Chapter 7

Electromagnetic Wave

Prof. Seong-Ook Park

7. Time-varying fields and Maxwells Equations (contents)

7-1 Introduction 7-2 Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Fundamental postulate for electromagnetic induction

7-2.1 A Stationary Circuit in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field

transformer emf (electromotive force), Lenzs law

7-2.2 Transformers
ideal transformer, real transformer, coefficient of coupling, eddy current

7-2.3 A Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field

flux cutting emf or motional emf

7 2 4 A moving 7-2.4 i Ci Circuit it in i a Ti Time-Varying V i M Magnetic ti Fi Field ld

general forms of Faradays law

7-3 Maxwells Equations q

Displacement current, Maxwells Equation

7-4 Potential Functions 7 5 El 7-5 Electromagnetic t ti B Boundary d C Conditions diti

general statements, interface between two lossless medias, interface between dielectric and conductor

7-6 Wave Equations and Their Solutions 7-7 7 7 Time-Harmonic Time Harmonic Fields

Maxwells Equation
Fundamental EM field quantities: 1. 2. 3. 4. Electric field intensity Electric flux density Magnetic flux density Magnetic field intensity E D B H

(V / m )
(C / m 2 ) (T )

(A / m )

The principal objective of studying electromagnetism is to understand the interaction between charges and currents at a distance. We have fundamental postulates relating E, D, B, H and the source quantities J and .

Electrostatic postulates

Magnetostatic postulates

cE dl = 0 s D d s = Q
D = E

or E = 0 or D =

s B ds = 0 cH dl = I
B = H

or B = 0 or H = J

Constitutive i i relations l i (linear (li and d isotropic i i media) di ) : = r0 : permittivity 0 : 1/36 x 10-9 (F/m) = r0 : permeability 0 = 4 x 10-7 (H/m)

Faradays law of Electromagnetic Induction: B differential form E = t d E d l = B ds integral form c s dt

dB c E dl = s dt ds V = E dl
c

= =

emf induced in circuit with contour C (V) magnetic flux crossing surface S (Wb)

dB = ds s dt d V = dt

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction: Electromagnetic force induced in a stationary closed circuit is equal to the negative rate of increasing of magnetic flux linking the circuit

In th I the time-varying ti i case, Maxwell M ll initially i iti ll considered id d the th following 4 postulates: B (1) (2) H = J E = t (3) (4) B = 0 D =

Maxwell equation can express in integral form :

dB c E dl = s dt ds (1) d =Q D ds
s

(3)

H dl = I B ds = 0
s s

(2) (4)

I:

Total o cu current e through oug S. Total charge contained in volume V bounded by Surface S

Q:

Static Field to Time-Varying Field and Wave

Table 7-1 Fundamental relations for electrostatic and magnetostatic models Fundamental relations Electrostatic model Magnetostatic model

Governing equations

E = 0 i D =

i B = 0 H = J

Constitutive relations (li (linear and di isotropic t i media) di )

D =E

H=

In the static case, electric field vectors E and D and magnetic field vectors B and H form separate and independent pairs. They are related in this chapter by Faradays law and introduction of displacement current by J. C. Maxwell.

Fundamental Postulate for Electromagnetic Induction

S j

B E = t

(7 1) (7.1) (7 2) (7.2)

E idl =

B id s S t

where S is open surface, ds is differential surface area vector normal to the surface (p.22,(2-34)), C is contour bounding the surface, and dl is differential line vector along the contour. Eq.(7.2) is reduced from Eq.(7.1), applying Stokess theorem (p.59,(2-143)) Eq.(7.1) reduces to the equation in static case. The postulate (7.2) reduces to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. This is considered as a postulate because of experimental law.

Reduction of Postulate to Faradays Law

B (7-2) C E idl = S t id s C d S (7-3) C E idl = dt S Bid s ( )( (7-4) ) V = E idl = emf induced in circuit with contour C (V) C d g flux crossing g surface S (Wb) (7-5) = B id s = magnetic dt S d = transformer emf (V) (7-6) V = dt
Eq.(7.6) is expression of Faradays law of electromagnetic induction: The electromagnetic force induced in a stationary closed circuit is equal to the negative rate of increase of magnetic flux linking the circuit. Lenzs law: The induced emf will cause a current to flow in the closed loop in such a direction to oppose the change in the linking magnetic flux flux.
S j

Time-Varying Field and Wave

The electric field and magnetic field are related by Faradays law and the governing equations come to be as follows. Are they a complete set to represent the time-varying fields? Fundamental relations Electric field
B t

Magnetic field

Governing equations

E = iD =

(7-47a) (7-47c)

H = J (7-47b) iB = 0 (7-47d)

Constitutive relations (linear and isotropic media)

D = E (3 (3-102) 102)

H=

B (6 (6-80b) 80b)

Displacement Current Density (1)

When conditions are changed from static to non-static, what changes arise on the electromagnetic equations? One of such changes is expressed by Faradays law. A th i Another is displacement di l t current t to t satisfy ti f the th equation ti of f continuity. ti it Equation of continuity

J = t
+ f (t ) ?

(7-48)

Governing equation (7 (7-47b) 47b) for magnetostatic model does not satisfy the equation of continuity (7-48) as follows:

H = J ( H ) = 0 = J,

( 7-47b ) ( 7-47b )

Something time time-dependent dependent term f(t) is missing in (7 (7-47b). 47b).

Maxwell began by consdering these known laws and expressing them as differential eq. He then noticed that there was something strange about eq. (7-47b). If one takes the divergence of this equation, the left-hand slide will be zero, , because the divergence g of a curl is always y zero. But if the divergence g of j is zero, , then the total flus of current out of any closed surface is also zero.

Displacement Current Density (2)

In order to satisfy both null identity and the equation of continuity,

( H ) = 0 = J +

( 7-50 )

Putting Gauss Gausss s law (7 (7-47c) 47c) into (7 (7-50), 50) generalized Amperes Ampere s circuital law (7 (7-51) 51) is obtained and reduces to (7-52).

D ( H ) = 0 = J + , t

7-51 51) (7

D H = J + , t
Displacement current density introduces by J. C. Maxwell

7 52 ) ( 7-52
iJ = t

The flux of current from a closed surface is the decrease of the charge inside the surface. surface This certainly cannot in general be zero because we know that the charges can be moved from one place to another. Maxwell appreciated this difficulty and proposed that it could be avoided by adding the term to the right-hand side of eq 7-52. If we take away the scaffolding he used to build it, we find the Maxwells beautiful edifice stands on its own. He brought together all of the laws of the electricity and Magnetism and made one complete and beautiful theory.

How the new term works

E
As our first fi example, l we consider id that h happens h with i h a spherically h i ll symmetric i radical distribution of current. Suppose we imagine a little sphere with Radioactive material on it. This radioactive material is squirting out some charged particles. ld have h a current that h is i everywhere h radically di ll outward. d We will ill assume We would E that is has the same magnitude in all directions.

= J t

: equation of continuity

B?

Q (r ) = - 4 r 2 j (r ) t
The electric field at the radius r must be E = 4 r 2 , so long as the charge 0 is symmetrically distributed, as we assume. It is radial, and its rate of changes is then
Q(r )

E
j
What is the magnetic field of a spherically symmetric current?

( H ) =

D H = j + t ( 0 E )
j+ t

E 1 Q (r ) = 4 0 r 2 t t

dQ(r ) 1 1 -4 r 2 j (r ) j (r ) E dt = = = t 4 0 r 2 4 0 r2 0

LOOP 1

LOOP 1
I

S1

r
B
LOOP 2

S1 S2

++ + + + + + + + +

E

(a)

(b )

Fig. The magnetic field near a charging capacitor.

As our first example example, we consider the magnetic field of a wire used to charge a parallel parallel-plate plate condenser. condenser

H = J,

2 r H = I ,

H=

I 2 r

Suppose however however, that we now slowly move the curve downward. downward We get always the same result until we draw even with the plates of the condenser. Then the current I goes to zero. Does the magnetic field disappear? That would be quite strange.

From our discussion so far of Maxwells new term, you may have the impression that it doesnt add much that it just fixes up the equations to agree with what we already expect. It is true that if we just consider D H = J + t by itself, nothing particularly new comes out. The words by itself are, however, all important.

Maxwells re-analysis of Gausss and Amperes laws:

area

E dA =

Q 0

line

B ds = 0 I

Note that

dQ IQ = dt

Q E dA = 0 area

d 1 dQ I Q = E dA = dt area 0 dt 0

Maxwell-Ampere law:
B ds = 0 (I + I Q ) = 0 I + 0 0 0 I + 0 0 d E dt d E d A dt area

line

z
dS
a

z
dS dl

EXAMPLE: A Van de Graaff generator with a spherical bowl of radius R is charged at a constant rate with a current I. find the magnetic induction field at a point above the sphere. (Assume the current enters at the bottom of the bowl.) Solution: As charge accumulates on the bowl, the electric field will increase at the following rate:

dl

dQ a r E 1 dt r I a = = 4 0 r 2 t 4 0 r 2
Drawing a loop of radius a about the z axis above the sphere, we have

B dl = 0 0
I I
Figure. The surface enclosed by the loop can be taken to be either the flat surface on the left, on the spherical cap on the right.

E dS t r I a 2 aB = 0 2 dS 4 r

The surface integral can be evaluated easily either over the flat surface included by the loop or alternatively over a spherical cap concentric with the sphere, as shown in Figure.

(a) For the flat surface, surface we need the z component of r in order to compute rdS. Calling the cylindrical radial coordinate , ( r ) z = cos = z r , and r = 2 + z 2 , we find

(b) The element of surface area for the spherical cap on the right of Figure is r r 2 d dS = a r r 2 sin d , leading to = 2 a

I a z B ( z ) = 02 3 2 d 8 a 0 r I a z z = 0 d 3 dS 0 4 a z2 + 2

I sin B = 02 8 a 0

(a r ) a r

r r 2 sin d 2 a r2
1

dl

0 I z = 2 2 4 a z +
=

sin 0 I sin ( a r ) 0 I = sin d = ( cos ) 0 4 a 0 4 a z dS 0 I z = 1 2 4 a z + a2 dl

1

a z + a2
2

0 I z 1 4 a z2 + a2

D H = J + t
I

When we added Wh dd d a new term t to t the th equation ti for f the th curl l of f E,we E found f d that th t a whole h l new class l of f phenomena h was described. We shall see that Maxwells little addition to the equation for also has far-reaching consequences. We can touch on only a few of them.

7. Time-varying fields and Maxwells Equations (Todays Review)

7-1 Introduction 7-2 Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction
fundamental postulate for electromagnetic induction

7-2.1 A Stationary Circuit in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field

transformer emf (electromotive force), Lenzs law

7-2.2 Transformers
ideal transformer, real transformer, coefficient of coupling, eddy current

7-2.3 A Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field

flux cutting emf or motional emf

7 2 4 A moving 7-2.4 i Ci Circuit it in i a Time-Varying Ti V i M Magnetic ti Fi Field ld

general forms of Faradays law

7-3 Maxwells Equations 7-4 Potential Functions 7 7-5 5 Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions 7-6 Wave Equations and Their Solutions 7-7 Time-Harmonic Fields