Lecture 1

Introduction to Engineering Design
Dr. T. Ramesh
Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of technology Tiruchirappalli 620 015 Email: tramesh@nitt.edu
DESIGN The word 'design' means different things to different people - a wallpaper pattern, a fashionable dress, the appearance of a racing car and so on. Therefore start by defining what we mean by 'design' in the present context - ie. What design is all about. Why we need to 'design', particularly in an engineering environment, and
How we might best go about 'designing'.
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Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT
What is design ? 'a mental plan, a scheme of attack, end in view, adaptation of means to ends, . . preliminary sketch for picture, . . . invention. Evidently there is a lot more to design than mere visual aspects, and design is not restricted to engineering. Key components of this explanation are as follows :-
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Means to ends implies that we design not for the abstract mental exercise, but with a definite goal in view - some action or some physical object (artefact) will result from the design. Mental suggests that design is a thinking process. When we design we deal primarily with ideas, with abstractions rather than with numbers - and computers for example cannot do the job for us, though they can help in certain tasks. No matter what we design, it is vital that we develop and apply our imagination to visualise realistically the future form of the artefact or action, how it will eventually come into being and most importantly how it will thereafter interact with people and other artefacts or actions
8/28/2013 Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT
Plan, scheme infers that design is distinct from implementation. Designers especially in engineering seldom execute their plans, but rather communicate them to others - either by word of mouth, or visually (sketches, engineering drawings, computer simulations etc.), or through the written word. Again, note the lack of emphasis on numbers. Invention means just that, we are coming up with something NEW - at least partly. Creativity is crucial as we shall see later.
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ME 307 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF MACHINE COMPONENTS

Unit I Mechanical Engineering Design. Design considerations. Material selection. Modes of failure. Theories of failure - Endurance limit. Stress concentration. Factor of safety. Unit II Design of shafts and couplings. Design of cotter and knuckle joints. Unit III Helical and leaf springs. Unit IV Fasteners and keys. Design of welded joints. Fillet and butt welds. Design of riveted joints. Unit V Design of sliding contact bearings. Selection of rolling contact bearings.
The essence of engineering is the utilization of the resources and laws of nature to benefit humanity. Engineering is an applied science in the sense that is concerned with understanding scientific principles and applying them to achieve a designed goal. Mechanical Engineering design is a major segment of engineering; it deals with the conception, design, development, refinement and application of machines and mechanical apparatus of all kinds. Because of the professional nature of the subject, most problems in mechanical engineering design do not have a single right answer.
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The problem of designing a household refrigerator Some are obviously better than others because they reflect a more sophisticated knowledge of the underlying technology, a more ingenious concept of basic design, a more effective and economical utilization of existing production technology, a more pleasing aesthetic appearance
It is precisely at this point, that one finds the challenge and excitement of modern engineering.
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Engineers today are concerned with the design and development of products for a society different from any that existed previously, and they have more knowledge available to them than did engineers in the past. Hence they are able to produce distinctly better solutions to meet todays needs. How much better depends on their ingenuity, imagination, depth of understanding of the need involved and of the technology that bears on the solutions and so on.
Mechanical design is a complex undertaking, requiring many skills. Extensive relationships need to be subdivided into a series of simple tasks. The complexity of the subject requires a sequence in which ideas are introduced and iterated. Design is an iterative process with many interactive phases. Many resources exist to support the designer, including many sources of information and an abundance of computational design tools. The design engineer needs not only to develop competence in their field but must also cultivate a strong sense of responsibility and professional work ethic.
There are roles to be played by codes and standards, everpresent economics, safety, and considerations of product liability. The survival of a mechanical component is often related through stress and strength. Matters of uncertainty are ever-present in engineering design and are typically addressed by the design factor and factor of safety, either in the form of a deterministic (absolute) or statistical sense. The latter, statistical approach, deals with a designs reliability and requires good statistical data.
In mechanical design, other considerations include dimensions and tolerances, units, and calculations.
To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specified need or to solve a problem. If the plan results in the creation of something having a physical reality, then the product must be functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable. Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is also a decision-making process.
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Decisions sometimes have to be made with too little information, occasionally with just the right amount of information, or with an excess of partially contradictory information.
Decisions are sometimes made tentatively, with the right reserved to adjust as more becomes known.
The point is that the engineering designer has to be personally comfortable with a decision-making, problem-solving role.
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Mechanical Engineering Design associated with the production and processing of energy and with providing the means of production, the tools of transportation, and the techniques of automation. The skill and knowledge base are extensive. Among the disciplinary bases are mechanics of solids and fluids, mass and momentum transport, manufacturing processes, and electrical and information theory. Mechanical engineering design involves all the disciplines of mechanical engineering.
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Phases and Interactions of the Design Process
What is the design process?

How does it begin? Does the engineer simply sit down at a desk with a blank sheet
of paper and jot down some ideas?

What happens next? What factors influence or control the decisions that have to be
made?
Finally, how does the design process end?
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The Phases in design Process
Basic concept of machine design

Decision making comes in every stage of design. Consider two cars of different makes. They may both be reasonable cars and serve the same purpose but the designs are different. The designers consider different factors and come to certain conclusions leading to an optimum design. Market survey gives an indication of what people want. Existing norms play an important role.
Once a critical decision is made, the rest of the design features follow.
Once we decide the engine capacity, the shape and size, then the subsequent course of the design would follow.
A bad decision leads to a bad design and a bad product.

Design may be for different products and with the present specialization and knowledge bank, we have a long list of design disciplines e.g. ship design, building design,
process design,
bridge design, clothing or fashion design and so on.
Design Considerations
Sometimes the strength required of an element in a system is an important factor in the determination of the geometry and the dimensions of the element. In such a situation we say that strength is an important design consideration.
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Design Tools and Resources The engineer has a great variety of tools and resources available to assist in the solution of design problems.
Inexpensive microcomputers and robust computer software packages provide tools of immense capability for the design, analysis, and simulation of mechanical components.
In addition to these tools, the engineer always needs technical information, either in the form of basic science/engineering behaviour or the characteristics of specific off-the-shelf components.
Resources can range from science/engineering textbooks to manufacturers brochures or catalogs, the computer can play a major role in gathering information.
Computational Tools
Computer-aided design (CAD) software allows the development of three-dimensional (3-D) designs from which conventional two-dimensional orthographic views with automatic dimensioning can be produced. Manufacturing tool paths can be generated from the 3-D models, and in some cases, parts can be created directly from a 3-D database by using a rapid prototyping and manufacturing method (stereolithography)paperless manufacturing!
Another advantage of a 3-D database is that it allows rapid and accurate calculations of mass properties such as mass, location of the centre of gravity, and mass moments of inertia.
Design is an interesting engineering activity that:

affects almost all areas of human life uses the laws and insights of science builds upon special experience provides the prerequisites for the physical realisation of
solution ideas
requires professional integrity and responsibility.
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The activities of designers

Conceptualising, i.e. searching for solution principles Generally applicable methods can be used along with the special methods. Embodying, i.e. engineering a solution principle by determining the general arrangement and preliminary shapes and materials of all components. Detailing, i.e. finalising production and operating details. Computing, representing and information collecting. These occur during all phases of the design process.
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Types of design
Adaptive design This is based on existing design, for example, standard products or systems adopted for a new application. Conveyor belts, control system of machines and mechanisms or haulage systems are some of the examples where existing design systems are adapted for a
particular use.
Developmental design Start with an existing design but finally a modified design is obtained. A new model of a car is a typical example of a developmental design .
New design
This type of design is an entirely new one but based on existing
scientific principles. No scientific invention is involved but requires creative thinking to solve a problem.
Examples of this type of design may include designing a small vehicle for transportation of men and material on board a ship or in a desert. Some research activity may be necessary.
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Types of design based on methods

Rational design This is based on determining the stresses and strains of components and thereby deciding their dimensions.
Empirical design
This is based on empirical formulae which in turn is based on experience and experiments. For example, when we tighten a nut on a bolt the force exerted or the stresses induced cannot be determined exactly but experience shows that the tightening force may be given by P=284d where, d is the bolt diameter in mm and P is the applied force in kg.
There is no mathematical backing of this equation but it is based on observations and experience.
Industrial design
These are based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey, external look, production facilities, low cost, use of existing standard products.
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Exploded view of the A380. (Figure courtesy of Airbus Industrie.)

Factors to be considered in machine design

What device or mechanism to be used? This would decide the relative arrangement of the constituent elements. Material Forces on the elements Size, shape and space requirements. The final weight of the product is also a major concern. The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly. How will it operate? Reliability and safety aspects Maintenance, cost and aesthetics of the designed product.

What device or mechanism to be used? This would decide the relative arrangement of the constituent elements. This is best judged by understanding the problem thoroughly. Sometimes a particular function can be achieved by a number of means or by using different mechanisms and the designer has to decide which one is most effective under the circumstances. A rough design or layout diagram may be made to crystallize the thoughts regarding the relative arrangement of the elements.
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Material This is a very important aspect of any design. A wrong choice of material may lead to failure, over or undersized product or expensive items. The choice of materials is thus dependent on suitable properties of the material for each component, their suitability of fabrication or manufacture and the cost. properties of the material
Tensile strength, yield strength, proportional limit, elastic limit, modulus of elasticity in tension, ductility and percent elongation, shear strength, Poisson's ratio, modulus of elasticity in shear, hardness, machinability, impact strength, density, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and electrical resistivity.
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The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and these stresses must be determined accurately since these will be used in determining the component size. Loading may be due to: i) Energy transmission by a machine member. ii) Dead weight. iii) Inertial forces. iv) Thermal effects. v) Frictional forces. In other ways loads may be classified as: i) Static load - Does not change in magnitude and direction and normally increases gradually to a steady value. ii) Dynamic load a) changes in magnitude- for e.g. traffic of varying weight passing a bridge. b) changes in direction- for e.g. load on piston rod of a double Dr. acting cylinder. 8/28/2013 T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT
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Dynamic Loading The nature of static and dynamic load Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Preliminary analysis would give an approximate size but if a standard element is to be chosen, the next larger size must be taken.
Shapes of standard elements are known but for non-standard element, shapes and space requirements must depend on available space in a particular machine assembly.
A scale layout drawing is often useful to arrive at an initial shape and size. Weight is important depending on application. For example, an aircraft must always be made light.
The material chosen must have the required strength yet it must be light.
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The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly
Care must always be taken to ensure that the designed elements may be manufactured with ease, within the available facilities and at low cost.
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How will it operate?
In the final stage of the design a designer must ensure that the machine may be operated with ease.
In many power operated machines it is simply a matter of pressing a knob or switch to start the machine. However in many other cases, a sequence of operations is to be specified.
This sequence must not be complicated and the operations should not require excessive force.
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Reliability is an important factor in any design. A designed machine should work effectively and reliably. The probability that an element or a machine will not fail in use is called reliability. Reliability lies between 0 R< 1.
To ensure this, every detail should be examined.

Possible overloading, wear of elements, excessive heat generation and other such detrimental factors must be avoided. There is no single answer for this but an overall safe design approach and care at every stage of design would result in a reliable machine.
Safety has become a matter of paramount importance these days in design. Machines must be designed to serve mankind, not to harm it. Industrial regulations ensure that the manufacturer is liable for any damage or harm arising out of a defective product. Use of a factor of safety only in design does not ensure its overall reliability.
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Maintenance and safety are often interlinked. Good maintenance ensures good running condition of machinery.
Often a regular maintenance schedule is maintained and a thorough check up of moving and loaded parts is carried out to avoid catastrophic failures. Low friction and wear is maintained by proper lubrication.
This is a major aspect of design since wherever there are moving parts, friction and wear are inevitable. High friction leads to increased loss of energy. Wear of machine parts leads to loss of material and premature failure.
Cost and aesthetics are essential considerations for product design.
Cost is essentially related to the choice of materials which in turn depends on the stresses developed in a given condition.
Although in many cases aesthetic considerations are not essential aspects of machine design, ergonomic aspects must be taken into considerations.
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Free-Body Diagrams Greatly simplify the analysis of a very complex structure or machine by successively isolating each element and studying and analyzing it by the use of free-body diagrams. When all the members have been treated in this manner, the knowledge can be assembled to yield information concerning the behavior of the total system. Thus, free-body diagramming is essentially a means of breaking a complicated problem into manageable segments, analyzing these simple problems, and then, usually, putting the information together again.
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Gear Reducer
Gear Reducer - Casing
The diagram establishes the directions of reference axes, provides a place to record the dimensions of the subsystem and the magnitudes and directions of the known forces, and helps in assuming the directions of unknown forces.
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Input Shaft
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Output Shaft Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT
The diagram simplifies the designers thinking because it provides a place to store one thought while proceeding to the next. The diagram provides a means of communicating the thoughts clearly and unambiguously to other people. Careful and complete construction of the diagram clarifies fuzzy thinking by bringing out various points that are not always apparent in the statement or in the geometry of the total problem. Thus, the diagram aids in understanding all facets of the problem. The diagram helps in the planning of a logical attack on the problem and in setting up the mathematical relations. The diagram helps in recording progress in the solution and in illustrating the methods used.
The diagram allows others to follow your reasoning, showing all forces.
Stresses - Introduction
Stresses are developed in machine elements due to applied load and machine design involves ensuring that the elements can sustain the induced stresses without yielding.
A simple lever subjected to forces at the ends.

A proper design of the spring would ensure the necessary force P at the lever end B. The stresses developed in sections AB and AC would decide the optimum cross-section of the lever provided that the material has been chosen correctly.
The design of the hinge depends on the stresses developed due to the reaction forces at A.
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The following types of stresses are developed in different elements:
Lever arms AB and AC Hinge pin Spring
- Bending stresses - Shear and bearing stresses - Shear stress
It is therefore important to understand the implications of these and other simple stresses. Although it is more fundamental to consider the state of stress at a point and stress distribution, in elementary design analysis simple average stresses at critical cross-sections are considered to be sufficient.
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A cantilever beam of circular cross-section subjected to a vertical loading P at the free end and an axial loading F in addition to a torque T as shown in Figure. Let the diameter of cross-section and the length of the beam be d and L respectively.
A cantilever beam subjected to bending, torsion and an axial loading

The basic mathematical relations required to compute the various stresses developed in the beam are:
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It is now necessary to consider the most vulnerable section and element. Since the axial and torsional shear stresses are constant through out the length, the most vulnerable section is the builtup end. We now consider the three elements A, B and C. There is no bending stress on the element B and the bending and axial stresses on the element C act in the opposite direction. Therefore, for the safe design of the beam consider the stresses on the element A which is shown in Figure.
Stresses developed on element A

Various stresses Factor of Safety Stress concentration factor Material properties Plane stress Mohrs Circle diagram Fatigue loading conditions
Principal stresses
Combined stresses Theories of Failure etc.,
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Consider the design of a speed reducer for the small tractor. Suppose that, to accomplish the speed reduction, decide to design a double reduction, spur gear speed reducer. Specify four gears, three shafts, six bearings, and a housing to hold the individual elements in proper relation to each other, as shown in Figure.
The primary elements of the speed reducer in the above Figure are: 1. The input shaft (shaft 1) is to be connected to the power source, a gasoline engine whose output shaft rotates at 2000 rpm. A flexible coupling is to be employed to minimize difficulties with alignment. 2. The first pair of gears, A and B, causes a reduction in the speed of the intermediate shaft (shaft 2) proportional to the ratio of the numbers of teeth in the gears. Gears B and C are both mounted to shaft 2 and rotate at the same speed. 3. A key is used at the interface between the hub of each gear and the shaft on which it is mounted to transmit torque between the gear and the shaft.
4. The second pair of gears, C and D, further reduces the speed of gear D and the output shaft (shaft 3) to the range of 290 to 295 rpm. 5. The output shaft is to carry a chain sprocket (not shown). The chain drive ultimately is to be connected to the drive wheels of the tractor. 6. Each of the three .shafts is supported by two ball bearings, making them statically determinate and allowing the analysis of forces and stresses using standard principles of mechanics. 7. The bearings are held in a housing that is to be attached to the frame of the tractor. Note the manner of holding each bearing so that the inner race rotates with the shaft while the outer race is held stationary.
Gears For the gear pairs, specify the number of teeth in each gear, the pitch (size) of the teeth, the pitch diameters, the face width, and the material and its heat treatment.
These specifications depend on considerations of strength and wear of the gear teeth and the motion requirements (kinematics).
Also recognize that the gears must be mounted on shafts in a manner that ensures proper location of the gears, adequate torque transmitting capability from the gears to the
shafts (as through keys), and

safe shaft design.
Shafts The shaft is loaded in bending and torsion because of the forces acting at the gear teeth.
Design must consider strength and rigidity, and it must permit the mounting of the gears and bearings.
Shafts of varying diameters may be used to provide shoulders against which to seat the gears and bearings. There may be key seats cut into the shaft. The input and output shafts will extend beyond the housing to permit coupling with the engine and the drive axle.
The type of coupling must be considered, as it can have a dramatic effect on the shaft stress analysis.
Seals on the input and output shafts protect internal components.
Bearings Select commercially available bearings from a manufacturer's catalog, rather than design a unique one. Determine the magnitude of the loads on each bearing The rotational speed and reasonable design life of the bearings and their compatibility with the shaft on which they are to be mounted must also be considered. The bearing selected to support a particular part of the shaft, then, must have a bore no smaller than the safe diameter of the shaft. When a specific bearing is selected, the diameter of the shaft at the bearing seat location and allowable tolerances must be specified.
Keys The keys and the key seats can be designed. The diameter of the shaft at the key determines the key's basic size (width and height).
The torque that must be transmitted is used in strength calculations to specify key length and material.
Once the working components are designed, the housing design can begin.
Housing The housing design process must be both creative and practical. What provisions should be made to mount the bearings accurately and to transmit the bearing loads safely through the case to the structure on which the speed reducer is mounted? How will the various elements be assembled into the housing? How will the gears and bearings be lubricated?
What housing material should be used?

Should the housing be a casting, a weldment, or an assembly of machined parts?
The design process as outlined here implies that the design can progress in sequence: From the gears to the shafts, to the bearings, to the keys and couplings, and finally to the housing. It would be rare, however, to follow this logical path only once for a given design. Usually the designer must go back many times to adjust the design of certain components affected by changes in other components. This process, called Iteration, continues until an acceptable overall design is achieved. Frequently prototypes are developed and tested during iteration.

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Introduction to Engineering Design

How we might best go about 'designing'.

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

ME 307 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF MACHINE COMPONENTS

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

What is the design process?

of paper and jot down some ideas?

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

The Phases in design Process

Basic concept of machine design

A bad decision leads to a bad design and a bad product.

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Design is an interesting engineering activity that:

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

The activities of designers

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Types of design based on methods

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Exploded view of the A380. (Figure courtesy of Airbus Industrie.)

Factors to be considered in machine design

Factors to be considered in machine design

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Factors to be considered in machine design

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Factors to be considered in machine design

Factors to be considered in machine design

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Factors to be considered in machine design

The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Factors to be considered in machine design

How will it operate?

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Factors to be considered in machine design

To ensure this, every detail should be examined.

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Factors to be considered in machine design

Cost and aesthetics are essential considerations for product design.

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Gear Reducer - Casing

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Output Shaft Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

A simple lever subjected to forces at the ends.

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

The following types of stresses are developed in different elements:

Lever arms AB and AC Hinge pin Spring

- Bending stresses - Shear and bearing stresses - Shear stress

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

A cantilever beam subjected to bending, torsion and an axial loading

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT

Stresses developed on element A

Dr. T. RAMESH, AP/MED, NITT