CH 06

76
Principles of Electronics
6 Semiconductor
Diode
6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.9
6.11 6.13 6.15 6.17 6.19 6.21 6.23 6.25 6.27 6.29
Semiconductor Diode Resistance of Crystal Diode Crystal Diode E ui!alent Circuits Crystal Diode Rectifiers "utput #re uency of $alf%&a!e Rectifier #ull%&a!e Rectifier #ull%&a!e 'rid(e Rectifier Efficiency of #ull%&a!e Rectifier )ature of Rectifier "utput Comparison of Rectifiers *ypes of #ilter Circuits $alf%&a!e +olta(e Dou,ler -ener Diode -ener Diode as +olta(e Sta,iliser Crystal Diodes !ersus +acuum Diodes
t 0as already ,een discussed in t0e pre!ious c0apter t0at a pn 1unction conducts current easily 20en for2ard ,iased and practically no current flo2s 20en it is re!erse ,iased. *0is unilateral conduction c0aracteristic of pn 1unction 3i.e. semiconductor diode4 is similar to t0at of a !acuum diode. *0erefore5 li6e a !acuum diode5 a semiconductor diode can also accomplis0 t0e 1o, of rectification i.e. c0an(e alternatin( current to direct current. $o2e!er5 semiconductor diodes 0a!e ,ecome more 7popular as t0ey are smaller in si8e5 c0eaper and ro,ust and usually operate 2it0 (reater efficiency. .n t0is c0apter5 2e s0all focus our attention on t0e circuit perfor% mance and applications of semiconductor diodes.
.
9 9
.)*R"D/C*.").)*R"D/C *.")
"n t0e ot0er 0and5 !acuum diodes can 2it0stand 0i(0 re!erse !olta(es and can operate at fairly 0i(0 temperatures.
Semiconductor Diode
77
6.1 Semiconductor Diode

: pn 1unction is 6no2n as a semi%conductor or 7crystal diode. *0e outstandin( property of a crystal diode to conduct current in one direction only permits it to ,e used as a rectifier. : crystal diode is usually represented ,y t0e sc0ematic sym,ol s0o2n in #i(. 6.1. *0e arro2 in t0e sym,ol indicates t0e direction of easier con!entional current flo2. : crystal diode 0as t2o ter% #i(. 6.1minals. &0en it is connected P);< in a circuit5 one t0in( to decide is 20et0er t0e diode is for2ard or re!erse ,iased. *0ere is an easy rule to ascer% tain it. .f t0e e=ternal circuit is tryin( to pus0 t0e con% !entional current in t0e direction of arro25 t0e diode is for2ard ,iased. "n t0e ot0er 0and5 if t0e con!entional current is tryin( to flo2 opposite to arro20ead5 t0e diode is re!erse ,iased. Puttin( in simple 2ords > 3i4 .f arro20ead of diode sym,ol is positi!e 2.r.t. ,ar of t0e sym,ol5 t0e diode is for2ard ,iased. 3ii4 .f t0e arro20ead of diode sym,ol is ne(ati!e 2.r.t. ,ar5 t0e diode is re!erse ,iased. .dentification of crystal diode terminals. &0ile usin( a crystal diode5 it is often necessary to 6no2 20ic0 end is arro20ead and 20ic0 end is ,ar. #or t0is purpose5 t0e follo2in( met0ods are a!aila,le > 3i4 Some manufacturers actually paint t0e sym,ol on t0e ,ody of t0e diode e.(. '?1275 '?11@ crystal diodes manufactured ,y 'EA BSee #i(. 6.2 3i4C.
#i(. 6.2 3ii4 Sometimes5 red and ,lue mar6s are used on t0e ,ody of t0e crystal diode. Red mar6 denotes arro2 20ereas ,lue mar6 indicates ,ar e.(. ":DE crystal diode BSee #i(. 6.2 3ii4C.
6.2 Crystal Diode as a Rectifier

#i(. 6.3 illustrates t0e rectifyin( action of a crystal diode. *0e a.c. input !olta(e to ,e rectified5 t0e diode and load RA are connected in series. *0e d.c. output is o,tained across t0e load as e=plained in t0e follo2in( discussion. Durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle of a.c. input !olta(e5 t0e arro20ead ,ecomes positi!e 2.r.t. ,ar. *0erefore5 diode is for2ard ,iased and conducts current in t0e circuit. *0e result is t0at positi!e 0alf%cycle of input !olta(e appears across R A as s0o2n. $o2e!er5 durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e5 t0e diode ,ecomes re!erse ,iased ,ecause no2 t0e arro20ead is ne(ati!e 2.r.t. ,ar. *0erefore5 diode does not conduct and no !olta(e appears across load R A. *0e result is t0at output consists of positi!e 0alf%cycles of input a.c. !olta(e 20ile t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycles are suppressed. .n t0is 2ay5 crystal diode 0as ,een a,le to do rectification i.e. c0an(e a.c. into d.c. .t may ,e seen t0at output across RA is pulsatin( d.c.
So called ,ecause pn 1unction is (ro2n out of a crystal.
7D
.t is interestin( to see t0at ,e0a!iour of diode is li6e a s2itc0. &0en t0e diode is for2ard ,iased5 it ,e0a!es li6e a closed s2itc0 and connects t0e a.c. supply to t0e load R A. $o2e!er5 20en t0e diode is re!erse ,iased5 it ,e0a!es li6e an open s2itc0 and disconnects t0e a.c. supply from t0e load R A. *0is s2itc0in( action of diode permits only t0e positi!e 0alf%cycles of input a.c. !olta(e to appear across RA.
#i(. 6.3 E=ample 6.1. .n eac0 diode circuit of #i(. 6.@5 find 20et0er t0e diodes are for2ard or re!erse ,iased.
#i(. 6.@ Solution. 3i4 Refer to #i(. 6.@ 3i4. *0e con!entional current comin( out of ,attery flo2s in t0e ,ranc0 circuits. .n diode D15 t0e con!entional current flo2s in t0e direction of arro20ead and 0ence t0is diode is for2ard ,iased. $o2e!er5 in diode D25t0e con!entional current flo2s opposite to arro20ead and 0ence t0is diode is re!erse ,iased. 3ii4 Refer to #i(. 6.@ 3ii4. Durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e5 t0e con!entional current flo2s in t0e direction of arro20ead and 0ence diode is for2ard ,iased. $o2e!er5 durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e5 t0e diode is re!erse ,iased. 3iii4 Refer to #i(. 6.@ 3iii4. Durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e5 con!entional current flo2s in t0e direction of arro20ead in D1 ,ut it flo2s opposite to arro20ead in D2. *0erefore5 durin( positi!e 0alf%cycle5 diode D1 is for2ard ,iased and diode D2 re!erse ,iased. $o2e!er5 durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e5 diode D2 is for2ard ,iased and D1 is re!erse ,iased.
Semiconductor Diode
3i!4 Refer to #i(. 6.@ 3i!4. Durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e5 ,ot0 t0e diodes are re!erse ,iased. $o2e!er5 durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e5 ,ot0 t0e diodes are for2ard ,iased.
79
6.3 Resistance of Crystal Diode

.t 0as already ,een discussed t0at a for2ard ,iased diode conducts easily 20ereas a re!erse ,iased diode practically conducts no current. .t means t0at for2ard resistance of a diode is uite small as compared 2it0 its re!erse resistance. 1. #or2ard resistance. *0e resistance offered ,y t0e diode to for2ard ,ias is 6no2n as for2ard resistance. *0is resistance is not t0e same for t0e flo2 of direct current as for t0e c0an(in( current. :ccordin(lyF t0is resistance is of t2o types5 namelyF d.c. for2ard resistance and a.c. for2ard resistance. 3i4 d.c. for2ard resistance. .t is t0e opposition offered ,y t0e diode to t0e direct current. .t is measured ,y t0e ratio of d.c. !olta(e across t0e diode to t0e resultin( d.c. current t0rou(0 it. *0us5 referrin( to t0e for2ard c0aracteristic in #i(. 6.55 it is clear t0at 20en for2ard !olta(e is ":5 t0e for2ard current is "'.
d.c. for2ard resistance5 Rf G
": "'
3ii4 a.c. for2ard resistance. .t is t0e opposition offered ,y t0e diode to t0e c0an(in( for2ard current. .t is measured ,y t0e ratio of c0an(e in !olta(e across diode to t0e resultin( c0an(e in current t0rou(0 it i.e. a.c. for2ard resistance5 rf G C0an(e in !olta(e across diode Correspondin( c0an(e in current t0rou(0 diode
#i(. 6.5#i(. 6.6 *0e a.c. for2ard resistance is more si(nificant as t0e diodes are (enerally used 2it0 alternatin( !olta(es. *0e a.c. for2ard resistance can ,e determined from t0e for2ard c0aracteristic as s0o2n in #i(. 6.6. .f P is t0e operatin( point at any instant5 t0en for2ard !olta(e is o, and for2ard current is oe. *o find t0e a.c. for2ard resistance5 !ary t0e for2ard !olta(e on ,ot0 sides of t0e operatin( point e ually as s0o2n in #i(. 6.6 20ere a, G ,c. .t is clear from t0is fi(ure t0at > #or for2ard !olta(e oa5 circuit current is od. #or for2ard !olta(e oc5 circuit current is of.
oc H oaC0an(e in for2ard !olta(e GG ac C0an(e in for2ard currentof H oddf .t may ,e mentioned 0ere t0at for2ard resistance of a crystal diode is !ery small5 ran(in( from 1 to 25 I. a.c. for2ard resistance5 rf G
DE
2. Re!erse resistance. *0e resistance offered ,y t0e diode to t0e re!erse ,ias is 6no2n as re!erse resistance. .t can ,e d.c. re!erse resistance or a.c. re!erse resistance dependin( upon 20et0er t0e re!erse ,ias is direct or c0an(in( !olta(e. .deally5 t0e re!erse resistance of a diode is infinite. $o2e!er5 in practice5 t0e re!erse resistance is not infinite ,ecause for any !alue of re!erse ,ias5 t0ere does e=ist a small lea6a(e current. .t may ,e emp0asised 0ere t0at re!erse resistance is !ery lar(e compared to t0e for2ard resistance. .n (ermanium diodes5 t0e ratio of re!erse to for2ard resistance is @EEEE > 1 20ile for silicon t0is ratio is 1EEEEEE > 1.
6.@ E ui!alent Circuit of Crystal Diode

.t is (enerally profita,le to replace a de!ice or system ,y its e ui!alent circuit. :n e ui!alent circuit of a de!ice 3e.(. crystal diode5 transistor etc.4 is a com,ination of electric elements5 20ic0 20en connected in a circuit5 acts e=actly as does t0e de!ice 20en connected in t0e same circuit. "nce t0e de!ice is replaced ,y its e ui!alent circuit5 t0e resultin( net2or6 can ,e sol!ed ,y traditional circuit analysis tec0ni ues. &e s0all no2 find t0e e ui!alent circuit of a crystal diode. 3i4 7:ppro=imate E ui!alent circuit. &0en t0e for2ard !olta(e +# is applied across a diode5 it 2ill not conduct till t0e potential ,arrier +E at t0e 1unction is o!ercome. &0en t0e for2ard !olta(e e=ceeds t0e potential ,arrier !olta(e5 t0e diode starts conductin( as s0o2n in #i(. 6.7 3i4. *0e for% 2ard current .f flo2in( t0rou(0 t0e diode causes a !olta(e drop in its internal resistance r f . *0ere% fore5 t0e for2ard !olta(e +# applied across t0e actual diode 0as to o!ercome > 3a4 potential ,arrier +E 3,4 internal drop .f rf +# G +E < .f rf #or a silicon diode5 +E G E.7 + 20ereas for a (ermanium diode5 +E G E.3 +. *0erefore5 appro=imate e ui!alent circuit for a crystal diode is a s2itc0 in series 2it0 a ,attery +E and internal resistance rf as s0o2n in #i(. 6.7 3ii4. *0is appro=imate e ui!alent circuit of a diode is !ery 0elpful in studyin( t0e performance of t0e diode in a circuit.
#i(. 6.7 3ii4 Simplified E ui!alent circuit. #or most applications5 t0e internal resistance rf of t0e crystal diode can ,e i(nored in comparison to ot0er elements in t0e e ui!alent circuit. *0e e ui!alent circuit t0en reduces to t0e one s0o2n in #i(. 6.D 3ii4. *0is simplified e ui!alent circuit of t0e crystal diode is fre uently used in diode%circuit analysis.
#i(. 6.D
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
7 &e assume 0ere t0at +J. c0aracteristic of crystal diode is linear.
Semiconductor Diode
3iii4 .deal diode model. :n ideal diode is one 20ic0 ,e0a!es as a perfect conductor 20en for2ard ,iased and as a perfect insulator 20en re!erse ,iased. ",!iously5 in suc0 a 0ypot0etical situation5 for2ard resistance rf G E and potential ,arrier +E is considered ne(li(i,le. .t may ,e men% tioned 0ere t0at alt0ou(0 ideal diode is ne!er found in practice5 yet diode circuit analysis is made on t0is ,asis. *0erefore5 20ile discussin( diode circuits5 t0e diode 2ill ,e assumed ideal unless and until stated ot0er2ise.
D1
6.5 Crystal Diode E ui!alent Circuits

.t is desira,le to sum up t0e !arious models of crystal diode e ui!alent circuit in t0e ta,ular form (i!en ,elo2> S.)o. 1. *ype :ppro=imate model Kodel C0aracteristic
2.
Simplified model
3.
.deal Kodel
E=ample 6.2. :n a.c. !olta(e of pea6 !alue 2E + is connected in series 2it0 a silicon diode and load resistance of 5EE L. .f t0e for2ard resistance of diode is 1E L5 find > 3i4 pea6 current t0rou(0 diode3ii4 pea6 output !olta(e &0at 2ill ,e t0ese !alues if t0e diode is assumed to ,e ideal M Solution. Pea6 input !olta(e G 2E + #or2ard resistance5 rf G 1E L Aoad resistance5 RA G 5EE L Potential ,arrier !olta(e5 +E G E.7 + *0e diode 2ill conduct durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycles of a.c. input !olta(e only. *0e e ui!alent circuit is s0o2n in #i(. 6.9 3ii4.
#i(. 6.9
D2
3i4 *0e pea6 current t0rou(0 t0e diode 2ill occur at t0e instant 20en t0e input !olta(e reac0es positi!e pea6 i.e. +in G +# G 2E +. +# G +E < 3.f4pea6 Brf < RAC...3i4 + H +E2E H E.7 GG 19.3 : G 37.D m:or3.f4pea6 G # r f < RA1E < 5EE51E 3ii4Pea6 output !olta(e G 3.f4pea6 N RA G 37.D m: N 5EE I G 1D.9 + .deal diode. #or an ideal diode5 put +E G E and rf G E in e uation 3i4. +# G 3.f4pea6 N RA +#2E + 3.f4@E pea6 G GG m: RA5EE I Pea6 output !olta(e G 3.f4pea6 N RA G @E m: N 5EE I G 2E + Comments. .t is clear from t0e a,o!e e=ample t0at output !olta(e is nearly t0e same 20et0er t0e actual diode is used or t0e diode is considered ideal. *0is is due to t0e fact t0at input !olta(e is uite lar(e as compared 2it0 +E and !olta(e drop in rf . *0erefore5 nearly t0e 20ole input for2ard !olta(e appears across t0e load. #or t0is reason5 diode circuit analysis is (enerally made on t0e ideal diode ,asis. E=ample 6.3. #ind t0e current t0rou(0 t0e diode in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.1E 3i4. :ssume t0e diode to ,e ideal. or
#i(. 6.1E Solution. &e s0all use *0e!eninOs t0eorem to find current in t0e diode. Referrin( to #i(. 6.1E3i45 EE G *0e!eninPs !olta(e G "pen circuited !olta(e across :' 2it0 diode remo!ed R25 N 1E G E.9E9 +GN+ G R1 < R25E < 5 RE G *0e!eninPs resistance G Resistance at terminals :' 2it0 diode remo!ed and ,attery replaced ,y a s0ort circuit R1 R25E N 5 GGG @.55 I 5E < 5R1 < R2 #i(. 6.1E 3ii4 s0o2s *0e!eninPs e ui!alent circuit. Since t0e diode is ideal5 it 0as 8ero resistance. EEG E.9E9 G E.2 : G 2EE m:Current t0rou(0 diode G
@.55RE
E=ample 6.@. Calculate t0e current t0rou(0 @D I resistor in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.11 3i4. :ssume t0e diodes to ,e of silicon and for2ard resistance of eac0 diode is 1 I. Solution. Diodes D1 and D3 are for2ard ,iased 20ile diodes D2 and D@ are re!erse ,iased. &e can5 t0erefore5 consider t0e ,ranc0es containin( diodes D 2 and D@ as QopenR. Replacin( diodes D1 and D3 ,y t0eir e ui!alent circuits and ma6in( t0e ,ranc0es containin( diodes D 2 and D@ open5 2e (et t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.11 3ii4. )ote t0at for a silicon diode5 t0e ,arrier !olta(e is E.7 +.
Semiconductor Diode
D3
#i(. 6.11 )et circuit !olta(e G 1E H E.7 H E.7 G D.6 + *otal circuit resistance G 1 < @D < 1 G 5E I Circuit current G D.6S5E G E.172 : G 172 m:
E=ample 6.5. Determine t0e current . in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.12 3i4. :ssume t0e diodes to ,e of silicon and for2ard resistance of diodes to ,e 8ero.
#i(. 6.12 Solution. *0e conditions of t0e pro,lem su((est t0at diode D1 is for2ard ,iased and diode D2 is re!erse ,iased. &e can5 t0erefore5 consider t0e ,ranc0 containin( diode D 2 as open as s0o2n in #i(. 6.12 3ii4. #urt0er5 diode D1 can ,e replaced ,y its simplified e ui!alent circuit. E H E2 H +E2@ H @ H E.719.3 + GG . G 1G 9.65 m: 2 6I2 6IR E=ample 6.6. #ind t0e !olta(e +: in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.13 3i4. /se simplified model.
#i(. 6.13
D@
Solution. .t appears t0at 20en t0e applied !olta(e is s2itc0ed on5 ,ot0 t0e diodes 2ill turn QonR. 'ut t0at is not so. &0en !olta(e is applied5 (ermanium diode 3+E G E.3 +4 2ill turn on first and a le!el of E.3 + is maintained across t0e parallel circuit. *0e silicon diode ne!er (ets t0e opportunity to 0a!e E.7 + across it and5 t0erefore5 remains in open%circuit state as s0o2n in #i(. 6.13 3ii4. +: G 2E H E.3 G 19.7 +
E=ample 6.7. #ind +T and .D in t0e net2or6 s0o2n in #i(. 6.1@ 3i4. /se simplified model. Solution. Replace t0e diodes ,y t0eir simplified models. *0e resultin( circuit 2ill ,e as s0o2n in #i(. 6.1@ 3ii4. 'y symmetry5 current in eac0 ,ranc0 is .D so t0at current in ,ranc0 CD is 2.D. :pplyin( Uirc00offPs !olta(e la2 to t0e closed circuit :'CD:5 2e 0a!e5 H E.7 H .D N 2 H 2 .D N 2 < 1E G E3.D in m:4 or6 .D G 9.3 9.3 .D GG 1.55 m: 6 :lso+T G 32 .D4 N 2 6I G 32 N 1.55 m:4 N 2 6I G 6.2 +
#i(. 6.1@ E=ample 6.D. Determine current t0rou(0 eac0 diode in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.15 3i4. /se simplified model. :ssume diodes to ,e similar.
#i(. 6.15 Solution. *0e applied !olta(e for2ard ,iases eac0 diode so t0at t0ey conduct current in t0e same direction. #i(. 6.15 3ii4 s0o2s t0e e ui!alent circuit usin( simplified model. Referrin( to #i(. 6.15 3ii45 .1 G +olta(e across R G 15 H E.7 G 2D.6 m: RE.5 6I .2D.6 Since t0e diodes are similar5 .D1 G .D2 G 1 GG 1@.3 m: 22 Comments. )ote t0e use of placin( t0e diodes in parallel. .f t0e current ratin( of eac0 diode is 2E
Semiconductor Diode
2E m: and a sin(le diode is used in t0is circuit5 a current of 2D.6 m: 2ould flo2 t0rou(0 t0e diode5 t0us dama(in( t0e de!ice. 'y placin( t0em in parallel5 t0e current is limited to a safe !alue of 1@.3 m: for t0e same terminal !olta(e. E=ample 6.9. Determine t0e currents .15 .2 and .3 for t0e net2or6 s0o2n in #i(. 6.163i4. /se simplified model for t0e diodes.
D5
#i(. 6.16 Solution. :n inspection of t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.16 3i4 s0o2s t0at ,ot0 diodes D 1 and D2 are for2ard ,iased. /sin( simplified model for t0e diodes5 t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.16 3i4 ,ecomes t0e one s0o2n in #i(. 6.16 3ii4. *0e !olta(e across R2 3G 3.3 6 L4 is E.7+. E.7 + .2 GG E.212 m: 3.3 6I :pplyin( Uirc00offPs !olta(e la2 to loop :'CD: in #i(. 6.16 3ii45 2e 0a!e5 ; E.7 ; E.7 ; .1 R1 < 2E G E 2E H E.7 H E.7 1D.6 + G.1 GG 3.32 m: R15.6 6I )o2.1 G .2 < .3 .3 G .1 ; .2 G 3.32 ; E. 212 G 3.1ED m: E=ample 6.1E. Determine if t0e diode 3ideal4 in #i(. 6.17 3i4 is for2ard ,iased or re!erse ,iased.
#i(. 6.17
D6
Solution. Aet us assume t0at diode in #i(. 6.17 3i4 is "## i.e. it is re!erse ,iased. *0e circuit t0en ,ecomes as s0o2n in #i(. 6.17 3ii4. Referrin( to #i(. 6.17 3ii45 2e 0a!e5 1E + N D 6I G D++1 G 2 6L < D 6I 1E + N 6 6I G 6++2 G @ 6L < 6 6L +olta(e across diode G +1 ; +2 G D ; 6 G 2+ )o2 +1 ; +2 G 2+ is enou(0 !olta(e to ma6e t0e diode for2ard ,iased. *0erefore5 our initial assumption 2as 2ron(. E=ample 6.11. Determine t0e state of diode for t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.1D 3i4 and find . D and +D. :ssume simplified model for t0e diode.
#i(. 6.1D Solution. Aet us assume t0at t0e diode is "). *0erefore5 2e can replace t0e diode 2it0 a E.7+ ,attery as s0o2n in #i(. 6.1D 3ii4. Referrin( to #i(. 6.1D 3ii45 2e 0a!e5 32 H E.74 + 1.3 + G.1 GG E.325 m: @ 6I@ 6I E.7 + .2 GG E.7 m: 1 6I )o2.D G .1 ; .2 G E. 325 ; E.7 G ; E.375 m: Since t0e diode current is ne(ati!e5 t0e diode must ,e "## and t0e true !alue of diode current is .D G E m:. "ur initial assumption 2as 2ron(. .n order to analyse t0e circuit properly5 2e s0ould replace t0e diode in #i(. 6.1D 3i4 2it0 an open circuit as s0o2n in #i(. 6.19. *0e !olta(e +D across t0e diode is 2+ N 1 6I G E.@++D G 1 6I < @ 6I #i(. 6.19 &e 6no2 t0at E.7+ is re uired to turn ") t0e diode. Since + D is only E.@+5 t0e ans2er confirms t0at t0e diode is "##.
6.6 .mportant *erms

&0ile discussin( t0e diode circuits5 t0e reader 2ill (enerally come across t0e follo2in( terms > 3i4 #or2ard current. .t is t0e current flo2in( t0rou(0 a for2ard ,iased diode. E!ery diode 0as a ma=imum !alue of for2ard current 20ic0 it can safely carry. .f t0is !alue is e=ceeded5 t0e diode may ,e destroyed due to e=cessi!e 0eat. #or t0is reason5 t0e manufacturersP data s0eet specifies t0e ma=imum for2ard current t0at a diode can 0andle safely.
Semiconductor Diode
3ii4 Pea6 in!erse !olta(e. .t is t0e ma=imum re!erse !olta(e t0at a diode can 2it0stand 2it0% out destroyin( t0e 1unction. .f t0e re!erse !olta(e across a diode e=ceeds t0is !alue5 t0e re!erse current increases s0arply and ,rea6s do2n t0e 1unction due to e=cessi!e 0eat. Pea6 in!erse !olta(e is e=tremely important 20en diode is used as a rectifier. .n rectifier ser!ice5 it 0as to ,e ensured t0at re!erse !olta(e across t0e diode does not e=ceed its P.+ durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e. :s a matter of fact5 P.+ consideration is (enerally t0e decidin( factor in diode rectifier circuits. *0e pea6 in!erse !olt% a(e may ,e ,et2een 1E+ and 1E 6+ dependin( upon t0e type of diode. 3iii4 Re!erse current or lea6a(e current. .t is t0e current t0at flo2s t0rou(0 a re!erse ,iased diode. *0is current is due to t0e minority carriers. /nder normal operatin( !olta(es5 t0e re!erse current is uite small. .ts !alue is e=tremely small 3V 1W :4 for silicon diodes ,ut it is apprecia,le 31 1EE W:4 for (ermanium diodes. .t may ,e noted t0at t0e re!erse current is usually !ery small as compared 2it0 for2ard current. #or e=ample5 t0e for2ard current for a typical diode mi(0t ran(e upto 1EE m: 20ile t0e re!erse current mi(0t ,e only a fe2 W:Xa ratio of many t0ousands ,et2een for2ard and re!erse currents.
D7
6.7 Crystal Diode Rectifiers

#or reasons associated 2it0 economics of (eneration and transmission5 t0e electric po2er a!aila,le is usually an a.c. supply. *0e supply !olta(e !aries sinusoidally and 0as a fre uency of 5E $8. .t is used for li(0tin(5 0eatin( and electric motors. 'ut t0ere are many applications 3e.(. electronic circuits4 20ere d.c. supply is needed. &0en suc0 a d.c. supply is re uired5 t0e mains a.c. supply is rectified ,y usin( crystal diodes. *0e follo2in( t2o rectifier circuits can ,e used > 3i4 $alf%2a!e rectifier3ii4 #ull%2a!e rectifier
6.D $alf%&a!e Rectifier

.n 0alf%2a!e rectification5 t0e rectifier conducts current only durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycles of input a.c. supply. *0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycles of a.c. supply are suppressed i.e. durin( ne(ati!e 0alf%cycles5 no current is conducted and 0ence no !olta(e appears across t0e load. *0erefore5 current al2ays flo2s in one direction 3i.e. d.c.4 t0rou(0 t0e load t0ou(0 after e!ery 0alf%cycle.
#i(. 6.2E Circuit details. #i(. 6.2E s0o2s t0e circuit 20ere a sin(le crystal diode acts as a 0alf%2a!e rectifier. *0e a.c. supply to ,e rectified is applied in series 2it0 t0e diode and load resistance R A. Yenerally5 a.c. supply is (i!en t0rou(0 a transformer. *0e use of transformer permits t2o ad!anta(es. #irstly5 it allo2s us to step up or step do2n t0e a.c. input !olta(e as t0e situation demands. Secondly5 t0e transformer isolates t0e rectifier circuit from po2er line and t0us reduces t0e ris6 of electric s0oc6.
DD
"peration. *0e a.c. !olta(e across t0e secondary 2indin( :' c0an(es polarities after e!ery 0alf%cycle. Durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e5 end : ,ecomes positi!e 2.r.t. end '. *0is ma6es t0e diode for2ard ,iased and 0ence it conducts current. Durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle5 end : is ne(ati!e 2.r.t. end '. /nder t0is condition5 t0e diode is re!erse ,iased and it conducts no current. *0erefore5 current flo2s t0rou(0 t0e diode durin( positi!e 0alf%cycles of input a.c. !olta(e only F it is ,loc6ed durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycles BSee #i(. 6.2E 3ii4C. .n t0is 2ay5 current flo2s t0rou(0 load RA al2ays in t0e same direction. $ence d.c. output is o,tained across R A. .t may ,e noted t0at output across t0e load is pulsatin( d.c. *0ese pulsations in t0e output are furt0er smoot0% ened 2it0 t0e 0elp of filter circuits discussed later. Disad!anta(es > *0e main disad!anta(es of a 0alf%2a!e rectifier are > 3i4 *0e pulsatin( current in t0e load contains alternatin( component 20ose ,asic fre uency is e ual to t0e supply fre uency. *0erefore5 an ela,orate filterin( is re uired to produce steady direct current. 3ii4 *0e a.c. supply deli!ers po2er only 0alf t0e time. *0erefore5 t0e output is lo2.
6.9 "utput #re uency of $alf%&a!e Rectifier

*0e output fre uency of a 0alf%2a!e rectifier is e ual to t0e input fre uency 35E $84. Recall 0o2 a complete cycle is defined. : 2a!eform 0as a complete cycle 20en it repeats t0e same 2a!e pattern o!er a (i!en time. *0us in #i(. 6.21 3i45 t0e a.c. input !olta(e repeats t0e same 2a!e pattern o!er EZ ; 36EZ5 36EZ ; 72EZ and so on. .n #i(. 6.21 3ii45 t0e output 2a!eform also repeats t0e same 2a!e pattern o!er EZ ; 36EZ5 36EZ ; 72EZ and so on. *0is means t0at 20en input a.c. completes one cycle5 t0e output 0alf% 2a!e rectified 2a!e also completes one cycle. .n ot0er 2ords5 t0e output fre uency is e ual to t0e input fre uency i.e. fout G fin #or e=ample5 if t0e input fre uency of sine 2a!e applied to a 0alf%2a!e rectifier is 1EE $85 t0en fre uency of t0e output 2a!e 2ill also ,e 1EE $8.
6.1E Efficiency of $alf%&a!e Rectifier

*0e ratio of d.c. po2er output to t0e applied input a.c. po2er is 6no2n as rectifier efficiency i.e. d.c. po2er output Rectifier efficiency5 [ G .nput a.c. po2er #i(. 6.21
#i(. 6.22 Consider a 0alf%2a!e rectifier s0o2n in #i(. 6.22. Aet ! G + m sin \ ,e t0e alternatin( !olta(e t0at appears across t0e secondary 2indin(. Aet rf and RA ,e t0e diode resistance and load resistance respecti!ely. *0e diode conducts durin( positi!e 0alf%cycles of a.c. supply 20ile no current conduc% tion ta6es place durin( ne(ati!e 0alf%cycles.
Semiconductor Diode
d.c. po2er. *0e output current is pulsatin( direct current. *0erefore5 in order to find d.c. po2er5 a!era(e current 0as to ,e found out. ]]+ sin \ 7.a! G .dc G 1 ^ i d \ G 1 ^ m E E d\ ] 2]2] r f < RA +m+m]sin \ d \ GBH cos \CE G 2] 3 r f < RA 42] ^ 3 r f < RA 4
E
D9
+ m +m G N2 GN1 2] 3r f < RA 43 r f < RA 4 ] 77 . m G ] =. = 2 d.c. po2er5 Pdc GN RA G = m = N RA . dc =]= a.c. po2er input > *0e a.c. po2er input is (i!en ,y > Pac G .2 3rf < RA4rms #or a 0alf%2a!e rectified 2a!e5 .rms G .mJ2
2 2
+m== = . m G 3r < R 4 =f A == ...3i4
=. = Pac G = m = N 3rf < RA4 =2= 3. m J ]4 N RAd.c. output po2er Rectifier efficiency GG a.c. input po2er3. m J 242 3r f < RA 4 E.@E6 RAG E.@E6G
r fr f < R A 1< RA
...3ii4
2
*0e efficiency 2ill ,e ma=imum if rf is ne(li(i,le as compared to RA. Ka=. rectifier efficiency G @E.6_ *0is s0o2s t0at in 0alf%2a!e rectification5 a ma=imum of @E.6_ of a.c. po2er is con!erted into d.c. po2er. E=ample 6.12. *0e applied input a.c. po2er to a 0alf%2a!e rectifier is 1EE 2atts. *0e d.c. output po2er o,tained is @E 2atts. 3i4 &0at is t0e rectification efficiency M 3ii4 &0at 0appens to remainin( 6E 2atts M Solution. d.c. output po2erG @E G E.@ G @E_ Rectification efficiency G a.c. input po2er1EE 3ii4 @E_ efficiency of rectification does not mean t0at 6E_ of po2er is lost in t0e rectifier circuit. .n fact5 a crystal diode consumes little po2er due to its small internal resistance. *0e 1EE & 3i4
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
7 77
i d\ :rea :!era(e !alue G under t0e cur!e o!er a cycle GE 'ase2] .t may ,e remem,ered t0at t0e area of one%0alf cycle of a sinusoidal 2a!e is t2ice t0e pea6 !alue. *0us in t0is case5 pea6 !alue is .m and5 t0erefore5 area of one%0alf cycle is 2 .m. 2 .m. .a! G .dc GG m 2]]
9E
a.c. po2er is contained as 5E 2atts in positi!e 0alf%cycles and 5E 2atts in ne(ati!e 0alf%cycles. *0e 5E 2atts in t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycles are not supplied at all. "nly 5E 2atts in t0e positi!e 0alf%cycles are con!erted into @E 2atts. @E N 1EEPo2er efficiency GG DE_ 5E :lt0ou(0 1EE 2atts of a.c. po2er 2as supplied5 t0e 0alf%2a!e rectifier accepted only 5E 2atts and con!erted it into @E 2atts d.c. po2er. *0erefore5 it is appropriate to say t0at efficiency of rectification is @E_ and not DE_ 20ic0 is po2er efficiency. E=ample 6.13. :n a.c. supply of 23E + is applied to a 0alf%2a!e rectifier circuit t0rou(0 a transformer of turn ratio 1E > 1. #ind 3i4 t0e output d.c. !olta(e and 3ii4 t0e pea6 in!erse !olta(e. :ssume t0e diode to ,e ideal. Solution. Primary to secondary turns is )1 )2
G 1E
R.K.S. primary !olta(e G 23E + Ka=. primary !olta(e is +pm G
Ka=. secondary !olta(e is
3 2 4 N r.m.s. primary !olta(e 3 G 325.3 + 2 4 NG 23E

+sm G +pm N )2G 325.3 N 1 G 32.53 + )11E
#i(. 6.23
3i4
.m ] .+
.d.c. G
+dc G m N RA G sm G 32.53 G 1E.36 + ]]] 3ii4 Durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle of a.c. supply5 t0e diode is re!erse ,iased and 0ence conducts no current. *0erefore5 t0e ma=imum secondary !olta(e appears across t0e diode. Pea6 in!erse !olta(e G 32.53 + E=ample 6.1@. : crystal diode 0a!in( internal resistance rf G 2EI is used for 0alf%2a!e rectifi% cation. .f t0e applied !olta(e ! G 5E sin ` t and load resistance R A G DEE I5 find > 3i4 .m5 .dc5 .rms3ii4 a.c. po2er input and d.c. po2er output 3iii4 d.c. output !olta(e3i!4 efficiency of rectification. Solution. 3i4 ! G 5E sin ` t Ka=imum !olta(e5 +m G 5E + +m5E G.m GG E.E61 : G 61 m: 2E < DEEr f < RA .dc G .mJ] G 61J] G 19.@ m: .rms G .mJ2 G 61J2 G 3E.5 m: 3ii4 a.c. po2er input G 3.rms4 N 3rf2< RA4 G 3E.5 1EEE
3 4 N 32E < DEE4 G E.763 2att

2
Semiconductor Diode
19.@ 2. dc N RA d.c. po2er output GGN DEE G E.3E1 2att 1EEE 3iii4d.c. output !olta(e G .dc RA G 19.@ m: N DEE I G 15.52 !olts E.3E1 N 1EE G 39.5_3i!4 Efficiency of rectification G E.763 E=ample 6.15. : 0alf%2a!e rectifier is used to supply 5E+ d.c. to a resisti!e load of DEE I. *0e diode 0as a resistance of 25 I. Calculate a.c. !olta(e re uired. Solution. "utput d.c. !olta(e5 +dc G 5E + Diode resistance5 rf G 25 I Aoad resistance5 RA G DEE I Aet +m ,e t0e ma=imum !alue of a.c. !olta(e re uired. +dc G .dc N RA .+m N RA G m N RA G ]] 3r f < RA 4 +m or 5E G N DEE ] 325 < DEE4 ] N D25 N 5E + mG + G 162 DEE $ence a.c. !olta(e of ma=imum !alue 162 + is re uired. +m == .m G=r f < RA = ==
34
91
6.11 #ull%&a!e Rectifier

.n full%2a!e rectification5 current flo2s t0rou(0 t0e load in t0e same direction for ,ot0 0alf%cycles of input a.c. !olta(e. *0is can ,e ac0ie!ed 2it0 t2o diodes 2or6in( alternately. #or t0e positi!e 0alf% cycle of input !olta(e5 one diode supplies current to t0e load and for t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle5 t0e ot0er diode does so F current ,ein( al2ays in t0e same direction t0rou(0 t0e load. *0erefore5 a full%2a!e rectifier utilises ,ot0 0alf%cycles of input a.c. !olta(e to produce t0e d.c. output. *0e follo2in( t2o circuits are commonly used for full%2a!e rectification > 3i4 Centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier3ii4 #ull%2a!e ,rid(e rectifier
6.12 Centre%*ap #ull%&a!e Rectifier

*0e circuit employs t2o diodes D1 and D2 as s0o2n in #i(. 6.2@. : centre tapped secondary 2indin( :' is used 2it0 t2o diodes connected so t0at eac0 uses one 0alf%cycle of input a.c. !olta(e. .n ot0er 2ords5 diode D1 utilises t0e a.c. !olta(e appearin( across t0e upper 0alf 3":4 of secondary 2indin( for rectification 20ile diode D2 uses t0e lo2er 0alf 2indin( "'. "peration. Durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle of secondary !olta(e5 t0e end : of t0e secondary 2indin( ,ecomes positi!e and end ' ne(ati!e. *0is ma6es t0e diode D 1 for2ard ,iased and diode D2 re!erse ,iased. *0erefore5 diode D1 conducts 20ile diode D2 does not. *0e con!entional current flo2 is t0rou(0 diode D15 load resistor RA and t0e upper 0alf of secondary 2indin( as s0o2n ,y t0e dotted arro2s. Durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle5 end : of t0e secondary 2indin( ,ecomes ne(ati!e and end ' positi!e. *0erefore5 diode D2 conducts 20ile diode D1 does not. *0e con!entional current flo2 is t0rou(0 diode D25 load RA and lo2er 0alf 2indin( as s0o2n ,y solid arro2s. Referrin( to #i(. 6.2@5 it may ,e seen t0at current in t0e load RA is in t0e same direction for ,ot0 0alf%cycles of input a.c. !olta(e. *0erefore5 d.c. is o,tained across t0e load RA. :lso5 t0e polarities of t0e d.c. output across t0e load s0ould ,e noted.
92
#i(. 6.2@ Pea6 in!erse !olta(e. Suppose +m is t0e ma=i% mum !olta(e across t0e 0alf secondary 2indin(. #i(. 6.25 s0o2s t0e circuit at t0e instant secondary !olta(e reac0es its ma=imum !alue in t0e positi!e direction. :t t0is instant5 diode D1 is conductin( 20ile diode D2 is non%conductin(. *0erefore5 20ole of t0e secondary !olta(e appears across t0e non%conductin( diode. Con% se uently5 t0e pea6 in!erse !olta(e is t2ice t0e ma=i% mum !olta(e across t0e 0alf%secondary 2indin( i.e. P.+ G 2 +m Disad!anta(es 3i4 .t is difficult to locate t0e centre tap on t0e #i(. 6.25 secondary 2indin(. 3ii4 *0e d.c. output is small as eac0 diode utilises only one%0alf of t0e transformer secondary !olta(e. 3iii4 *0e diodes used must 0a!e 0i(0 pea6 in!erse !olta(e.
6.13 #ull%&a!e 'rid(e Rectifier

*0e need for a centre tapped po2er transformer is eliminated in t0e ,rid(e rectifier. .t contains four diodes D15 D25 D3 and D@ connected to form ,rid(e as s0o2n in #i(. 6.26. *0e a.c. supply to ,e rectified is applied to t0e dia(onally opposite ends of t0e ,rid(e t0rou(0 t0e transformer. 'et2een ot0er t2o ends of t0e ,rid(e5 t0e load resistance RA is connected.
#i(. 6.26
Semiconductor Diode
"peration. Durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle of secondary !olta(e5 t0e end P of t0e secondary 2indin( ,ecomes positi!e and end T ne(ati!e. *0is ma6es diodes D 1 and D3 for2ard ,iased 20ile diodes D2 and D@ are re!erse ,iased. *0erefore5 only diodes D1 and D3 conduct. *0ese t2o diodes 2ill ,e in series t0rou(0 t0e load RA as s0o2n in #i(. 6.27 3i4. *0e con!entional current flo2 is s0o2n ,y dotted arro2s. .t may ,e seen t0at current flo2s from : to ' t0rou(0 t0e load R A . Durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle of secondary !olta(e5 end P ,ecomes ne(ati!e and end T posi% ti!e. *0is ma6es diodes D2 and D@ for2ard ,iased 20ereas diodes D1 and D3 are re!erse ,iased. *0erefore5 only diodes D2 and D@ conduct. *0ese t2o diodes 2ill ,e in series t0rou(0 t0e load R A as s0o2n in #i(. 6.27 3ii4. *0e current flo2 is s0o2n ,y t0e solid arro2s. .t may ,e seen t0at a(ain current flo2s from : to ' t0rou(0 t0e load i.e. in t0e same direction as for t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle. *0erefore5 d.c. output is o,tained across load RA.
93
#i(. 6.27 Pea6 in!erse !olta(e. *0e pea6 in!erse !olta(e 3P.+4 of eac0 diode is e ual to t0e ma=imum secondary !olta(e of transformer. Suppose durin( positi!e 0alf cycle of input a.c.5 end P of second% ary is positi!e and end T ne(ati!e. /nder suc0 conditions5 diodes D1 and D3 are for2ard ,iased 20ile diodes D2 and D@ are re!erse ,iased. Since t0e diodes are considered ideal5 diodes D 1 and D3 can ,e replaced ,y 2ires as s0o2n in #i(. 6.2D 3i4. *0is circuit is t0e same as s0o2n in #i(. 6.2D 3ii4.
#i(. 6.2D Referrin( to #i(. 6.2D 3ii45 it is clear t0at t2o re!erse ,iased diodes 3i.e.5 D 2 and D@4 and t0e secondary of transformer are in parallel. $ence P.+ of eac0 diode 3D 2 and D@4 is e ual to t0e ma=i% mum !olta(e 3+m4 across t0e secondary. Similarly5 durin( t0e ne=t 0alf cycle5 D 2 and D@ are for2ard ,iased 20ile D1 and D3 2ill ,e re!erse ,iased. .t is easy to see t0at re!erse !olta(e across D 1 and D3 is e ual to +m. :d!anta(es 3i4 *0e need for centre%tapped transformer is eliminated. 3ii4 *0e output is t2ice t0at of t0e centre%tap circuit for t0e same secondary !olta(e. 3iii4 *0e P.+ is one%0alf t0at of t0e centre%tap circuit 3for same d.c. output4. Disad!anta(es 3i4 .t re uires four diodes.
9@
3ii4 :s durin( eac0 0alf%cycle of a.c. input t2o diodes t0at conduct are in series5 t0erefore5 !olta(e drop in t0e internal resistance of t0e rectifyin( unit 2ill ,e t2ice as (reat as in t0e centre tap circuit. *0is is o,1ectiona,le 20en secondary !olta(e is small.
6.1@ "utput #re uency of #ull%&a!e Rectifier

*0e output fre uency of a full%2a!e rectifier is dou,le t0e input fre uency. Remem,er t0at a 2a!e 0as a complete cycle 20en it repeats t0e same pattern. .n #i(. 6.29 3i45 t0e input a.c. completes one cycle from EZ ; 36EZ. $o2e!er5 t0e full%2a!e rectified 2a!e completes 2 cycles in t0is period BSee #i(. 6.29 3ii4C. *0erefore5 output fre uency is t2ice t0e input fre uency i.e. fout G 2 fin
#i(. 6.29 #or e=ample5 if t0e input fre uency to a full%2a!e rectifier is 1EE $85 t0en t0e output fre uency 2ill ,e 2EE $8.
6.15 Efficiency of #ull%&a!e Rectifier

#i(. 6.3E s0o2s t0e process of full%2a!e rectification. Aet ! G + m sin \ ,e t0e a.c. !olta(e to ,e rectified. Aet rf and RA ,e t0e diode resistance and load resistance respecti!ely. ",!iously5 t0e rectifier 2ill conduct current t0rou(0 t0e load in t0e same direction for ,ot0 0alf%cycles of input a.c. !olta(e. *0e instantaneous current i is (i!en ,y > + sin \!G mi G r f < RA r f < RA
#i(. 6.3E d.c. output po2er. *0e output current is pulsatin( direct current. *0erefore5 in order to find t0e d.c. po2er5 a!era(e current 0as to ,e found out. #rom t0e elementary 6no2led(e of electrical en(i% neerin(5
Semiconductor Diode
.dc G 2 .m ]
2
95
=2. = 2 d.c. po2er output5 Pdc GN RA G = m = .Ndc RA =]= a.c. input po2er. *0e a.c. input po2er is (i!en ,y >
2
...3i4
Pac G .rms 3rf < RA4 #or a full%2a!e rectified 2a!e5 2e 0a!e5 .rms G .mJ 2 = .m = Pac G == 3r < RA4 = 2= f #ull%2a!e rectification efficiency is P 32 . m J ]4 2 RAdcG[ G2P
ac 2
... 3ii4
= .m = == 3r f < RA 4 = 2=
RAE.D12 RAD GGG 2 N 3r f < RA 4r f < RA]
E.D12 r 1< f RA
*0e efficiency 2ill ,e ma=imum if rf is ne(li(i,le as compared to RA. Ka=imum efficiency G D1.2_ *0is is dou,le t0e efficiency due to 0alf%2a!e rectifier. *0erefore5 a full%2a!e rectifier is t2ice as effecti!e as a 0alf%2a!e rectifier. E=ample 6.16. : full%2a!e rectifier uses t2o diodes5 t0e internal resistance of eac0 diode may ,e assumed constant at 2E I. *0e transformer r.m.s. secondary !olta(e from centre tap to eac0 end of secondary is 5E + and load resistance is 9DE I. #ind > 3i4 t0e mean load current3ii4 t0e r.m.s. !alue of load current
Solution. rf G 2E I5 RA G 9DE I Ka=. a.c. !olta(e5 +m G 5E N 2 G 7E.7 + Ka=. load current5 .m G 3i4 +m7E.7 + GG 7E.7 m: r f < RA 32E < 9DE4 I
2 .m2 N 7E.7 Kean load current5 dc G GG.@5 m: ]] 3ii4 R.K.S. !alue of load current is ..rms G m G 7E.7 :' G 5E m: 22 E=ample 6.17. .n t0e centre%tap circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.315 t0e diodes are assumed to ,e ideal i.e. 0a!in( 8ero internal resistance. #ind > 3i4 d.c. output !olta(e3ii4 pea6 in!erse !olta(e 3iii4 rectification efficiency. Solution. Primary to secondary turns5 )1J)2 G 5
96
R.K.S. primary !olta(e G 23E + R.K.S. secondary !olta(e G 23E N 31J54 G @6 + Ka=imum !olta(e across secondary G @6 N 2 G 65+
Ka=imum !olta(e across 0alf secondary 2indin( is +m G 65J2 G 32.5 + 3i4:!era(e current5 .dc G #i(. 6.31 2 +m2 N 32.5 GG E.2E7 : ] RA] N 1EE d.c. output !olta(e5 +dc G .dc N RA G E.2E7 N 1EE G 2E.7 + 3ii4 *0e pea6 in!erse !olta(e is e ual to t0e ma=imum secondary !olta(e5 i.e. P.+ G 65 + E.D12 3iii4 Rectification efficiency G r 1< f RA Since rf G E Rectification efficiency G D1.2 _
E=ample 6.1D. .n t0e ,rid(e type circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.325 t0e diodes are assumed to ,e ideal. #ind > 3i4 d.c. output !olta(e 3ii4 pea6 in!erse !olta(e 3iii4 output fre uency. :ssume primary to secondary turns to ,e @.
#i(. 6.32 Solution. PrimaryJsecondary turns5 )1J)2 G @ R.K.S. primary !olta(e G 23E + R.K.S. secondary !olta(e G 23E 3)2J)14 G 23E N 31J@4 G 57.5 + Ka=imum !olta(e across secondary is +m G 57.5 N 2 G D1.3 + 2 +m2 N D1.3 G :!era(e current5 .dc GG E.26 : ]+ RA ] N 2EE d.c. output !olta(e5 dc G .dc N RA G E.26 N 2EE G 52 +
3i4
Semiconductor Diode
3ii4 *0e pea6 in!erse !olta(e is e ual to t0e ma=imum secondary !olta(e i.e. P.+ G D1.3 + 3iii4 .n full%2a!e rectification5 t0ere are t2o output pulses for eac0 complete cycle of t0e input a.c. !olta(e. *0erefore5 t0e output fre uency is t2ice t0at of t0e a.c. supply fre uency i.e. fout G 2 N fin G 2 N 5E G 1EE $8 E=ample 6.19. #i(. 6.33 3i4 and #i(. 6.33 3ii4 s0o2 t0e centre%tap and ,rid(e type circuits 0a!in( t0e same load resistance and transformer turn ratio. *0e primary of eac0 is connected to 23E+5 5E $8 supply. 3i4 #ind t0e d.c. !olta(e in eac0 case. 3ii4 P.+ for eac0 case for t0e same d.c. output. :ssume t0e diodes to ,e ideal.
97
#i(. 6.33 Solution. 3i4 D.C. output !olta(e Centre%tap circuit R.K.S. secondary !olta(e G 23E N 1J5 G @6 + Ka=. !olta(e across secondary G @6 N 2 G 65 + Ka=. !olta(e appearin( across 0alf secondary 2indin( is +m G 65J2 G 32.5 + 2 +m :!era(e current5 .dc G ] RA 2 +m D.C. output !olta(e5 +dc G .dc N RA GN RA ] RA 2 +m2 N 32.5 GGG 2E.7 + ]] 'rid(e Circuit Ka=. !olta(e across secondary5 +m G 65 + 2 + m2 +m2 N 65 D.C. output !olta(e5 +dc G .dc RA GG @1.@ +N RA GG ] R A]] *0is s0o2s t0at for t0e same secondary !olta(e5 t0e d.c. output !olta(e of ,rid(e circuit is t2ice t0at of t0e centre%tap circuit. 3ii4 P.+ for same d.c. output !olta(e *0e d.c. output !olta(e of t0e t2o circuits 2ill ,e t0e same if + m 3i.e. ma=. !olta(e utilised ,y eac0 circuit for con!ersion into d.c.4 is t0e same. #or t0is to 0appen5 t0e turn ratio of t0e transformers s0ould ,e as s0o2n in #i(. 6.3@.
9D
Centre%tap circuit R.K.S. secondary !olta(e G 23E N 1J5 G @6 + Ka=. !olta(e across secondary G @6 N 2 G 65 + Ka=. !olta(e across 0alf secondary 2indin( is +m G 65J2 G 32.5 +
#i(. 6.3@ P.+ G 2 +m G 2 N 32.5 G 65 + 'rid(e type circuit R.K.S. secondary !olta(e G 23E N 1J1E G 23 + Ka=. !olta(e across secondary5 +m G 23 N 2 G 32.5 + P.+ G +m G 32.5 + *0is s0o2s t0at for t0e same d.c. output !olta(e5 P.+ of ,rid(e circuit is 0alf t0at of centre%tap circuit. *0is is a distinct ad!anta(e of ,rid(e circuit. E=ample 6.2E. *0e four diodes used in a ,rid(e rectifier circuit 0a!e for2ard resistances 20ic0 may ,e considered constant at 1I and infinite re!erse resistance. *0e alternatin( supply !olta(e is 2@E + r.m.s. and load resistance is @DE I. Calculate 3i4 mean load current and 3ii4 po2er dissipated in eac0 diode. Solution. Ka=. a.c. !olta(e5 +m G 2@E N 2 + 3i4 :t any instant in t0e ,rid(e rectifier5 t2o diodes in series are conductin(. *0erefore5 total circuit resistance G 2 rf < RA. +m2@E N 2 GKa=. load current5 .m GG E.7 : 2 r f < RA 2 N 1 < @DE 2 . m 2 N E.7 Kean load current5 .dc GG E.@5 :G ]] 3ii4 Since eac0 diode conducts only 0alf a cycle5 diode r.m.s. current is > .r.m.s. G .mJ2 G E.7J2 G E.35 :
2 Po2er dissipated in eac0 diode G . r.m.s. N2rf G 3E.354 N 1 G E.123 &
E=ample 6.21. *0e ,rid(e rectifier s0o2n in #i(. 6.35 uses silicon diodes. #ind 3i4 d.c. output
Semiconductor Diode
!olta(e 3ii4 d.c. output current. /se simplified model for t0e diodes.
99
#i(. 6.35 Solution. *0e conditions of t0e pro,lem su((est t0at t0e a.c !olta(e across transformer second% ary is 12+ r.m.s. Pea6 secondary !olta(e is +s 3p64 G 12 N 2 G 16.97 + 3i4 :t any instant in t0e ,rid(e rectifier5 t2o diodes in series are conductin(. Pea6 output !olta(e is +out 3p64 G 16.97 ; 2 3E.74 G 15.57 + :!era(e 3or d.c.4 output !olta(e is 2 +out 3 p6 4 2 N 15.57 +a! G +dc GG 9.91+G ]] 3ii4 :!era(e 3or d.c.4 output current is +.a! G a! G 9.91+ G D25.D W: RA 12 6L
6.16
#aults in Centre%*ap #ull%&a!e Rectifier
*0e faults in a centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier may occur in t0e transformer or rectifier diodes. #i(. 6.36 s0o2s t0e circuit of a centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier. : fuse is connected in t0e primary of t0e trans% former for protection purposes.
#i(. 6.36 &e can di!ide t0e rectifier faults into t2o classes !i8. 1. #aults in transformer 2. #aults in rectifier diodes 1. #aults in *ransformer. *0e transformer in a rectifier circuit can de!elop t0e follo2in( faults > 3i4 : s0orted primary or secondary 2indin(. 3ii4 :n open primary or secondary 2indin(. 3iii4 : s0ort ,et2een t0e primary or secondary 2indin( and t0e transformer frame. 3i4 .n most cases5 a s0orted primary or s0orted secondary 2ill cause t0e fuse in t0e primary
1EE
to ,lo2. .f t0e fuse does not ,lo25 t0e d.c. output from t0e rectifier 2ill ,e e=tremely lo2 and t0e transformer itself 2ill ,e !ery 0ot. 3ii4 &0en t0e primary or secondary 2indin( of t0e transformer opens5 t0e output from t0e rectifier 2ill drop to 8ero. .n t0is case5 t0e primary fuse 2ill not ,lo2. .f you ,elie!e t0at eit0er transformer 2indin( is open5 a simple resistance c0ec6 2ill !erify your dou,t. .f eit0er 2indin( reads a !ery 0i(0 resistance5 t0e 2indin( is open. 3iii4 .f eit0er 2indin( s0orts to t0e transformer casin(5 t0e primary fuse 2ill ,lo2. *0is fault can ,e c0ec6ed ,y measurin( t0e resistances from t0e 2indin( leads to t0e transformer casin(. : lo2 resistance measurement indicates t0at a 2indin(%to%case s0ort e=ists. 2. #aults in Rectifier Diodes. .f a fault occurs in a rectifier diode5 t0e circuit conditions 2ill indicate t0e type of fault. 3i4 .f one diode in t0e centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier is s0orted5 t0e primary fuse 2ill ,lo2. *0e reason is simple. Suppose diode D2 in #i(. 6.36 is s0orted. *0en diode D2 2ill ,e0a!e as a 2ire. &0en diode D1 is for2ard ,iased5 t0e transformer secondary 2ill ,e s0orted t0rou(0 D 1. *0is 2ill cause e=cessi!e current to flo2 in t0e secondary 3and 0ence in t0e primary45 causin( t0e primary fuse to ,lo2. 3ii4 .f one diode in t0e centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier opens5 t0e output from t0e rectifier 2ill resem,le t0e output from a 0alf%2a!e rectifier. *0e remedy is to replace t0e diode. 'rid(e Rectifier #aults. *0e transformer faults and t0eir remedies for ,rid(e rectifier circuits are t0e same as for centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier. :(ain symptoms for s0orted and open diodes in t0e ,rid(e rectifier are t0e same as t0ose for t0e centre%tap circuit. .n t0e case of ,rid(e circuit5 you simply 0a!e more diodes t0at need to ,e tested.
6.17 )ature of Rectifier "utput

.t 0as already ,een discussed t0at t0e output of a rectifier is pul% satin( d.c. as s0o2n in #i(. 6.37. .n fact5 if suc0 a 2a!eform is carefully analysed5 it 2ill ,e found t0at it contains a d.c. compo% nent and an a.c. component. *0e a.c. component is responsi,le for t0e 7pulsations in t0e 2a!e. *0e reader may 2onder 0o2 a pulsatin( d.c. !olta(e can 0a!e an a.c. component 20en t0e !olt% a(e ne!er ,ecomes ne(ati!e. *0e ans2er is t0at any 2a!e 20ic0 !aries in a re(ular manner 0as an a.c. component.
#i(. 6.37
3i4
3ii4 #i(. 6.3D
3iii4
Keans c0an(in( output !olta(e.
Semiconductor Diode
*0e fact t0at a pulsatin( d.c. contains ,ot0 d.c. and a.c. compo% nents can ,e ,eautifully illustrated ,y referrin( to #i(. 6.3D. #i(. 6.3D 3i4 s0o2s a pure d.c. component5 20ereas #i(. 6.3D 3ii4 s0o2s t0e 7a.c. component. .f t0ese t2o 2a!es are added to(et0er5 t0e resultin( 2a!e 2ill ,e as s0o2n in #i(. 6.3D 3iii4. .t is clear t0at t0e 2a!e s0o2n in #i(. 6.3D 3iii4 ne!er ,ecomes ne(ati!e5 alt0ou(0 it contains ,ot0 a.c. and d.c. components. *0e stri6in( resem,lance ,et2een t0e rectifier output 2a!e s0o2n in #i(. 6.37 and t0e 2a!e s0o2n in #i(. 6.3D 3iii4Rectifier may ,e noted. .t follo2s5 t0erefore5 t0at a pulsatin( output of a rectifier contains a d.c. component and an a.c. component.
1E1
6.1D Ripple #actor

*0e output of a rectifier consists of a d.c. component and an a.c. component 3also 6no2n as ripple4. *0e a.c. component is undesira,le and accounts for t0e pulsations in t0e rectifier output. *0e effec% ti!eness of a rectifier depends upon t0e ma(nitude of a.c. component in t0e output F t0e smaller t0is component5 t0e more effecti!e is t0e rectifier. *0e ratio of r.m.s. !alue of a.c. component to t0e d.c. component in t0e rectifier output is 6no2n as ripple factor i.e. .r.m.s. !alue of a.c component G acRipple factor G !alue of d.c. component. dc *0erefore5 ripple factor is !ery important in decid% in( t0e effecti!eness of a rectifier. *0e smaller t0e ripple factor5 t0e lesser t0e effecti!e a.c. component and 0ence more effecti!e is t0e rectifier. Kat0ematical analysis. *0e output current of a rectifier contains d.c. as 2ell as a.c. component. *0e undesired a.c. component 0as a fre uency of 1EE $8 3i.e. dou,le t0e supply fre uency 5E $84 and is called t0e ripple 3See #i(. 6.394. .t is a fluctuation su% #i(. 6.39 perimposed on t0e d.c. component. 'y definition5 t0e effecti!e 3i.e. r.m.s.4 !alue of total load current is (i!en ,y > .rms G or .ac G . dc < . ac
2 2 2 2
. rms H . dc
Di!idin( t0rou(0out ,y .dc5 2e (et5 . acG 1 . dc. dc 'ut .acJ.dc is t0e ripple factor.
22. rms H
. dc
1 . 2 2 HG Grms H 1 . rms . dc Ripple factor . dc . dc 3i4 #or 0alf%2a!e rectification. .n 0alf%2a!e rectification5 .rms G .mJ2F.dc G .mJ]
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
:lt0ou(0 t0e a.c. component is not a sine%2a!e5 yet it is alternatin( one.
1E2
2
= .m J 2 = H 1 G 1.21Ripple factor G =.m J ] === .t is clear t0at a.c. component e=ceeds t0e d.c. component in t0e output of a 0alf%2a!e rectifier. *0is results in (reater pulsations in t0e output. *0erefore5 0alf%2a!e rectifier is ineffecti!e for con% !ersion of a.c. into d.c. 3ii4 #or full%2a!e rectification. .n full%2a!e rectification5
.rms G
.m 2
F
2
2 .m .dc G ]
=. J 2= Ripple factor G = mH 1 G E.@D= 2 . m J] = = == effecti!e a.c. component i.e.G E.@D *0is s0o2s t0at in t0e output of a full%2a!e rectifier5 t0e d.c. component is more t0an t0e a.c. d.c. component component. Conse uently5 t0e pulsations in t0e output 2ill ,e less t0an in 0alf%2a!e rectifier. #or t0is reason5 full%2a!e rectification is in!aria,ly used for con!ersion of a.c. into d.c. E=ample 6.22. : po2er supply : deli!ers 1E + dc 2it0 a ripple of E.5 + r.m.s. 20ile t0e po2er supply ' deli!ers 25 + dc 2it0 a ripple of 1 m+ r.m.s. &0ic0 is ,etter po2er supply M Solution. *0e lo2er t0e ripple factor of a po2er supply5 t0e ,etter it is. #or po2er supply :
+ac3r.m.s.4 G E.5 N 1EE G 5_Ripple factor G +dc1E
#or po2er supply '

+ac3r.m.s.4 G E.EE1 N 1EE G E.EE@_Ripple factor G +dc25
Clearly5 po2er supply ' is ,etter. 6.19 Comparison of Rectifiers
S. )o. 1 2 3 @ 5 6
Particulars )o. of diodes *ransformer necessary Ka=. efficiency Ripple factor "utput fre uency Pea6 in!erse !olta(e
$alf%2a!e 1 no @E.6_ 1.21 fin +m
Centre%tap 2 yes D1.2_ E.@D 2 fin 2 +m
'rid(e type @ no D1.2_ E.@D 2 fin +m
Semiconductor Diode
: comparison amon( t0e t0ree rectifier circuits must ,e made !ery 1udiciously. :lt0ou(0 ,rid(e circuit 0as some disad!anta(es5 it is t0e ,est circuit from t0e !ie2point of o!erall performance. &0en cost of t0e transformer is t0e main consideration in a rectifier assem,ly5 2e in!aria,ly use t0e ,rid(e circuit. *0is is particularly true for lar(e rectifiers 20ic0 0a!e a lo2%!olta(e and a 0i(0%current ratin(.
1E3
6.2E #ilter Circuits

Yenerally5 a rectifier is re uired to produce pure d.c. supply for usin( at !arious places in t0e elec% tronic circuits. $o2e!er5 t0e output of a rectifier 0as pulsatin( 7c0aracter i.e. it contains a.c. and d.c. components. *0e a.c. component is undesira,le and must ,e 6ept a2ay from t0e load. *o do so5 a filter circuit is used 20ic0 remo!es 3or filters out4 t0e a.c. component and allo2s only t0e d.c. compo% nent to reac0 t0e load. : filter circuit is a de!ice 20ic0 remo!es t0e a.c. component of rectifier output ,ut allo2s t0e d.c. component to reac0 t0e load. ",!iously5 a filter circuit s0ould ,e installed ,et2een t0e rectifier and t0e load as s0o2n in #i(. 6.@E. : filter circuit is (enerally a com,ination of inductors 3A4 and capacitors 3C4. *0e filterin( action of A and C depends upon t0e ,asic electrical principles. : capacitor passes a.c. readily ,ut does not 77pass d.c. at all. "n t0e ot0er 0and5 an inductor aopposes a.c. ,ut allo2s d.c. to pass t0rou(0 it. .t t0en ,ecomes clear t0at suita,le net2or6 of A and C can effecti!ely remo!e t0e a.c. component5 allo2in( t0e d.c. component to reac0 t0e load.
#i(. 6.@E
6.21 *ypes of #ilter Circuits

*0e most commonly used filter circuits are capacitor filter5 c0o6e input filter and capacitor input filter or ]%filter. &e s0all discuss t0ese filters in turn. 3i4 Capacitor filter. #i(. 6.@1 3ii4 s0o2s a typical capacitor filter circuit. .t consists of a capacitor C placed across t0e rectifier output in parallel 2it0 load R A. *0e pulsatin( direct !olta(e of t0e rectifier is applied across t0e capacitor. :s t0e rectifier !olta(e increases5 it c0ar(es t0e capacitor and also supplies current to t0e load. :t t0e end of uarter cycle BPoint : in #i(. 6.@1 3iii4C5 t0e
.f suc0 a d.c. is applied in an electronic circuit5 it 2ill produce a 0um.
77 : capacitor offers infinite reactance to d.c. #or d.c.5 f G E. 11 GbC GGc 2 ] fC2] N E N C $ence5 a capacitor does not allo2 d.c. to pass t0rou(0 it. a&e 6no2 bA G 2] fA. #or d.c.5 f G E and5 t0erefore5 bA G E. $ence inductor passes d.c. uite readily. #or a.c.5 it offers opposition and drops a part of it.
1E@
capacitor is c0ar(ed to t0e pea6 !alue +m of t0e rectifier !olta(e. )o25 t0e rectifier !olta(e starts to decrease. :s t0is occurs5 t0e capacitor disc0ar(es t0rou(0 t0e load and !olta(e across it 3i.e. across parallel com,ination of R%C4 decreases as s0o2n ,y t0e line :' in #i(. 6.@1 3iii4. *0e !olta(e across load 2ill decrease only sli(0tly ,ecause immediately t0e ne=t !olta(e pea6 comes and rec0ar(es t0e capacitor. *0is process is repeated a(ain and a(ain and t0e output !olta(e 2a!eform ,ecomes :'CDE#Y. .t may ,e seen t0at !ery little ripple is left in t0e output. Koreo!er5 output !olta(e is 0i(0er as it remains su,stantially near t0e pea6 !alue of rectifier output !olta(e.
#i(. 6.@1 *0e capacitor filter circuit is e=tremely popular ,ecause of its lo2 cost5 small si8e5 little 2ei(0t and (ood c0aracteristics. #or small load currents 3say upto 5E m:45 t0is type of filter is preferred. .t is commonly used in transistor radio ,attery eliminators. 3ii4 C0o6e input filter. #i(. 6.@2 s0o2s a typical c0o6e input filter circuit. .t consists of a 7c0o6e A connected in series 2it0 t0e rectifier output and a filter capacitor C across t0e load. "nly a sin(le filter section is s0o2n5 ,ut se!eral identical sections are often used to reduce t0e pulsations as effecti!ely as possi,le. *0e pulsatin( output of t0e rectifier is applied across terminals 1 and 2 of t0e filter circuit. :s discussed ,efore5 t0e pulsatin( output of rectifier contains a.c. and d.c. components. *0e c0o6e offers 0i(0 opposition to t0e passa(e of a.c. component ,ut ne(li(i,le opposition to t0e d.c. compo% nent. *0e result is t0at most of t0e a.c. component appears across t0e c0o6e 20ile 20ole of d.c. component passes t0rou(0 t0e c0o6e on its 2ay to load. *0is results in t0e reduced pulsations at terminal 3.
#i(. 6.@2 :t terminal 35 t0e rectifier output contains d.c. component and t0e remainin( part of a.c. compo% nent 20ic0 0as mana(ed to pass t0rou(0 t0e c0o6e. )o25 t0e lo2 reactance of filter capacitor ,y% passes t0e a.c. component ,ut pre!ents t0e d.c. component to flo2 t0rou(0 it. *0erefore5 only d.c. component reac0es t0e load. .n t0is 2ay5 t0e filter circuit 0as filtered out t0e a.c. component from t0e rectifier output5 allo2in( d.c. component to reac0 t0e load. 3iii4 Capacitor input filter or ]%filter. #i(. 6.@3 s0o2s a typical capacitor input filter or 77]% filter. .t consists of a filter capacitor C1 connected across t0e rectifier output5 a c0o6e A in series and
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
7 77
*0e s0ort0and name of inductor coil is c0o6e. *0e s0ape of t0e circuit dia(ram of t0is filter circuit appears li6e Yree6 letter ] 3pi4 and 0ence t0e name ]%filter.
Semiconductor Diode
anot0er filter capacitor C2 connected across t0e load. "nly one filter section is s0o2n ,ut se!eral identical sections are often used to impro!e t0e smoot0% in( action. *0e pulsatin( output from t0e rectifier is applied across t0e input terminals 3i.e. terminals 1 and 24 of t0e filter. *0e filterin( action of t0e t0ree components !i8 C15 A and C2 of t0is
1E5
#i(. 6.@3filter is descri,ed ,elo2 > 3a4 *0e filter capacitor C1 offers lo2 reactance to a.c. component of rectifier output 20ile it offers infinite reactance to t0e d.c. component. *0erefore5 capacitor C 1 ,ypasses an apprecia,le amount of a.c. component 20ile t0e d.c. component continues its 1ourney to t0e c0o6e A. 3,4 *0e c0o6e A offers 0i(0 reactance to t0e a.c. component ,ut it offers almost 8ero reactance to t0e d.c. component. *0erefore5 it allo2s t0e d.c. component to flo2 t0rou(0 it5 20ile t0e 7un,ypassed a.c. component is ,loc6ed. 3c4 *0e filter capacitor C2 ,ypasses t0e a.c. component 20ic0 t0e c0o6e 0as failed to ,loc6. *0erefore5 only d.c. component appears across t0e load and t0at is 20at 2e desire. E=ample 6.23. #or t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.@@5 find t0e output d.c. !olta(e.
#i(. 6.@@ Solution. .t can ,e pro!ed t0at output d.c. !olta(e is (i!en ,y > 1 +dc G +p3in4 1 H 2 f RAC $ere +p3in4 G Pea6 rectified full%2a!e !olta(e applied to t0e filter f G "utput fre uency Pea6 primary !olta(e5 +p3prim4 G Pea6 secondary !olta(e5 +p3sec4 G 2 N 115 G 163+ 1
1E N 163 G 16.3+ Pea6 full%2a!e rectified !olta(e at t0e filter input is +p 3in4 G +p 3sec4 ; 2NE.7 G 16.3 ; 1.@ G 1@.9+ #or full%2a!e rectification5 f G 2 fin G 2N6E G 12E $8 11 G )o22 f RAC 2 N 12E N 32.2 N 1E34 N 35E N 1EH 6 4 G E.E3D
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
3 4
*0at part of a.c. component 20ic0 could not ,e ,ypassed ,y capacitor C1.
1E6
==1
G 1@.9 31 ; E.E3D4 G 1@.3++dc G +p3in4 = 1 H 2 f RAC === E=ample 6.2@. *0e c0o6e of #i(. 6.@5 0as a d.c. resistance of 25 I. &0at is t0e d.c. !olta(e if t0e full%2a!e si(nal into t0e c0o6e 0as a pea6 !alue of 25.7 + M
#i(. 6.@5 Solution. *0e output of a full%2a!e rectifier 0as a d.c. component and an a.c. component. Due to t0e presence of a.c. component5 t0e rectifier output 0as a pulsatin( c0aracter as s0o2n in #i(. 6.@6. *0e ma=imum !alue of t0e pulsatin( output is +m and d.c. component is +dc G 2 +mJ].d
#i(. 6.@6
#i(. 6.@7
#or d.c. component +d 5 t0e c0o6e resistance is in series 2it0 t0e load as s0o2n in #i(. 6.@7. dc d+dc N RA+olta(e across load5 +dc G R < RA 2 +m2 N 25.7 .n our e=ample5 +ddc GG 16.@ +G ]] d+ dc16.@ N 75E G 15.9 ++olta(e across load5 +dc GN RA G 25 < 75ER < R A *0e !olta(e across t0e load is 15.9 + dc plus a small ripple.
6.22 +olta(e Kultipliers

&it0 a diode5 2e can ,uild a rectifier to produce a d.c. !olta(e t0at is nearly e ual to t0e pea6 !alue of input a.c. !olta(e. &e can also use diodes and capacitors to ,uild a circuit t0at 2ill pro!ide a d.c output t0at is multiple of t0e pea6 input a.c. !olta(e. Suc0 a circuit is called a !olta(e multiplier. #or e=ample5 a !olta(e dou,ler 2ill pro!ide a d.c. output t0at is t2ice t0e pea6 input a.c. !olta(e5 a !olta(e tripler 2ill pro!ide a d.c. output t0at is t0ree times t0e pea6 input a.c. !olta(e and so on. &0ile !olta(e multipliers pro!ide d.c. output t0at is muc0 (reater t0an t0e pea6 input a.c. !olt% a(e5 t0ere is no po2er amplification and la2 of conser!ation of ener(y 0olds (ood. &0en a !olta(e multiplier increases t0e pea6 input !olta(e ,y a factor n5 t0e pea6 input current is decreased ,y appro=imately t0e same factor. *0us t0e actual po2er output from a !olta(e multiplier 2ill ne!er ,e
Semiconductor Diode
(reater t0an t0e input po2er. .n fact5 t0ere are losses in t0e circuit 3e.(. in diodes5 capacitors etc.4 so t0at t0e output po2er 2ill actually ,e less t0an t0e input po2er.
1E7
6.23 $alf%&a!e +olta(e Dou,ler

: 0alf%2a!e !olta(e dou,ler consists of t2o diodes and t2o capacitors connected in a manner as s0o2n in #i(. 6.@D. .t 2ill ,e s0o2n t0at if t0e pea6 input a.c. !olta(e is + S3p645 t0e d.c. output !olta(e 2ill ,e 2 +S 3p64 pro!ided t0e diodes are ideal 3t0is assumption is fairly reasona,le4. *0e ,asic idea in a !olta(e multiplier is to c0ar(e eac0 capacitor to t0e pea6 input a.c. !olta(e and to arran(e t0e capacitors so t0at t0eir stored !olta(es 2ill add.
#i(. 6.@D Circuit action. &e no2 discuss t0e 2or6in( of a 0alf%2a!e !olta(e dou,ler. 3i4 Durin( t0e ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle of a.c. input !olta(e BSee #i(. 6.@9 3i4C5 diode D 1 is for2ard ,iased and diode D2 is re!erse ,iased BSee #i(. 6.@9 3i4C. *0erefore5 diode D1 can ,e represented ,y a s0ort and diode D2 as an open. *0e e ui!alent circuit t0en ,ecomes as s0o2n in #i(. 6.@9 3ii4.
#i(. 6.@9 :s you can see BSee #i(.6.@9 3ii4C5 C1 2ill c0ar(e until !olta(e across it ,ecomes e ual to pea6 !alue of source !olta(e B+S 3p64C. :t t0e same time5 C2 2ill ,e in t0e process of disc0ar(in( t0rou(0 t0e load RA 3*0e source of t0is c0ar(e on C2 2ill ,e e=plained in a moment4. )ote t0at in all fi(ures electron flo2 is s0o2n. 3ii4 &0en t0e polarity of t0e input a.c. !olta(e re!erses 3i.e. durin( positi!e 0alf%cycle45 t0e circuit conditions ,ecome as s0o2n in #i(. 6.5E 3i4. )o2 D1 is re!erse ,iased and D2 is for2ard ,iased and t0e e ui!alent circuit ,ecomes as s0o2n in #i(. 6.5E 3ii4.
#i(. 6.5E
1ED
Referrin( to #i(. 6.5E 3ii45 it is easy to see t0at C 1 3c0ar(ed to +S 3p64 4and t0e source !olta(e 3+S4 no2 act as series%aidin( !olta(e sources. *0us C2 2ill ,e c0ar(ed to t0e sum of t0e series pea6 !olta(es i.e. 2 +S3p64. 3iii4 &0en +S returns to its ori(inal polarity 3i.e. ne(ati!e 0alf%cycle45 D 2 is a(ain turned off 3i.e. re!erse ,iased4. &it0 D2 turned off5 t0e only disc0ar(e pat0 for C2 is t0rou(0 t0e load resistance RA. *0e time constant 3G RA C24 of t0is circuit is so ad1usted t0at C2 0as little time to lose any of its c0ar(e ,efore t0e input polarity re!erses a(ain. Durin( t0e positi!e 0alf%cycle5 D 2 is turned on and C2 rec0ar(es until !olta(e across it is a(ain e ual to 2 + S 3p64. D.C. output !olta(e5 +dc G 2 +S 3p64 Since C2 ,arely disc0ar(es ,et2een input cycles5 t0e output 2a!eform of t0e 0alf%2a!e !olta(e dou,ler closely resem,les t0at of a filtered 0alf%2a!e rectifier. #i(. 6.51 s0o2s t0e input and output 2a!eforms for a 0alf%2a!e !olta(e dou,ler.
#i(. 6.51 *0e !olta(e multipliers 0a!e t0e disad!anta(e of poor !olta(e re(ulation. *0is means t0at d.c. output !olta(e drops considera,ly as t0e load current increases. Aar(e filter capacitors are needed to 0elp maintain t0e output !olta(e.
6.2@ +olta(e Sta,ilisation

: rectifier 2it0 an appropriate filter ser!es as a (ood source of d.c. output. $o2e!er5 t0e ma1or disad!anta(e of suc0 a po2er supply is t0at t0e output !olta(e c0an(es 2it0 t0e !ariations in t0e input !olta(e or load. *0us5 if t0e input !olta(e increases5 t0e d.c. output !olta(e of t0e rectifier also increases. Similarly5 if t0e load current increases5 t0e output !olta(e falls due to t0e !olta(e drop in t0e rectifyin( element5 filter c0o6es5 transformer 2indin( etc. .n many electronic applications5 it is desired t0at t0e output !olta(e s0ould remain constant re(ardless of t0e !ariations in t0e input !olta(e or load. .n order to ensure t0is5 a !olta(e sta,ilisin( de!ice5 called !olta(e sta,iliser is used. Se!eral sta,ilisin( circuits 0a!e ,een desi(ned ,ut only 8ener diode as a !olta(e sta,iliser 2ill ,e discussed.
6.25 -ener Diode

.t 0as already ,een discussed t0at 20en t0e re!erse ,ias on a crystal diode is increased5 a critical !olta(e5 called ,rea6do2n !olta(e is reac0ed 20ere t0e re!erse current increases s0arply to a 0i(0 !alue. *0e ,rea6do2n re(ion is t0e 6nee of t0e re!erse c0aracteristic as s0o2n in #i(. 6.52. *0e satisfactory e=planation of t0is ,rea6do2n of t0e 1unction 2as first (i!en ,y t0e :merican scientist C. -ener. *0erefore5 t0e ,rea6do2n !olta(e is sometimes called 8ener !olta(e and t0e sudden increase in current is 6no2n as 8ener current. *0e ,rea6do2n or 8ener !olta(e depends upon t0e amount of dopin(. .f t0e diode is 0ea!ily doped5 depletion layer 2ill ,e t0in and conse uently t0e ,rea6do2n of t0e 1unction 2ill occur at a lo2er re!erse !olta(e. "n t0e ot0er 0and5 a li(0tly doped diode 0as a 0i(0er ,rea6do2n !olta(e. &0en an ordinary crystal diode is properly doped so t0at it 0as a s0arp ,rea6do2n !olta(e5 it is called
Semiconductor Diode
a 8ener diode. : properly doped crystal diode 20ic0 0as a s0arp ,rea6do2n !olta(e is 6no2n as a 8ener diode. #i(. 6.53 s0o2s t0e sym,ol of a 8ener diode. .t may ,e seen t0at it is 1ust li6e an ordinary diode e=cept t0at t0e ,ar is turned into 8%s0ape. *0e follo2in( points may ,e noted a,out t0e 8ener diode> 3i4 : 8ener diode is li6e an ordinary diode e=% cept t0at it is properly doped so as to 0a!e a s0arp ,rea6do2n !olta(e. 3ii4 : 8ener diode is al2ays re!erse connected i.e. it is al2ays re!erse ,iased. #i(. 6.523iii4 : 8ener diode 0as s0arp ,rea6do2n !olt% a(e5 called 8ener !olta(e + -. 3i!4 &0en for2ard ,iased5 its c0aracteristics are 1ust t0ose of ordinary diode. 3!4 *0e 8ener diode is not immediately ,urnt 1ust ,ecause it 0as entered t0e 7,rea6do2n re(ion. :s lon( as t0e e=ternal circuit connected to t0e diode limits t0e diode current to less t0an ,urn out !alue5 t0e diode 2ill not ,urn out.
1E9
6.26 E ui!alent Circuit of -ener Diode

#i(. 6.53 *0e analysis of circuits usin( 8ener diodes can ,e made uite easily ,y replac% in( t0e 8ener diode ,y its e ui!alent circuit. 3i4 Q"nR state. &0en re!erse !olta(e across a 8ener diode is e ual to or more t0an ,rea6 do2n !olta(e +-5 t0e current increases !ery s0arply. .n t0is re(ion5 t0e cur!e is almost !ertical. .t means t0at !olta(e across 8ener diode is constant at + - e!en t0ou(0 t0e current t0rou(0 it c0an(es. *0erefore5 in t0e ,rea6do2n re(ion5 an 77ideal 8ener diode can ,e represented ,y a ,attery of !olta(e +- as s0o2n in #i(. 6.5@ 3ii4. /nder suc0 conditions5 t0e 8ener diode is said to ,e in t0e Q")R state.
#i(. 6.5@ 3ii4 Q"##R state. &0en t0e re!erse !olta(e across t0e 8ener diode is less t0an + - ,ut (reater t0an E +5 t0e 8ener diode is in t0e Q"##R state. /nder suc0 conditions5 t0e 8ener diode can ,e represented ,y an open%circuit as s0o2n in #i(. 6.55 3ii4.
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
7 77
*0e current is limited only ,y ,ot0 e=ternal resistance and t0e po2er dissipation of 8ener diode. *0is assumption is fairly reasona,le as t0e impedance of 8ener diode is uite small in t0e ,rea6do2n re(ion.
11E
#i(. 6.55
6.27 -ener Diode as +olta(e Sta,iliser

: 8ener diode can ,e used as a !olta(e re(ulator to pro!ide a constant !olta(e from a source 20ose !olta(e may !ary o!er sufficient ran(e. *0e circuit arran(ement is s0o2n in #i(. 6.56 3i4. *0e 8ener diode of 8ener !olta(e +- is re!erse connected across t0e load RA across 20ic0 constant output is desired. *0e series resistance R a,sor,s t0e output !olta(e fluctuations so as to maintain constant !olta(e across t0e load. .t may ,e noted t0at t0e 8ener 2ill maintain a constant !olta(e + - 3G EE4 across t0e load so lon( as t0e input !olta(e does not fall ,elo2 + -.
#i(. 6.56 &0en t0e circuit is properly desi(ned5 t0e load !olta(e E E remains essentially constant 3e ual to +-4 e!en t0ou(0 t0e input !olta(e Ei and load resistance RA may !ary o!er a 2ide ran(e. 3i4 Suppose t0e input !olta(e increases. Since t0e 8ener is in t0e ,rea6do2n re(ion5 t0e 8ener diode is e ui!alent to a ,attery +- as s0o2n in #i(. 6.56 3ii4. .t is clear t0at output !olta(e remains constant at +- 3G EE4. *0e e=cess !olta(e is dropped across t0e series resistance R. *0is 2ill cause an increase in t0e !alue of total current .. *0e 8ener 2ill conduct t0e increase of current in . 20ile t0e load current remains constant. $ence5 output !olta(e E E remains constant irrespecti!e of t0e c0an(es in t0e input !olta(e Ei. 3ii4 )o2 suppose t0at input !olta(e is constant ,ut t0e load resistance R A decreases. *0is 2ill cause an increase in load current. *0e e=tra current cannot come from t0e source ,ecause drop in R 3and 0ence source current .4 2ill not c0an(e as t0e 8ener is 2it0in its re(ulatin( ran(e. *0e additional load current 2ill come from a decrease in 8ener current . -. Conse uently5 t0e output !olta(e stays at constant !alue. +olta(e drop across R G Ei H EE Current t0rou(0 R5 . G .- < .A
Semiconductor Diode
:pplyin( "0mPs la25 2e 0a!e5 RG Ei H E E .- < . A
111
6.2D Sol!in( -ener Diode Circuits

*0e analysis of 8ener diode circuits is uite similar to t0at applied to t0e analysis of semiconductor diodes. *0e first step is to determine t0e state of 8ener diode i.e.5 20et0er t0e 8ener is in t0e QonR state or QoffR state. )e=t5 t0e 8ener is replaced ,y its appropriate model. #inally5 t0e un6no2n uantities are determined from t0e resultin( circuit. 1. Ei and RA fi=ed. *0is is t0e simplest case and is s0o2n in #i(. 6.57 3i4. $ere t0e applied !olta(e Ei as 2ell as load RA is fi=ed. *0e first step is to find t0e state of 8ener diode. *0is can ,e determined ,y remo!in( t0e 8ener from t0e circuit and calculatin( t0e !olta(e + across t0e resultin( open%circuit as s0o2n in #i(. 6.57 3ii4. R A Ei + G EE G R < RA
#i(. 6.57 .f + e +-5 t0e 8ener diode is in t0e QonR state and its e ui!alent model can ,e su,stituted as s0o2n in #i(. 6.5D 3i4. .f + V +-5 t0e diode is in t0e QoffR state as s0o2n in #i(. 6.5D 3ii4. 3i4 "n state. Referrin( to circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.5D 3i45 EE G +-
#i(. 6.5D
112
.- G . H .A 20ere .A G E H EEEE and . G i RRA
Po2er dissipated in 8ener5 P- G +- .3ii4 "ff state. Referrin( to t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.5D 3ii45 . G .A and .- G E +R G Ei H EE and + G EE 3+ V +-4 P- G + .- G +3E4 G E 2. #i=ed Ei and +aria,le RA. *0is case is s0o2n in #i(. 6.59. $ere t0e applied !olta(e 3Ei4 is fi=ed 20ile load resistance RA 3and 0ence load current .A4 c0an(es. )ote t0at t0ere is a definite ran(e of RA !alues 3and 0ence .A !alues4 20ic0 2ill ensure t0e 8ener diode to ,e in QonR state. Aet us calculate t0at ran(e of !alues. 3i4 RAmin and .Ama=. "nce t0e 8ener is in t0e QonR state5 load !olta(e EE 3G +-4 is constant. :s a result5 20en load resistance is minimum 3i.e.5 RAmin45 load cur% rent 2ill ,e ma=imum 3.A G EEJRA4. .n order to find t0e #i(. 6.59 minimum load resistance t0at 2ill turn t0e 8ener on5 2e simply calculate t0e !alue of RA t0at 2ill result in EE G +- i.e.5 7 RA E i EE G +- G R < R A
RAmin G
R +Ei H + -
...3i4
*0is is t0e minimum !alue of load resistance t0at 2ill ensure t0at 8ener is in t0e QonR state. :ny !alue of load resistance less t0an t0is !alue 2ill result in a !olta(e E E across t0e load less t0an +- and t0e 8ener 2ill ,e in t0e QoffR state. Clearly F .Ama= G
EE+G RAminRAmin
3ii4 .Amin and RAma=. .t is easy to see t0at 20en load resistance is ma=imum5 load current is minimum. )o25 -ener current5 .- G . H .A
&0en t0e 8ener is in t0e QonR state5 . remains 77fi=ed. *0is means t0at 20en .A is ma=imum5 .2ill ,e minimum. "n t0e ot0er 0and5 20en .A is minimum5 .- is ma=imum. .f t0e ma=imum current t0at a 8ener can carry safely is a.-K5 t0en5
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
.f you remo!e t0e 8ener in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.595 t0en !olta(e + across t0e open%circuit is R A Ei +G R < RA *0e 8ener 2ill ,e turned on 20en + G +-. +olta(e across R5 +R G Ei H EE and . G +RJR. :s Ei and EE are fi=ed5 . remains t0e same. Ka=. po2er dissipation in 8ener5 P-K G +- .-K
77 a
Semiconductor Diode
.Amin G . H .-K and RAma= G
EE . Amin G +. Amin
113
.f t0e load resistance e=ceeds t0is limitin( !alue5 t0e current t0rou(0 8ener 2ill e=ceed . -K and t0e de!ice may ,urn out. 3. #i=ed RA and +aria,le Ei. *0is case is s0o2n in #i(. 6.6E. $ere t0e load resistance RA is fi=ed 20ile t0e applied !olta(e 3Ei4 c0an(es. )ote t0at t0ere is a definite ran(e of Ei !alues t0at 2ill en% sure t0at 8ener diode is in t0e QonR state. Aet us cal% culate t0at ran(e of !alues. 3i4 Ei 3min4. *o determine t0e minimum ap% plied !olta(e t0at 2ill turn t0e 8ener on5 simply cal% culate t0e !alue of Ei t0at 2ill result in load !olta(e EE G +- i.e.5 RA E i EE G +- G R < RA
#i(. 6.6E
Ei 3min4 G
3R < RA 4 +RA
3ii4 Ei 3ma=4 )o25 current t0rou(0 R5 . G .- < .A Since .A 3G EEJRA G +-JRA4 is fi=ed5 t0e !alue of . 2ill ,e ma=imum 20en 8ener current is ma=i% mum i.e.5 .ma= G .-K < .A )o2 Ei G . R < E E
Since EE 3G +-4 is constant5 t0e input !olta(e 2ill ,e ma=imum 20en . is ma=imum. Ei 3ma=4 G .ma= R < +E=ample 6.25. #or t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.61 3i45 find > 3i4 t0e output !olta(e3ii4 t0e !olta(e drop across series resistance 3iii4 t0e current t0rou(0 8ener diode.
#i(. 6.61
11@
Solution. .f you remo!e t0e 8ener diode in #i(. 6.61 3i45 t0e !olta(e + across t0e open%circuit is (i!en ,y > RA Ei1E N 12E G+ GG DE + R < RA5 < 1E Since !olta(e across 8ener diode is (reater t0an + - 3G 5E +45 t0e 8ener is in t0e QonR state. .t can5 t0erefore5 ,e represented ,y a ,attery of 5E + as s0o2n in #i(. 6.61 3ii4. 3i4 Referrin( to #i(. 6.61 3ii45 "utput !olta(e G +- G 5E + 3ii4 3iii4 +olta(e drop across R G .nput !olta(e H +- G 12E H 5E G 7E + Aoad current5 .A G +-JRA G 5E +J1E 6I G 5 m: Current t0rou(0 R5 . G 7E + G 1@ m: 5 6I
:pplyin( Uirc00offPs first la25 . G .A < . -ener current5 .- G . H .A G 1@ H 5 G 9 m:
E=ample 6.26. #or t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.62 3i45 find t0e ma=imum and minimum !alues of 8ener diode current. Solution. *0e first step is to determine t0e state of t0e 8ener diode. .t is easy to see t0at for t0e (i!en ran(e of !olta(es 3DE H 12E +45 t0e !olta(e across t0e 8ener is (reater t0an + - 3G 5E +4. $ence t0e 8ener diode 2ill ,e in t0e QonR state for t0is ran(e of applied !olta(es. Conse uently5 it can ,e replaced ,y a ,attery of 5E + as s0o2n in #i(. 6.62 3ii4.
#i(. 6.62 Ka=imum 8ener current. *0e 8ener 2ill conduct 7ma=imum current 20en t0e input !olta(e is ma=imum i.e. 12E +. /nder suc0 conditions > +olta(e across 5 6I G 12E H 5E G 7E + 7E + Current t0rou(0 5 6I5 . GG 1@ m: 5 6I 5E + Aoad current5 .A GG 5 m: 1E 6I :pplyin( Uirc00offOs first la25 . G .A < .-ener current5 .- G . H .A G 1@ H 5 G 9 m:
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
7 .- G . H .A. Since .A 3G +-JRA4 is fi=ed5 .- 2ill ,e ma=imum 20en . is ma=imum. Ei H EEE H +G i. Since +- 3G EE4 and R are fi=ed5 . 2ill ,e ma=imum 20en Ei is)o25 . G RR ma=imum and !ice%!ersa.
Semiconductor Diode
Kinimum -ener current. *0e 8ener 2ill conduct minimum current 20en t0e input !olta(e is minimum i.e. DE +. /nder suc0 conditions5 2e 0a!e5 +olta(e across 5 6I G DE H 5E G 3E + 3E + Current t0rou(0 5 6I5 . GG 6 m: 5 6I Aoad current5 .A G 5 m: -ener current5 .- G . H .A G 6 H 5 G 1 m: E=ample 6.27. : 7.2 + 8ener is used in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.63 and t0e load current is to !ary from 12 to 1EE m:. #ind t0e !alue of series resistance R to maintain a !olta(e of 7.2 + across t0e load. *0e input !olta(e is constant at 12+ and t0e minimum 8ener current is 1E m:.
115
#i(. 6.63 Ei G 12 + F +- G 7.2 + E H EE RGi .- < . A *0e !olta(e across R is to remain constant at 12 H 7.2 G @.D + as t0e load current c0an(es from 12 to 1EE m:. *0e minimum 8ener current 2ill occur 20en t0e load current is ma=imum.
Ei H EE12 + H 7.2 +@.D + GGG @3.5 IR G 3 . - 4 min < 3 . A 4 ma=31E < 1EE4 m:11E m:
Solution.
.f R G @3.5 I is inserted in t0e circuit5 t0e output !olta(e 2ill remain constant o!er t0e re(ulatin( ran(e. :s t0e load current .A decreases5 t0e 8ener current .- 2ill increase to suc0 a !alue t0at .- < .A G 11E m:. )ote t0at if load resistance is open%circuited5 t0en . A G E and 8ener current ,ecomes 11E m:. E=ample 6.2D. *0e 8ener diode s0o2n in #i(. 6.6@ 0as +- G 1D +. *0e !olta(e across t0e load stays at 1D + as lon( as .- is maintained ,et2een 2EE m: and 2 :. #ind t0e !alue of series resistance R so t0at EE remains 1D + 20ile input !olta(e Ei is free to !ary ,et2een 22 + to 2D+.
#i(. 6.6@ Solution. *0e 8ener current 2ill ,e minimum 3i.e. 2EE m:4 20en t0e input !olta(e is minimum 3i.e. 22 +4. *0e load current stays at constant !alue .A G +- J RA G 1D +J1D I G 1 : G 1EEE m:.
Ei H EE322 H 1D4 +@+ GGR GG 3.33 I 3 . - 4 min < 3 . A 4 ma=32EE < 1EEE4 m:12EE m:
116
E=ample 6.29. : 1E%+ 8ener diode is used to re(ulate t0e !olta(e across a !aria,le load resistor BSee fi(. 6.65C. *0e input !olta(e !aries ,et2een 13 + and 16 + and t0e load current !aries ,et2een 1E m: and D5 m:. *0e minimum 8ener current is 15 m:. Calculate t0e !alue of series resistance R.
#i(. 6.65 Solution. *0e 8ener 2ill conduct minimum current 3i.e. 15 m:4 20en input !olta(e is minimum 3i.e. 13 +4. Ei H EE313 H 1E4 +3+ GG R GG 3E L 3. - 4min < 3. A 4ma=315 < D54 m:1EE m: E=ample 6.3E. *0e circuit of #i(. 6.66 uses t2o 8ener diodes5 eac0 rated at 15 +5 2EE m:. .f t0e circuit is connected to a @5%!olt unre(ulated supply5 determine > 3i4 *0e re(ulated output !olta(e3ii4 *0e !alue of series resistance R
#i(. 6.66 Solution. &0en t0e desired re(ulated output !olta(e is 0i(0er t0an t0e rated !olta(e of t0e 8ener5 t2o or more 8eners are connected in series as s0o2n in #i(. 6.66. $o2e!er5 in suc0 circuits5 care must ,e ta6en to select t0ose 8eners t0at 0a!e t0e same current ratin(. Current ratin( of eac0 8ener5 .- G 2EE m: +olta(e ratin( of eac0 8ener5 +- G 15 + .nput !olta(e5 Ei G @5 + 3i4Re(ulated output !olta(e5 EE G 15 < 15 G 3E + E H EE@5 H 3E15 + GG3ii4Series resistance5 R G iG 75 L .-2EE m:2EE m:
E=ample 6.31. &0at !alue of series resistance is re uired 20en t0ree 1E%2att5 1E%!olt5 1EEE m: 8ener diodes are connected in series to o,tain a 3E%!olt re(ulated output from a @5 !olt d.c. po2er source M Solution. #i(. 6.67 s0o2s t0e desired circuit. *0e 2orst case is at no load ,ecause t0en 8eners carry t0e ma=imum current.
#i(. 6.67
Semiconductor Diode
+olta(e ratin( of eac0 8ener5 +- G 1E + Current ratin( of eac0 8ener5 .- G 1EEE m: .nput unre(ulated !olta(e5 Ei G @5 + Re(ulated output !olta(e5 EE G 1E < 1E < 1E G 3E + Aet R o0ms ,e t0e re uired series resistance. +olta(e across R G Ei H EE G @5 H 3E G 15 + E H EE15 + GR G iG 15 I .-1EEE m: E=ample 6.32. "!er 20at ran(e of input !olta(e 2ill t0e 8ener circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.6D maintain 3E + across 2EEE I load5 assumin( t0at series resistance R G 2EE I and 8ener current ratin( is 25 m: M
117
#i(. 6.6D Solution. *0e minimum input !olta(e re uired 2ill ,e 20en .- G E. /nder t0is condition5 3E + .A G . GG 15 m: 2EEE I Kinimum input !olta(e G 3E < . R G 3E < 15 m: N 2EE I G 3E < 3 G 33 + *0e ma=imum input !olta(e re uired 2ill ,e 20en .- G 25 m:. /nder t0is condition5 . G .A < .- G 15 < 25 G @E m: Ka=. input !olta(e G 3E < . R G 3E < @E m: N 2EE I G 3E < D G 3D + *0erefore5 t0e input !olta(e ran(e o!er 20ic0 t0e circuit 2ill maintain 3E + across t0e load is 33 + to 3D +.
E=ample 6.33. .n t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.695 t0e !olta(e across t0e load is to ,e maintained at 12 + as load current !aries from E to 2EE m:. Desi(n t0e re(ulator. :lso find t0e ma=imum 2atta(e ratin( of 8ener diode. Solution. 'y desi(nin( t0e re(ulator 0ere means to find t0e !alues of +- and R. Since t0e load !olta(e is to ,e maintained at 12 +5 2e 2ill use a 8ener diode #i(. 6.69 of 8ener !olta(e 12 + i.e.5 +- G 12 + *0e !olta(e across R is to remain constant at 16 H 12 G @ + as t0e load current c0an(es from E to 2EE m:. *0e minimum 8ener current 2ill occur 20en t0e load current is ma=imum.
Ei H EE16 H 12@+ GGR GG 2E I 3 . - 4 min < 3 . A 4 ma=3E < 2EE4 m:2EE m:
11D
Ka=imum po2er ratin( of 8ener is P-K G +- .-K G 312 +4 32EE m:4 G 2.@ & E=ample. 6.3@. #i(. 6.7E s0o2s t0e ,asic 8ener diode circuits. &0at 2ill ,e t0e circuit ,e0a!iour if t0e 8ener is 3i4 2or6in( properly 3ii4 s0orted 3iii4 open%circuitedM
#i(. 6.7E Solution. -ener diodes cannot ,e tested indi!idually 2it0 a multimeter. .t is ,ecause multimeters usually do not 0a!e enou(0 input !olta(e to put t0e 8ener into ,rea6do2n re(ion. 3i4 .f t0e 8ener diode is 2or6in( properly5 t0e !olta(e +E across t0e load 3G 5 6L4 2ill ,e nearly 6+ BSee #i(. 6.7E 3i4C. 3ii4 .f t0e 8ener diode is s0ort BSee #i(. 6.7E 3ii4C5 you 2ill measure + E as E+. *0e same pro,lem could also ,e caused ,y a s0orted load resistor 3G 56L4 or an opened source resistor 3G 1 6L4. *0e only 2ay to tell 20ic0 de!ice 0as failed is to remo!e t0e resistors and c0ec6 t0em 2it0 an o0mmeter. .f t0e resistors are (ood5 t0en 8ener diode is ,ad. 3iii4 .f t0e 8ener diode is open%circuited5 t0e !olta(e +E across t0e load 3G 5 6L4 2ill ,e 1E+. E=ample 6.35. #i(. 6.71 s0o2s re(ulated po2er supply usin( a 8ener diode. &0at 2ill ,e t0e circuit ,e0a!iour if 3i4 filter capacitor s0orts 3ii4 filter capacitor opensM
#i(. 6.71 Solution. *0e common faults in a 8ener !olta(e re(ulator are s0orted filter capacitor or opened filter capacitor. 3i4 &0en filter capacitor s0orts. &0en t0e filter capacitor s0orts5 t0e primary fuse 2ill ,lo2. *0e reason for t0is is illustrated in #i(. 6.71. &0en t0e filter capacitor s0orts5 it s0orts out t0e load resistance RA. *0is 0as t0e same effect as 2irin( t0e t2o sides of t0e ,rid(e to(et0er 3See #i(. 6.714.
Semiconductor Diode
.f you trace from t0e 0i(0 side of t0e ,rid(e to t0e lo2 side5 you 2ill see t0at t0e only resistance across t0e secondary of t0e transformer is t0e for2ard resistance of t0e t2o ") diodes. *0is effecti!ely s0orts out t0e transformer secondary. *0e result is t0at e=cessi!e current flo2s in t0e secondary and 0ence in t0e primary. Conse uently5 t0e primary fuse 2ill ,lo2. 3ii4 &0en filter capacitor opens. &0en t0e filter capacitor opens5 it 2ill cause t0e ripple in t0e po2er supply output to increase drastically. :t t0e same time5 t0e d.c. output !olta(e 2ill s0o2 a si(nificant drop. Since an open filter capacitor is t0e only fault t0at 2ill cause ,ot0 of t0ese symp% toms5 no furt0er testin( is necessary. .f ,ot0 symptoms appear5 replace t0e filter capacitor.
119
6.29 Crystal Diodes !ersus +acuum Diodes

Semiconductor diodes 3or crystal diodes4 0a!e a num,er of ad!anta(es and disad!anta(es as com% pared to t0eir electron%tu,e counterparts 3i.e.5 !acuum diodes4. :d!anta(es > 3i4 *0ey are smaller5 more ru((ed and 0a!e a lon(er life. 3ii4 *0ey are simpler and in0erently c0eaper. 3iii4 *0ey re uire no filament po2er. :s a result5 t0ey produce less 0eat t0an t0e e ui!alent !acuum diodes. Disad!anta(es > 3i4 *0ey are e=tremely 0eat sensiti!e. E!en a sli(0t rise in temperature increases t0e current apprecia,ly. S0ould t0e temperature 7e=ceed t0e rated !alue of t0e diode5 t0e increased flo2 of current may produce enou(0 0eat to ruin t0e pn 1unction. "n t0e ot0er 0and5 !acuum diodes function normally o!er a 2ide ran(e of temperature c0an(es. .t may ,e noted t0at silicon is ,etter t0an (ermanium as a semiconductor material. &0ereas a (ermanium diode s0ould not ,e operated at temperatures 0i(0er t0an DEfC5 silicon diodes may oper% ate safely at temperatures upto a,out 2EEfC. 3ii4 *0ey can 0andle small currents and lo2 in!erse !olta(es as compared to !acuum diodes. 3iii4 *0ey cannot stand an o!erload e!en for a s0ort period. :ny sli(0t o!erload5 e!en a transient pulse5 may permanently dama(e t0e crystal diode. "n t0e ot0er 0and5 !acuum diodes can stand an o!erload for a s0ort period and 20en t0e o!erload is remo!ed5 t0e tu,e 2ill (enerally reco!er.
K/A*.PAE%C$".CE T/ES*.")S
1. : crystal diode 0as ........ 3i4 one pn 1unction 3ii4 t2o pn 1unctions 3iii4 t0ree pn 1unctions 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 2. : crystal diode 0as for2ard resistance of t0e order of ........ 3i4 6L3ii4 L 3iii4 KL3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 3. .f t0e arro2 of crystal diode sym,ol is posi% ti!e 2.r.t. ,ar5 t0en diode is ........ ,iased. 3i4 for2ard 3ii4 re!erse 3iii4 eit0er for2ard or re!erse 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e @. *0e re!erse current in a diode is of t0e order of ........ 3i4 6:3ii4 m: 3iii4 W:3i!4 : 5. *0e for2ard !olta(e drop across a silicon diode is a,out ........
E!en 20en solderin( t0e leads of a crystal diode5 care must ,e ta6en not to permit 0eat from t0e solderin( de!ice to reac0 t0e crystal diode.
12E
3i4 applied !olta(e 3ii4 ,rea6do2n !olta(e 3iii4 for2ard !olta(e 3i!4 ,arrier potential 15. &0en t0e (rap0 ,et2een current t0rou(0 and !olta(e across a de!ice is a strai(0t line5 t0e de!ice is referred to as ........ 3i4 linear3ii4 acti!e 3iii4 nonlinear3i!4 passi!e 16. &0en t0e crystal diode current is lar(e5 t0e ,ias is ........ 3i4 for2ard3ii4 in!erse 3iii4 poor3i!4 re!erse 17. : crystal diode is a ........ de!ice. 3i4 non%linear3ii4 ,ilateral 3iii4 linear3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 1D. : crystal diode utilises ........ c0aracteristic for rectification. 3i4 re!erse3ii4 for2ard 3iii4 for2ard or re!erse 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 19. &0en a crystal diode is used as a rectifier5 t0e most important consideration is ........ 3i4 for2ard c0aracteristic 3ii4 dopin( le!el 3iii4 re!erse c0aracteristic 3i!4 P.+ ratin( 2E. .f t0e dopin( le!el in a crystal diode is in% creased5 t0e 2idt0 of depletion layer ........ 3i4 remains t0e same 3ii4 is decreased 3iii4 is increased 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 21. : 8ener diode 0as ........ 3i4 one pn 1unction 3ii4 t2o pn 1unctions 3iii4 t0ree pn 1unctions 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 22. : 8ener diode is used as ........ 3i4 an amplifier3ii4 a !olta(e re(ulator 3iii4 a rectifier3i!4 a multi!i,rator 23. *0e dopin( le!el in a 8ener diode is ........ t0at of a crystal diode.
3i4 2.5 +3ii4 3 + 3iii4 1E +3i!4 E.7 + 6. : crystal diode is used as ........ 3i4 an amplifier3ii4 a rectifier 3iii4 an oscillator 3i!4 a !olta(e re(ulator 7. *0e d.c. resistance of a crystal diode is ........ its a.c. resistance. 3i4 t0e same as3ii4 more t0an 3iii4 less t0an3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e D. :n ideal crystal diode is one 20ic0 ,e0a!es as a perfect ........ 20en for2ard ,iased. 3i4 conductor 3ii4 insulator 3iii4 resistance material 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 9. *0e ratio of re!erse resistance and for2ard resistance of a (ermanium crystal diode is a,out ........ 3i4 1 > 13ii4 1EE > 1 3iii4 1EEE > 13i!4 @EEEE > 1 1E. *0e lea6a(e current in a crystal diode is due to ........ 3i4 minority carriers 3ii4 ma1ority carriers 3iii4 1unction capacitance 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 11. .f t0e temperature of a crystal diode in% creases5 t0en lea6a(e current ........ 3i4 remains t0e same 3ii4 decreases 3iii4 increases 3i!4 ,ecomes 8ero 12. *0e P.+ ratin( of a crystal diode is ........ t0at of e ui!alent !acuum diode. 3i4 t0e same as3ii4 lo2er t0an 3iii4 more t0an3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 13. .f t0e dopin( le!el of a crystal diode is in% creased5 t0e ,rea6do2n !olta(e ......... 3i4 remains t0e same 3ii4 is increased 3iii4 is decreased 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 1@. *0e 6nee !olta(e of a crystal diode is ap% pro=imately e ual to ........
Semiconductor Diode
3i4 t0e same as3ii4 less t0an 3iii4 more t0an3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 2@. : 8ener diode is al2ays .......... connected. 3i4 re!erse 3ii4 for2ard 3iii4 eit0er re!erse or for2ard 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 25. : 8ener diode utilises ........ c0aracteristic for its operation. 3i4 for2ard 3ii4 re!erse 3iii4 ,ot0 for2ard and re!erse 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 26. .n t0e ,rea6do2n re(ion5 a 8ener diode ,e% 0a!es li6e a ......... source. 3i4 constant !olta(e 3ii4 constant current 3iii4 constant resistance 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 27. : 8ener diode is destroyed if it ........ 3i4 is for2ard ,iased 3ii4 is re!erse ,iased 3iii4 carries more t0an rated current 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 2D. : series resistance is connected in t0e 8ener circuit to ........ 3i4 properly re!erse ,ias t0e 8ener 3ii4 protect t0e 8ener 3iii4 properly for2ard ,ias t0e 8ener 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 29. : 8ener diode is ........ de!ice. 3i4 a non%linear3ii4 a linear 3iii4 an amplifyin( 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 3E. : 8ener diode 0as ........ ,rea6do2n !olta(e. 3i4 undefined3ii4 s0arp 3iii4 8ero3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 31. ........ rectifier 0as t0e lo2est for2ard resis% tance. 3i4 solid state3ii4 !acuum tu,e 3iii4 (as tu,e3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 32. Kains a.c. po2er is con!erted into d.c. po2er for ........ 3i4 li(0tin( purposes
121
3ii4 0eaters 3iii4 usin( in electronic e uipment 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 33. *0e disad!anta(e of a 0alf%2a!e rectifier is t0at t0e ........ 3i4 components are e=pensi!e 3ii4 diodes must 0a!e a 0i(0er po2er ratin( 3iii4 output is difficult to filter 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 3@. .f t0e a.c. input to a 0alf%2a!e rectifier 0as an r.m.s. !alue of @EEJ 2 !olts5 t0en diode P.+ ratin( is ........ 3i4 @EEJ 2 +3ii4 @EE + 3iii4 @EE N 2 + 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 35. *0e ripple factor of a 0alf%2a!e rectifier is ........ 3i4 23ii4 1.21 3iii4 2.53i!4 E.@D 36. *0ere is a need of transformer for ........ 3i4 0alf%2a!e rectifier 3ii4 centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier 3iii4 ,rid(e full%2a!e rectifier 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e 37. *0e P.+ ratin( of eac0 diode in a ,rid(e rec% tifier is ........ t0at of t0e e ui!alent centre% tap rectifier. 3i4 one%0alf3ii4 t0e same as 3iii4 t2ice3i!4 four times 3D. #or t0e same secondary !olta(e5 t0e output !olta(e from a centre%tap rectifier is ........ t0an t0at of ,rid(e rectifier. 3i4 t2ice3ii4 t0rice 3iii4 four times3i!4 one%0alf 39. .f t0e P.+ ratin( of a diode is e=ceeded5 ........ 3i4 t0e diode conducts poorly 3ii4 t0e diode is destroyed 3iii4 t0e diode ,e0a!es as 8ener diode 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e @E. : 1E + po2er supply 2ould use ........ as filter capacitor. 3i4 paper capacitor 3ii4 mica capacitor 3iii4 electrolytic capacitor 3i!4 air capacitor
122
0as a turns ratio of D > 15 20at is t0e pea6 load !olta(e M .(nore diode drop. 3i4 27.5 +3ii4 D6.5 + 3iii4 3E +3i!4 @2.5 + @@. *0e ma=imum efficiency of a 0alf%2a!e rec% tifier is ........... 3i4 @E.6_3ii4 D1.2_ 3iii4 5E_3i!4 25_ @5. *0e most 2idely used rectifier is ........... 3i4 0alf%2a!e rectifier 3ii4 centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier 3iii4 ,rid(e full%2a!e rectifier 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e
@1. : 1EEE + po2er supply 2ould use ........ as a filter capacitor. 3i4 paper capacitor 3ii4 air capacitor 3iii4 mica capacitor 3i!4 electrolytic capacitor @2. *0e ...... filter circuit results in t0e ,est !olt% a(e re(ulation. 3i4 c0o6e input 3ii4 capacitor input 3iii4 resistance input 3i!4 none of t0e a,o!e @3. : 0alf%2a!e rectifier 0as an input !olta(e of 2@E + r.m.s. .f t0e step%do2n transformer
:ns2ers to Kultiple%C0oice Tuestions

1. 6. 11. 16. 21. 26. 31. 36. @1. 3i4 3ii4 3iii4 3i4 3i4 3i4 3i4 3ii4 3i4 2. 7. 12. 17. 22. 27. 32. 37. @2. 3ii4 3iii4 3ii4 3i4 3ii4 3iii4 3iii4 3i4 3i4 3. D. 13. 1D. 23. 2D. 33. 3D. @3. 3i4 3i4 3iii4 3ii4 3iii4 3ii4 3iii4 3i!4 3i!4 @. 9. 1@. 19. 2@. 29. 3@. 39. @@. 3iii4 3i!4 3i!4 3i!4 3i4 3i4 3ii4 3ii4 3i4 5. 1E. 15. 2E. 25. 3E. 35. @E. @5. 3i!4 3i4 3i4 3iii4 3ii4 3ii4 3i!4 3iii4 3iii4
C0apter Re!ie2 *opics

1. &0at is a crystal diode M E=plain its rectifyin( action. 2. Dra2 t0e (rap0ic sym,ol of crystal diode and e=plain its si(nificance. $o2 t0e polarities of crystal diode are identified M 3. &0at do you understand ,y t0e d.c. and a.c. resistance of a crystal diode M $o2 2ill you determine t0em from t0e +%. c0aracteristic of a crystal diode M @. Dra2 t0e e ui!alent circuit of a crystal diode. 5. Discuss t0e importance of pea6 in!erse !olta(e in rectifier ser!ice. 6. Descri,e a 0alf%2a!e rectifier usin( a crystal diode. 7. Deri!e an e=pression for t0e efficiency of a 0alf%2a!e rectifier. D. &it0 a neat s6etc05 e=plain t0e 2or6in( of 3i4 Centre%tap full%2a!e rectifier 3ii4 #ull%2a!e ,rid(e rectifier. 9. Deri!e an e=pression for t0e efficiency for a full%2a!e rectifier. 1E. &rite a s0ort note a,out t0e nature of rectifier output. 11. &0at is a ripple factor M &0at is its !alue for a 0alf%2a!e and full%2a!e rectifier M 12. Descri,e t0e action of t0e follo2in( filter circuits > 3i4 capacitor filter 3ii4 c0o6e input filter 3iii4 capacitor input filter. 13. &0at is a 8ener diode M Dra2 t0e e ui!alent circuit of an ideal 8ener in t0e ,rea6do2n re(ion. 1@. E=plain 0o2 8ener diode maintains constant !olta(e across t0e load.
Semiconductor Diode
123
B1E m:C
Pro,lems
1. &0at is t0e current in t0e circuit in #i(. 6.72 M :ssume t0e diode to ,e ideal.
#i(. 6.72
#i(. 6.73
2. /sin( e ui!alent circuit5 determine t0e current in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.73. :ssume t0e for2ard resistance of t0e diode to ,e 2 L.B35D m:C 3. #ind t0e !olta(e +: and current . in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.7@. /se simplified model. B1@ +F 2 m:C B9.5 +C@. Determine t0e ma(nitude of +: in t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.75. 5. : 0alf%2a!e rectifier uses a transformer of turn ratio @ > 1. .f t0e primary !olta(e is 2@E + 3r.m.s.45 find 3i4 d.c. output !olta(e 3ii4 pea6 in!erse !olta(e. :ssume t0e diode to ,e ideal.B3i4 27 + 3ii4 D5 +C
#i(. 6.7@
#i(. 6.75
6. : 0alf%2a!e rectifier uses a transformer of turn ratio 2 > 1. *0e load resistance is 5EE L. .f t0e primary !olta(e 3r.m.s.4 is 2@E +5 find 3i4 d.c. output !olta(e 3ii4 pea6 in!erse !olta(e. B3i4 5@ + 3ii4 17E +C
#i(. 6.76
#i(. 6.77
7. .n #i(. 6.765 t0e ma=imum !olta(e across 0alf of secondary 2indin( is 5E +. #ind 3i4 t0e a!era(e load !olta(e 3ii4 pea6 in!erse !olta(e 3iii4 output fre uency. :ssume t0e diodes to ,e ideal. B3i4 31.D + 3ii4 1EE + 3iii4 1EE $8C D. .n #i(. 6.775 t0e ma=imum secondary !olta(e is 136 +. #ind 3i4 t0e d.c. load !olta(e 3ii4 pea6 in!erse !olta(e 3iii4 output fre uency.B3i4 D6.6 + 3ii4 136 + 3iii4 1EE $8C 9. : semiconductor diode 0a!in( ideal for2ard and re!erse c0aracteristics is used in a 0alf%2a!e recti% fier circuit supplyin( a resisti!e load of 1EEE L. .f t0e r.m.s. !alue of t0e sinusoidal supply !olta(e is 25E +5 determine 3i4 t0e r.m.s. diode current and 3ii4 po2er dissipated in t0e load. B3i4 177 m: 3ii4 31.3&C 1E. *0e four semiconductor diodes used in a ,rid(e rectifier circuit 0a!e for2ard resistance 20ic0 can ,e considered constant at E.1L and infinite re!erse resistance. *0ey supply a mean current of 1E : to a resisti!e load from a sinusoidally !aryin( alternatin( supply of 2E+ r.m.s. Determine t0e resistance of t0e load and t0e efficiency of t0e circuit.B1.6L F 72_CL 11. #ind t0e a!era(e !alue of eac0 !olta(e in #i(. 6.7D. B3i4 1.59 + 3ii4 63.7 + 3iii4 16.@ + 3i!4 1E.5 +C
12@
#i(. 6.7D
12. Calculate t0e pea6 !olta(e across eac0 0alf of a centre%tapped transformer used in a full%2a!e rectifier B173+Ct0at 0as an a!era(e output !olta(e of 11E+. 13. &0at P.+ ratin( is re uired for t0e diodes in a ,rid(e rectifier t0at produces an a!era(e output !olta(e of 5E+MB7D.5 +C B"ffC1@. .n t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.795 is 8ener diode in t0e on or off state M
#i(. 6.79
#i(. 6.DE
15. .n t0e circuit s0o2n in #i(. 6.DE5 determine t0e ran(e of RA t0at 2ill result in a constant !olta(e of 1E + across RA.B25E L to 1.25 6LCL
Discussion Tuestions
1. 2. 3. @. 5. &0y are diodes not operated in t0e ,rea6do2n re(ion in rectifier ser!ice M &0y do 2e use transformers in rectifier ser!ice M &0y is P.+ important in rectifier ser!ice M &0y is 8ener diode used as a !olta(e re(ulator M &0y is capacitor input filter preferred to c0o6e input filter M

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76

6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.9

6.1 Semiconductor Diode

6.2 Crystal Diode as a Rectifier

So called ,ecause pn 1unction is (ro2n out of a crystal.

6.3 Resistance of Crystal Diode

d.c. for2ard resistance5 Rf G

6.@ E ui!alent Circuit of Crystal Diode

7 &e assume 0ere t0at +J. c0aracteristic of crystal diode is linear.

6.5 Crystal Diode E ui!alent Circuits

6.6 .mportant *erms

6.7 Crystal Diode Rectifiers

6.D $alf%&a!e Rectifier

6.9 "utput #re uency of $alf%&a!e Rectifier

6.1E Efficiency of $alf%&a!e Rectifier

+m== = . m G 3r < R 4 =f A == ...3i4

R.K.S. primary !olta(e G 23E + Ka=. primary !olta(e is +pm G

Ka=. secondary !olta(e is

3 2 4 N r.m.s. primary !olta(e 3 G 325.3 + 2 4 NG 23E

3 4 N 32E < DEE4 G E.763 2att

6.11 #ull%&a!e Rectifier

6.12 Centre%*ap #ull%&a!e Rectifier

6.13 #ull%&a!e 'rid(e Rectifier

6.1@ "utput #re uency of #ull%&a!e Rectifier

6.15 Efficiency of #ull%&a!e Rectifier

#aults in Centre%*ap #ull%&a!e Rectifier

6.17 )ature of Rectifier "utput

3ii4 #i(. 6.3D

Keans c0an(in( output !olta(e.

6.1D Ripple #actor

:lt0ou(0 t0e a.c. component is not a sine%2a!e5 yet it is alternatin( one.

#or po2er supply '

Clearly5 po2er supply ' is ,etter. 6.19 Comparison of Rectifiers

$alf%2a!e 1 no @E.6_ 1.21 fin +m

Centre%tap 2 yes D1.2_ E.@D 2 fin 2 +m

'rid(e type @ no D1.2_ E.@D 2 fin +m

6.2E #ilter Circuits

6.21 *ypes of #ilter Circuits

.f suc0 a d.c. is applied in an electronic circuit5 it 2ill produce a 0um.

6.22 +olta(e Kultipliers

6.23 $alf%&a!e +olta(e Dou,ler

6.2@ +olta(e Sta,ilisation

6.25 -ener Diode

6.26 E ui!alent Circuit of -ener Diode

6.27 -ener Diode as +olta(e Sta,iliser

6.2D Sol!in( -ener Diode Circuits

:pplyin( Uirc00offPs first la25 . G .A < . -ener current5 .- G . H .A G 1@ H 5 G 9 m:

6.29 Crystal Diodes !ersus +acuum Diodes

:ns2ers to Kultiple%C0oice Tuestions

C0apter Re!ie2 *opics

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