to investigate the valiuity of ieplicating pulveiiseu
coal combustion using FL0ENT anu the chosen sub mouels.


64

D/*61( 8BP C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'( %O ,G( 5D@D D61$2"( O%1 ,G( (X:(1/+($,2' 1(-6',- S"T[ 2$)
+/X,61( O12",/%$fYED 2::1%2"G &/,G @%-/$ @2++'(1 :21,/"'( -/]( )/-,1/06,/%$ 2$) "%$-,2$, 12,(
)(3%'2,/'/-2,/%$ +%)(' S!T7
S.4 Ca|cu|ated kesu|ts Versus Measurements
This section fully investigates the accuiacy of FL0ENT foi mouelling pulveiiseu
coal combustion, using the sub mouels uetaileu in the pievious section.
Tempeiatuies, velocities anu species concentiations of the valiuation case aie
investigateu befoie a conclusion is maue about the valiuity of fuithei mouelling.

S.4.1 Mode| ke||ab|||ty
The fiist path towaius pioviuing an accuiate mouel is foi FL0ENT to have
acceptable mass anu eneigy balances. The theimal input foi the oveiall eneigy
balance consists of the sensible heat flow iates of the tianspoit aii, combustion
aii anu coal anu the oveiall heat ielease iates of the combusting coal. The
theimal output of the eneigy balance consists of the convective anu iauiative
heat tiansfei iates to the walls anu cooling loops, anu the sensible heat flow iate
of the flue gas at the outlet. Figuie 2S piesents a uiagiam highlighting each of
the components of heat anu mass tiansfei, while Table 11 pioviues an oveiall
summaiy.
1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
22uu
-u.S u u.S 1 1.S 2 2.S
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

!X/2' E/-,2$"( O1%+ h621' ;6,'(, S+T


6S

D/*61( 8IP 5D@D O61$2"( +2-- 2$) ($(1*H O'%&-7 F2-- O'%& 12,(- 21( /$ #*f- 2$) ($(1*H O'%& 12,(-
21( /$ #N7
V20'( 44P D61$2"( F%)(''/$* @(-6',-
F2-- d2'2$"(
In u.9229 kgs
0ut u.9226 kgs
W$(1*H d2'2$"(
In 2S78 kW
0ut 2411 kW
BPN Enthalpy Souice -17.7 kW
Continuous Phase Imbalance -18.7 kW

The incoming anu outgoing mass anu eneigy flows aie seen to balance veiy well
with imbalances of only u.uS% anu 1.4%, iespectively. The theimal input fiom
the coal in the FL0ENT simulation is 2164 kW, which compaies well to the
theoietical input of 216S kW. 0veiall, it is consiueieu that the cuiient mouel
ietuins an accuiate anu balanceu solution anu theiefoie will be useu foi
valiuation of FL0ENT foi combustion mouelling.

Theie is a commonly iecogniseu way to check the eneigy balance of a simulation
that is much simplei than analysing the total eneigy in anu out of a system, as
has been uone above. This methou involves compaiing the BPN Enthalpy Souice
anu the total imbalance of the continuous phase. If the uiffeience between the
two values is small (<S%), as is the case above, then the system is consiueieu
balanceu. This is the piocess useu to check the eneigy imbalance of all futuie
mouels.



66

S.4.2 1emperature rof||es



D/*61( 8L S2T j SOTP F(2-61() 2$) "2'"6'2,() ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- 2, -/X ,123(1-(- /$ ,G( 5D@D
O61$2"(7
The veitical tempeiatuie piofiles highlight the same tienus seen eailiei in the
centieline piofile compaiisons. Close to the buinei theie is little agieement
between expeiimental anu numeiical iesults. Bownstieam the numeiical iesults
uemonstiate a similai tienu to the expeiimental iesults howevei they aie
consistently 1uu-2uuK hottei. The numeiical iesults also appeai to have laigei
tempeiatuie giauients when moving iauially outwais in compaiison to the
measuieu uata.


67
S.4.3 Ve|oc|ty rof||es




D/*61( 8= S2T j SGTP F(2-61() 2$) "2'"6'2,() 3('%"/,H :1%O/'(- 2, (/*G, ,123(1-(- /$ ,G( 5D@D O61$2"(7


68
When compaiing the pieuicteu anu expeiimental velocity piofiles it can be
concluueu that FL0ENT pieuicts the axial velocity fielu with iespectable
accuiacy in the neai buinei iegion. Fuithei uownstieam howevei the iesults
uiffei slightly moie with FL0ENT ovei pieuicting the axial velocity in the iegion
close to the kiln centie line anu thus unuei pieuicting the size of the inteinal
ieciiculation zone (IRZ). A sensitivity stuuy of the uevolatilisation mouel anu its
iate constants founu that the flow fielu is affecteu by the iate of volatile ielease
anu that by slowing the ielease iate of volatiles the IRZ incieases in size anu the
axial velocity fielu can be matcheu moie accuiately to the expeiimental iesults.
This is, howevei, at the expense of cieating a tempeiatuie piofile that is
incieuibly inaccuiate.

While the swiil velocity is mouelleu with acceptable accuiacy, it is slightly unuei
pieuicteu in the neai buinei iegion. Fuithei uownstieam theie is bettei
agieement between the two sets of iesults, with the exception of the
measuiement closest to the fuinace centieline at 3 = u.Sum. This single point
uoes not appeai to follow the tienu in tangential velocity shown by all the othei
measuiements anu theiefoie little notice is taken of it. 0veiall it is thought that
FL0ENT pioviues a goou iepiesentation of the flow fielu in the test case fuinace.

The inaccuiacy in the swiil velocity estimations close to the buinei may be uue
to the LBv technique useu foi velocity measuiement. Webei, Bugue, Sayie anu
vissei (1992) aigueu that the high viscosity of the hot flue gas anu a laige
numbei of small paiticles (<Sm) iesult in a veiy high piobability that the
uetecteu LBv signals uo iepiesent the gas velocity, with the exception of the
close vicinity of the coal injectoi.


69
S.4.4 Spec|es rof||es
0xygen anu Caibon Bioxiue concentiations aie compaieu at seven tiaveises in
the IFRF Fuinace.






7u


D/*61( 8AP S2T j SGTP F(2-61() 2$) "2'"6'2,() ;XH*($ 2$) C210%$ E/%X/)( "%$"($,12,/%$ "%$,%61- 2,
(/*G, ,123(1-(- /$ ,G( 5D@D O61$2"(7
The species piofiles show the oxygen to be consistently unuei pieuicteu in the
flame iegion close to the kiln centieline. Neanwhile the Caibon Bioxiue is unuei
pieuicteu up to 3 = u.8Sm befoie being ovei pieuicteu fuithei uownstieam.
Theie aie a numbei of ieasons as to why the "2 coulu be unuei pieuicteu neai
the fuinace centieline. 0ne possibility is that the volatiles aie being ieleaseu too
fast. As the volatiles aie ieleaseu the oxygen being uiawn inwaius by the
swiiling flow is quickly consumeu as the volatiles oxiuise anu piouuce heat. In
contiast this theoiy woulu suggest that an ovei pieuiction of oxygen woulu be
seen neai the cential axis when the volatile ielease iate is too slow, anu oxygen
uiffuses inwaius fastei than the iate at which it is consumeu. Baving a gieatei
oxygen concentiation in the cential iegion may also leau to gieatei chai
combustion in the same aiea. If this was to occui it may even out the spike in
tempeiatuie that occuis in the sheai iegion as can be seen in the tempeiatuie
piofiles. The uefault uevolatilisation iate of Su s
-1
was howevei useu foi the
valiuation case, anu consequently fuithei mouelling, as it pioviueu the best
iepiesentation of measuieu uata anu confoimeu to Peteis anu Webeis (1996)
anu Webei et al's (199S) explanation of uevolatilisation chaiacteiistics. These


71
authois piopose that a high volatile bitumous coal uoes not ielease any volatile
mattei into the gaseous phase until the paiticle has ieacheu Suu
o
C anu then at a
tempeiatuie of 1uuu
o
C all iemaining volatiles aie ieleaseu. It was foi this ieason
that the uevolatilisation tempeiatuie is set at Suu
o
C. Insiue the quail zone of the
IFRF Fuinace, tempeiatuies in excess of 12uu
o
C aie seen suggesting that the
tempeiatuie at the exit of the buinei annulus is close to 1uuu
o
C. Theiefoie it is
most likely that the volatile mattei is ieleaseu insiue the quail iegion, close to
the buinei annulus.

Anothei factoi that coulu leau to uisciepancies in the oxygen anu caibon uioxiue
pieuictions is that the ieaction
!
CO+ OH "CO
2
+ H (55)

is not consiueieu by FL0ENT in the combustion piocess. The ieaction shown is
consiueieu to be of gieat significance in the ieaction of hyuiocaibon fuels anu
even to be piefeiieu ovei the ieaction of !" anu "2, especially ovei tempeiatuies
of 1uuuK (Peteis & Webei, 1996)V If the ieaction was consiueieu by FL0ENT
then immeuiately theie woulu be less !" piesent anu a gieatei !"2
concentiation in the iegion wheie combustion is taking place. At the same time
moie theie woulu be a gieatei concentiation of "2 piesent with "R being the
favouieu ieactant. The inclusion of this ieaction may help biing the species
concentiation pieuictions in line with the expeiimental iesults.

S.S Conc|us|on
0veiall it is concluueu that FL0ENT is a suitable piogiam foi CFB mouelling of
combustion in the NcBonalu's Lime iotaiy kiln. The species tianspoit appioach
to combustion chemistiy was seen to ietuin the most accuiate numeiical iesults,
howevei the mixtuie fiactionPBF appioach will be useu foi futuie mouelling of
Kiln Two uue to its computational efficiency.



72
Compaiisons weie maue at seveial tiaveises in the IFRF Fuinace between
expeiimental measuiements anu numeiical iesults obtaineu using the mixtuie
fiactionPBF appioach to combustion chemistiy. Tempeiatuie piofiles
highlighteu the same tienus, howevei they weie up to 2uuK uiffeient in some
aieas. Both the axial anu tangential velocity piofiles coiielateu well with the
expeiimental measuiements howevei the numeiical mouel was seen to
unueiestimate the inteinal ieciiculation zone. Theie weie some uisciepancies
seen in the species concentiation compaiisons, howevei these aie likely uue to
the way FL0ENT hanules the species ieaction piocesses.

In futuie it is felt that it woulu be beneficial to finu a valiuation case without a
swiil buinei anu investigate the way in which the two combustion chemistiy
mouels hanule both swiiling anu non-swiiling flow. It is also thought that the
cuiient case coulu be enhanceu with fuithei investigation anu aujustment of the
many combustion-mouelling paiameteis.


6 Cperat|ng Cond|t|ons
In oiuei to uevelop a numeiical mouel of Kiln Two at Ncuonalu's Lime it was
necessaiy to captuie the opeiating conuitions such as flow iates, tempeiatuies
anu fuel composition. The opeiating conuitions obtaineu weie baseu on aveiage
values anu weie thus useu to uevelop a 'contiol' numeiical simulation. The
subsequent ieseaich into the peifoimance of Kiln Two involveu making small
changes to the contiol case to investigate how uiffeient paiameteis affect the
combustion chaiacteiistics.

Wheie possible the opeiating conuitions have been obtaineu fiom existing
piouuction logs, anu in this case aveiages weie taken foi a thiee-month peiiou.
Theie weie instances, howevei, wheie to obtain a suitably accuiate mouel, new
equipment was installeu to captuie pieviously unknown opeiating conuitions.
In these situations, multiple samplesmeasuiements weie taken to ensuie an
accuiate iepiesentation of the iequiieu paiametei was obtaineu.

6.1 Mode|||ng 8ounds
To fully mouel the expansive Kiln Two system fiom the piouuct coolei to smoke
stack woulu iequiie a veiy complex CAB mouel, an enoimous mesh anu the
incoipoiation of many moving paits such as fans, conveyois anu cyclones.
Consequently the mouelleu flow uomain focuses on the cylinuiical kiln section
wheie combustion is taking place. The mouelling bounus, as shown in Figuie 29,
aie also extenueu to incluue the tiansfei chute anu fiiing hoou, iegions that aie
though likely to influence the flow fielu thiough the kiln.

The mouelleu uomain consists of two velocity inlets anu two piessuie outlets.
Piimaiy aii enteis the uomain thiough the single tube buinei pipe while
seconuaiy, pieheateu, combustion aii enteis thiough the bounuaiy at the top of
the piouuct coolei. A small poition of seconuaiy aii, extiacteu foi use in the coal


74
mill, exits the flow uomain at the top of the fiiing hoou. All the combustion gases
anu any excess aii exit the mouelleu uomain at the tiansfei chute bounuaiy.

D/*61( 8KP 9"G(+2,/" %O U/'$ V&% G/*G'/*G,/$* 0%6$)21/(- %O ,G( CDE +%)(''/$*7

D/*61( >MP YG%,%- %O ,G( D/1/$* c%%) S'(O,T 2$) V12$-O(1 CG6,( S1/*G,T 2, (/,G(1 ($) %O ,G( "H'/$)1/"2'
#/'$ -(",/%$7


7S
6.2 Wa|| 8oundary Cond|t|ons
CFB mouelling of Kiln Two is limiteu to the inteinal flow uomain anu theiefoie
appiopiiate bounuaiy conuitions must be applieu to account foi the actual
conuitions at the bounuing walls. As the thickness anu mateiial type of the walls
vaiies significantly thioughout the kiln system, the walls of the mouelleu uomain
have piimaiily been split into thiee uistinct aieas, as listeu below, in oiuei to
simplify the mesh builuing piocess, setup time anu solve time. Fuitheimoie, the
woik piesenteu in this thesis is focusseu on compaiing the flame chaiacteiistics
foi uiffeient fuels anu aii flow iates. Theie is little focus on heat tiansfei to the
walls anu theiefoie it is not ueemeu necessaiy to implement highly accuiate wall
bounuaiy conuitions, especially in the fiiing hoou anu tiansfei chute aieas.
1. Fiiing BoouCoolei
2. Cylinuiical Kiln
S. Tiansfei Chute
The Fiiing BoouCoolei iegion has a tempeiatuie bounuaiy conuition that is the
same tempeiatuie as the seconuaiy combustion aii that flows thiough it (712K).
The Cylinuiical Kiln section has a convective bounuaiy conuition applieu that is
mouifieu fiom the tiue wall piopeities in oiuei to account foi the eneigy that is
absoibeu by the calcinating lime beu in the ieal kiln. The application of this
bounuaiy conuition is explaineu in moie uepth in the next section of this
chaptei. The Tiansfei Chute aiea again has a tempeiatuie bounuaiy conuition,
set as the aveiage tempeiatuie of the exit gas (1281K) anu the incoming
limestone (1u2SK). Auutionally the giating anu bullnose have a zeio heat flux
bounuaiy conuition, while the buinei pipe wall is set to the tempeiatuie of the
fluiu flowing thiough it.

In auuition to applying a convective coefficient to the wall bounuaiy, an
emissivity has been chosen baseu on the wall mateiial. The thiee uiffeient
emissivities useu uuiing the cuiient mouelling woik aie listeu in Table 12.


76
V20'( 48P N2'' W+/--/3/,HQ-7
N2'' 961O2"( W+/--/3/,H
Fiiebiicks Lime Bust u.8S
Coveieu in Coal Bust u.9S
Baie Steel u.S

6.3 Mode|||ng the 1herma| Load
Chaptei Five piesenteu a valiuation case to highlight FL0ENT's pieuictability of
combustion anu heat tiansfei in a fuinace. valiuation of the mouel was limiteu
to the case of an empty kiln with a laige fiaction of the heat being lost thiough
the kiln walls, most significantly in the hot (flame) enu. Bowevei in the piesence
of a beu, such as in a iotaiy lime kiln, fuithei eneigy is absoibeu as the limestone
heats up anu then chemically uecomposes to calcium oxiue. Although pieuicting
the beu behavioui is not within the scope of this pioject, the eneigy it absoibs
must be accounteu foi otheiwise the tempeiatuie insiue the kiln becomes
oveiestimateu. The theimal loau uue to the piesence of a beu can be auuiesseu
foi the limiting case of an ineit beu, wheie the heat consumption is assumeu
constant thioughout the length of the kiln.

It is assumeu that the mean axial tempeiatuie piofile of the beu is veiy close to
that of the insiue wall. Pievious stuuies by Baii, Watkinson anu Biimacombe
(1989) on a pilot kiln at the 0niveisity of Biitish Columbia founu that the beu is
almost at the same tempeiatuie as the insiue wall, while past numeiical
simulations involving calcination of petioleum coke show that the tempeiatuie
of the inteinal coie of the beu is about 12SC lowei than the insiue wall
tempeiatuie (Kocaefe et al., 1992). Bence the theimal loau of the beu may be
lumpeu with that of the iefiactoiy wall by aujusting the theimal conuuctivity of
the iefiactoiy wall by a ceitain amount (Alyasei, 1998). Ignoiing the theimal
iesistances acioss the steel shell, the equivalent steauy-state heat tiansfei iate
thiough the iefiactoiy wall, &=, is uesciibeu as follows:
!
q
w
=
2"k
equiv
(T
b
#T
a
)
ln(r
s
/ r
w
)
(56)



77
wheie, BQ&(4; is the equivalent theimal conuuctivity accounting foi the theimal
loau, CG is the mean tempeiatuie of the beu, C# is the shell tempeiatuie anu 5=
anu 5* aie the innei anu outei iauii of the kiln iespectively. The iate of heat
absoiption by the beu ovei the entiie length of the kiln (cylinuiical section only)
is calculateu using the flow iate anu ieaction enthalpy of limestone.
!
m "H
r
(1# x)
L
=
2$k
bed
(T
b
#T
a
)
ln(r
s
/ r
w
)
(57)

fiom which an expiession foi the ieplicateu beu theimal conuuctivity is ueiiveu
as follows:
!
k
bed
=
m "H
r
(1# x)ln(r
s
/ r
w
)
2$L(T
b
#T
a
)
(58)

anu
!
k
equiv
= k
wall
+ k
bed
(59)

wheie
!
m anu fR5 aie the mass flow iate anu ieaction enthalpy of the limestone
beu, iespectively. : is the poition of the uecomposition ieaction that occuis in
the pieheatei. The above calculations ietuin a mouifieu theimal conuuctivity of
S.974 Wm.K which tianslates to a convective coefficient of SS.9 Wm
2
.K foi a
wall thickness of 176 mm. The fieestieam tempeiatuie is set as the aveiage
shell tempeiatuie of S6S K.

6.4 r|mary A|r
Piimaiy aii enteis the kiln thiough a single tube buinei pipe. To uevelop a CFB
mouel it is necessaiy to know the flow iate anu tempeiatuie of the aii as it
enteis the flow uomain.

6.4.1 1emperature
The piimaiy aii tempeiatuie of SS7.72K was obtaineu fiom an existing
theimocouple situateu in the fiiing pipe, which iuns between the fiiing fans anu
the buinei pipe.



78
6.4.2 I|ow kate
NcBonalu's Lime has an existing ventuii flow metei useu foi monitoiing the
piimaiy aiiflow of Kiln Two. This flow metei outputs a piessuie uiffeience (mm
of R2"), which must be ultimately conveiteu to a velocity at the point the
piimaiy aii enteis the flow uomain. The computei ieauout foi the ventuii flow
metei was checkeu using a conventional watei manometei anu founu to be
suitably accuiate.

The aii tiavelling thiough the ventuii flow metei incluues watei vapoui that has
been uiiven fiom coal in the mill. This is accounteu foi when calculating the
aiiflow, howevei the effects of any iesiuual coal uust tiavelling thiough the
ventuii have been neglecteu. To finu the piimaiy aii inlet velocity, the velocity
thiough the wiue poition of the ventuii, ZL, is fiist calculateu:
!
V
1
=
2"
w
gh
"
all
A
1
A
2
( )
2
#1
[ ]
(60)

wheie 8= anu g aie the uensity anu height of watei in the manometei
iespectively, _L anu _X aie the aieas in the wiue anu naiiow poitions of the
ventuii iespectively anu 8#UU is the combineu uensity of the aii anu watei vapoui
tiavelling thiough the ventuii.
!
"
all
= "
air
+
m
vap
A
1
V
1
(61)

ZL ieappeais in the calculation foi 8#UU anu thus an iteiative pioceuuie must be
taken uuiing the above calculations. When a value foi ZL is obtaineu the aii flow
iate thiough the ventuii can be founu.
!
m
air
= "
air
A
1
V
1
(62)

wheie 8#45 is the uensity of aii tiavelling thiough the ventuii. This is baseu on
the aii tempeiatuie measuieu by the theimocouple in the fiiing pipe. It is
assumeu that the aii iemains at a constant tempeiatuie between the coal mill


79
outlet anu fiiing pipe inlet. Finally, the mass flow iate can be useu to finu the
velocity of piimaiy aii as it enteis the flow uomain.
!
V
inlet
=
m
air
"
air
A
(63)

wheie _ is the cioss-sectional aiea of the buinei pipe at the flow uomain entiy.
The calculations explaineu above pioviue a contiol piimaiy aii flow iate of
S.uu6kgs which is then useu to finu the coiiesponuing flow velocity at the
entiance to the flow uomain.

6.S Secondary A|r
Seconuaiy combustion aii is pieheateu as it tiavels up thiough the piouuct
coolei anu into the iotaiy kiln. As with the piimaiy aii, the tempeiatuie anu
flow iate of the seconuaiy aii must be known in oiuei to uevelop a CFB mouel.

6.S.1 I|ow kate
Seconuaiy combustion aii enteis the kiln system below the piouuct coolei
wheie it is uiawn in by a laige fan anu foiceu up thiough the coolei into the
iotating kiln. The IB fan situateu on the uownstieam siue of the pieheatei is also
instiumental in moving seconuaiy combustion aii thiough the kiln system.

Initial woik to quantify the flow of seconuaiy aii focusseu on measuiing the aii
velocity (anu thus flow iate) thiough the coolei fan inlet uuct. The measuieu
flowiate was much less than expecteu baseu on the stoichiometiic iequiiement,
suggesting that aii is leaking into the kiln system. This leakage is most likely
thiough the fiiing hoou uooi given the pooi seal the uooi often makes with the
hoou itself, as is seen in Figuie S1.


8u

D/*61( >4P D/1/$* G%%) )%%17
Because aii is leaking into the kiln system it is impossible to quantify a specific
flow iate foi the seconuaiy combustion aii. Theiefoie, it was ueciueu thiough
uiscussion with the NcBonalu's Lime Engineeis anu consultation of iepoits by
FCT (FCT, 1997b) that the oveiall excess aii foi the system woulu be 1u%. This
alloweu the iequiieu flowiate of seconuaiy combustion aii to be calculateu, anu
consequently the velocity at the inlet to the mouelleu flow uomain.

6.S.2 1emperature
The tempeiatuie of the seconuaiy combustion aii was taken as 712K, the
aveiage tempeiatuie measuieu by the existing theimocouple in the hot aii uuct
at the top of the fiiing hoou. The aii at this point is consiueieu to best iepiesent
the aii enteiing the cylinuiical kiln, as it will consist of the pieheateu aii that has
tiavelleu thiough the coolei, mixeu with any coolei aii that has leakeu into the
system thiough the fiiing hoou.


81
6.6 Cut|et 8oundary Cond|t|ons
The two iegions wheie fluiu leaves the flow uomain aie uefineu using a piessuie
outlet bounuaiy conuition. Aii is uiawn away thiough the hot aii outlet anu the
tiansfei chute by vaiious fans. Theiefoie it was necessaiy to asceitain the
piessuie at each outlet so the coiiect flow chaiacteiistics woulu be iepiouuceu
in the simulation. To achieve this two static piessuie piobes weie placeu in the
iespective locations (Figuie S2) anu measuiements weie taken houily ovei a
numbei of uays to obtain an aveiage piessuie foi each outlet (Table 1S). Also
listeu in Table 1S is the backflow tempeiatuie at each outlet, which is taken fiom
existing theimocouple measuiements.

D/*61( >8P 9,2,/" :1(--61( :1%0( '%"2,/%$- %$ ,G( O/1/$* G%%) S'(O,T 2$) ,12$-O(1 "G6,( S1/*G,T7
V20'( 4>P Y1(--61( %6,'(, "G212",(1/-,/"-7
;6,'(, Y1(--61( d2"#O'%& V(+:(12,61(
Bot Aii Buct -12.S Pa 712 K
Tiansfei Chute -S1u Pa 1281 K

6.7 8uoyancy
The Richaiuson numbei foi the tuibulent flame insiue Kiln Two at NcBonalu's
Lime was calculateu to be appioximately u.uuS anu theiefoie it was felt
acceptable to ignoie the effects of buoyancy uuiing the piesenteu CFB mouelling.


82
6.8 Coa| ropert|es
The coal useu in Kiln Two is piimaiily Enviion Coal fiom Buntly, New Zealanu.
This section uetails the vaiious uiffeient piopeities of Enviion Coal that aie
necessaiy foi ueveloping a CFB mouel.

6.8.1 Chem|ca| ropert|es
Five samples of the iaw Enviion Coal weie taken fiom the NcBonalu's Lime
stockpile anu sent to CRL in Wellington foi analysis. CRL ietuineu a iepoit foi
each sample listing the pioximate analysis, ultimate analysis anu gioss heating
value. An aveiage value was then ueiiveu foi each vaiiable baseu on the five
samples.
V20'( 4BP !3(12*( CG(+/"2' Y1%:(1,/(- %O 9,%"#,%$ C%2'
Y1%X/+2,( !$2'H-/-
volatiles SS.S %
Chai S9.S %
Ash 7.2 %
Noistuie 2u.2 %
Z',/+2,( !$2'H-/-
C 74.91 %
B S.18 %
0 18.S1 %
N 1.27 %
S u.S2 %
`1%-- c(2,/$* J2'6(
21.62 N}kg

To simulate coal combustion FL0ENT iequiies the Lowei Caloiific value (LCv) of
the coal, which can be obtaineu using the chemical piopeities listeu above. The
uioss Beating value accounts foi watei in the exhaust leaving as vapoui anu
incluues any liquiu watei in the fuel piioi to combustion. The LCv is ueteimineu
by subtiacting the heat of vapoiisation of the watei vapoui piouuceu uuiing
combustion anu any initial liquiu watei.



8S
Calculating the heat of vapoiisation of any initial watei is a ielatively easy step as
the mass fiaction of R2" in a sample is given by the pioximate analysis. The
same step is much moie complicateu howevei foi the moistuie piouuceu uuiing
combustion, as the quantity of R2" is not ieauily available. To ueteimine the
amount of R2" piouuceu it is necessaiy to obtain the composition of volatile
gases anu the iesulting stoichiometiic equation foi the oxiuation ieaction of
these volatiles (Eq. 64). This allows the quantity of watei piouuceu pei kilogiam
of coal buint to be ueteimineu anu as a iesult the heat of vapoiisation value can
be calculateu. The total eneigy iequiieu foi vapoiisation of all R2" is then
subtiacteu fiom the uioss Beating value to give the LCv of Enviion Coal as 2u.42
N}kg.
!
C
4.63
H
9.18
O
2.03
N
0.16
S
0.018
+ 6.43O
2
"4.63CO
2
+ 5.59H
2
O+ 0.08N
2
+ 0.018SO
2
(64)

6.8.2 n|gh 1emperature Vo|at||e |e|d
As explaineu in the liteiatuie ieview the high tempeiatuie volatile yielu can be
calculateu using the CPB mouel, with the assistance of non-lineai coiielations foi
uefining the iequiieu C NNR paiameteis. The iequiieu C NNR paiameteis aie
@+ (the aveiage siue-chain moleculai weight), @6U (the aveiage moleculai weight
pei aiomatic clustei), HhL (the aveiage numbei of attachments pei clustei) anu
6W (the initial chai biiuge population). A quauiatic coiielation is useu to obtain
values foi @+A @6U anu HhLV
!
y = c
1
+ c
2
X
C
+ c
3
X
C
2
+ c
4
X
H
+ c
5
X
H
2
+ c
6
X
O
+ c
7
X
O
2
+ c
8
X
VM
+ c
9
X
VM
2
(65)

wheie < = @+A @6U anu HhLV i!, iR, i" anu iZ@ aie the mass fiactions of Caibon,
Byuiogen, 0xygen anu volatile Nattei iespectively, obtaineu fiom the pioximate
anu ultimate analyses,all on a uiy-ash-fiee basis. The coefficients 6L thiough to 6j
aie listeu in Table 1S.


84
V20'( 4IP ?/-, %O "%(OO/"/($,- 6-() O%1 C bF@ "%11('2,/%$-7
M
!
M
cl
"+1
c
1
4.220E+02 1.301E+03 -5.211E+01
c
2
-8.647E+00 1.639E+01 1.639E+00
c
3
4.639E-02 -1.875E-01 -1.076E-02
c
4
-8.473E+00 -4.548E+02 -1.237E+00
c
5
1.182E+00 5.171E+01 9.319E-02
c
6
1.154E+00 -1.007E+01 -1.657E-01
c
7
-4.340E-02 7.608E-02 4.096E-03
c
8
5.568E-01 1.360E+00 9.261E-03
c
9
-6.546E-03 -3.136E-02 -8.267E-05

The coiielation useu foi 6W foi high heating iates is:
!
c
0
= min[0.36,max{(0.118X
C
"10.1),0.0}] +
min[0.15,max{(0.014X
O
"0.175),0.0}] (66)

It is now possible to calculate the hypothetical ultimate gas yielu, 7S#*Ak (uiy-ash-
fiee), using the C NNR paiameteis calculateu with the above coiielations.
!
f
gas,"
=
m
b
(# +1)(1$c
0
)
[2m
a
+ m
b
(# +1)(1$c0)]
(67)

wheie $G (the aveiage moleculai weight of a liable biiuge) is twice the moleculai
weight of a siue chain ($G = 2@+). $# (the aveiage moleculai weight of the
aiomatic pait of the clustei) is founu using Equation 68.
!
m
a
= M
cl
" M
#
($ +1) (68)

6.8.3 art|c|e S|ze
The valiuation case piesenteu in Chaptei Five concluueu that to obtain the most
accuiate iesults foi a pulveiiseu coal combustion simulation, the paiticle size
uistiibution is best uesciibeu uiiectly using the iesults of a sieve analysis,
wheieby a seiies of unifoim sizeu injections aie specifieu. Bowevei, the sieve
analysis of coal fiom the Raymonu Nill at NcBonalu's Lime pioviues a pooi
iepiesentation of the size uistiibution, with ovei half the pulveiiseu coal


8S
paiticles passing thiough the smallest sieve (SSm). Theiefoie it was felt that a
Rosin-Rammlei uistiibution, baseu on the pioviueu sieve analysis, woulu
pioviue a bettei iepiesentation of the actual size uistiibution by ensuiing that
the smallest paiticles aie taken into consiueiation.
V20'( 4LP 9/(3( 2$2'H-/- )2,2
9/]( @2$*( S_+T F2-- e
u-SS S6.9
SS-7S 19.S
7S-9u 7.S
9u-212 1S.8
212+ u.7

Befoie pioceeuing fuithei it is necessaiy to obtain values foi the maximum anu
minimum size of the paiticles. This was achieveu with the assistance of a
Scanning Election Nicioscope (SEN). Aftei analysing a iange of samples it
appeaieu that Suum anu 1m woulu be a goou appioximations foi the
maximum anu minimum paiticle sizes iespectively. uiven that only u.7% of the
total mass is piesent in paiticles gieatei than 212m it is unlikely that
aujustment of the maximum paiticle size woulu affect the iesults anyway.
Similaily paiticles less than 1m contain such little mass that the aujustment of
the minimum size is unlikely to affect the iesults.

D/*61( >>P 9WF /+2*(- %O :6'3(1/-() "%2' :21,/"'(- 2, IIX +2*$/O/"2,/%$ S'(O,T 2$) =MMX
+2*$/O/"2,/%$ S1/*G,T7





86
0sing the theoiy explaineu in the liteiatuie ieview section, the Rosin Rammlei
piopeities of Enviion coal weie calculateu anu aie listeu in Table 17 below.
V20'( 4=P @%-/$^@2++'(1 Y212+(,(1- O%1 9,%"#,%$ C%2'7
Naximum Paiticle Biametei Suum
Ninimum Paiticle Biametei 1m
Nean Paiticle Biametei S8m
Spieau Paiametei 1.S6

6.8.4 I|ow kate
The uaily flow iate of iaw coal into the coal mill was available fiom the Kiln Two
piouuction logs. The aveiage uaily iate foi a thiee-month peiiou was obtaineu
anu then conveiteu to pioviue a flow iate of 1.u77kgs.

6.8.S Mo|sture
Noistuie enteis the kiln system thiough the buinei pipe in both the liquiu anu
vapoui phase. As iaw coal passes thiough the mill, the hot tianspoit aii
evapoiates moistuie within the coal. This vapoui is then caiiieu thiough the
fiiing pipe anu into the kiln. Any iemaining moistuie in the coal paiticle enteis
the system as liquiu watei. To asceitain the level of iesiuual watei in the
pulveiiseu coal thiee samples of the as-fiieu coal weie extiacteu fiom the fiiing
pipe anu sent to CRL foi analysis. The aveiage moistuie content in the as fiieu
coal was founu to be S.2%.

Noistuie passing thiough the kiln system absoibs eneigy as it unueigoes a
tempeiatuie inciease between the inlet anu outlet. As a iesult the oveiall eneigy
output of the kiln ieuuces. The eneigy absoibeu by any moistuie is calculateu as
follows:
!
"E
v
= m
v
Cp
v
(T
outlet
#T
inlet
) (69)
"E
l
= m
l
Cp
l
(T
outlet
#T
inlet
) (70)
"E
H
2
O
= "E
v
+ "E
l
(71)



87
wheie
!
m is the mass flow iate, !) is the specific heat anu C is the tempeiatuie.
The subsciipts U anu ; iepiesent the liquiu anu vapoui phases iespectively. The
4/UQ9 coiiesponus to the buinei inlet tempeiatuie anu T(9UQ9 to the kiln back enu
tempeiatuie.

The combineu eneigy absoiption by liquiu anu vapoui phase R2" within Kiln
Two at NcBonalu's Lime was founu to be 2.S4% of the total eneigy output.
Because of the small impact moistuie has on the oveiall system eneigy, all effects
of moistuie weie neglecteu uuiing the CFB mouelling woik piesenteu in this
thesis. The pulveiiseu coal was assumeu to contain no iesiuual watei anu any
vapoui enteiing thiough the buinei pipe was ignoieu.

6.8.6 Add|t|ona| ropert|es
Table 18 lists auuitional mateiial piopeities of the enviion coal that aie iequiieu
when setting up a numeiical mouel in FL0ENT. The piopeities aie a
combination of measuieu oi ieseaicheu values anu uefault paiameteis set by
FL0ENT.
V20'( 4AP !)),/%$2' W$3/1%$ "%2' :1%:(1,/(-
Y212+(,(1 J2'6(
Bensity 1S46 kgm
S

Specific Beat 12uu }kg.K
Theimal Conuuctivity u.u4S4 Wm.K
Latent Beat u }kg
vapoiisation Tempeiatuie 77S K
volatile Component Fiaction S1.S %
Binaiy Biffusivity S e
-S
m
2
s
Paiticle Emissivity u.9
Paiticle Scatteiing Factoi u.1S
Swelling Coefficient 2
Buinout Stoichiometiic Ratio 2.67
Combustible Fiaction S9.S %
Bevolatilisation Nouel Constant Rate (Au = Su)
Combustion Nouel
KineticsBiffusion Limiteu
Rate Constant = S e
-12

Pie-Exponential Factoi = u.uu2
Activation Eneigy = 7.9 e
7



88
6.9 C|| ropert|es
6.9.1 Chem|ca| Compos|t|on
Thioughout the woik piesenteu in this thesis, the chemical piopeities of waste
oil aie baseu on the piopeities of a "geneiic" ciuue oil (Belton, 1996).
V20'( 4KP CG(+/"2' Y1%:(1,/(- %O c(23H C16)( ;/'
Z',/+2,( !$2'H-/-
C 8S.u%
B 11.S %
0 u.2 %
N u.S %
S S.u %
?%&(1 C2'%1/O/" J2'6(
42.69 N}kg
E($-/,H
87u kgm
S


6.9.2 C|| In|et ropert|es
The contiol flow iate of waste oil is baseu on a 2S% theimal eneigy substitution,
with an assumeu inlet tempeiatuie of 298KV The eneigy input of each fuel
souice can be calculateu using Equations 72 anu 7S.
!
"E
c
= m # LCV
c
(72)

!
"E
o
= Q# $ # LCV
o
(73)

wheie $ is the mass flow iate of coal (BAF), ' is the volumetiic flow iate of oil
(ash fiee) anu 8 is the uensity of oil. The subsciipts 6 anu T iefei to coal anu oil
iespectively.

6.10 C|| Nozz|e
The nozzle useu to inject vapoiiseu oil into Kiln Two is a 'Laval' pneumatic
nozzle fiom Lechlei which opeiates on the ultiasonic piincipal. The liquiu is feu
in axially, while the atomizing aii is feu iauially thiough multiple openings to a


89
conical mixing chambei wheie gas anu liquiu aie combineu in an intensive, two-
stage, mixing piocess. Bownstieam of the mixing chambei is a 1S uiveigent
section that ieuuces the piessuie anu acceleiates the mixtuie to ultiasonic speeu
in a mannei similai to the Laval piinciple. As a iesult the uioplets aie atomizeu
to an extiemely fine uegiee.

D/*61( >BP ?("G('(1 Y$(6+2,/" ?232' b%]]'( 9"G(+2,/"7
The fineness of the uioplet spectium is ciitically uepenuant on the aiiliquiu
iatio anu the piessuiization of the two elements. Thus the highei the aiiliquiu
iatio, anu the highei the piessuies to which the aii anu liquiu aie subjecteu, the
finei the uioplet spectium will be. It is known that aii will entei the pioposeu
Laval nozzle at S bai, while the oil flow iate is calculateu accoiuing to the uesiieu
theimal substitution of coal. Thus using Figuie SS it is possible to calculate the
coiiesponuing uioplet size anu aii flow iate, fiom which the velocity of aii
enteiing the flow uomain can be calculateu.


9u

D/*61( >IP 5$O%1+2,/%$ -G((, 6-() ,% O/$) ,G( $%]]'( %6,'(, "G212",(1/-,/"-7
The chait in Figuie SS is baseu on the liquiu stieam being watei, anu not oil as is
the case in the cuiient woik. Consequently, any uiffeiences in the uioplet size
stemming fiom watei anu oil having uiffeient physical piopeities have been
neglecteu. Fuitheimoie, the mesh useu when mouelling oil combustion uoes not
completely ieplicate the inteinal geometiy of the nozzle. Insteau of being
ieleaseu thiough the uiveigent nozzle, the stieams of oil anu aii aie simply
ieleaseu fiom a suiface with appiopiiate axial anu iauial velocity components in
oiuei to ieplicate the ielevant spiay angle. This allows foi a simplei mesh to
begin with anu foi the spiay angle to be aujusteu without having to mouify the
geometiy anu cieate a new mesh.

6.10.1 Add|t|ona| ropert|es
Table 2u lists auuitional mateiial piopeities of the waste oil that aie iequiieu
when setting up a numeiical mouel in FL0ENT. The piopeities aie a
combination of measuieu oi ieseaicheu values anu uefault paiameteis set by
FL0ENT.


91
V20'( 8MP `($(1/" "16)( %/' +2,(1/2' :1%:(1,/(-7
Y212+(,(1 J2'6(
Bensity 87u kgm
S

Specific Beat 188u }kg.K
Theimal Conuuctivity u.12 Wm.K
Latent Beat 124uuu }kg
vapoiisation Tempeiatuie 4uu K
Boiling Point S89 K
volatile Component Fiaction 99.6 %
Binaiy Biffusivity S.79 e
-6
m
2
s
Paiticle Emissivity 1
Paiticle Scatteiing Factoi 1
Beat of Pyiolysis u }kg

6.11 DI ropert|es
As explaineu in pievious chapteis of this thesis the mixtuie fiactionPBF
appioach to combustion chemistiy is being useu foi mouelling of Kiln Two.
Table 21 lists the fluiu piopeities of the PBF mixtuie that must be set in FL0ENT,
all of which aie eithei uefault values oi aie baseu upon FL0ENT's own coal
combustion tutoiials.
V20'( 84P YED +/X,61( :1%:(1,/(-7
Y1%:(1,H 9(,,/$*
Specific Beat mixing-law
Theimal Conuuctivity u.u4S4 Wm.K
viscosity 2 e
-S

Absoiption Coefficient wsggm-cell-baseu
Scatteiing Coefficient u.S m
-1

Scatteiing Phase Function Isotiopic
Refiactive Inuex 1



7 Mode|||ng Approach
At the inception of this pioject it was intenueu that all mouelling woulu be
unueitaken using a thiee-uimensional flow uomain. Thiee-uimensional
mouelling howevei pioveu to be oveily complex anu computationally
uemanuing with jobs taking in excess of five uays to solve on the 0niveisity of
Canteibuiy's IBN pS7S BPC. Consequently, two-uimensional axisymmetiic
mouelling was investigateu anu pioveu to be a much bettei alteinative,
pioviuing suitably accuiate iesults anu ieasonable solve times. The following
chaptei piesents the meshes useu foi both the two-uimensional anu thiee-
uimensional mouelling, as well as a compaiison of the iesults obtaineu using the
two uiffeient appioaches. All investigations have been conuucteu using the
contiol coal combustion case.

Foi both uimensional appioaches to mouelling Kiln Two, a numbei of
simplifications anu assumptions weie maue to ieuuce oveiall complexity. Fiistly
the scope of the CFB mouelling woik piesenteu in this thesis uoes not incluue
mouelling the heat tiansfei thiough soliu objects such as the bounuing walls.
Theiefoie appiopiiate bounuaiy conuitions aie applieu to the walls to account
foi any heat tiansfei thiough them.

The cuiient woik also ignoies the effects of the beu anu iotating walls.
Investigations by Noles, Watson anu Lain (197S) anu Ruhlanu (1967) have
shown that ignoiing the physical piesence of the beu in a iotaiy kiln is a
ieasonable simplifying piactice. Since in most kilns the cioss-sectional peicent
fill is about 1S% oi less, the physical piesence of the beu is assumeu to have no
effect on the inteinal geometiy of the kiln, anu moie impoitantly, no effect on the
flame aeiouynamics. Foi a high piimaiy-jet momentum flame such as that in a
typical iotaiy kiln, the uegiee of ieciiculation, which is impoitant foi the
combustion aeiouynamics, is laigely ueteimineu by the magnituue of the
piimaiy-jet momentum, anu to a much lessei extent, by the uiametei of the kiln,
which may be alteieu by the peicent fill. At a 1S% fill, the extent of alteiation in


9S
the kiln uiametei is less than 8% anu theiefoie unlikely to significantly affect any
ieciiculation.

Finally, since typical iotation is about 1 RPN, the axial velocities aie oiueis of
magnituue highei than the tangential velocities. Theiefoie, iotation has no
significant effect on the aeiouynamic behavioui of the flame anu consequently,
foi the cuiient mouelling woik, the cylinuiical kiln is mouelleu as being
stationaiy.

7.1 1hree-D|mens|ona| Mesh
A thiee-uimensional CAB mouel of Kiln Two was geneiateu using Soliuwoiks
(2uu8). The uimensions iequiieu foi geneiating the mouel weie obtaineu fiom a
numbei of olu technical uiawings with auuitional measuiements taken fiom the
kiln itself. Caie was taken to accuiately iecieate the ieal kiln, howevei some
simplifications weie maue in aieas that weie consiueieu unlikely to uiastically
affect the flow fielu, in oiuei to ieuuce setup anu solve time. When the CAB
mouel was complete an inveise soliu iepiesenting the inteinal flow uomain was
geneiateu anu impoiteu into Baipoon wheie a hex-uominant mesh was
geneiateu.

D/*61( >LP 9(",/%$ 3/(& %O ,G( U/'$ V&% C!E +%)(' *($(12,() 6-/$* 9%'/)&%1#-7


94
7.1.1 Gr|d Independence Study
As was uone foi the valiuation case, a giiu-inuepenuence stuuy was unueitaken
to asceitain the mesh size neeueu to ietuin an accuiate iesult. Baipoon was
initially useu to cieate a hex-uominant mesh with 2,62u,992 cells. Within this
mesh, iefinements weie maue wheie the flame buins anu in iegions of complex
geometiy. Aftei iunning a coal combustion simulation using the initial Baipoon
mesh, two fuithei meshes', containing S,817,u82 cells anu 4,S77,8S9 cells
iespectively, weie geneiateu using the giauient auaption tool within FL0ENT.
Auaption's weie maue in aieas of high tempeiatuie anu velocity giauients.

To check the mesh inuepenuence two lines weie cieateu on the thiee iespective
meshes at consistent aibitiaiy points. Both lines weie in the veitical uiiection
anu locateu on the miu plane of the cylinuiical kiln section. The two lines weie
one metie anu 7.S meties iespectively fiom the buinei pipe outlet. Axial
velocity anu tempeiatuie piofiles weie obtaineu at each line foi the thiee
meshes anu combineu in Niciosoft Excel to allow foi investigation of the mesh
inuepenuence. Nass anu eneigy imbalances of the two meshes weie also
investigateu anu aie listeu in Table 22.

D/*61( >=P 9G%&- '%"2,/%$ %O ,G( ,&% '/$(- 6-() O%1 /$3(-,/*2,/$* +(-G /$)(:($)($"(7




9S

D/*61( >AP !X/2' 3('%"/,H :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 4 O%1 ,G( 87L +/''/%$ "('' S!T[ >7A +/''/%$ "('' S!T[ 2$) B7L
+/''/%$ "('' S!T +(-G(-7



D/*61( >KP !X/2' 3('%"/,H :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 8 O%1 ,G( 87L +/''/%$ "('' S!T[ >7A +/''/%$ "('' S!T[ 2$) B7L
+/''/%$ "('' S!T +(-G(-7


-1.S
-1
-u.S
u
u.S
1
1.S
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u 7u 8u 9u
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

#
/
'
$

"
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

S
+
T

J('%"/,H S+f-T
-1.S
-1
-u.S
u
u.S
1
1.S
-S u S 1u 1S 2u 2S Su SS
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

#
/
'
$

"
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

S
+
T

J('%"/,H S+f-T


96

D/*61( BMP V(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 4 O%1 ,G( 87L +/''/%$ "('' S!T[ >7A +/''/%$ "('' S!T[ 2$) B7L
+/''/%$ "('' S!T +(-G(-7



D/*61( B4P V(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 8 O%1 ,G( 87L +/''/%$ "('' S!T[ >7A +/''/%$ "('' S!T[ 2$) B7L
+/''/%$ "('' S!T +(-G(-7
-1.S
-1
-u.S
u
u.S
1
1.S
2uu 4uu 6uu 8uu 1uuu 12uu 14uu
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

#
/
'
$

"
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

S
+
T

V(+:(12,61( SUT
-1.S
-1
-u.S
u
u.S
1
1.S
1uuu 11uu 12uu 1Suu 14uu 1Suu 16uu 17uu 18uu 19uu 2uuu
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

#
/
'
$

"
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

S
+
T

V(+:(12,61( SUT


97
V20'( 88P F2-- /+02'2$"( %O ,G1(( )/OO(1($, -/]() >E +(-G-7
F(-G 9/]( F2-- 5+02'2$"(
W$(1*H
5+02'2$"(
2.6 million cells u.uS2% S.9%
S.8 million cells u.uu8% 2.4%
4.6 million cells u.u16% 2.6%

Figuie S8 anu Figuie S9 show velocity piofiles of each mesh at Lines 1 anu 2.
Refinements of the oiiginal mesh in aieas of high velocity giauient aie seen to
have notably changeu the velocity piofiles; howevei theie is little uiffeience
between the two laigei iefineu meshes. The same situation aiises foi the
tempeiatuie piofiles in Figuie 4u anu Figuie 41 wheie the piofiles foi the laigei
meshes aie noticeably uiffeient to the oiiginal mesh, especially closest to the
buinei outlet. Both the mass anu eneigy imbalances aie similai anu of
acceptable values foi the thiee meshes. The mesh inuepenuence stuuy has
shown that the S.8 million cell mesh is the most suitable foi futuie mouelling of
Kiln Two. This mesh will pioviue an accuiate iesult while using the least
computational iesouices possible.

7.1.2 erformance of chosen 3D Mesh
The thiee thiee-uimensional meshes weie solveu on the 0niveisity of
Canteibuiys IBN pS7S BPC using 16 piocessois. Simulations using the chosen
S.8 million cell anu the contiol coal case took appioximately five uays to solve
using the BPC, with 6Suu iteiations neeueu to ensuie conveigence.

7.2 1wo D|mens|ona| Mesh
0sing a two-uimensional axisymmetiic appioach to mouelling Kiln Two
eliminates mouelling the flow phenomena in the fiiing hoou anu tiansfei chute
as theii geometiy is not axisymmetiic. Consequently, with so many
simplifications to the oveiall kiln system the two uimensional mouel of Kiln Two
is iepiesenteu puiely as a S2m long cylinuei of 1.22S m iauius. The inlet is split
into thiee sections to iepiesent the compiesseu, piimaiy anu seconuaiy aii


98
inlets. uambit was fiist useu to cieate the two-uimensional geometiy anu fiom
theie a stiuctuieu quau mesh was geneiateu.

D/*61( B8P 9/+:'( -"G(+2,/" %O 8E +%)(''() )%+2/$S$%, ,% -"2'(T7 `1/) 5$)(:($)($"( 9,6)H
0nce again a giiu-inuepenuence stuuy was conuucteu to ueteimine the size of
the two-uimensional, axisymmetiic mesh that is neeueu to obtain an accuiate
iesult. uambit was initially useu to cieate a mesh with 64,uuu cells. Within this
mesh, iefinements weie maue close to the buinei inlets iegion. Aftei iunning a
coal combustion simulation using the initial uambit mesh, two fuithei meshes,
containing 98,uuu cells anu 124,uuu cells iespectively, weie geneiateu using the
giauient auaption tool within FL0ENT. Auaption's weie maue in aieas of high
tempeiatuie anu velocity giauients.

To check the mesh inuepenuence two veitical lines weie cieateu on the thiee
iespective meshes at consistent aibitiaiy points. The two lines weie one metie
anu 7.S meties iespectively fiom the buinei pipe inlet. Axial velocity anu
tempeiatuie piofiles weie obtaineu at each line foi the thiee meshes anu
combineu in Niciosoft Excel to allow foi investigation of the mesh inuepenuence.
Nass anu eneigy imbalances of the two meshes weie also investigateu anu aie
listeu in Table 2S.

Primary Air
Secondary Air
Compressed Air
52 m
1225 mm
107.5 mm
12.1 mm


99

D/*61( B>P J('%"/,H :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 4 O%1 ,G( LB[MMM "('' S!T[ KA[MMM "('' S!T[ 2$) 48B[MMM "('' S!T
+(-G(-7



D/*61( BBP J('%"/,H :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 8 O%1 ,G( LB[MMM "('' S!T[ KA[MMM "('' S!T[ 2$) 48B[MMM "('' S!T
+(-G(-7

u
u.2
u.4
u.6
u.8
1
1.2
1.4
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

C
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

J('%"/,H S+f-T
u
u.2
u.4
u.6
u.8
1
1.2
1.4
u 2 4 6 8 1u 12 14 16 18 2u
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

C
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

J('%"/,H S+f-T


1uu

D/*61( BIP V(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 4 O%1 ,G( LB[MMM "('' S!T[ KA[MMM "('' S!T[ 2$) 48B[MMM "(''
S!T +(-G(-7

D/*61( BLP V(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- 2, ?/$( 8 O%1 ,G( LB[MMM "('' S!T[ KA[MMM "('' S!T[ 2$) 48B[MMM "(''
S!T +(-G(-7
V20'( 8>P F2-- /+02'2$"( %O ,G1(( )/OO(1($, -/]() 8E +(-G(-7
F(-G 9/]( F2-- 5+02'2$"(
W$(1*H
5+02'2$"(
6u,uuu cells u.uu7% u.u4%
98,uuu cells u.uu1% u.u2%
124,uuu cells u.u1% u.u8%
u
u.2
u.4
u.6
u.8
1
1.2
1.4
4uu 6uu 8uu 1uuu 12uu 14uu 16uu 18uu
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

C
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

V(+:(12,61( SUT
u
u.2
u.4
u.6
u.8
1
1.2
1.4
16uu 162u 164u 166u 168u 17uu 172u 174u 176u 178u 18uu
E
/
-
,
2
$
"
(

O
1
%
+

C
(
$
,
1
(
'
/
$
(

V(+:(12,61( SUT


1u1

Figuie 4S anu Figuie 44 show velocity piofiles of each mesh at Lines 1 anu 2.
0nce again, iefinements of the oiiginal mesh aie seen to have a notable effect on
the piofiles, howevei theie is little uiffeience between the two laigei meshes.
The same situation aiises foi the tempeiatuie piofiles shown in Figuie 4S anu
Figuie 46. 0nce again the mass anu eneigy imbalances of the thiee two-
uimensional meshes aie all of an acceptable value. The mesh inuepenuence
stuuy has shown that the 98,uuu cell two-uimensional mesh is the most suitable
foi the mouelling of Kiln Two, pioviuing accuiate iesults while being
computationally efficient.

7.2.1 erformance of chosen 2D mesh
The thiee two-uimensional meshes weie solveu on uual-coie uesktop PC's.
Simulations using the chosen 98,uuu cell mesh took appioximately eight houis
foi the contiol coal case anu 12 houis foi the contiol oil case. 8uuu anu 9uuu
iteiations weie iequiieu to ensuie conveigence of the coal anu oil simulations
iespectively. The tianspoit equation iesiuuals foi a contiol coal simulation aie
shown in Figuie 47.

D/*61( B=P V12$-:%1, (R62,/%$ 1(-/)62'- %O ,G( 8E KA[MMM +(-G7


1u2
7.3 Compar|son of the 2D and 3D Ax|symmetr|c Mode|s
The following section aims to investigate the valiuity of using 2B axisymmetiic
mouelling as an alteinative to the much moie complex anu time consuming SB
mouelling. This will ueteimine whethei it is acceptable to investigate the
combustion chaiacteiistics of Kiln Two using the two-uimensional appioach.
Figuie 48 shows the centie line tempeiatuie piofiles foi the two uiffeient
appioaches, while Figuie 49 analyses the wall heat flux piofiles.

D/*61( BAP C%+:21/-%$ %O ,G( "($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'( %O ,G( ,&%^)/+($-/%$2' S!T[ 2$) ,G1((^
)/+($-/%$2' S!T +(-G(-7

D/*61( BKP C%+:21/-%$ %O ,G( &2'' G(2, O'6X :1%O/'(- %O ,G( ,&%^)/+($-/%$2' S!T[ 2$) ,G1((^
)/+($-/%$2' S!T +(-G(-7
u
4uu
8uu
12uu
16uu
2uuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 S+T


1uS
The centie-line tempeiatuie piofiles foi the two cases have excellent agieement,
anu while initially appeaiing quite uiffeient, the two wall flux piofiles also agiee
with each othei iespectably.

The SB wall heat flux plot pioviues a flux value foi eveiy noue at the wall
bounuaiy anu thus the plot consists of many thousanu uata points. The ieason
foi having the thick line, especially in the neai buinei iegion, is that the
tempeiatuie piofile is not axisymmetiic. Figuie Su uemonstiates this with the
flow in the uppei section incieasing in tempeiatuie soonei than the lowei
section of the kiln. This causes a iauial vaiiation in heat flux to the kiln wall anu
consequently the wiue heat flux piofile. Fuithei uownstieam, outsiue of the
flame iegion, theie is less iauial vaiiation in the wall heat flux anu the piofile
naiiows. Because the 2B piofile lies within the bounus of the SB piofile it is
believeu that theie is suitable agieement between the two.


D/*61( IMP ! "%+:21/-%$ %O +/)^:'2$( ,(+:(12,61( "%$,%61- /$ ,G( O'2+( 1(*/%$ 0(,&(($ ,G( ,G1((^
)/+($-/%$2' )%+2/$ S20%3(T 2$) ,&% )/+($-/%$2' )%+2/$ S0('%&T7
0veiall it is felt that 2B mouelling is an excellent alteinative to SB mouelling,
pioviuing uesiiable accuiacy while being much moie computationally efficient.
Consequently all the iesults piesenteu fiom this point onwaiu have been
obtaineu using the two-uimensional appioach. If fuithei aspects of the kiln weie
to be investigateu othei than heat flux anu tempeiatuie then it may be necessaiy
to peifoim fuithei compaiisons between the two anu thiee-uimensional mouels.

8 Coa| Combust|on
Aftei ueveloping a woiking numeiical mouel of Kiln Two baseu on the aveiage,
oi contiol, opeiating conuitions, the next task is to investigate how the
combustion chaiacteiistics ieact when theie aie small ueviations fiom the
contiol conuitions. The following chaptei takes five opeiating paiameteis of
Kiln Two anu compaies how featuies such as tempeiatuie, wall flux anu species
concentiation aie affecteu when each paiametei is aujusteu fiom its contiol
value, to both a highei anu lowei value. The five paiameteis that aie
investigateu anu the conuitions unuei which they aie aujusteu aie as follows:
Compaie uiffeient piimaiy aii momenta, while keeping the excess aii
constant at 1u%.
Compaie uiffeient excess aii levels, while keeping the piimaiy aii poition
of stoichiometiic aii constant at S6.S%.
Compaie uiffeient piimaiy aii tempeiatuies, while keeping the excess aii
constant at 1u% anu the piimaiy aii poition of stoichiometiic aii
constant at S6.S%.
Compaie uiffeient seconuaiy aii tempeiatuies, while keeping the excess
aii constant at 1u% anu the piimaiy aii poition of stoichiometiic aii
constant at S6.S%.
Compaie uiffeient coal flow iates, while keeping the excess aii constant at
1u% anu the piimaiy aii poition of stoichiometiic aii constant at S6.S%.
In auuition swiiling piimaiy aii was investigateu anu compaieu to the contiol
case which has puiely axial piimaiy aii.

8.1 r|mary A|r Momentum
As was explaineu in Chaptei Thiee, piimaiy aii momentum is a significant factoi
in contiolling the ieciiculation of combustion gases anu the subsequent
pievention of flame impingement on the iefiactoiy wall. In the inteiest of


1uS
ieuucing ash iing foimation, a phenomenon piomoteu by flame impingement, it
was felt that the effects of vaiying the piimaiy aii inlet velocity, anu
consequently its momentum, shoulu be investigateu. Table 24 lists the piimaiy
aii poition of the total stoichiometiic aii foi the contiol case anu the two
auuitional simulations.
V20'( 8BP 9(,,/$*- O%1 )/OO(1/$* Y! +%+($,6+ -/+6'2,/%$-
Contiol PA% of Stoichiometiic S6.S%
Bigh PA% of Stoichiometiic 42.S%
Low PA% of Stoichiometiic Su.S%


D/*61( I4P C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T[ G/*G :1/+21H 2/1
+%+($,6+ S!T 2$) '%& :1/+21H 2/1 +%+($,6+ S!T7
u
2uu
4uu
6uu
8uu
1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T


1u6

D/*61( I8P N2'' G(2, O'6X :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T[ G/*G :1/+21H 2/1 +%+($,6+
S!T 2$) '%& :1/+21H 2/1 +%+($,6+ S!T7
Figuie S1 anu Figuie S2 show the centie line tempeiatuie piofiles anu wall heat
flux piofiles iespectively foi the thiee uiffeient cases. While the uiffeiences aie
minimal it uoes appeai that incieasing the piimaiy aii momentum slightly
uecieases both the centie line tempeiatuie anu the wall heat flux. This is fuithei
suppoiteu by Figuie SS which show the exit gas tempeiatuie anu peak kiln
tempeiatuie to inciease foi a highei piimaiy aii momentum. Foi a lowei
piimaiy aii momentum the opposite effect occuis foi all featuies.

D/*61( I>P C%+:21/-%$ %O (X/, *2- ,(+:(12,61(- S'(O,T 2$) :(2# #/'$ ,(+:(12,61(- S1/*G,T O%1
321H/$* '(3('- %O :1/+21H 2/1 +%+($,6+7
The opeiatois of Kiln Two suppoit the conclusions uiawn above noting that the
exit gas tempeiatuie uoes in fact ueciease when the speeu of the fiiing fan,
which contiols piimaiy aii momentum, is incieaseu. The opeiatois believe this
u
Suuu
1uuuu
1Suuu
2uuuu
2Suuu
Suuuu
SSuuu
4uuuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
D
'
6
X

S
N
f
+
8
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T
!"""
!"$%
!"%"
!"&%
!!""
!!$%
!!%"
'()*+(, -./0 1(2
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,

!"##
!"%#
!&##
!&%#
!'##
!'%#
()*+,)- ./01 2)3
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,



1u7
iesults fiom the shoitei flame that is piouuceu when theie is gieatei piimaiy aii
momentum (anu vice veisa). This is also eviuent fiom analysing the
tempeiatuie contouis of the numeiical mouel shown in Figuie S4.

D/*61( IBP C%+:21/-%$ %O ,(+:(12,61( SUT :1%O/'(- /$ ,G( O/1-, 8M +(,1(- %O #/'$ ,&% O%1 )/OO(1/$*
:1/+21H 2/1 +%+($,6+-7
To investigate the effects of piimaiy aii momentum on the ieciiculation of
combustion gases, contouis of stieam function weie plotteu to highlight the
ieciiculation iegions. Figuie SS shows the stieam function contouis foi the
contiol, high momentum anu low momentum cases, as well as an optimiseu
piimaiy aii case. This optimiseu case iepiesents the iecommenuations of FCT,
wheiby to ensuie optimum ieciiculation anu pievent flame impingement the
buinei shoulu opeiate with a Ciaya-Cuitet paiametei of 2.46 at S1.S% piimaiy
aii. FCT also suggest that the buinei tip shoulu be level euge of the uam iing
thioat, which is the case foi the simplifieu two-uimensional mesh.


1u8

D/*61( IIP 9,1(2+ O6$",/%$ S+
8
f-T "%$,%61- /$ ,G( O'2+( 1(*/%$ O%1 2 12$*( %O )/OO(1($, :1/+21H 2/1
-(,6:-7
When analysing the contoui plots in Figuie SS it is cleai that incieasing the
piimaiy aii momentum uoes inciease the size of the ieciiculation iegion, anu
vice veisa, howevei incieasing the ieciiculation iegion is unlikely to help ieuuce
ash iing foimation. The numeiical stuuy shows that ieciiculation occuis
appioximately two to five meties fiom the buinei outlet, while FCT iepoits the
ash iings to foim between 9.S anu 12 meties fiom the buinei outlet. The
optimiseu piimaiy aii case uoes inciease the amount of ieciiculation slightly in
compaiison to the contiol case, howevei the ieciiculation is still locateu outsiue
of wheie the ash iings foim.

The above finuings aie fuithei suppoiteu by iecent opeiation of Kiln Two in,
uuiing which theie has been an extenueu peiiou without any ash iing foimation,
yet the opeiatois have been iunning the kiln with a lowei than aveiage piimaiy
aii momentum. This emphasizes the conclusion that the piimaiy aii momentum
uoes not influence ash iing foimation.


1u9
8.2 Lxcess A|r Leve|
As was explaineu in Chaptei Six, quantifying the exact amount of seconuaiy
combustion aii passing thiough Kiln Two was a uifficult task anu theiefoie, upon
uiscussion with NcBonalu's Lime staff, it was ueciueu that the 'contiol' case
woulu opeiate with 1u% excess aii. Foi that ieason it is consiueieu impoitant to
investigate how the combustion chaiacteiistics of Kiln Two change when the
quantity of excess aii is eithei incieaseu oi uecieaseu.
V20'( 8IP 9(,,/$*- O%1 )/OO(1/$* (X"(-- 2/1 -/+6'2,/%$-
Contiol Excess Aii 1u%
Bigh Excess Aii 1S%
Low Excess Aii S%


D/*61( ILP C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T[ G/*G '(3('- %O
(X"(-- 2/1 S!T 2$) '%& '(3('- %O (X"(-- 2/1 S!T7

u
2uu
4uu
6uu
8uu
1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T


11u

D/*61( I=P N2'' G(2, O'6X :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T[ G/*G '(3('- %O (X"(-- 2/1 S!T
2$) '%& '(3('- %O (X"(-- 2/1 S!T7
Figuie S6 anu Figuie S7 show that the centie line tempeiatuie anu wall heat flux
ieuuce in the flame iegion if the level of excess aii is incieaseu, anu vice veisa,
howevei theie is little change to eithei featuies fuithei uownstieam. The plots
in Figuie S8 showing the peak tempeiatuie to be moie affecteu by changes to the
excess aii than the exit tempeiatuie, fuithei suppoit this conclusion. As is
explaineu in Chaptei Foui it is impoitant that auequate oxygen is supplieu to
ensuie complete combustion, howevei as auuitional aii is supplieu, it must be
heateu up to the back enu tempeiatuie, ieuucing tempeiatuies in the kiln anu
the oveiall efficiency.

D/*61( IAP C%+:21/-%$ %O (X/, *2- ,(+:(12,61(- S'(O,T 2$) :(2# #/'$ ,(+:(12,61(- S1/*G,T O%1
321H/$* '(3('- %O (X"(-- 2/17
u
Suuu
1uuuu
1Suuu
2uuuu
2Suuu
Suuuu
SSuuu
4uuuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
D
'
6
X

S
N
f
+
8
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T
!"""
!"$%
!"%"
!"&%
!!""
!!$%
!!%"
'()*+(, -./0 1(2
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,

!"##
!"%#
!&##
!&%#
!'##
!'%#
()*+,)- ./01 2)3
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,



111
Aujusting the level of excess aii affects the amount of oxygen piesent in the gases
leaving the iotaiy kiln. The numeiical stuuy founu that foi the contiol case with
1u% excess aii, theie is S.8% oxygen in the exit gases. Incieasing the excess aii
by S% incieases the oxygen at the exit by u.6%, anu vice veisa. Neanwhile the
Kiln Two opeiatois aim to opeiate the kiln with u-1% oxygen foi steel-giaue
piouuction anu 2-4% oxygen foi high-giaue piouuction, meaning theie is
ielatively goou agieement between the actual kiln anu the numeiical mouelling.
It is believeu howevei that accuiately quantifying the amount of excess aii
passing thiough Kiln Two woulu be beneficial anu leau to a moie piecise
numeiical mouel.

D/*61( IKP ?(3(' %O %XH*($ 2, ,G( #/'$ %6,'(,7
8.3 Secondary A|r 1emperature
The seconuaiy aii tempeiatuie was anothei vaiiable foi which it was uifficult to
obtain a specific value. A numbei of measuiements of the gas tempeiatuie at the
top of the coolei weie maue, howevei the tempeiatuie of aii extiacteu fiom the
fiiing hoou was founu to be much coolei, most likely uue to the colu aii leakeu in
thiough the fiiing hoou uooi. It was ueciueu that the tempeiatuie of the aii
extiacteu fiom the fiiing hoou best iepiesenteu the tempeiatuie of aii tiavelling
up the kiln, anu thus the seconuaiy aii tempeiatuie was set at 712K. Bowevei it
was felt impoitant to investigate how the kiln ieacts when the seconuaiy aii
tempeiatuie is both incieaseu anu uecieaseu.
!"
$"
%"
&"
'"
("
)*+,-*. /012 3*4
!
"
#
$
%
&

(
%
)
*
%
&
+
,
$
%



112
V20'( 8LP 9(,,/$*- O%1 )/OO(1/$* -("%$)21H 2/1 ,(+:(12,61( -/+6'2,/%$-
Contiol SA Tempeiatuie 712 K
Bigh SA Tempeiatuie 1u12 K
Low SA Tempeiatuie 412 K


D/*61( LMP C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T[ G/*G -("%$)21H 2/1
,(+:(12,61( S!T 2$) '%& -("%$)21H 2/1 ,(+:(12,61( S!T7


D/*61( L4P N2'' G(2, O'6X :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T[ G/*G -("%$)21H 2/1
,(+:(12,61( S!T 2$) '%& -("%$)21H 2/1 ,(+:(12,61( S!T7
u
2uu
4uu
6uu
8uu
1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T
u
Suuu
1uuuu
1Suuu
2uuuu
2Suuu
Suuuu
SSuuu
4uuuu
4Suuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
D
'
6
X

S
N
f
+
8
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T


11S

D/*61( L8P C%+:21/-%$ %O (X/, *2- ,(+:(12,61(- S'(O,T 2$) :(2# #/'$ ,(+:(12,61(- S1/*G,T O%1
321H/$* -("%$)21H 2/1 ,(+:(12,61(-7
Incieasing the seconuaiy aii tempeiatuie by SuuK was founu to significantly
inciease the tempeiatuies in the kiln anu consequently the heat flux to the wall.
This conclusion suggests that NcBonalu's Lime shoulu look closely at ieuucing
the amount of colu aii leaking in thiough the fiiing hoou uooi in oiuei to
inciease the seconuaiy aii tempeiatuie anu ultimately impiove theii opeiating
efficiencies.

8.4 r|mary A|r 1emperature
The pievious section iecommenueu that NcBonalu's Lime ieuuce aii leakage
thiough the fiiing hoou uooi in oiuei to inciease the tempeiatuie of the
seconuaiy combustion aii. Because the piimaiy aii oiiginates fiom the fiiing
hoou, aujustments to the seconuaiy aii tempeiatuie aie likely to influence the
piimaiy aii tempeiatuie. The liteiatuie ieview also explains that the piimaiy
aii tempeiatuie may affect the kiln efficiency. Consequently the effects of
uiffeiing piimaiy aii tempeiatuies on the kiln system have been investigateu.
V20'( 8=P 9(,,/$*- O%1 )/OO(1/$* :1/+21H 2/1 ,(+:(12,61( -/+6'2,/%$-
Contiol PA Tempeiatuie SS7.7 K
Bigh PA Tempeiatuie S77.4 K
Low PA Tempeiatuie 298 K

Numeiical simulations ultimately showeu that the above aujustments to the
piimaiy aii tempeiatuie of Kiln Two have negligible effect on both the centieline
tempeiatuie piofile anu the wall flux. Neveitheless theie is a small uiffeience in
!"""
!"$%
!"%"
!"&%
!!""
!!$%
!!%"
'()*+(, -./0 1(2
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,

!"##
!"%#
!&##
!&%#
!'##
!'%#
()*+,)- ./01 2)3
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,



114
the peak flame tempeiatuies as is shown in Figuie 6S. The vaiiability in exit gas
tempeiatuies is negligible.

D/*61( L>P C%+:21/-%$ %O (X/, *2- ,(+:(12,61(- S'(O,T 2$) :(2# #/'$ ,(+:(12,61(- S1/*G,T O%1
321H/$* :1/+21H 2/1 ,(+:(12,61(-7
8.S Coa| I|ow kate
Coal is the piimaiy souice of eneigy enteiing Kiln Two anu theiefoie it was
consiueieu impoitant to investigate the tempeiatuies anu wall fluxes foi
uiffeiing flow iates. Table 28 lists the coal flow iate foi the contiol case anu the
two auuitional simulations, which aie 11.6% highei anu lowei than the contiol
flow iate iespectively.
V20'( 8AP 9(,,/$*- O%1 )/OO(1/$* "%2' O'%& 12,( -/+6'2,/%$-7

!"""
!"$%
!"%"
!"&%
!!""
!!$%
!!%"
'()*+(, -./0 1(2
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,

!"##
!"%#
!&##
!&%#
!'##
!'%#
()*+,)- ./01 2)3
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,

Contiol Coal Flow Rate u.8S94 kgs (uiy)
Bigh Coal Flow Rate u.9S94 kgs (uiy)
Low Coal Flow Rate u.7S94 kgs (uiy)


11S

D/*61( LBP C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T[ G/*G "%2' O'%& 12,(
S!T 2$) '%& "%2' O'%& 12,( S!T7


D/*61( LIP N2'' G(2, O'6X :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T[ G/*G "%2' O'%& 12,( S!T 2$)
'%& "%2' O'%& 12,( S!T7


u
2uu
4uu
6uu
8uu
1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T
u
Suuu
1uuuu
1Suuu
2uuuu
2Suuu
Suuuu
SSuuu
4uuuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
D
'
6
X

S
N
f
+
8
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T


116

D/*61( LLP C%+:21/-%$ %O (X/, *2- ,(+:(12,61(- S'(O,T 2$) :(2# #/'$ ,(+:(12,61(- S1/*G,T O%1 321H/$*
"%2' O'%& 12,(-7
As is expecteu the coal flow iate affects both the tempeiatuie anu wall heat flux
within Kiln Two. The effects aie seen to be most piominent towaius the back
enu of the kiln with Figuie 66 showing theie to be minimal change in the peak
tempeiatuie foi uiffeiing coal flow iates, yet moie noticeable change in the exit
gas tempeiatuie. The above iesults weie of significant inteiest to NcBonalu's
Lime. Recently the kiln opeiatois weie having issues iaising the buining zone
tempeiatuie of Kiln Two anu theii immeuiate iesponse was to inciease the coal
flow iate. Bowevei all the opeiatois manageu to achieve was an incieaseu back
enu tempeiatuie, as is suppoiteu by the numeiical mouelling. In futuie the kin
opeiatois woulu have gieatei success incieasing the fiiing zone tempeiatuie by
incieasing the tempeiatuie of the seconuaiy aii.

8.6 Sw|r| A|r
As was explaineu in the liteiatuie ieview, swiiling aii is often useu in iotaiy kiln
buineis to piomote tuibulent mixing of fuel anu aii anu pievent flame
impingement. This concept was theiefoie investigateu by mouifying the contiol
coal combustion case by auuing a swiil component of 1S to the incoming
piimaiy aii. This tianslates to a tangential (swiil) velocity of 21.8 msV
The auuition of swiiling piimaiy aii was seen to move the peak tempeiatuie anu
wall flux closei to the buinei, inuicating that the swiiling aii has piomoteu fastei
mixing of fuel anu aii anu thus the combustion piocesses have occuiieu eailiei.
The uiffeiences, as seen in Figuie 67 anu Figuie 68, aie iathei minimal howevei
!"""
!"$%
!"%"
!"&%
!!""
!!$%
!!%"
'()*+(, -./0 1(2
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,

!"##
!"%#
!&##
!&%#
!'##
!'%#
()*+,)- ./01 2)3
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,



117
anu it is not thought that NcBonalu's Lime woulu obtain any gieat benefits fiom
auuing swiil aii to theii cuiient buineis. Theie may howevei be benefits fiom
auuing auuitional channels anu combining swiil anu axial aii. This coulu be
investigateu in futuie woik. The effects of swiiling aii on ieciiculation weie also
investigateu but once again theie weie no significant changes to the contiol case.


D/*61( L=P N2'' G(2, O'6X :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T 2$) -&/1'/$* :1/+21H 2/1 "2-(
S!T7

D/*61( LAP C($,1( '/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- %O U/'$ V&% O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "2-( S!T 2$) -&/1'/$*
:1/+21H 2/1 "2-( S!T7
u
2uu
4uu
6uu
8uu
1uuu
12uu
14uu
16uu
18uu
2uuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T
u
Suuu
1uuuu
1Suuu
2uuuu
2Suuu
Suuuu
SSuuu
4uuuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
D
'
6
X

S
N
f
+
8
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 ;6,'(, S+T

9 C|| Combust|on
NcBonalus Lime Ltu has iecently auueu a waste oil fiiing system to Kiln Two in
an attempt to ieuuce theii fuel costs. As explaineu eailiei this auuition involveu
placing a lance uown the centie of the single tube buinei pipe, which spiays
vapoiiseu waste oil into the kiln in auuition to pulveiiseu coal. This section of
the thesis investigates the peifoimance of the waste oil fiiing system in
compaiison to the contiol coal fiiing system. As in the pievious chaptei, all
mouelling has been unueitaken using the two-uimensional axisymmetiic mesh
anu compaiisons between uiffeient set-ups have focusseu on analysing
tempeiatuies anu heat fluxes within the kiln.

The initial stage of the oil combustion mouelling involveu compaiing the contiol
coal case to a contiol oil case as shown in Figuie 69. The contiol oil case was set
as a 2S% theimal substitution of waste oil foi pulveiiseu coal.

D/*61( LKP C%+:21/-%$ %O ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- /$ ,G( O'2+( 1(*/%$ O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' %/' S,%:T 2$) "%2'
S0%,,%+T "2-(-7
The coal anu oil tempeiatuie piofiles aie seen to be iathei uiffeient in the neai
buinei iegion, a chaiacteiistic that aiises as a iesult of the uiffeient
uevolatilisation tempeiatuies of coal anu oil. Because oil volatalises at a much
lowei tempeiatuie than coal (S89K compaieu to 77SK), the combustion piocess
begins much soonei pioviuing the spike in tempeiatuie close to the buinei
outlet. Theie is then a ueciease in tempeiatuie befoie the coal begins to
volatalise anu combust fuithei uownstieam. In the piesenteu case the oil will


119
volatalise eaily uue to the high tempeiatuie of the seconuaiy combustion aii,
while the coal ielies on heat fiom the actual flame fuithei uownstieam foi
uevolatilisation to occui.

The othei significant uiffeience between the two cases is the oveiall hottei
tempeiatuie piofile foi the waste oil system compaieu to the coal only system.
This phenomenon will be analyseu fuithei in the subsequent sections of this
chaptei that investigate the effects of uiffeient waste oil anu piimaiy aiiflow
iates.

9.1 Waste C|| I|ow kates
In auuition to the contiol oil case, 1S anu 4u peicent theimal substations of
waste oil have been investigateu. Centieline tempeiatuie anu wall heat flux
piofiles aie compaieu foi the thiee oil combustion cases anu the contiol coal
combustion case.


D/*61( =MP `12:G -G%&/$* ,G( "($,1('/$( ,(+:(12,61( :1%O/'( O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "%2' "2-( S!T 2$) 4Ie
S!T[ 8Ie S!T 2$) BMe S!T ,G(1+2' -60-,/,6,/%$- %O %/'7

u
Suu
1uuu
1Suu
2uuu
2Suu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 S+T


12u
As was seen in the contoui plot above the tempeiatuie incieases much soonei
when oil is useu as a paitial fuel substitute uue to the moie iapiu
uevolatilisation. As the oil flow iate incieases the magnituue of the tempeiatuie
spike close to the buinei uecieases. It is thought that this occuiience may be
uue to a gieatei competition foi oxygen as the oil flow uecieases, thus leauing to
incomplete combustion taking place anu consequently a lowei heat output.
Fuithei uownstieam the oil combustion cases all have a highei tempeiatuie than
the coal combustion case, with the 2S% theimal substitution pioviuing the
highest tempeiatuie. Figuie 71 shows that the oil combustion simulations have
a much highei peak tempeiatuie than the contiol case. The exit tempeiatuies
vaiy a lot less howevei with the contiol coal anu 4u% theimal oil substitution
cases having veiy similai values.

D/*61( =4P C%+:21/-%$ %O (X/, *2- ,(+:(12,61(- S'(O,T 2$) :(2# #/'$ ,(+:(12,61(- S1/*G,T O%1 "%2'
2$) %/' O/1() -(,6:-7
As a consequence of highei tempeiatuies in the kiln, the heat flux to the wall is
also much highei when oil is paitially substituteu foi coal. Figuie 72 shows that
opeiating the kiln with a 2S% theimal substitution is the most efficient setup.
This setting pioviues the gieatest wall heat flux anu thus allows the oveiall fuel
input to be uecieaseu by the gieatest amount in oiuei to achieve the same heat
flux to the walls anu beu as the oiiginal coal fiieu system pioviueu. It is
suggesteu that the lowei kiln tempeiatuies geneiateu with a highei oil flow iate
aie a iesult of the laigei oil paiticles piouuceu by the laval nozzle being less
efficient. It is a iecommenuation that futuie woik investigates the effects of
uiffeient oil flow iates foi a unifoim uioplet size.


!"""
!"$%
!"%"
!"&%
!!""
!!$%
!!%"
!!&%
!$""
'()* !%+ $%+ ,"+
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,

!"##
!"%#
!&##
!&%#
!'##
!'%#
(###
(#%#
(!##
)*+, !%- (%- .#-
!
"
#
$
"
%
&
'
(
%
"

*
+
,



121

D/*61( =8P `12:G -G%&/$* ,G( &2'' G(2, O'6X :1%O/'(- O%1 ,G( "%$,1%' "%2' "2-( S!T 2$) 2 4Ie S!T[
8Ie S!T 2$) BMe S!T ,G(1+2' -60-,/,6,/%$ %O %/' 1(-:(",/3('H7
9.2 r|mary A|r I|ow kate
The waste oil lance uses compiesseu aii in the vapoiisation piocess, which is
subsequently ieleaseu into the iotaiy kiln. As a iesult of this auuitional aii, anu
the ueciease in flow iate of pulveiiseu coal, the opeiatois at NcBonalu's Lime
ieuuce the flow iate of piimaiy aii enteiing the kiln thiough the buinei pipe
when waste oil is fiieu. As no uata was available on the aujustments to the
piimaiy aii flow the waste oil numeiical mouels useu the assumption that the
total piimaiy aii poition of stoichiometiic aii, incluuing compiesseu aii, stayeu
the same as the contiol coal cases (S6.S%). The following section investigates
whethei the kiln woulu opeiate any uiffeiently if the buinei aiiflow was left
unaujusteu, incieasing the piimaiy aii poition of stoichimetiic aii to
appioximately 41.1% when the compiesseu aii is auueu to the system.

u
1uuuu
2uuuu
Suuuu
4uuuu
Suuuu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su
N
2
'
'

c
(
2
,

D
'
6
X

S
N
f
+
8
T

E/-,2$"( D1%+ d61$(1 S+T


122

D/*61( =>P V(+:(12,61( :1%O/'(- O%1 >L7Ie S!T 2$) B474e S!T ,%,2' :1/+21H 2/17

D/*61( =BP N2'' G(2, O'6X :1%O/'(- O%1 >L7Ie S!T 2$) B474e S!T ,%,2' :1/+21H 2/17
The tempeiatuie piofiles aie veiy similai thioughout the kiln, howevei, theie is
a inciease of appioximately 2uuK in the tempeiatuie spike close to buinei
cieateu by the eaily oil combustion. This inciease in tempeiatuie close to the
buinei appeais to have assisteu the flame in pioviuing a gieatei heat flux to the
walls in the fiist half of the kiln. 0ltimately it appeais that leaving the aiiflow
thiough the buinei pipe unchangeu is the most efficient moue of opeiation.
u
Suu
1uuu
1Suu
2uuu
2Suu
u 1u 2u Su 4u Su 6u
V
(
+
:
(
1
2
,
6
1
(

S
U
T

E/-,2$"( O1%+ d61$(1 S+T
u
1uuuu
2uuuu
Suuuu
4uuuu
Suuuu
u S 1u 1S 2u 2S Su SS 4u 4S Su
N
2
'
'

c
(
2
,

D
'
6
X

S
N
f
+
8
T

E/-,2$"( D1%+ d61$(1 S+T

10 Conc|us|ons and kecommendat|ons
NcBonalus Lime opeiate two laige scale iotaiy lime kilns at theii piouuction site
in 0toiohanga, New Zealanu. The woik piesenteu in this thesis investigates the
peifoimance of Kiln Two using Computational Fluiu Bynamics. Foi many yeais
Kiln Two has been fiieu solely with pulveiiseu coal, howevei a waste oil fiiing
system has iecently been auueu in an attempt to ieuuce fuel costs anu the
enviionmental impact of the opeiation. NcBonalus Lime felt CFB was an iueal
tool foi investigating the peifoimance of this new system anu ultimately
impioving the opeiating efficiencies of both the oil anu coal fiieu systems. CFB
allows foi an in uepth stuuy of the combustion chaiacteiistics in Kiln Two while
leaving eveiyuay opeiations completely unaffecteu.

Piioi to investigating the combustion chaiacteiistics of Kiln Two at NcBonalu's
Lime a valiuation stuuy was unueitaken to investigate the peifoimance of the
commeicial CFB coue, FL0ENT, foi numeiically mouelling combustion
applications. The valiuation stuuy was baseu on the Inteinational Flame
Reseaich Founuations No.1 Fuinace, with compaiisons maue between measuieu
anu numeiical uata. Noie specifically, the valiuation stuuy focusseu on the
peifoimance of uiffeient combustion chemistiy, uevolatilisation, anu paiticle
size uistiibution sub-mouels.

The valiuation stuuy founu that the species tianspoit appioach to combustion
chemistiy bettei ieplicateu the measuieu uata of the IFRF Fuinace than the
Nixtuie FiactionPBF appioach. The Nixtuie FiactionPBF appioach was,
howevei, chosen as the mouel of choice foi futuie mouelling uue to its
computational efficiency. The constant iate uevolatilisation mouel was founu to
be moie accuiate than the single iate mouel, anu injecting multiple unifoim
sizeu injections was supeiioi to using a Rosin Rammlei paiticle size uistiibution.
0veiall, howevei, it was felt that FL0ENT woulu be a suitable mouel foi
investigating the combustion chaiacteiistics of Kiln Two.



124
The fiist stage of the mouelling foi NcBonalu's Lime involveu the cieation of an
accuiate CAB mouel of Kiln Two, anu the compilation of all the necessaiy
opeiating paiameteis neeueu to peifoim a numeiical simulation. This involveu
the extiaction of uata fiom existing piouuction logs, as well as installation of new
equipment foi measuiing vaiious tempeiatuies anu piessuies. It was initially
intenueu that all mouelling woulu be unueitaken using a thiee-uimensional
uomain, howevei it soon became appaient that this was an uniealistic aim given
the time available. Thiee-uimensional simulations iequiie a lengthy
computational time anu uiveigence of some mouels was also encounteieu. As a
iesult, two-uimensional mouelling was investigateu as an alteinative. Aftei
consiueiing the accuiacy of the iesults, anu with the focus of the woik being on
analysing tienus as opposeu to quantitative numbeis, it was felt that two-
uimensional mouelling woulu be a much wisei alteinative.

10.1 Coa| Combust|on
The initial task iequiieu by NcBonalu's Lime was to investigate aspects of the
oiiginal coal fiieu system. This woik involveu simulating the aveiage, oi contiol,
opeiating conuitions, befoie making slight aujustments to a specific paiametei
anu then analysing the affect this has on the combustion chaiacteiistics,
specifically tempeiatuie anu heat flux. While some iesults simply suppoiteu
existing theoiies anu obseivations piesenteu in the liteiatuie ieview, a seiies of
conclusions weie uiawn anu aie listeu below.
The ieciiculation of combustion gases, geneiateu by a high piimaiy aii
momentum, takes place much closei to the buinei outlet than wheie ash
iings foim. Consequently, optimising the piimaiy aii momentum to
pievent flame impingement will not assist in the ieuuction of ash iings.
Colu aii that leaks in thiough the fiiing hoou, anu loweis the seconuaiy
aii tempeiatuie, has a negative impact on the oveiall kiln efficiency.
Small changes to the piimaiy aii tempeiatuie aie unlikely to have any
significant impact on the opeiation of Kiln Two.


12S
A highei coal flow iate will inciease the back enu tempeiatuie, howevei
changes to the peak flame tempeiatuie will be minimal.

10.2 C|| Combust|on
The seconu task was to investigate the peifoimance of the waste oil fiiing system
iecently auueu to Kiln Two. Beie uiffeient oil flow iates weie compaieu to the
oiiginal coal fiieu system anu the effects of uiffeient piimaiy aii iates weie also
analyseu. The conclusions fiom the oil combustion investigations aie as follows:
The waste oil buins with a much highei peak tempeiatuie than
pulveiiseu coal.
0peiating the kiln with a 2S% theimal substitution of waste oil pioviues
the highest kiln tempeiatuie anu heat flux to the limestone beu.
As the oil flow iate is incieaseu above 2S% the efficiency uiops. It is
thought this is causeu by significant competition foi oxygen in the neai
buinei iegion anu the laige uioplets geneiateu by the Laval nozzle.
When the pulveiiseu coal flow iate is loweieu foi the intiouuction of
waste oil, the kiln opeiates most efficiently when the piimaiy aii flow
thiough the biunei pipe is left at is oiiginal value.

10.3 kecommendat|ons
To assist NcBonalu's Lime utilise the finuings of the piesenteu ieseaich pioject,
a numbei of iecommenuations have been maue to the company.
The seal aiounu the fiiing hoou uooi shoulu be impioveu in an effoit to
stop leakage of ambient aii into the system. This will inciease the
seconuaiy aii tempeiatuie meaning less coal is iequiieu to achieve the
same heat flux to the limestone beu.
When the neeu aiises to inciease the fiiing zone tempeiatuie, the kiln
opeiatois shoulu focus theii effoits on incieasing the seconuaiy aii


126
tempeiatuie, iathei than incieasing the coal flow iate which will simply
inciease the back enu tempeiatuie.
The tiue amount of excess aii passing thiough the kiln shoulu be
quantifieu anu the kiln opeiatois shoulu then focus on opeiating the kiln
at the optimum level. This will pioviue auequate aii ensuiing that
complete combustion occuis, without the loss of eneigy thiough the
heating of unnecessaiy aii.
Investigations into the cause of ash iing foimation shoulu focus on
aspects othei than piimaiy aii momentum.
A 2S% theimal substitution of waste oil is the most efficient way in which
to opeiate Kiln Two.
NcBonalu's Lime shoulu continue ieseaiching the opeiation of Kiln Two
using Computational Fluiu Bynamics. It is felt that theie aie many moie
impiovements that coulu be maue.







11 Iuture Work
The pioject piesenteu in this thesis has involveu a significant amount of time
leaining how to peifoim CFB simulations that incluue the combustion of
pulveiiseu coal anu oil. As this pioject was also the fiist step in CFB mouelling
foi NcBonalu's Lime, anu involveu the initial compilation of opeiating
conuitions, theie is significant scope foi fuithei woik investigating the opeiation
of Kiln Two using Computational Fluiu Bynamics. Some suggestions foi futuie
woik aie listeu below:
Investigate fuithei why inaccuiacies weie seen when using a Rosin
Rammlei paiticle size uistiibution.
Peifoim auuitional mouelling using the thiee-uimensional uomain. This
will allow gieatei investigation into the impact of the fiiing hoou, coolei
anu tiansfei chute on the kiln aeiouynamics. It woulu also be beneficial
to compaie the iesults of two anu thiee uimensional oil combustion
simulations.
Investigate the combustion chaiacteiistics of uiffeiing oil flow iates, while
keeping the uioplet size constant.
Investigate the effects of fiiing Kiln Two using othei waste fuels such as
plastic anu biomass.
Investigate the chaiacteiistics of buineis that incluue both axial anu
swiiling aii anu see if these have any benefits ovei a buinei that has
simply one oi the othei, as was investigateu in the cuiient pioject.
Bevelop a mouel that incoipoiates both the physical anu chemical
piesence of the ieacting limestone beu.
Peifoim auuitional valiuation of the numeiical iesults against opeiating
conuitions of the ieal kiln. A gieatei amount of valiuation will be possible
as the complexity of the mouel incieases.
Peifoim an investigation to ueteimine the waste oil fiiing setup iequiieu
to match the tempeiatuie anu heat flux piofiles of the oiiginal coal fiiing
system.

12 keferences


Alyasei, A. B. (1998). lU(4- lUT= #/- !T$G(*94T/ 4/ %T9#5< m4U/*V Thesis.
0niveisity of Biitish Columbia.

ANSYS, I. uambit.

ANSYS, I. (2uu8). Tutoiial: Coal combustion with Euuy Bieak 0p (EB0) Nouel.

Bauzioch, S., & Bawksley, P. u. W. (197u). Kinetics of Theimal Becomposition of
Pulveiizeu Coal Paiticles. P/-V n/SV !gQ$V `5T6Q** YQ*V YQ;QUT)V A j(4), S21-
SSu.

Baii, P. v., Watkinson, A. P., & Biimacombe, }. K. (1989). A heat tiansfei mouel
foi the iotaiy kiln .1. Pilot kiln tiials. @Q9#UU(5S46#U C5#/*#694T/* \A `5T6Q*
@Q9#UU(5S<A XW(S), S91-4u2.

Baum, N. N., & Stieet, P. }. (1971). Pieuicting the Combustion Behavioui of Coal
Paiticles. !T$G(*94T/ ?64Q/6Q #/- CQ6g/TUTS<A [(S), 2S1-24S.

Boighi, R., & Bestiiau, N. (1998). !T$G(*94T/ #/- lU#$Q*O !gQ$46#U #/- `g<*46#U
`54/64)#U* (R. Tuinei, Tians.). Paiis: Euitions Technip.

Bosoaga, A., Panoiu, N., Nihaescu, L., Backieeuy, R. I., Na, L., Pouikashanian, N., et
al. (2uu6). The combustion of pulveiiseu low giaue lignite. l(QUA op, 1S91-
1S98.

Bui, R. T., Simaiu, u., Chaiette, A., Kocaefe, Y., & Peiion, }. (199S). Nathematical
Nouelling of the Rotaiy Coke Calcining Kiln. CgQ !#/-4#/ qT(5/#U T7
!gQ$46#U n/S4/QQ54/SA r[(August 199S), SS4-S4S.

Buigeiscentium, }. N. 2uuS, peisonal communication,2uuS.

Ciaya, A., & Cuitet, R. (19SS). 0n the Spieauing of a Confineu }et. !T$)9Q*I%Q/-(*
_6#-V -Q* ?64Q/6Q*(241), 611-622.

Ciesswell, A. (197u). Flame shape contiol in iotaiy cement kilns. !Q$Q/9
CQ6g/TUTS<A @#<2q(/Q, 92-9S.

Eastwick, C. N., Pickeing, S. }., & Aioussi, A. (1999). Compaiisons of two
commeicial computational fluiu uynamics coues in mouelling pulveiiseu
coal combustion foi a 2.S NW buinei. _))U4Q- @#9gQ$#946#U @T-QUU4/SA X[,
4S7-446.

FCT. (1997a). @6YT/#U-s* K4$Q K4$49Q- m4U/ C=T !T#U l454/S ?<*9Q$ _**Q*$Q/9.



129
FCT. (1997b). @6YT/#U-s* K4$Q K4$49Q- `g<*46#U #/- @#9gQ$#946#U @T-QU ?9(-< T7
%T9#5< K4$Q m4U/.

Fielu, N. A. (1969). Rate of Combustion of Size-uiaueu Fiactions of Chai fiom a
Low Rank Coal between 12uuK - 2uuuK. !T$G(*94T/ #/- lU#$QA L[, 2S7-
2S2.

FL0ENT, I. (2uu6). lU(Q/9 LXVW 1*Q5 F(4-Q: ANSYS.

uainick, R. B. (196S). uas anu 0il Fiiing of Rotaiy Kilns. @#9Q54#U* `5T6Q**4/SA
^(6), 29-S2.

uenetti, B., & Fletchei, T. B. (1999). Bevelopment anu Application of a
Coiielation of C NNR Chemical Stiuctuial Analyses of Coal Baseu on
Elemtntal Composition anu volatile Nattei Content. n/Q5S< t l(QU*A L[,
6u-68.

ueoigallis, N. (2uu4). @#9gQ$#946#U @T-QUU4/S T7 K4$Q m4U/*V Thesis. 0niveisity of
Biitish Columbia.

uoiog, }. P., & Auams, T. N. (1987, }anuaiy 11-16 1987). YQ*4S/ #/- `Q57T5$#/6Q
T7 %T9#5< K4$Q m4U/* 4/ 9gQ `(U) #/- `#)Q5 P/-(*95< `#59 [O RT= lU#$Q
!g#5#69Q54*946* #/- `5T-(69 !TTUQ5* _77Q69 K4$Q m4U/ `Q57T5$#/6QV Papei
piesenteu at the Kiaft Recoveiy 0peiations, 0ilanuo, FL.

Be, P., Salcuuean, N., uaitshoie, I., & Nowak, P. (1996). Nultigiiu Calculation of
the Fluiu Flows in Complex SB ueometiies using Cuivilineai uiius.
!T$)(9Q5* #/- lU(4-*A Xp(4), S9S-419.

Belton, B. (1996). Appenuix C: 0il Behavioui, Pathways, anu Exposuie. In: Injuiy
Assessment uuiuance Bocument foi Natuial Resouice Bamage
Assessment 0nuei the 0il Pollution Act of 199u. In N. B. A. a. R. Piogiam
(Eu.). Silvei Spiing, NB.

Kocaefe, Y., Simaiu, u., Bui, R. T., Chaiette, A., Peiion, }., & Potocnik, v. (1992).
Anallyzing the Beat Tiansfei in a Coke Calcining Kiln. K4Sg9 @Q9#U*, 627-
6S2.

Launuei, B. E., & Shaima, B. I. (1974). Application of the eneigy-uissipation
mouel oi tuibulence to the calculation of flow neai a spinning uisc. KQ99Q5*
4/ RQ#9 #/- @#** C5#/*7Q5A L(2), 1S1-1S8.

Nagnussen, B. F., & Bjeitagei, B. B. (1976). 0n mathematical mouels of tuibulent
combustion with the special emphasis on soot foimation anu combustion.
In P/9Q5/#94T/#U ?<$)T*4($ T/ !T$G(*94T/. vol. 16, (The Combustion
Institute).

Nalalasekeia, W., & veisteeg, B. K. (199S). _/ P/95T-(694T/ 9T !T$)(#94T/#U lU(4-
Y</#$46*. Bailow: Peaison Euucation Limiteu.


1Su

Noles, F. B., Watson, B., & Lain, P. B. (197S). Papei 6: The aeiouynamics of the
iotaiy cement kiln. qT(5/#U T7 9gQ P/*949(9Q T7 l(QUA [oj, SSS-S61.

Nullingei, P. }. (1987). Rotaiy kiln coal fiiing pait II: Buinei uesign. cmF
P/9Q5/#94T/#UA ^W(S), 2S9-294.

Pai, B. R., Richtei, W., & Lowes, T. N. (197S). Flow anu Nixing in Confineu Axial
Flows. qT(5/#U T7 9gQ P/*949(9Q T7 l(QU, 18S-196.

Peteis, A. A. F., & Webei, R. (1996). Nathematical Nouelling of a 2.4NW Swiiling
Pulveiizeu Coal Flame. !T$G(*94T/ ?64Q/6Q #/- CQ6g/TUTS<A LXX, 1S1-182.

Polacsek, R. (1992). Auvantages of Co-Fiiing uas anu Pulveiizeu Soliu Fuel in a
Rotaiy Lime Kiln. P/-(*954#U RQ#94/S, 24-27.

Pugmiie, R. }., Solum, N. S., & uiant, B. N. (1992). Chemical Peicolation Nouel foi
Bevoaltilization. S. Biiect 0se of C NNR Bata To Pieuict Effects of Coal
Type. n/Q5S< t l(QU*A M, 414-4S1.

Ruhlanu, W. (1967). Investigatin of flames in the cement iotaiy kiln. qT(5/#U T7
9gQ P/*949(9Q T7 l(QUA ^W(S1S), 69-7S.

Sahajwalla, v., Eghlimi, A., & Faiiell, K. (1997). Numeiical Simulation of
Pulveiiseu Coal Combustion. In P/9Q5 !T/7 T/ !lY 4/ @4/Q5#U #/- @Q9#U
`5T6Q**4/S FQ/Q5#94T/. `.

SBARC. Baipoon. Nanchestei.

Wang, S., Lu, }., Li, W., Li, }., & Bu, Z. (2uu6). Nouelling of pulveiiseu coal
combustion in cement iotaiy kilns. n/Q5S< t l(QU*A XW(6), 2SSu-2SS6.

Webei, R., Bugue, }., Sayie, A., & vissei, B. N. (1992). '(#5U cT/Q lUT= l4QU- #/-
!gQ$4*95< T7 ?=45U4/S `(U;Q543Q- !T#U lU#$Q*O @Q#*(5Q$Q/9* #/-
!T$)(9#94T/*V Papei piesenteu at the Tweenty-Fouith Symposium
(Inteinational) on Combustion.

Webei, R., Peteis, A. A. F., Bieithaupt, P. P., & vissei, B. N. (199S). Nathematical
Nouelling of Swiiling Flames of Pulveiiseu Coal: What Can Combustion
Engineeis Expect Fiom Noueling. qT(5/#U* T7 lU(4-* n/S4/QQ54/SA LLr,
289-297.

Wikipeuia (2uu9). %T9#5< m4U/. Retiieveu 16th Naich. 2uu8

Williams, A., Pouikashanian, N., & }ones, }. N. (2uu1). Combustion of pulveiiseu
coal anu biomass. `5TS5Q** 4/ n/Q5S< #/- !T$G(*94T/ ?64Q/6QA Xr, S87-61u.





1S1
13 Append|ces
13.1 Append|x A1: r|mary A|r Mass I|ow Ca|cu|at|on

Primary Air Mass Flow

Diff Pressure 474.1
mm
H
2
0
D
1
437 mm
D
2
199 mm

Air Temp 64.72 C
Water Temp 25 C

Vapour Flow Rate 0.1702 kg/s
Velocity 19.53 m/s
Density Vapour 0.058103803 kg/m
3


Density Air 1.0358 kg/m
3

Denisty air & vapour 1.093903803 kg/m
3

Density Water 998 kg/m
4


A
1
0.149986702 m
2

A
2
0.031102553 m
3


P 4641.619158 pa

V
1
19.52755638 m/s

FOW RATE AIR ONLY m 3.033727459 kg/s












1S2
13.2 Append|x A2: Sto|ch|ometr|c Combust|on Ana|ys|s
Stoichiometric Combustion Analysis
Proximate Analysis -Environ Landfill coal

Wt% wet Wt% dry Wt% DAF
Volatiles 39.30 49.2% 54.1%
Char 33.30 41.7% 45.9%
Ash 7.20 9.0%
Moisture 20.20
Gross CV 21.62 MJ/kg
Ultimate Analysis
Wt % (DAF)
C 74.88%
H 5.23%
O 18.31%
N 1.27%
S 0.32%

Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio

Mass / kg coal Equation Required O
2
(kg)
C 0.748774982 1.997
H 0.052276606 0.418
O 0.183064472 -0.183
N 0.012663106 to products
S 0.003220834 0.003

Oxygen to completely combust 1 kg coal 2.235 kg

Mass fraction O
2
in air

Vol. fraction Weight 1 mole air Mass Fraction
O2 0.21 6.72 0.233
N2 0.79 22.12 0.767

Air Required 9.592314886 kg

Stoich Air/Fuel
Weight Ratio 9.59 : 1

Burnout Stoichiometric Ratio

In 1kg Coal 34.344638% Char
0.343446376 kg

Oxygen Required 0.916 kg
Ratio 2.667 :1



1SS
13.3 Append|x A3: I|ow Character|st|cs

Flow Characteristics

Coal Flow Rate Mass Flow Rate - RAW 1.077 kg/s
DRY 0.859 kg/s

Mass Flow Rate 3.006 kg/s
Temperature 337.72 K
Primary Air Inlet Area 0.08895 m
2

Density Air 1.0358 kg/m
3

Velocity 32.625 m/s
Sensible Heat Addition 0.120 MW

Velocity 0 m/s
Temperature 298 K
Cold Air Inflow Density 1.17 kg/m
3

Area 0.196 m
2

Mass Flow Rate 0 kg/s

Mass Flow Rate 2.500 kg/s
Hot Air Outflow

Total Cooler Flow Rate 8.56 kg/s
Temperature 712 K
Cooler Inflow Density 0.4895
Area 8.76 m
2

Velocity 2.00 m/s

Mass Flow Rate 6.060 kg/s
Secondary Air Temperature 712 K
Sensible Heat Addition 2.7863 MW

Total Air through Kiln 9.066 kg/s
Stoichiometric Air 8.244 kg/s
Excess Air 10.0%
PA% of Stoiciometric Air 36.5%









1S4
13.4 Append|x A4: Water Vapour Lffects

Water Vapour Effects

Primary Air 3.006 kg/s
Secondary Air 6.06 kg/s
Raw Coal Rate 1.077 kg/s

Firing Pipe 337.72 K
Back End 1281 K

Cp vapour 2.08 kJ/kg
Cp liquid 4.1813 kJ/kg

Initial coal moisture 20.20%
Moisture removed by mill 15.82%
Moisture remaining 4.38%
Moisture in dried coal 5.20%

Vapour Flow Rate 0.170 kg/s
Liquid Flow Rate 0.047 kg/s

Vapour Heating Energy 334.2921233 kW

Liquid Heating Energy 186.0551812 kW

Total 520.3473045 kW

% Total Energy Output 2.54%