1

ME2143/ME2143E Sensors and Actuators

Review of Electrical Circuits Theory
Chew Chee Meng
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Singapore
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Outline
Introduction
Basic Electrical Elements
Kirchhoffs Laws
Method of Superposition
Equivalent Circuits
Practical Considerations
3
Introduction
All mechatronic and measurement
systems contain electrical circuits and
components
Typical elements of electrical circuits
Introduction
Basic mechanical quantities
Displacement
Velocity
Force
What about electrical domain?
4
5
Introduction
Basic electrical quantities
Charge
Current
Voltage
6
Introduction
Charge
Fundamental electric quantity
Unit: coulombs (C)
Atomic structure of matter:
Consists of a nucleus (neutrons and
protons) surrounded by electrons
Elementary charges
A proton has a charge of 1.6 10
-19
C
An electron has a charge of -1.6 10
-19
C
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Introduction
Electrical current (charge in motion)
time rate of flow of electrical charge through a conductor or
circuit element
unit: amperes, A (or C /s)
q(t) : quantity of charge flowing through a cross-section of the
circuit element.
Current flow direction
Electrons
( )
( )
dq t
i t
dt
=
8
Introduction
Direct Current vs Alternating Current
direct current (dc): constant with time.
alternating current, (ac): varies with time,
reversing direction periodically (typically
sinusoidal).
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Introduction
Current Measurements
How to measure current in a circuit?
Refer to:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_o34SY77yo
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Introduction
Voltage (potential difference, electromotive
force (emf))
difference in electrical potential between 2 points
SI unit: volt, V (or J /C)
Let V
a
be the electrical potential at point A
and V
b
at point B, then the voltage across A
and B, V
ab
(A wrt B) is
V
ab
=V
a
-V
b
Also, V
ba
=-V
ab
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Introduction
Notations
When v
ab
is positive
(negative), electric
potential at a is higher
(lower) than that at b
When v is positive
(negative), electric
potential at arrow end
is higher (lower) than
that at the non-arrow
end
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Introduction
How to measure voltage?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t0Zzoz4nM0I&amp
4.889V
A
B
V
ab
Voltmeter
-ve
+ve
V
ab
+
-
Introduction
Digital Multimeter (DMM) can be used
to measure:
Voltage
Current
Resistance
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14
Introduction
Ground
Typical reference for electric potential
Symbol
Voltage at point A, V
a
= 3.8Vmeans potential at
point A is 3.8V with respect to ground potential
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Introduction
When current flows through an element and
voltage appears across the element, energy
is transferred.
When positive charge or current enters
through positive (negative) polarity into an
element, energy is absorbed (supplied) by the
element
Energy
supplied
by the
element
Energy
absorbed
by the
element
+
+
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Introduction
Power and Energy
Power absorbed by an element:
Energy absorbed from time t
1
to t
2
:
( ) ( ) ( ) p t v t i t =
2
1
( )
t
t
w p t dt =
}
t
1
< t
2
*Remark: This formula is based on convention that current reference i
enters the positive polarity of the voltage . Positive => energy is absorbed by
the element.
*
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Basic Electrical Elements
An electrical circuit is an interconnection of
electrical elements and energy sources.
Energy sources
Voltage source (V
s
), current source (I
s
)
Ideal energy sources: Contain no internal
resistance, inductance, or capacitance.
Three basic passive* electrical elements
Resistors (R), capacitors (C) , inductors (L)
*Passive elements: Require no additional power supply
(compared with integrated circuits (ICs))
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Basic Electrical Elements
Ideal voltage source (V
s
)
Ideal independent voltage source
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Basic Electrical Elements
Ideal voltage source (V
s
)
Ideal dependent voltage source (rhomboidal shape
symbol)
Depends on a current or voltage that appears
elsewhere in the circuit
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Basic Electrical Elements
Ideal current source (I
s
)
Ideal independent current source
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Basic Electrical Elements
Ideal current source (I
s
)
Ideal dependent current source
Depends on a current or voltage that appears
elsewhere in the circuit
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Resistor
A dissipative element: Converts electrical
energy into heat
Symbol
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Resistor
Ideal resistor
Voltage-current characteristics defined by
Ohms law:
where R is a constant called resistance (SI Unit:
Ohm, O)
v
R
i
A
=
v
i
R = v / i
Resistor
Method of reading resistors value of wire-
lead resistors
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(%) 10 tolerance ab R
c
=
10 kO5%
Resistor
Variable resistors
Potentiometer (pot)
Trim pot
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Schematic symbols
Three terminals
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Resistor
Resistance related to physical parameters
A
L
R

=
is called the resistivity
which is a property of the
material
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wUgJ gK2aTG0&feature=related
How to measure resistance?
E.g. Resistance of a homogeneous material of length L
and with uniform cross-sectional area, A:
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Capacitor
A passive element that stores
energy in the form of an electric
field
Dielectric
material
Conducting plates
Dielectric material (an insulator): increases capacitance
i
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Current flow* results in
opposite charge built up
on the conducting plates
Symbol:
*Strictly, current does not flow through a capacitor
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Capacitor
Capacitor and its fluid-flow analogy
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Capacitor
where
q (unit: coulombs, C): amount of accumulated charge
appearing on each capacitor plate
C (unit: farads, F (coulombs/volts)): capacitance
v: voltage across the capacitor
i : current flowing into the positive polarity of the capacitor
Cv q =
dt
dv
C i =
v(t)
+
-
i(t)
C
or
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Capacitor
Voltage across a capacitor cannot
change instantaneously (why?)
Can be used for timing purposes in electrical
circuits (e.g. RC circuit)
Used in low-pass filter
With DC sources, capacitor
behaves like an open circuit during
steady state condition
V
in
V
in
V
c
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Capacitor
Capacitance: A property of
dielectric material
plate geometry and separation
Typical values: 1pF (picofarads,
10
-12
) to 1000F (microfarads, 10
-
6
)
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Capacitor
Primary types of commercial capacitors:
Electrolytic (polarized, have a positive and
negative ends)
Tantalum
Ceramic disk
Mylar
Capacitance codes:
Three-digit code, e.g. 102, implies 10x10
2
pF = 1 nF
Two-digit code, e.g. 22, implies 22 pF
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Inductor
A passive energy storage
element that stores energy in the
form of a magnetic field.
Symbol:
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Inductor
Inductors characteristics
governed by Faradays law
of induction:
where = total magnetic flux
(webers, Wb) through the
coil windings due to the
current
dt
d
t V

= ) (
Fig 2.10, p15 of Alciatore and Histand, 2003
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Inductor
For ideal coil, ,
hence,
where L is the inductance (henry, H (=Wb/A)) of the
coil.
or
=> Current cannot change instantaneously
( )
dt
di
L t v =
( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
1
t i dt t v
L
t i
t
t
+ =
}
Li =
Note: With DC sources, Inductor behaves like a short circuit during steady state condition
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Inductor
Source: http://www.wikipedia.org/
Fuel injector Electric motors
Typical inductor values: 1H to 100mH
Present in motors, relays, power
supplies, oscillators circuits, etc
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Branches, Nodes and Loops
Branch: Any portion of a
circuit with two terminals
connected to it
Node: J unction of two or
more branches
Loop: Any closed connection
of branches
Node
Circuit
elements
Loop 1
Loop 2
Loop 3
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Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws
Analysis of circuits: calculate voltages
and currents anywhere in a circuit
*Kirchhoffs circuit laws: essential for
analysis of circuits which involve various
electrical elements ranging from basic
elements to semiconductor components
like transistors, op amps, etc
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL)
Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL)
*Named after Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
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Kirchhoffs Current Law
Sum of currents flowing into a node is
zero:
I
1
+I
2
-I
3
= 0

=
=
N
i
i
I
1
0
Eg:
(I
3
has negative sign
because it is flowing
away from the node)
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Kirchhoffs Current Law
Alternatively, the sum of the currents entering a
node equals to the sum of the currents leaving
the node
I
1
+I
2
= I
3
Eg:
(Sum of currents
entering node)
(Sum of currents
leaving node)
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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
Sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero:

=
=
N
i
i
V
1
0
Start from a node (e.g.
A) and end at the same
node
Either clockwise or
anti-clockwise is fine
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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
Loop 1: -v
a
+ v
b
+ v
c
= 0
Loop 2: -v
c
v
d
+ v
e
= 0
Loop 3: v
a
v
b
+ v
d
v
e
= 0
Eg:
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Analysis of circuits
Procedure:
First, assign current variable to each branch and assume its flow
direction.
Then assign appropriate polarity to the voltage across each passive
element (current entering into +ve polarity).
Apply KVL for loops or apply KCL for nodes to generate sufficient
equations together with constitutive equations of the elements (eg. Ohms
law) to solve the unknown current and voltage variables
i
1
i
2
i
3
-
v
A
+
+ v
B
- - v
D
+
-
v
E
+
Passive
element
+
v
C
-
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Systematic Circuits Analysis Methods
For resistive circuits
Node-voltage method
Mesh-current method
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Series Resistance Circuit
Apply KVL to the closed loop
starting from node A (clockwise):
-V
s
+V
R1
+V
R2
= 0
Constitutive equations, Ohms
law:
V
R1
= IR
1
V
R2
= IR
2
=> -V
s
+IR
1
+IR
2
= 0
Fig 2.13, p18, Alciatore and
Histand, 2003
?
?
?
Circuit: R
1
and R
2
connected in series with a voltage source V
s
To find: I, V
R1
and V
R2
(need three equations to solve)
Hence, I = V
s
/(R
1
+R
2
) , V
R1
= IR
1
, V
R2
= IR
2
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Series Resistance Circuit
Since V
s
= I(R
1
+R
2
)=IR
eq
where R
eq
=R
1
+R
2
V
s
I
R
eq
+
-
i.e. the two resistors can be
replaced by a single resistor R
eq
of value R
1
+R
2
.
Fig 2.13, p18, Alciatore and
Histand, 2003
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Series Resistance Circuit
In general, N resistors connected in
series is equivalent to a resistor with
resistance:

=
=
N
i
i eq
R R
1
where R
i
is the resistance of i
th
resistor connected in series
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Series Resistance Circuit
Voltage divider
1
1
1
1 2
R s
R
V IR V
R R
= =
+
2
2
2
1 2
R s
R
V IR V
R R
= =
+
i R
R V
i

and,
In general, voltage across the resistor R
i
of N series
connected resistors branch is given by:
s
N
j
j
i
R
V
R
R
V
i

=
=
1
Fig 2.13, p18,
Alciatore and Histand,
2003
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Series Resistance Circuit
Voltage divider : Create different reference
voltages by selecting appropriate resistors.
Question:
Given a 12 V battery, is it appropriate to use the
voltage divider to directly create a voltage source or
supply of say, 5 V, for a device directly?
V
out
V
in
=12V
R
1
R
2
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Parallel Resistance Circuit
Constitutive equation, Ohms law:
I
1
= V
s
/R
1
I
2
= V
s
/R
2
Applying KCL at node A:
I - I
1
- I
2
= 0
=>
1 2
1 2
s s
V V
I I I
R R
= + = +
Fig 2.14, p20, Alciatore and
Histand, 2003
?
?
?
Circuit: R
1
and R
2
connected in parallel with a voltage source V
s
To find: I, I
1
and I
2
(need three equations to solve)
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Parallel Resistance Circuit
eq
s
s
s s
R
V
R R
V
R
V
R
V
I
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
2 1 2 1
1 1
i.e. the two resistors can be
replaced by a single resistor R
eq
of
value =
1 2
1 2
1 2
1
1 1
R R
R R
R R
=
| |
+
+
|
\ .
V
s
I
R
eq
+
-
Fig 2.14, p20, Alciatore and
Histand, 2003
Since where
1 2
1 1 1
eq
R R R
= +
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Parallel Resistance Circuit
In general, N resistors connected in
parallel is equivalent to a resistor of
resistance, R
eq
, given by:
1
1 1
N
i
eq i
R R
=
=

where R
i
is the resistance of
i
th
resistor
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Parallel Resistance Circuit
Current divider
2
1
1 1 2
S
V R
I I
R R R
= =
+
1
2
2 1 2
S
V R
I I
R R R
= =
+
Fig 2.14, p20,
Alciatore and Histand,
2003
1 2
1 2
S eq
R R
V IR I
R R
= =
+
That is, and
1 2
I R
2 1
I R
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Series Capacitors/Inductors Circuit
By applying KVL, it can be shown that:
1
1 1
N
i
eq i
C C
=
=

In general
1
N
eq i
i
L L
=
=

In general
L
1
L
2
2 1
L L L
eq
+ =
C
1
C
2
2 1
2 1
C C
C C
C
eq
+
=
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Parallel Capacitors/Inductors Circuit
By applying KCL, it can be shown that:
1
N
eq i
i
C C
=
=

In general
1
1 1
N
i
eq i
L L
=
=

In general
C
2
C
1
2 1
C C C
eq
+ =
2 1
2 1
L L
L L
L
eq
+
=
L
2
L
1
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Principle of Superposition
Apply to linear circuits (for example, those
which consist of multiple ideal sources and
passive elements)
For a linear system:
System
Input, u
1
Output, y
1
Input, u
2
Output, y
2
Input
au
1
+ bu
2
Output
ay
1
+by
2
where a and b are some
constants
System
System
Given:
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Principle of Superposition
If more than one independent voltage or
current source is present in any given circuit,
each branch voltage and current is the sum
of the independent voltages or currents
which would arise from each voltage or
current source acting individually when all
the other independent sources are zero*.
*To zero a source, current source replaced by
open circuit and voltage source by short circuit.
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Example: Superposition
Ans: I=I
I1
+I
I2
+I
V
=I
1
-I
2
R I
2
I
1
V
I
R I
2
I
I2
R
V
I
V
R
I
1
I
I1
To find I
(a)
(b)
(c)
?
I
I1
: Portion of I
arising from I
1
I
I2
: Portion of I
arising from I
2
I
V
: Portion of I
arising from V
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Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent circuits
Portion of circuit to
be replaced with an
equivalent circuit
Equivalent circuit
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Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent circuit - one that has identical
V-I relationship as viewed from a given
pair of terminals
Equivalent circuit
V
V
Portion of circuit to
be replaced with an
equivalent circuit
I
I
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Thvenin Equivalent
Thvenins theorem: Given a pair of
terminals in a linear resistive network, the
network may be replaced by an independent
voltage source V
OC
in series with a
resistance R
TH.
:
I
V
V
OC
R
TH
I
V
V
OC
- Thvenin voltage
R
TH
- Thvenin resistance
V
in
R
1
R
2
Linear
resistive
network
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Thvenin Equivalent (procedures)
Thvenin voltage - open circuit voltage
across the terminals.
Thvenin resistance equivalent
resistance across the terminals when
independent voltage sources are
shorted and independent current
sources are replaced by open circuit.
(Applicable only if there is no dependent
sources in the circuit)
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Example: Thvenin Equivalent
V
in
R
1
R
2
2 1
2
R R
R
V V
in oc
+
=
Find V
OC
by voltage divider
formula,
A
B
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from terminals
A and B
Solution:
V
OC
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Example: Thvenin Equivalent
R
1
R
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
||
TH
R R
R R R
R R
= =
+
Find R
TH
across the terminals A &
B after replacing the voltage
source with a short circuit:
A
B
Solution (cont):
65
Example: Thvenin Equivalent
Thvenin Equivalent:
V
OC
R
TH
+
V
in
R
1
R
2
A
B
A
B
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Norton Equivalent
Norton equivalent: Linear resistive network can be
replaced by an independent current source I
SC
and
Thevenin resistance R
TH
in parallel with the source.
I
SC
R
TH
V
I
Linear
resistive
network
I
V
I
SC
- Norton current
R
TH
- Thevenin resistance
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Norton Equivalent (procedures)
I
SC
- current that would flow through the terminals if
they were shorted together.
To convert to Thevenin equivalent circuit, we can
compute Thevenin voltage V
OC
as follows:
I
SC
R
TH
V
I
V
OC
R
TH
I
V
Thevenin equivalent
Norton equivalent
TH SC OC
R I V =
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Example: Find Norton Equivalent circuit across A and B
First, find the short circuit current (I
SC
) across AB:
V
o
I
o
R
1
R
2
A
B
Applying KCL at node X:
1
0
o X
o SC
V V
I I
R

+ =
V
o
I
o
R
1
R
2
A
B
I
SC
o
o
SC
I
R
V
I + =
1
X
(since V
X
= 0)
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Example - Norton Equivalent (cont.)
Next, find the Thevenin resistance:
Replace voltage source with short circuit and current source with
open circuit and inspect the equivalent resistance across the
terminals.
R
1
R
2
A
B
R
TH
= R
AB
= R
1
Thus the Norton equivalent circuit would be:
R
1
A
B
o
o
I
R
V
+
1
Practical Considerations
Breadboard
For prototyping circuits
70
Points are internally connected as shown
Instruments for powering
and making
measurements in circuits
Practical Considerations
Impedance (AC concept of resistance) matching
Maximum power transmission
In order to transmit maximum power to a load from a source, the
loads impedance should match the sources impedance (see
textbook for proof).
71
For example, when you select speakers, the audio amplifier
output impedance should be considered for maximum power
transmission to a load (speaker).
Practical Considerations
Grounding
Very important to provide a common ground defining a common
voltage reference among all instruments and voltage sources used
in a circuit or system.
72
Not to confuse the signal ground with the chassis
ground. The chassis ground is internally connected
to the ground wire on the power cord and may not
be connected to the signal ground (COM).
73
Review of Electrical Circuits Theory
Introduction
Basic Electrical Elements
Kirchhoffs Laws
Principle of Superposition
Equivalent Circuits
Practical Considerations