From the contents Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Abbreviations xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Why This Book? / 1 1.

2 The Book Structure / 2 1.2.1 Introduction / 2 1.2.2 Structure / 3 1.3 Energy Utilization / 5 1.4 The Need for Effective Biomass Utilization / 7

1.5 Renewable Energy Impact on Biomass Economy / 7 1.6 Summary / 9 References / 10 2 Background 13 2.1 Renewable Energy: A Brief Outlook / 13 2.1.1 Introduction / 13 2.1.2 Old Graphs / 15 2.2 Wind / 16 2.3 Water / 17 2.4 Geothermal / 17 2.5 Solar / 19 2.5.1 Solar Cells / 20 2.5.2 Solar Water Heating / 20 2.5.3 Solar Furnaces / 20 2.6 Biomass / 21 2.7 Biomass as a Source of Energy / 24 2.7.1 Energy Crops / 27 2.7.2 Examples of Energy Crops / 29 2.7.3 Biomass Utilization / 30 2.7.4 Biomass and Coal Components / 31 2.7.5 Type of Energy Crops Needed / 32 2.7.6 Biomass Energy Influencing Factors / 33 2.7.7 Characteristics/Co-fi ring Properties and Testing Method / 35

2.8 Biomass Applications / 36 2.8.1 Bio-fuels / 36 2.8.2 Electricity Generation / 37 2.8.3 Heat, Steam, and CHP / 37 2.8.4 Combustible Gas / 38 2.8.5 Additional Bio-energy Technologies / 41 2.9 Co-fi ring / 42 2.9.1 Barriers for Biomass Co-firing / 43 2.9.2 Additional Challenges for Co-firing / 44 2.9.3 Further Advancement in Co-firing Engineering / 44 2.9.4 Promoting Co-firing / 45 2.10 System Engineering / 46 2.11 Biomass Conversion Systems / 48 2.12 Energy Crops Scheme (U.K.) / 49 2.13 Renewable Obligation Certificate (ROC) (U.K.) / 52 2.14 Climate Change Levy Exemption Certificate (LEC) (U.K.) / 52 2.15 Conclusion / 53 References / 56 3 Co-firing Issues 61 3.1 Technical and Engineering Issues / 61 3.1.1 Introduction / 61 3.1.2 Hardware and Biomass Materials / 62 3.2 Technical and Hardware Issues / 62 3.3 Milling / 65

3.4 Fuel Mixing / 66 3.5 The Combustion System / 71 3.5.1 Boilers / 71 3.6 By-products / 75 3.6.1 Ash Formation and Deposition / 75 3.7 Degradation / 76 3.8 Conclusion / 77 References / 80 4 Samples 83 4.1 Selected Samples / 83 4.1.1 Introduction / 83 4.2 Samples General Descriptions / 84 4.2.1 The Reference Samples / 84 4.3 Main Samples / 91 4.3.1 Introduction / 91 4.3.2 Crops Basic Composition / 92 4.3.3 Crops and Oil Sources / 93 4.3.4 Oil Quality and Standard / 94 4.3.5 Crops Photosynthesis / 94 4.3.6 Energy Crops Environmental Effect / 95 4.3.7 Corn (Zea mays L.) / 96 4.3.8 Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) / 103 4.3.9 Miscanthus (Miscanthus sinensis) / 108

4.3.10 Rice (Oryza sativa) / 115 4.3.11 Barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp.) / 121 4.3.12 Sunfl ower (Helianthus annuus) / 126 4.3.13 Niger Seed (Guizotia abyssinica) / 134 4.3.14 Rapeseed (Brassica napus) / 141 4.4 Conclusion / 147 4.4.1 Samples Selection / 148 4.4.2 The Next Step / 150 References / 151 5 Methodology: Part 1 161 5.1 Methodology Approach / 161 5.1.1 Introduction / 161 5.2 The Pyramid / 162 5.3 The Decision Tree / 164 5.3.1 Steps for the Biomass Fuel / 164 5.3.2 Three Numbers / 165 5.4 Methodology Terms and Defi nition for BF and S&T / 166 5.4.1 BF / 166 5.4.2 S&T / 166 5.5 BF and S&T Data / 166 5.5.1 Why Are Data for the BF and S&T Needed? / 166 5.5.2 How Are Data for the BF Obtained? / 168 5.5.3 How Are Data for the S&T Obtained? / 170

5.6 Scoring System / 170 5.6.1 The Method / 170 5.6.2 Calculating the Score When the Reference Sample Is Set in a Positive Mode / 172 5.6.3 Calculating the Score When the Reference Sample Is Set in a Negative Mode / 172 5.6.4 Boundaries for S&T / 174 5.6.5 Boundaries for BF / 174 5.6.6 Reference Sample Boundaries / 174 5.6.7 Biomass Boundaries / 175 5.6.8 Scoring Plan for BF / 176 5.7 Methodology Survey / 177 5.8 The Survey Method / 178 5.8.1 Aim / 178 5.8.2 Objective / 178 5.8.3 What Is the Survey Looking For? / 178 5.8.4 Survey Methodology / 178 5.8.5 Mode / 179 5.8.6 Mode Effect / 179 5.8.7 Questionnaire Design / 179 5.8.8 Sample Design / 179 5.8.9 Sample Size / 180 5.8.10 Pretesting and Piloting / 180 5.8.11 Reducing and Dealing with Nonresponse / 180 5.9 Conclusion / 181

References / 183 6 Methodology: Part 2 185 6.1 Introduction / 185 6.1.1 Biomass Samples and Methodology / 186 6.2 S&T Values Analysis / 186 6.3 S&T Factor Evaluations / 187 6.3.1 Energy Factor (EF) / 187 6.3.2 Combustion Index Factor (CIF) / 190 6.3.3 Volatile Matter Factor (VMF) / 193 6.3.4 Moisture Factor (MF) / 195 6.3.5 Ash Factor (AF) / 196 6.3.6 Density Factor (DF) / 199 6.3.7 Nitrogen Emission (Nx) Factor (NEF) / 201 6.4 S&T Allocation Results / 203 6.4.1 Introduction / 203 6.4.2 The Priority List / 204 6.5 Conclusion / 206 References / 208 7 Methodology: Part 3 211 7.1 BF Percentage Value Selection / 211 7.1.1 Introduction / 211 7.1.2 BF Subjective and Objective Factors / 212 7.1.3 Percentage Allocation for BF / 212

7.1.4 BF Values and Headlines / 213 7.1.5 Biomass Energy Commercialization and BF / 213 7.2 BF Values Analysis / 215 7.3 BF Evaluations / 216 7.3.1 System Factor (SF) / 217 7.3.2 Approach Factor (AF) / 218 7.3.3 Baseline Methodology Factor (BMF) / 219 7.3.4 Business Viability Factor (BVF) / 219 7.3.5 Applicability Factor (APF) / 220 7.3.6 Land and Water Issues Factor (LWIF) / 223 7.3.7 Supply Factor (SUF) / 224 7.3.8 Quality Factor (QF) / 225 7.3.9 Emission Factor / 226 7.4 BF Data / 228 7.4.1 Introduction / 228 7.4.2 The Priority List / 230 7.5 Conclusion / 235 References / 237 8 Results: Part 1 239 8.1 Statistical Data and Errors / 239 8.1.1 Introduction / 239 8.2 Methodology Level Value (Boundary Level Scoring Value) / 241 8.3 Calculating Standard Deviation and Relative Error / 242

8.3.1 S&T Factors / 243 8.3.2 Business Factors (BF) / 246 8.3.3 Methodology Standard Deviation for S&T / 249 8.3.4 Methodology Standard Deviation for BF / 250 8.3.5 Methodology Standard Deviation / 251 8.4 Analysis / 251 8.5 Conclusion / 255 References / 257 9 Results: Part 2 259 9.1 Data and Methodology Application / 259 9.1.1 Introduction / 259 9.2 Tests / 260 9.2.1 Experimental Tests / 260 9.3 S&T Samples Data and Reports (Results) / 265 9.3.1 Fossil Fuel / 265 9.3.2 Biomass Materials / 266 9.4 BF Samples Reports Examples (Results) / 277 9.4.1 Coal BF Data (Altawell, GSTF, 2012) / 277 9.4.2 Rapeseed BF Report / 278 9.4.3 Black Sunflower Seed BF Report / 278 9.4.4 Niger Seed BF Report / 279 9.4.5 Apple Pruning BF Report / 280 9.4.6 Striped Sunflower Seed BF Report / 281 9.5 The Final Biomass Samples / 282

9.5.1 S&T Results / 282 9.5.2 BF Results / 284 9.6 Samples Final Fitness / 285 9.7 Discussion and Analysis / 289 9.8 Conclusion / 294 References / 296 10 Economic Factors 297 10.1 Biomass Fuel Economic Factors and SFS / 297 10.1.1 Introduction / 297 10.2 Economic Factors / 298 10.3 Biomass Business / 300 10.3.1 Step 1 / 300 10.3.2 Step 2 / 301 10.3.3 Step 3 / 302 10.3.4 Step 4 / 304 10.4 Biomass Fuel Supply Chain / 305 10.5 The Demand for a New Biomass Fuel / 306 10.6 The SFS Economic Value Scenario / 307 10.7 Discussion / 308 10.8 Conclusion / 310 References / 312 11 Conclusion 315 11.1 General Conclusion / 315

11.2 Methodology (REA1) and Applications / 316 11.3 Why Biomass? / 316 11.4 Co-firing and Power Generating / 318 11.5 The New Biomass Fuel (SFS) / 318 11.6 The Future of Co-fi ring and Biomass Energy / 319 11.7 Final Results and Final Conclusion / 320 11.8 Positive Outlook / 320 11.9 What Next? / 321 References / 321 Index 323