ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL

Title no. 107-S26

TECHNICAL PAPER

Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Columns under Axially and Eccentrically Compressive Loads
by Giuseppe Campione, Marinella Fossetti, and Maurizio Papia
An experimental investigation into the behavior of 16 short, confined, reinforced concrete columns with and without steel fibers was carried out. The columns with square sections had a concrete core 165 x 165 mm (6.49 x 6.49 in.) at the midsection and were hunched at the ends to apply eccentric loading and prevent boundary effects. The specimens were tested to failure at different strain rates under two loading schemes: concentric compression and eccentric compression with a constant eccentricity. The axial load and axial strains were obtained to evaluate the effects of the presence of steel fibers, the thickness of the cover concrete, and the eccentricity of the applied axial load. The comparative analysis of the experimental results showed that the presence of steel fibers delayed the spalling of concrete cover and increased the strain capacity and ductility; the eccentricity of the applied axial load caused substantial variation in the peak load, ultimate strength, and failure modes. Finally, the structural response of cross sections of normal concrete (NC) and steel fiberreinforced concrete (SFRC) columns subjected to compressive concentric and eccentric loading was numerically modeled to compare the experimental results. A suitable choice of constitutive laws for concrete and reinforcing steel bars and a reasonable calibration criterion of the model allowed for the reproduction of the experimental results with a good approximation level in terms of load-axial strain and the moment-curvature curves.
Keywords: columns; compressive tests; confined concrete; momentcurvature diagrams; steel fibers.

From a theoretical point of view, and on the basis of the available analytical models given in the literature, the complete load-axial shortening curves and the momentcurvature diagrams were obtained and compared with the experimental results. The comparison shows good agreement and also highlights the ability of the proposed model to capture the fundamental phenomena occurring in the behavior of compressed members, such as the confinement effects, the buckling of longitudinal bars, and the softening in compression of cover concrete. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE This study considers an experimental and theoretical research into the behavior of reinforced concrete columns with and without fibers under axial and eccentric loads. The results give information about the performance of FRC materials used in structural applications, which can also be useful for seismic and shock mitigation. The available research on this topic mainly refers to the type of concrete,1-4 the main damaging and rupture phenomena occurring in the pre-peak and post-peak phases,2-16 the type, and the loading history.3-4 The aim of this research was to estimate the influence of the presence of fibers and the cover thickness on the compressive response of reinforced concrete (RC) columns, focusing attention mainly on the strength and strain capacities of RC members. It was also intended to highlight the influence of the cover spalling process, including the buckling of longitudinal bars and the yielding of transverse stirrups. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM The experimental program carried out was intended to study the compressive behavior of ordinary and fibrous concrete columns with a square transverse cross section and subjected to concentric and eccentric axial loads. The mechanical description of constituent materials (concrete and steel) was given initially. Specimens Sixteen columns hunched at the ends (generally known as dog-bone shape) were tested in compression. Geometry and details of steel reinforcements are shown in Fig. 1. Columns were 1250 mm (49.21 in.) long; the midportion, with a length of 600 mm (23.62 in.), had a square transverse cross section and core dimensions of 165 mm (6.49 in.),

INTRODUCTION Interest in using fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) for structural members has increased in recent decades both for scientists and producers, and especially in the field of precast members. Significant applications of using FRC, which in the past were mainly in industrial floors and pipes, today include the use of structural members such as deep members, columns, and beam to column joints. Several experimental and theoretical investigations highlight the effectiveness of using FRC for members of framed structures (beams,1 columns,2 beam-column joints,3 and corbels and brackets4); shells;5 and plates.6 For these members, it is possible to partially or completely substitute the transverse or the secondary steel reinforcements (mesh, stirrups) by using fibers in adequate percentages and geometry. All of the information available on this topic in the literature was used by several countries, such as the U.S., Japan, Canada, France, Germany, and Italy, to collect a database and to develop recommendations and code proposals.7,8 The present paper refers to the compressive behavior of FRC reinforced columns subjected to axial load with and without initial eccentricity. The influence of the cover thickness and the presence of hooked steel fibers on the compressive and flexural responses of columns is analyzed. 272

ACI Structural Journal, V. 107, No. 3, May-June 2010. MS No. S-2008-046.R6 received June 25, 2009, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright 2010, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including authors closure, if any, will be published in the MarchApril 2011 ACI Structural Journal if the discussion is received by November 1, 2010.

ACI Structural Journal/May-June 2010

Giuseppe Campione is an Associate Professor in the Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering at the University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy, where he also received his PhD. His research interests include behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete members in shear and in compression, flexural behavior of composite members, and confinement effects in reinforced concrete columns due to FRP materials. Marinella Fossetti is a PhD Student in the Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering at the University of Palermo. Her research interests include the use of fibrous concrete for structural applications. Maurizio Papia is a Full Professor of structural engineering in the Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering at the University of Palermo. His research interests include probabilistic dynamic analysis of multi-story framed systems in seismic areas, nonlinear seismic response of asymmetric spatial systems, dynamic behavior of masonry structures and stability checks, bond stress-slip between steel and concrete, theoretical and experimental investigation of the cyclic behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete elements, and reinforcement of masonry structural elements with FRP.

measured in the axis of the stirrup. To study the influence of the cover thickness, two different values = 10 mm [0.39 in.] and = 25 mm [0.98 in.] were adopted. Therefore, the external dimensions of the transverse cross section were b = 185 and 215 mm (7.28 and 8.46 in.), respectively. Four 12 mm (0.47 in.) longitudinal bars and closed stirrups of 6 mm (0.24 in.) diameter at pitch s = 65 mm (2.55 in.) were adopted. The end portions of the columns were reinforced with eight 12 mm (0.47 in.) longitudinal bars and stirrups of 6 mm (0.24 in.) diameter at pitch 25 mm (0.98 in.) to give additional reinforcement and to prevent premature failure of the end portions of the specimens during the tests. The total confinement transverse reinforcement percentage per spacing14,15 was = 2Ast/(sb)100 = 0.53%, with Ast as the area of one leg of the stirrup. The percentages of longitudinal bars with whole area Afl were fl = Afl / b2(100) = 1.32% and 0.98% for = 10 mm (0.39 in.) and = 25 mm (0.98 in.), respectively. Experimental studies concerning compressed RC columns9,10 showed that higher strength at the end portions of the specimens is required to prevent premature and brittle failure in these regions and to concentrate failure in the middle portion of the specimens. Therefore, in the present study, the dog-bone shape was adopted, considering also that this shape, in the cases of eccentrically loaded specimens, allows high values of eccentricity. For eccentrically loaded columns, a constant value of eccentricity e = b/2 was assumed herein. Several series of columns were prepared to be tested in compression considering the variation in the concrete type (ordinary and fibrous concrete with volume percentage) and cover thickness = 10 mm (0.39 in.) and = 25 mm (0.98 in.). For each type of column, two identical specimens were prepared. To estimate the effects of fibers and cover thickness, the following parameters were fixed during the tests: core dimensions, material characteristics (steel and concrete), dimension and arrangement of longitudinal (number of bars and diameter), and transverse steel bars (diameter and pitch). The pitch of the stirrups adopted in the middle portion of the columns was chosen in such a way as to give confinement effects comparable with those obtained in similar experimental researches.10-12 Columns tested in uniaxial compression were denoted with the initial symbol CC, whereas columns under axial eccentric forces were denoted EC. Particularly, CC1 and CC2 had no fiber and a cover of 10 mm (0.39 in.), whereas CC3 and CC4 had no fiber and a cover of 25 mm (0.98 in.). In the case of FRC, the analogous specimens were CC5, CC6, CC7, and CC8. The EC series considers specimens in plain and FRC with a different cover thickness. ACI Structural Journal/May-June 2010

Fig. 1Construction details of tested columns. (Note: dimensions in mm; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.) Steel molds with a 3 mm (0.12 in.) wall thickness were adopted to cast the concrete columns. The casting direction of the specimens was horizontal; therefore, mainly twodimensional alignments of the fibers are expected. Concrete vibration was performed through a needle vibrator for the time necessary to compact concrete and to avoid the formation of balling of fibers or segregation of coarse aggregates. After a few days, the concrete specimens were unmolded and cured in a room at a controlled humidity (90% HM) and a constant temperature of 20C (68F) for a period of 28 days. Material characterization The plain concrete used consisted of the following composition: 450 kg/m 3 (760 lb/yd 3 ) of portland cement (ASTM International Type I), 225 kg/m3 (380 lb/yd3) of water, 1150 kg/m3 (1940 lb/yd3) of natural gravel (coarse aggregates with a maximum size of 10 mm [0.39 in.]), 850 kg/m3 (1430 lb/yd3) of sand, and 6.75 kg/m3 (11.4 lb/yd3) of a highrange water-reducing admixture. Considering that a typical maximum grain size for real columns is 20 mm (0.79 in.), the use of 10 mm (0.39 in.) gravel in the tested specimens can be assumed to be acceptable in relation to the scale ratio. A similar size of aggregates, dimensions, and number of specimens were used in a recent investigation of FRC columns.12 Fibrous concrete was obtained by adding hooked steel fibers in fresh concrete. The fiber had a length of 30 mm (1.18 in.), a diameter of 0.55 mm (0.02 in.), and a tensile strength (declared by the manufacturer) of 1115 MPa (161.73 ksi). The fiber percentage adopted was 1% by volume of concrete, corresponding to 80 kg/m3 (4.99 lb/ft3). For the mechanical characterization of ordinary and fibrous concrete, 100 x 200 mm (3.94 x 7.87 in.) cylinders were tested in compression and in tension (split tests) after 28 days of curing. Referring to compressive tests on concrete cylinders, the authors denote the peak stress with f c , the corresponding strain with co, and the secant modulus of elasticity measured in the initial branch of the stress-strain curves with Eco. In addition to this, with 085 the strain corresponding to a stress 0.85fc is denoted after the peak load (measured in the softening branch). The tensile strength fct 273

Table 1Mechanical properties of plain and fibrous concrete

fc Vf = 0% Vf = 1% 29.00 32.19 co 0.0019 0.0023 085 0.0025 0.0055 Eco, MPa 17,679 19,464 fct, MPa 2.76 3.52

Note: 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi.

Fig. 2Load-axial strain curves (P-) for columns under uniaxial compression. (Note: 1 kN = 0.2248 kip; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.).

Table 2Mechanical properties of main bars

Diameter, mm 6 12 fy, MPa 485 461 fs max , MPa smax fsu, MPa su 0.0025 562 0.0800 472 0.0940 0.0031 546 0.1278 457 0.1383 y

Note: 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.

Fig 3Failure condition of compressed specimens with = 25 mm: (a) RC; and (b) FRC. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)

and eccentrically with respect to the vertical axis of the testing machine. Vertical displacements were recorded by means of four linear voltage displacement transducers (LVDTs) placed in the middle portion of the columns and operating with a gauge length equal to the side of the cross section of each column. This length was chosen in accordance with indications given in the available literature.9 The selected length was sufficient to demonstrate typical failure phenomena occurring in the RC columns and short enough to provide representative shortening under eccentric testing for calculation of moment-curvature diagrams.10 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Test under axial loads Figure 2 shows the load-axial deformation (P-) curves recorded during the compressive tests. Each graph shows results obtained by the two columns for each series investigated. In all of the values of Fig. 2, the actual load recorded by the load cell of the testing machine is denoted as P, whereas is the axial strain estimated on the gauge length equal to the base of the LVDTs placed in the middle portion of the columns. For FRC columns, no significant variation in the peak load was observed compared to that of ordinary concrete columns (for the same values of cover thickness), but higher ductility was observed. It was perhaps because a high percentage of fibers was used and a poor compaction of FRC concrete occurred with respect to the RC columns. First cracks form at the end portions of all specimens. When their stabilization occurs due to the presence of local steel reinforcements, new additional cracks form and mainly propagate into the middle portion of the columns. At the reaching of peak load, vertical and diagonal cracks form in the middle portion of the columns and the cover spalling process occurs. Cover spalling starts at the corners of the cross section; therefore, cover spalling occurs along the flat portion of the members. In the case of FRC concrete columns, similar effects are observed but only after the peak load is reached. After the concrete cover is spalled off (suddenly in ordinary concrete and in a more progressive manner for FRC members), a loss of load carrying capacity is observed, accompanied by a loss of ductility of the members and, in many cases, by the overall instability of the longitudinal reinforcement bars. Figures 3(a) and (b) show a typical failure mode observed for ordinary and fibrous concrete columns. This mode is characterized by the formation of an inclined fracture plane crossing two successive stirrups followed by the rupture of a ACI Structural Journal/May-June 2010

was obtained from split tests. In Table 1, values of f c , co, 085, Eco, and fct are given for both plain and fibrous concrete. Values given in Table 1 are an average of the values obtained by the three specimens tested for each series investigated (same batch). For a mechanical characterization of longitudinal (dl = 12 mm [0.47 in.]) and transverse (dst = 6 mm [0.24 in.]) steel bars, direct tensile tests were carried out. The yield stress fy and the corresponding strain y, the maximum stress fsmax and the corresponding strain smax, and the ultimate stress at rupture fsu and the corresponding strain su are given in Table 2. An average value of the modulus of elasticity of Es = 206,690 MPa (29,981.14 ksi) was estimated from measurements. Test setup A press with a 4000 kN (899.28 kip) load carrying capacity was used to test the columns. The testing machine was used in a displacement controlled mode. Tests were controlled by an electronic device that recorded the reaction force and applied displacements. The testing machine was equipped with a stiff steel head-plate having a spherical joint at the top and connected to four stiff steel columns. The head plate moved with relation to the fixed bottom part of the testing machine by means of a hydraulic pump, controlled by a suitable software. The vertical load in the concentric compressive tests was applied to the columns by interposing two steel plates of 20 mm (0.79 in.) thickness between the specimens and the testing machine. Columns were placed with their vertical axis corresponding to the vertical axis of the testing machine. For compressive tests under eccentric loads, two additional steel cylinders having 50 mm (1.97 in.) diameter and two additional steel plates with 30 mm (1.18 in.) thickness were placed between the column and the testing machine (one on the top and one on the bottom). Columns were placed vertically 274

Fig. 4Load-axial strain (P-) for columns under eccentric loading. (Note: 1 kN = 0.2248 kip; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.) stirrup in tension, the latter occurring in a position near the corner zone of the cross section. When FRC was used, a more dissipative mechanism was observed (fibers bridging the main inclined cracks) and a higher value of axial strain corresponding to the failure of the stirrup was reached. Longitudinal bars buckled in all cases examined. Test under eccentric loads In this section, results of compressive tests under eccentric load at a constant eccentricity are shown both in terms of load-axial strain curves and moment-curvature diagrams. Figure 4 shows the load axial-strain curves for ordinary and FRC columns and for the two different values of cover thickness examined. In each diagram, the strain values refer to the face in compression (positive strain) and the face in tension (negative strain). An initial linear-elastic branch was observed up to a load value of approximately 11% for = 10 mm (0.39 in.) and Vf = 0%; 17% for = 25 mm (0.98 in.) and Vf = 0%; 23% for = 10 mm (0.39 in.) and Vf = 1%; and 26% for = 25 mm (0.98 in.) and Vf = 1%. After this stage, a nonlinear ascending branch was observed. This branch was characterized by a loss of initial stiffness, mainly due to the formation and propagation of horizontal cracks in the face in tension of the columns (they were approximately spaced as the pitch of the stirrups), and vertical cracks formed initially at the corners of the cross section of the compression face. With the increase in vertical load, additional cracks appeared in the tension face with spacing approximately equal to half of the pitch of the stirrups. In the compression face, vertical cracks appeared mainly at the corner zones and also propagated along the flat portion of the section. Main cracks in the tension face propagated up to the neutral axis position. When the peak load was reached, the cracks in the tension face were wide open and were between 2 and 6 mm (0.08 and 0.24 in.) wide in RC members and less so in FRC ACI Structural Journal/May-June 2010 members. In the compression face, the formation of the main vertical cracks correspond to the cover spalling process. In all tests carried out, the complete failure of the specimens corresponded to the rupture of the main bars in tension, a phenomenon observed in the stress strain curves of Fig. 4 when the complete loss of the load carrying capacity occurred. Results obtained highlighted that, for FRC, the cracks increased in number and width up to the peak load, but they were finer with respect to ordinary concrete. After crack localization, the softening response began, and the presence of fibers mitigated the cover spalling process and controlled the crack opening in the tensile zone, ensuring more ductile behavior. The experimental derivation of the moment-curvature (M-) diagram is of particular interest in the study. For each axial shortening value imposed by the testing machine, the applied moment is considered constant along the axis of the member and its value is M = Pe (where e is the eccentricity of the external load). This assumption is justified as the second order effects can be considered negligible due to the reduced slenderness of the columns (e is constant). Further studies will be addressed to investigate the second order effects for the slender FRC column. Denoting t and c the axial strains estimated in the faces in tension and in compression, respectively, and H the horizontal distance between the two LVDTs, the corresponding curvature is expressed by c t = ------------H (1)

Figures 5(a) and (b) show the moment-curvature diagrams for columns with cover thicknesses of 10 and 25 mm (0.39 and 0.98 in.), respectively. Curves referring to ordinary concrete reinforced columns are indicated in the graphs with the dashed line, while those referring to fibrous concrete columns are indicated with the continuous line. An initial 275

The current value of stress is linked to the corresponding value of strain by the following expressions 2 f c = f c 2 ------ ----- co co co f c = f c 1 0.15 -------------------- 085 co Fig. 5Experimental moment-curvature diagrams (M-): (a) = 10 mm; and (b) = 25 mm. (Note: 1 kNm = 0.74 kipft; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.) 0 co (2a)

co u

(2b)

elastic branch common to both ordinary and FRC columns was apparent from the trend of the moment-curvature curves; therefore, it followed a nonlinear branch characterized mainly by the cracking of concrete in tension. The main contribution of fibers observed during the tests was the control in crack opening and the reduction in crack thickness. Fibers also controlled the cover spalling process and reduced the risk of buckling of longitudinal bars. All these phenomena reflected on the softening response of RC columns, ensuring more ductile behavior in the case of FRC members. The positive effect of fibers on the stability of the longitudinal compressed bars was of fundamental importance for the structural behavior of RC columns as a reduction in the load carrying capacity of the columns occurs if bars buckle. Also, a consequent significant reduction in the confinement pressures occurred and was reflected in less ductility, as confirmed experimentally. When fibers were used, a lower slope in the softening branch was observed, but, in any case, the complete failure of columns occurred when stirrups and main bars failed in tension at the same time. ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR COMPRESSIVE AND FLEXURAL RESPONSE The analytical procedures adopted consider buckling phenomena of longitudinal bars, biaxial state of stresses in concrete cover, and confinement effects of concrete core. The theoretical model adopted for moment-curvature curves is the conventional layered method. The main focus of the analytical section was the choice of appropriate constitutive laws in compression and in tension to be adopted for FRC and to describe the behavior in tension and in compression of longitudinal bars, including the second-order effects. Although, in the following section, the main mechanical properties of material will be assumed by the experimental values, indications for their analytical calculation are also given. It was done to validate the proposed procedure and to highlight the important role of the behavior of constituent materials on the whole response of the columns. Constitutive laws for unconfined concrete The stress-strain curve assumed for concrete cover (considered as unconfined concrete) in both the presence and absence of fibers, is a rearranged version of that originally proposed by Hognestad.17 The application of this model only requires the knowledge of three mechanical parameters to be determined experimentally (f c , co, and 085) and is also a model that several authors used with minor changes to describe the behavior of confined concrete, obtaining good agreement with the available experimental data. 276

where f c , co, and 085 were already defined in Table 1 with reference to ordinary and fibrous concrete, reflecting main parameters governing the behavior of constituent materials. According to these values, Eq. (2) defines the pre-peak and the post-peak branches. The post-peak branch was stopped at strain values u = 0.0059 and u = 0.0158 for ordinary and fibrous concrete, respectively, because these values correspond to the negligible post-peak strength of material (observed experimentally). It was observed that u is a very important parameter to be estimated because it controlled the post-peak behavior of concrete, influencing the overall post-peak response of the RC column. In this paper, the values assumed for u were derived experimentally; they were very close to those determined by using Eq. (2b), assuming = 0.1 f c and = 085 (refer to Table 1). Recent studies also give analytical expression to calculate values for FRC material with hooked steel fibers. 18 When referring to the compressive behavior of concrete cover, Eq. (2) was used, but compressive peak stress and corresponding strain were reduced considering the softening coefficient proposed by Zhang and Hsu,19 which depends on the compressive strength of concrete and on the maximum reached lateral strain t 1 0.9 5.8 - ------------------------- = --------- -----------------------------f c 1 + 400 t 1 + 400 t (3)

with t related to compressive strain by the Poisson coefficient c (t = c). The Poisson coefficient was assumed to be variable with the axial strain in accordance with the expression20
- 5.36 ----- 2 + 8.586 ----- 3 = 0 1 + 1.3763 ---- co co co

(4)

The softening coefficient that affects f c and co takes into account the biaxial state of stresses (compressiontension) induced in concrete cover by the compressive load directly carried out and by the tensile stresses arising for the reduced lateral expansion of the concrete core (additional confinement due to cover). Referring to the behavior in tension, the analytical model adopted is that proposed by Mansur and Ong.21 For ordinary concrete, a linear elastic behavior up to the peak stress was adopted, followed by a linearly decreasing branch to the point of zero stress and strain s1 equal to twice the yielding strain of longitudinal bars. The elastic modulus of concrete in tension was assumed to be half of the initial modulus in compression, the latter as suggested by Mander et al.22 Therefore, by assuming 5000 - f c E ct = ----------2 f ct = 0.7 f c f ct ct = -----E ct (5)

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the stress-strain constitutive law in tension for ordinary concrete was expressed by f c = E ct + s1 f c = f ct ---------------- ct s1 ct 0 s1 ct (6a) (6b)

For confined concrete, the model used herein is the one proposed by Saatcioglu et al.,14 which was also experimentally tested in the cases of eccentric loading.15 This model was adopted to describe the confinement effects in both RC and in FRC members. From zero stress up to the maximum compressive stress f cc , the stress-strain curve is expressed by 2 f c = f cc 2 -------- ------- cco cco
1 -------------1 + 2k

For FRC, too, an initial linear elastic stress-strain curve was assumed up to the peak stress. After that, a reduced slope was assumed with a linear branch connecting the peak stress with the point of stress equal to the post-peak strength of composite ft,res and corresponding to the previously defined strain value = s1. The post-peak strength, as suggested by Campione et al.,1 was assumed to be variable with the volume percentage of fibers Vf ; the aspect of the ratio of fibers (length/diameter); the efficiency factor, depending on fiber orientation; and the pull-out resistance of fiber. Referring to the current investigation, it shows that1 f t, res = 0.2 0.6 f c (7)

0 cco

(9)

The softening branch of the response is linearly decreasing up to the strain c,02, beyond which a residual strength of the constant value fc = 0.2f cc is assumed. Therefore, the softening and branch was expressed by Eq. (2b) replacing f c with f cc 085 with c,085, and considering the following relationships14 fcc = f c + 6.7 f le
0.83

k = 6.7 f le f c c, 085 = 085 + 260 cco

0.83

(10)

cco = co ( 1 + 5 k )

Finally, for FRC, the stress-strain curve in tension is expressed by means of f c = E ct ct 0 (8a)

+ s 1 f c = f t, res + ( f ct f t, res ) ----------------- ct s 1 f c = f t, res

s 1 ct (8b) (8c)

s 1

The effective confinement pressure fle depends on the geometrical ratio of stirrups , the yielding stress of stirrups, the distance between the main bars, and the dimension of the confined core. Of course, when fibers are used, co, f c , and 085 reflect the properties of FRC in compression. By setting fle = 0 and = 0 in Eq. (10), Eq. (9) degenerates in Eq. (2a) and the softening branch proves to be expressed by Eq. (2b). The application of Eq. (9) up to the peak strain is strictly related to the fact that longitudinal bars in compression do not buckle before this strain value23; therefore, the model adopted considers that, if main bars buckle, the confinement pressure is reduced to zero value at this stage. Constitutive laws for longitudinal bars The stress-strain - behavior for longitudinal steel bars in tension was assumed to be constituted by three linear branches. The first one was an elastic branch up to the yielding stress f = fy, the second was a plastic horizontal branch with a constant stress fy up to the strain s, and the third linear branch was a hardening branch with a reduced slope and with modulus Eh = 0.0033Es. The use of the previous model (elastic-plastic with strain hardening) for compressed bars is also strictly related to verifying that the longitudinal bar does not buckle after the cover is spalled off and the bars have to be yielded. The approach proposed by Papia et al.23 was used to verify the stability condition. The critical load and the buckled length are obtained according to the equivalent stiffness of the system constituted by the longitudinal bars and the stirrups. This stiffness is measured by the parameter = s3/ (ErIf), where If is the moment of inertia of the longitudinal bar; Er is the reduced modulus of elasticity of steel bars; and = EsAst/bc, where bc is the effective length of one leg of the stirrup. By calculating Er and with the procedure shown in Reference 23, the values Er = 2778 MPa (402.96 ksi) and = 3557.8 are found. Depending on this value of the equivalent stiffness, the following corresponding values of critical stress and critical length of the bar are calculated: cr = 188 MPa (27.27 ksi), L = 1.2, and s = 78 mm (3.07 in.). 277

In the present model, a limit in the maximum strain was assumed equal to 2s1. This value does not reflect the real properties of FRC in tension, but it is appropriate to take into account all of the main phenomena occurring in a cracked reinforced member. Equations (2) to (8) define the stress-strain curves adopted herein for ordinary and fibrous concrete, both in tension and in compression. Constitutive laws for confined concrete The choice of the constitutive law for confined plain concrete and FRC is complex mainly for the following reasons: the stress-strain relationships proposed in the literature are numerous, but they are strictly influenced by the hypothesis of the distribution of confinement pressures in the plane of the stirrups and in the space between two successive stirrups; the stress-strain curves proposed in the literature are deduced on the basis of concentric compressive tests, for which confinement effects are uniform; and no clear indications are available for FRC confined members. When referring to the confinement effects of concrete in the compressed region of RC members subjected to axial force and bending moment, it must be observed that different levels of confinement pressure occur in the different strips of the compressed zone. Particularly, strips near the neutral axis are lightly confined, while strips closer to the corners of the transverse cross section are more confined. ACI Structural Journal/May-June 2010

It emerges that when longitudinal bars yield in compression, the sudden reduction in the modulus of elasticity (from Es to Er values) determines the buckling of the longitudinal bars themselves, occurring in a space involving approximately two successive stirrups. In this case, the stress-strain (-) curve has to be modified by assuming the three branches proposed by Dhakal and Maekawa24: from the yielding stress up to a particular point of coordinates (*, *) a first linear reduction in the maximum stress has to be adopted; therefore, a further linear branch with a negative slope equal to 0.02Es has to be used up to the value = 0.2fy; finally, a horizontal branch characterized by this residual stress occurs. The point of coordinate (*, *) depends24 on the parameter b = 0.1Lfy0.5/dl, that in the cases herein examined is b = 13.956. Moreover, because in the current case *= 324 MPa (47.00 ksi) for * = 0.0512, the second branch of the curve describing the behavior of the buckled bars was not considered. When the stress-strain curve - of the buckled longitudinal bar is defined, it is necessary to establish the range of axial strain for which the bar is effectively involved in the flexural response of the transverse cross section; otherwise, the value of axial strain of the concrete cover becomes ineffective in preventing the overall buckling of the longitudinal bars. In the case of ordinary concrete, confirmed experimentally herein, the contribution to the lateral stiffness given by the portion of unconfined concrete can be assumed ineffective when the axial strain reaches the value 085. For this value, as suggested in the original formulation,17 the linear response in terms of the stress-strain curve given by Eq. (2b) must be stopped (if the high degradation of the concrete matrix at this stage of strain is taken into account). In the case of FRC, it must otherwise be verified that the compressed bar does not buckle before the complete cover spalling process by considering the effective contribution of the fibers to the cover strength. In this case, the whole response in the compression of longitudinal bars without a buckling effect is attained up to ultimate strain = u = 0.0158. To do this, the formulation given by Russo and Terenzani25 is adopted, in which the longitudinal bar is modeled through an elastic beam on elastic continuous springs. The stiffness of these springs was calculated by spreading the concentrated stiffness of the single stirrups in the pitch s giving st = /s and adding to this value a further contribution due to the fibers, which can be assumed in the form26
2 --

6252 MPa (906.87 ksi). This result confirms that if the cover is effective, the compressed bars are not affected by buckling effects. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE FOR LOAD-AXIAL STRAIN CURVES IN COMPRESSION To determine the complete axial load-axial strain curve for each shortening value, it was assumed that the full load P is the sum of the three different strength contributions constituted by Pcover due to the concrete cover area in a biaxial state of stresses (Eq. (2a) and (2b)); Pcore due to the concrete core area in a triaxial stress state of stresses (Eq. (9) and following branches); and Psl due to the longitudinal bars, including buckling phenomena. The procedure is based on the following steps: an initial value of axial shortening is assumed, the lateral strain t = c is computed assuming a fixed variation law of with (Eq. (4)), the axial stresses in concrete cover and core are determined by using the constitutive laws shown previously, and the steel contribution is calculated including buckling effects. Repeating this procedure for all possible values of axial strain, the complete load-strain curve is plotted. The experimental and analytical compressive responses of tested columns obtained by this procedure are shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b). The experimental responses are the average curves of the two tests for each series investigated. The graphs clearly show that the analytical model fits the experimental results with acceptable agreement. Moreover, it can be observed that the addition of fibers produces significant improvement in the performance of the columns, especially referring to strength reduction occurring in the concrete cover after the peak load. This reduction is more progressive for FRC columns with respect to that of RC columns with a beneficial influence on the stability condition of longitudinal bars. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE FOR MOMENT-CURVATURE DIAGRAMS The analytical model adopted herein is able to determine the moment-curvature diagrams based on the discretization of the generic cross section into strips. The momentcurvature diagrams for the columns examined refer to any section in the middle portion of the columns because the effects of the self weight of the column and the second order effects are negligible. For each value of assigned curvature , the section is as wholly compressed if, in the more stressed fiber of the transverse cross section, the axial strain c assumes value c,max = b. By assuming the previously mentioned value for c and denoting di and dfi as the distances of the barycenter of the strip and the reinforcement area from the barycenter of the section, the characteristic strain value of each strip is i = c (b/2 di) and for longitudinal bars is fi = c (b/2 dfi). Therefore, by knowing the constitutive laws of constituent materials, the corresponding stresses are calculated and the strength contributions of each strip are included in the equilibrium conditions. The sum of these strength contributions gives two M, P values characterized by the ratio e = M/P that is certainly lower than the effective value e = b/2. Therefore, maintaining constant, the axial strain c is reduced by a fairly small quantity c, and the previously mentioned numerical procedure is repeated for a further reduction of c to the following condition is verified. ACI Structural Journal/May-June 2010

fb

E fb b V f 3 = ------ ---- --- fb n b 3

(11)

where Efb is the elastic modulus of fiber, lfb is the length, b is the side of the transverse cross section, and nb is the number of longitudinal bars in the transverse cross section subject to simultaneous buckling. In the absence of fibers (Vf = 0), Eq. (11) gives zero stiffness and only the stiffness due to steel stirrups has to be considered in the calculation of critical load. In the more unfavorable case examined herein, that is, when b = 185 mm (7.28 mm), Eq. (11) provides fb = 14,173 MPa (2055.85 ksi), whereas the distributed stiffness of stirrups is st = 536 MPa (77.75 ksi). Neglecting st, the critical load of the longitudinal bars turns out to be Pcr = (12ErIffb)0.5 = 707.12 kN (158.97 kip), and therefore cr = 278

Mj 1 b ----------- = e j 1 < -2 Pj 1

Mj b ----- = e j > -2 Pj

(12)

Fig. 6Comparison between analytical and experimental axial load-axial strain diagrams of: (a) RC columns; and (b) FRC columns. (Note: 1 kN = 0.2248 kips; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)

In Eq. (12), the j 1 and j indexes correspond respectively to the axial force and to the bending moment calculated for c1 = c,max (j 1)c and c2 = c,max jc. The effective pair of M, P values corresponding to the given values of curvature and eccentricity b/2 is determined by assuming that the effective value of c is linearly varying with eccentricity e in the range from ej 1 to ej. The whole curve is obtained by increasing the curvature value from zero up to a preset maximum value. It must be observed that if, in applying the proposed model, a strain limit for c,max is imposed (in the current case it was assumed c,max = 0.03), a high value of curvature can lead to the conditions that c,max < b and M/P > b/2 for the first value of strain assumed. In this case, the procedure is stopped at the last point of the moment-curvature diagram, which corresponds to the previous step. Figure 7 shows the comparison between the results obtained by using the proposed model and the experimental ones. The moment-curvature diagrams M- deduced numerically highlight the good agreement with the experimental data, confirming the appropriate interpretation of main phenomena involved in the structural behavior of RC or FRC members. Regarding the cases of fibrous concrete for Vf = 1% and = 10 mm (0.39 in.), the model gives a good prediction of the experimental response, whereas for specimens in fibrous concrete with = 25 mm (0.98 in.), the model overestimated the experimental response, particularly

Fig. 7Comparison between analytical and experimental moment-curvature diagrams (continuous line = analytical and dashed line = experimental). (Note: 1 kNm = 0.74 kipft; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.) ACI Structural Journal/May-June 2010 279

when referring to the peak load. This scatter is probably due to an overestimation of the mechanical properties of unconfined material, especially when referring to the concrete cover. CONCLUSIONS In the present paper, experimental and analytical research was presented that served to explain the compressive behavior of RC columns with square cross sections under axial force with and without initial eccentricity. Cases of ordinary and fibrous concrete columns in the presence of longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcements were examined. The paper highlighted the influence of the cover thickness and the presence of hooked steel fibers, and fixed values of the other parameters (volumetric ratio, spacing, yielding strength, concrete grade and length, diameter and fiber volume, and dimension of the transverse cross section) on the strength and strain capacity of RC columns. The experimental research carried out showed that, in the case of axial concentric load, the use of fibers ensured a higher post-peak strength and ultimate strain compared to RC columns and a reduction in the brittleness of the mechanism involving crushing of compressed cover. For columns under axial eccentric forces, it was observed that the use of fibers produced increases in: the maximum curvature of the section; the strain values corresponding to failure of stirrups; and the strains of longitudinal bars in tension. Moreover, by using fibers, the cover spalling process and, consequently, the buckling of the compressed reinforcing bars, was delayed. From a theoretical point of view, the focus of the research was on the derivation of the load-axial strain and momentcurvature diagrams, including the constitutive laws of the materials, the effects of fibers, the confinement induced by transverse steel, and the buckling of longitudinal bars. With regard to the accuracy of the model, it must be observed that it was capable of considering the effect of several parameters such as the cover thickness and the buckling phenomena of longitudinal bars, both aspects strongly influencing the structural response of the columns. The comparison between the theoretical and the experimental results, both in terms of load-axial shortening and momentcurvature diagrams, highlighted the capacity of the proposed model to adequately include the main phenomena involved in the structural behavior of RC or FRC columns. To give more general conclusions, further studies with a higher number of specimens and variation of details will be addressed for the examination of larger scale testing. Moreover, further studies will be addressed to consider the interaction between the behavior of confined and unconfined concrete, including the variation in confinement pressures due to the buckling of longitudinal bars. NOTATION
Af Ast b df dl dst Eco Ect Efb Eh Es e fc fcc fct = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = area of longitudinal steel bars area of one leg of stirrup side of transverse cross section diameter of fiber diameter of longitudinal bars diameter of leg of stirrup initial modulus of concrete elastic modulus of concrete in tension elastic modulus of fiber hardening modulus of steel elastic modulus of steel eccentricity compressive strength of unconfined concrete compressive strength of confined concrete tensile strength of concrete

fs max fsu fy H L M P s Vf c co cco ct s max su t u 085 lfb fl

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

maximum stress of steel ultimate stress of steel yielding stress of steel gauge length for evaluation of curvature critical length of longitudinal steel bar bending moment vertical load pitch of stirrups volume percentage of fibers cover thickness strain in compressed face of column peak strain of unconfined concrete in compression peak strain of confined concrete in compression peak strain in tension strain at maximum stress fs max strain at ultimate stress fsu strain in face in tension of column ultimate strain of concrete in compression strain in compression at 0.85fc curvature of section length of fiber Poisson coefficient confinement transverse reinforcement percentage longitudinal reinforcement percentage

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