UNIT 1: LIFESTYLE, TRANSPORT, GENES AND HEALTH TOPIC 1

Core Practicals
Caffeine on heart rate Use of Daphniao Because they posses simple nervous system, o Because they are see though so you can measure heart rate directly. Ethical o Living organisms so you can treat them with respect and you put them back in the pond water Variability o Different gender, ages o Different sizes Hard to count o So fast inaccuracy Light from microscope o Light and heat causes stress Acclimatized take 2 reading and check the readings are the same before experiments. Random-counting heart rate with our eyes Systematic something with the same degree of error for each result. Eg. Leaving the daphnia to acclimatize for five mins. Independent variable: caffeine conc. Min 5 conc. Of caffeine and control. Repeat exp. To improve reliability Risks: pond water wash with antibacterial soap your hands so that you do not contaminate your hands Vitamin C Content of fruit juice 1cm of DCpip which turns from blue to clear when vitamin is present, control is with 1% of known vitamin C solution. We worked out how much conc. of vit. C to decolorized DCpip of known conc. Of DCpip Then we drew a graph of the results. Then we draw orange juice with a syringe and we find out how much (volume) of juice it takes to decolorize DCpip and read off the volume from the graph from the calibration curve and then we can work out how much vitamin c is in it. Systematic error- accuracy of syringe, solve we should use a burette. When you add juice the blue should go the colour of the juice, solve use a colorimeter Random error- cross contamination solve use sterilised syringes. Temp of membrane- beetroot Cut the discs the same size and rinse them so that it will remove the leaked pigment. Use water electric baths- 5 temps- 30, 40, 50, 60, 70. Put three test tubes with water in them (same volume) and let them acclimatise Then add the beetroot discs and leave in for 30 mins Then take them out of water and remove the beetroot Shake the test tubes so that the pigment distribution is equal. Then put them in a cuvette and then put them into the colorimeter. And measure % light absorbance (100% means very dark/cloudy) Higher temps get more disruption so you get higher value. Make sure that the colour filter is appropriate for purple colour solutions. Systematic error: length of acclimatisation solve test with thermometer Random error: size of the discs solve use callipers Results high temp more leakage because the phosolipids move more side to side and you get bigger gaps therefore more leakage. Pigment kept in the vacuole.

Structure of the Human Heart

The Human Heart had two separate Pumps within it. The Left Side of the Heart deals with Oxygenated Blood. The Right Side of the Heart deals with De Oxygenated Blood. It is essential to keep the Oxygenated Blood on the Left separated from the Deoxygenated blood on the right. This is because the Right Ventricle only has to pump blood a short distance to the lungs. It has thinner muscular walls. Whereas the Left Ventricle has much thincker muscular walls as it needs to more pressure to pump blood to all parts of the body. Atrium: Is thin walled and elastic. It stretches as it collects blood.Only has to pump blood a short distance to the ventricle therefore has thin muscular wall's. Ventricle: Has to pump blood to the rest of the body or the lungs therefore has thick muscular walls.

Each of the 4 chambers of the heart is served by large blood vessels that carry blood away or to the heart. Arteries pump blood away from the heart. Veins pump blood to the heart. (In=heart) The Ventricle pumps the blood away from the heart into the Arteries. The Atria receive blood from the veins .

Pulmonary Vessels are the ones connecting the heart to the lungs. Pulmonary artery: Connected to the Right Ventricle, carries de oxygenated blood to the lungs where oxygen is replenished and carbon dioxide is removed. (only lungs) Aorta: Connected to the Left Ventricle, carries oxygenated blood to all over the body except the lungs. (Only body) Pulmonary Vein. Connected to the Left atrium, carries Oxygenated blood back from the lungs. (Only lungs) Vena Cava: Connected to the Right atrium, carries De Oxygenated blood from the tissues of the body.(only body)

Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle is an ongoing sequence of contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles that keeps blood continuously circulating round the body. The volume of the atria and ventricles change as they contract and relax. Pressure changes also occur; due to the changes in chamber volume (e.g decreasing the volume of a chamber by contraction will increase the pressure of a chamber). The cardiac cycle can be simplified into three stages: 1. Ventricles relax, atria contract

The ventricles are relaxed. The atria contract, decreasing the volume of the chamber and increasing the pressure inside. This pushes blood into the ventricles. Theres a slight increase in ventricular pressure and chamber volume as the ventricles receive the ejected blood from the contracting atria.

2.

Ventricles contract, atria relax

The atria relax. The ventricles contract (decreasing their volume), increasing their pressure. The pressure becomes higher in the ventricles than in the atria, which forces the AV valves shut to prevent back-flow. The pressure in the ventricles is also higher than in the aorta and pulmonary artery, which forces open the semi-lunar valves and blood is forced out into these arteries.

3.

Ventricles relax, atria relax

The ventricles and atria both relax. The higher pressure in the pulmonary artery and aorta closes the semi-lunar valves to prevent back-flow into the ventricles. Blood returns to the heart and the atria fill again due to the higher pressure in the vena cava and pulmonary vein. In turn this starts to increase the pressure of the atria. As the ventricles continue to relax, their pressure falls below the pressure of the atria, so the AV valves open. This allows blood to flow passively (without being pushed by atrial contraction) into the ventricles from the atria. The atria contract and the whole process begins again.

Atherosclerosis 1. Endothelium cells become damaged for some reason (eg. from a high blood pressure) 2. Once the inner lining of the arteryis breached, an inflammatory response takes place in which white blood cells leave the vessel and enter the artery wall. Blood cells and chemicals (particularly cholesterol) accumulate here, resulting in the bulid up of a deposit called an atheroma. 3. Calcium salts and fibrous tissue also build up at the site, resulting in the formation of a plaque. Plaques reduce the elasticity of the artery 4. Plaques cause the artery to narrow, making it harder for the heart to pump blood around the body which can lead to a raised blood pressure, resulting in further damage to undamaged endothelium cells, further plaque formation/the dislodging of plaque leading to the blockage of artery

Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular disease - any disease associated with the heart and blood vessels (Including aneurysms, thrombosis and myocardial infarction). Most start with a atheroma formation. Atheroma formation: Atheroma - a fibrous plaque caused by the buildup and hardening of white blood cells, lipids and connective tissue. The wall of an artery is made up of several layers. The endothelium (inner lining) is normally smooth and unbroken. If damage occurs to the endothelium (eg by high blood pressure), white blood cells (mostly macrophages) and lipids (fat) from the blood clump together under the lining to form fatty streaks. Over time, more white blood cells, lipids and connective tissue build up and harden to form an atheroma. An atheroma partially blocks the lumen of the artery and restricts blood flow, causing the blood pressure to increase.

Aneurysm: Aneurysm - a balloon-like swelling of an artery. It starts with the formation of atheromas. Atheroma plaques damage and weaken arteries. They also narrow arteries, increasing blood pressure. When blood travels through a weakened artery at high pressure, it may push through the inner layers of the artery through the outer elastic layer to form an aneurysm. This aneurysm may burst, causing a haemorrhage (bleeding). Thrombosis: Thrombosis - the formation of a blood clot. It starts with the formation of atheromas. An atheroma plaque can rupture the endothelium (inner lining) of an artery. This damages the artery wall and leaves a rough surface. Platelets and fibrin (a protein) accumulate at the site of damage and form a blood clot (a thrombus) This blood clot can cause a complete blockage of the artery, or it can become dislodged and block a blood vessel elsewhere in the body Debris from the rupture can cause another blood clot to form further down the artery. Myocardial infarction (heart attack): The heart muscle is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries. This blood contains the oxygen needed by the heart muscle cells to carry out respiration. If a coronary artery becomes completely blocked (eg by a blood clot), an area of the heart muscle will be cut off from its blood supply, receiving no oxygen. This causes a myocardial infarction (heart attack). Symptoms include pain in the chest and upper body, shortness of breath and sweating. A heart attack can cause damage and death of heart muscle. If large areas of the heart are affected complete heart failure can occur, which is often fatal. Coronary heart disease: Coronary heart disease - when the coronary arteries have lots of atheromas in them, which restricts blood flow to the heart. It's a type of cardiovascular disease. Atheromas also cause blood clots to form, which can block blood flow to the heart muscle, possibly resulting in myocardial infarction. Common risk factors: High blood pressure - this increases the risk of damage to the coronary artery walls. Damaged walls have an increased risk of atheroma formation, causing a further increase in blood pressure. So anything that causes high blood pressure, eg being overweight, not exercising and excessive alcohol consumption, increases the risk of CHD. High blood cholesterol and poor diet - cholesterol is one of the main constituents of the fatty deposits that form atheromas. A diet high in saturated fat is associated with high blood cholesterol levels. A diet high in salt also increases the risk of CHD as it increases the risk of high blood pressure. Cigarette smoking - the carbon monoxide combines with the haemoglobin and reduces the amount of oxygen carried in the blood and if the heart muscle doesn't receive enough oxygen it can lead to a heart attack. Smoking also decreases the amount of antioxidants in the blood which are important for protecting cells from damage. Fewer antioxidants means cell damage in the coronary artery walls is more likely, which can lead to atheroma formation, Most of these factors are within our control - a person can choose to smoke, eat fatty foods etc. However, some risk factors, such as having a genetic predisposition to coronary heart disease or having high blood pressure as a result of another condition. Even so, the risk of developing CHD can be reduced by removing as many risk factors as possible.

Carbohydrates, Proteins & Enzymes

Condensation reaction: A condensation reaction is a chemical reaction that takes place between two molecules (functional groups) which combine to form one single molecule and water. Polypeptide: A large chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds forming part or all of a protein. Active site: The region of an enzyme which binds with a substrate in a reaction to form an enzyme-substrate complex. Hydrogen Bond: A weak bond between two molecules as a result of the electrostatic attraction of a proton from one molecule and an electronegative atom from another. Hydrophilic: Having a tendency to mix or dissolve in water i.e. "water-loving" molecules. Structural isomer: Similar compounds with the same molecular formula but a different structural formulas e.g. alpha glucose bonds and beta glucose bonds. Solvent: The liquid in which a solute can dissolve to form a solution. Alpha Helix: A secondary structure found in many proteins which forms a helix shape held together by weak hydrogen bonds between amino acids in a polypeptide chain. Polar Molecule: A molecule containing opposite charges on different sides of the molecule controlled by electro-negativity and arrangement of electrons. Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change. Concentration: The relative amount of a given substance contained within a solution or in a particular volume of space.

Lipids *Fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. *Bio functions of lipids = energy storage, as structural components of cell membranes, and as signaling molecules.

*Steroids occur in animals in hormones. Four-ring structure, one with five carbons and three with six carbons in the rings. *Fat = a triglyceride. Made up of glycerol connected to one, two, or three fatty acids. Glycerol is the basis of all fats and is made up of a three-carbon chain. It connects the fatty acids together. A fatty acid is a long chain of carbon atoms connected to each other. There are two kinds of fats, saturated and unsaturated. Unsaturated fats have at least one double bond in one of the fatty acids. A double bond happens when two electrons are shared or exchanged in a bond. They are much stronger than single bonds. Saturated fats have no double bonds. Fats have a lot of energy stored up in their molecular bonds. That's why the human body stores fat as an energy source. When it needs extra fuel, your body breaks down the fat and uses the energy. Where one molecule of sugar only gives a small amount of energy, a fat molecule gives off many times more. All Lipids are hydrophobic: thats the one property they have in common. Fats and oils are made from two kinds of molecules: glycerol (a type of alcohol with a hydroxyl group on each of its three carbons) and three fatty acids joined by dehydration synthesis. Since there are three fatty acids attached, these are known as triglycerides. The terms saturated, monounsaturated, and poly-unsaturated refer to the number of hydrogens attached to the hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids as compared to the number of double bonds between carbon atoms in the tail. Fats, which are mostly from animal sources, have all single bonds between the carbons in their fatty acid tails, thus all the carbons are also bonded to the maximum number of hydrogens possible. Since the fatty acids in these triglycerides contain the maximum possible amount of hydrogens, these would be called saturated fats. The hydrocarbon chains in these fatty acids are, thus, fairly straight and can pack closely together, making these fats solid at room temperature. Oils, mostly from plant sources, have some double bonds between some of the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail, causing bends or kinks in the shape of the molecules. Because some of the carbons share double bonds, theyre not bonded to as many hydrogens as they could if they werent double bonded to each other. Therefore these oils are called unsaturated fats. Because of the kinks in the hydrocarbon tails, unsaturated fats cant pack as closely together, making them liquid at room temperature. Many people have heard that the unsaturated fats are healthier than the saturated ones. Hydrogenated vegetable oil (as in shortening and commercial peanut butters where a solid consistency is sought) started out as good unsaturated oil. However, this commercial product has had all the double bonds artificially broken and hydrogens artificially added (in a chemistry lab-type setting) to turn it into saturated fat that bears no resemblance to the original oil from which it came (so it will be solid at room temperature). In unsaturated fatty acids, there are two ways the pieces of the hydrocarbon tail can be arranged around a C=C double bond. In cis bonds, the two pieces of the carbon chain on either side of the double bond are either both up or both down, such that both are on the same side of the molecule. In trans bonds, the two pieces of the molecule are on opposite sides of the double bond, that is, one up and one down across from each other. Naturally-occurring unsaturated vegetable oils have almost all cis bonds, but using oil for frying causes some of the cis bonds to convert to trans bonds. If oil is used only once like when you fry an egg, only a few of the bonds do this so its not too bad. However, if oil is constantly reused, like in fast food French fry machines, more and more of the cis bonds are changed to trans until significant numbers of fatty acids with trans bonds build up. The reason this is of concern is that fatty acids with trans bonds are carcinogenic, or cancercausing. The levels of trans fatty acids in highly-processed, lipid-containing products such as margarine are quite high, and I have heard that the government is considering requiring that the amounts of trans fatty acids in such products be listed on the labels. We need fats in our bodies and in our diet. Animals in general use fat for energy storage because fat stores 9 KCal/g of energy. Plants, which dont move around, can afford to store food for energy in a less compact but more easily accessible form, so they use starch (a carbohydrate, NOT A LIPID) for energy storage. Carbohydrates and proteins store only 4 KCal/g of energy, so fat stores over twice as much energy/gram as fat. By the way, this is also related to the idea behind some of the high-carbohydrate weight loss diets. The human body burns carbohydrates and fats for fuel in a given proportion to each other. The theory behind these diets is that if they supply carbohydrates but not fats, then it is hoped that the fat needed to balance with the sugar will be taken from the dieters body stores. Fat is also is used in our bodies to a) cushion vital organs like the kidneys and b) serve as insulation, especially just beneath the skin. Phospholipids Phospholipids are made from glycerol, two fatty acids, and (in place of the third fatty acid) a phosphate group with some other molecule attached to its other end. The hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids are still hydrophobic, but the phosphate group end of the molecule is hydrophilic because of the oxygens with all of their pairs of unshared electrons. This means that phospholipids are soluble in both water and oil. Steroids. The general structure of cholesterol consists of two six-membered rings side-by-side and sharing one side in common, a third sixmembered ring off the top corner of the right ring, and a five-membered ring attached to the right side of that. The central core of this molecule, consisting of four fused rings, is shared by all steroids, including estrogen (estradiol), progesterone, corticosteroids such as cortisol (cortisone), aldosterone, testosterone, and Vitamin D. In the various types of steroids, various other groups/molecules are attached around the edges. Know how to draw the four rings that make up the central structure. Cholesterol is not a bad guy! Our bodies make about 2 g of cholesterol per day, and that makes up about 85% of blood cholesterol, while only about 15% comes from dietary sources. Cholesterol is the precursor to our sex hormones and Vitamin D. Vitamin D is formed by the action of UV light in sunlight on cholesterol molecules that have risen to near the surface of the skin. At least one source I read suggested that people not shower immediately after being in the sun, but wait at least hour for the new Vitamin D to be absorbed deeper into the skin. Our cell membranes contain a lot of cholesterol (in between the phospholipids) to help keep them fluid even when our cells are exposed to cooler temperatures. Many people have hear the claims that egg yolk contains too much cholesterol, thus should not be eaten. An interesting study was done at Purdue University a number of years ago to test this. Men in one group each ate an egg a day, while men in another group were not allowed to eat eggs. Each of these groups was further subdivided such that half the men got lots of exercise while the other half were couch potatoes. The results of this experiment showed no significant difference in blood cholesterol levels between egg-eaters and non-egg-eaters while there was a very significant difference between the men who got exercise and those who didnt. Lipoproteins are clusters of proteins and lipids all tangled up together. These act as a means of carrying lipids, including cholesterol, around in our blood. There are two main categories of lipoproteins distinguished by how compact/dense they are. LDL or low density lipoprotein is the bad guy, being associated with deposition of cholesterol on the walls of someones arteries. HDL or high density lipoprotein is the good guy, being associated with carrying cholesterol out of the blood system, and is more dense/more compact than LDL.

UNIT 1: LIFESTYLE, TRANSPORT, GENES AND HEALTH TOPIC 2

Cystic Fibrosis & Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is transplanting normal genes into cells in place of missing or defective ones, to correct the genetic disorders. That just means, replacing genes that are not working properly or missing with correct genes that works properly. Gene therapy could be used to treat cystic fibrosis which is an inherited disease, meaning it is caused by defective genes and you are born with it. Meaning that you can't catch it, or develop it, you have it from when you are born. It also means that people born with it carrying the gene (Remember those who have cystic fibrosis have two homozygous recessive alleles For example 'rr', a carrier of cystic fibrosis may not necessarily have it themselves, but may have a heterozygous allele e.g. 'Rr' with only one small 'r' so if they 'canoodle' with someone who also has a heterozygous allele 'Rr' therefore also a carrier of cystic fibrosis and have a baby, that baby could be born with the disease as the may have inherited two homozygous recessive alleles 'rr'.) Now, Cystic fibrosis is caused by a defect in the CTFR gene which controls the production of a protein that controls the cell transport of chlorine ions in your body. This disrupts the natural water potential ("The measure of the relative tendency of water to move from one area to another, and is commonly represented by the Greek letter ") so the mucus becomes thick and sticks so the cillia ("microscopic, hair-like projection on the surfaces of some cells and of certain organisms.") can't move and this sometimes can cause a blockage. The main motive of gene therapy is to give sufferers copies of the correct gene so they can make protein via protein synthesis So there are two methods of transport the correct gene can take, the methods of transport are called vectors, think of it as the protein's TFL (Transport for London) instead of ' Boris' bikes ' think of it more as taking the bus or tube, the bus being a liposome which would be inhaled and hopefully pass the gene through the cells, I like to think of it as a bus because it may take 'diversions' and not get to the gene or the tube which I think of as more 'direct' is a harmless virus which will deposit the gene into cells as viruses usually do as that's in their cruel and twisted nature.

So initially the good CTFR gene is cut and pasted into the gene replacing the defective gene, the new and improved gene is then placed into one of the vectors and breathed into the body. The problems of gene therapy - It's not permanent as the epithelial cells are constantly being replaced so the treatment would have to keep being re-done and this would be expensive. -Because cystic fibrosis is a disease that affects the entire body it's not possible to treat everything so if the lungs were cured for a while, other parts of the body would still be affected and the patient would still need to take enzyme supplements

Amino Acids and Proteins

Proteins are substances whose molecules are made of many amino acids linked together in long chains. All amino acids have a central carbon atom, carbon atoms have four bonds which can hold them firmly to other atoms.

In an amino acid, the central carbon forms one bond with a carboxyl group, -COOH. There is another bond with a hydrogen atom, and a third bond with an amino group -NH2. The fourth bond, however, can be with any one of a whole range of different groups. The letter R is used to show this group. In animals there about twenty different amino acids, each with a different R group. The amino acids that make up a protein are linked together during protein synthesis, which happens on the ribosomes in a cell. Here, separate amino acids are brought close to each other and react together to form a linkage between them known as peptide bonds. Peptide bonds are strong, they involve covalent bond, in the atoms share an electron with each other. As the peptide bond is formed, two hydrogen atoms form one amino acid and an oxygen atom from another amino acid join together to form a water molecule. Reactions where water is formed and released are called condensation reactions. On the ribosome, a long chain of amino acids is formed, all linked together by peptide bonds. This chain is called a polypeptide. Protein molecules contain one or more chains of polypeptides. Haemoglobin contains four polypeptides coiled around a haem group. Breaking the peptide bonds between amino acids will break the polypeptide chain. The reaction is called a hydrolysis reaction. In this reaction, combination with a water molecule breaks the peptide bond between two amino acids and separates them.

Amino Acid -

Enzyme Action
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by acting as a biological catalyst. The reaction can be both intra & extra cellular.

Enzymes are globular proteins that have an active site that has a specific shape that is determined by its tertiary structure. Because of this complimentary shape enzymes can only normally catalyse one reaction. Enzymes reduce the activation energy (the energy required to start the reaction). When the enzyme-substrate complex forms it is this which lowers the activation energy because: If two substrates need to be joined together by attaching to the enzyme they would come close together reducing the repulsion meaning that they can come together easily. If the enzyme is catalysing a catabolic reaction (breaking down), fitting the substrates into the active site puts a strain on the bonds meaning that the substrate will break up more easily. The Lock and Key Model: Scientists originally thought that:

Substrate fits exactly into the active site (Like a lock and key). Enzyme-substrate complex forms. The enzyme changes the substrate to form the Enzyme-Product complex. The products are released from the enzyme which is left unchanged. However the scientists released that new evidence showed how the enzyme-substrate complex changed shape slightly to complete the fit and they came up with: The Induced Fit Model:

When the substrate binds the active site changes site slightly. Enzyme-Substrate complex forms. Enzyme-Product complex forms. Products are released. This means that the substrate doesn't only have to be the right shape; it has to make the site change shape in the right way as well.

Cell Membranes
Cell membranes are partially permeable They act as gates controlling what goes in and out of a cell Bilayer of phospholipid PHOSPHOLIPID: 1 x Phosphate group, 2 x Fatty acids Hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail

FLUID MOSAIC - Cholesterol stability, Intrinsic Proteins (crossing both layers), Extrinsic Proteins (crossing one layer), extremely flexible. Function - barrier (partially permeable), structural support of the cell, secreting chemicals, cell to cell recognition, take up of nutrients. Passing substances SMALL UNCHARGED MOLECULES oxygen & c02 glycerol LARGE &/OR CHARGED MOLECULES ions polar molecules glucose TRANSPORT Diffusion Passive High ---> low concentration Net movement until equilibrium Rate affected by Concentration gradient Travelling distance Surface area of membrane Membrane thickness Temperature Facilitated Diffusion Using channel proteins & carrier proteins Channel Proteins Acts as a channel Ion specific (only lets one particular type of ion through) Opens and closes Carrier Proteins Allows diffusion of larger, polar molecules incl. sugar & amino acids Molecule attaches to carrier protein @ binding site Causes carrier protein to change its shape Molecule realeased on other side and into or out of cell Both carrier & channel proteins push molecules against the natural concentration gradient and therefore require ATP (from respiration) Osmosis Concerns the movement of WATER MOLECULES ONLY 'The net movement of water from a region where it is highly concentrated to a region where it is lower through a partially permeable membrane' ----> water moves from low solute concentration ---> high solute concentration Water potential: The tendency of water to move from areas of high concentration to low Pure water has the higest water potential of 0 All water potentials have a negative value More concentrated = More negative (lower value) water potential In plants: WATER POTENTIAL = SOLUTE POTENTIAL + PRESSURE POTENTIAL Presence of solute molecules in plant cell vacuole lowers WP concentration inside the vacuole = solute potential when water enters a cell pressure builds against the sides of the cell wall. The cell wall responds by pushing back. This is called the pressure potential (+ value)

Tugor & plasmolysis Full Turgor: when the cell cannot take in any more water & is completely full. Water potential = 0. The cell is said to be TURGID Hypertonic: WP of solution outside cell > inside cell. IE, more concentrate outside than inside cell. Water flows out of the cell because water will move from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration. Eg, say the blood is full of sugar or has a high solute concentration. Because of the laws of osmosis, water will want to move from within the cell where solute concentration is low, to the blood where it is high. As a result, too much water flows out of the red blood cell and it becomes crenated. Hypotonic: WP of solution outside < inside cell. Higher solute concentration inside the cell than outside the cell. Water flows in because water will move from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. Isotonic: WP solution outside = inside cell. Equilibrium. When a plant cell is in a hypertonic solution it loses water. Vacuole shrinks & cytoplasm draws away from cell wall. This process is called plasmolysis & when it is complete the cell is flaccid. A plant cell in hypotonic solution will take water in until it physically cannot take in any more. It has reached full turgor & is now turgid --> WP is 0. Endo & Exocytosis: Endocytosis - cell surrounds the membrane around the material & brings it cytoplasm inside a vesicle. There are two types

Phagocytosis: Cell engulfs cell can obtain solid materials that are too large to be diffused or moved by active transport. Packaged away into lysosomes

DNA& RNA
DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) is found in the cells of all organisms. It is the molecule that contains all the genes that code for the characteristics and cell functions of an organism. The sequence and arrangement of your DNA determines everything about you. DNA is a polynucleotide. It is made up of many repeating units called nucleotides, but these nucleotides are not all the same. A DNA nucleotide consists of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base, These three components are very important in determining the physical structure of DNA.

The above picture shows us a mononucleotide. But how do these bond to form the polynucleotide DNA? The phosphate from one nucleotide forms a covalent bond with the ribose of another in a condensation reaction, forming a phosphodiester bond. These bonds form between many nucleotides to make one long DNA strand. But DNA is a double helix--two strands spiraling around one another. Base pairing shows how two strands come together to make the double helix. Base pairing Nucleotides come in four main flavours--Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Cytosin (C) and Thymine (T). They can be categorized into two types: Purines (two nitrogenous organic rings)

Adenine Guanine Pyrimidines (one nitrogenous organic rings)

Cytosine Thymine Nucleotides always bond in the same way-- adenine always bonds with thymine and cytosine always bonds with guanine. This is because cytosine and guanine can form three hydrogen bonds between one another and adenine and thymine can form two between eachother--it is the most chemically stable combination. So, two long strands of DNA run alongside eachother (antiparallel to one another) bound down the middle by hydrogen bonds and the difference in size between the purines and pyrimidines causes DNA's helical shape. One strand, the Sense Strand, contains all the nucleotide sequences that determine your characteristics. The other strand is the AntiSense Strand and is mostly important for DNA replication. Sections of these nucleotide sequences are known as genes and will be looked at later on. DNA Replication During cell division, DNA replicates. During mitosis, two genetically identical daughter cells are produced from one parent cell. This means that each daughter cell must have identical DNA to its parent cell, thus one molecule of DNA must split into two identical molecules of DNA. To do this, an enzyme called DNA polymerase moves along the length of the DNA molecule breaking hydrogen bonds and splitting the two DNA strands. As this is going on, DNA nucleotides from the cytoplasm attach via the exposed bases onto either strand, forming two identical strands. The complementary base pairing rule ensures that the right nucleotides are added to each side of the molecule.

So, each of the two new molecules has one strand of the original DNA and one strand of new DNA. This is semi-conservative replication. Protein Synthesis RNA (Ribose Nucleic Acid) is a polynucleotide like DNA. However, it has a few key differences from DNA:

RNA's pentose sugar is Ribose as opposed to DNA's Deoxyribose. RNA comprises four types of nuceotide however Thymine is replaced by Uracil (U) in RNA. RNA molecules are relatively small compared to DNA and can leave the nucleus outside of cell replication. RNA molecules are all single strands while DNA is double stranded. There are three types of RNA that you need to know about for this module: Messenger RNA (mRNA), Transport RNA (tRNA) and Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). All of these types of RNA take on a key role in protein synthesis. As you read earlier, sections of the Sense strand of your DNA contain genes. A gene is a sequence of DNA nucleotides that code for a specific cell function, many of them coding for specific polypeptides (proteins). Before we knew otherwise, many regions of your DNA were thought to be "junk" DNA but we have since learned that this "junk" DNA codes for many things (eg. signals for enzymes to work) if not for proteins. Each three-base section of DNA is a codon, for example TAG (thymine, adenine, guanine) or GAC (guanine, adenine, cytosine) and each codon codes for a specific amino acid. Humans use 20 amino acids to make proteins, and some codons will code for the same amino acid as other codons. Some codons are used to tell the RNA where to begin and end transcription, known as "start" and "stop" codons. The first step in protein synthesis is transcription. This is where a specific DNA sequence is copied into mRNA. DNA helicase attaches to specific regions in the DNA called cistrons and begins to break hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides, "unzipping" the DNA. Bases on the Sense strand are exposed and RNA polymerase causes complementary RNA nucleotides to attach using these bases as a template, running from the 3' to the 5' of the DNA (thus mRNA is formed 5' to 3'). RNA polymerase catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the RNA nucleotides and stops when it reaches a stop codon. The mRNA breaks away from the DNA, the DNA zips back up, and we are left with an mRNA molecule that codes for a protein. The mRNA leaves the nucleus via a pore in the nuclear envelope and travels to a ribosome for translation. Ribosomes are composed of rRNA folded into a globular shape and proteins. They are made up of two subunits of differing size and have three main sites, the A, P and E sites. tRNA is used to

carry amino acids to the ribosome and ensure they form the right polypeptide tRNA is used to carry amino acids to the ribosome and ensure they form the right polypeptide. The anticodon is complementary to an mRNA codon to code for the right amino acid.

During translation, mRNA is interpreted into a polypeptide. mRNA is fed into the ribosome codon by codon via the A site. At the A site, a codon's worth of RNA is held and a tRNA molecule with the mRNA's complementary anticodon attached binds to the mRNA via hydrogen bonds. The whole codon and tRNA molecule move to the P site while at the A site another codon attaches to its tRNA. The tRNA molecules are held in place until a peptide bond forms between the two amino acids.

The growing polypeptide chain leaves the ribosome and used-up tRNA molecules leave via the E site to go pick up new amino acids (this requires ATP and is called activation). Translation stops when the mRNA molecule has passed all the way through the ribosome.

Genes & Mutations & Cystic Fibrosis What is gene mutation? Any change to the quantity or structure of the DNA of an organism is known as a mutation. Any change to one or mole nucleotide bases, or any rearrangement of the bases, in DNA is known as a gene mutation. Substitution of Bases The type of gene mutation in which a nucleotide in a DNA molecule is replaced by another nucleotide that has a different base is known as a substitution. A nonsense mutation occurs if the base change results in the formation of one of the three stop codons that mark the end of a polypeptide chain. A mis-sense mutation arises when the base change results in a different amino acid being coded for. The polypeptide produced will differ in a single amino acid. If this amino acid is important in forming bonds that determine the tertiary structure of the protein, the replacement amino acid may not form the same bonds. The protein may then be a different shape and not function properly e.g. enzymes cannot form enzyme-substrate complex. A silent mutation occurs when the substituted base still codes for the same amino acid due to the degenerate nature of the genetic code. Deletion of Bases A gene mutation by deletion arises when a nucleotide is lost from the normal DNA sequence. One deleted nucleotide creates a 'frame-shift' because the reading frame that contains each three letters of the code has been shifted to the left by one letter. The gene is now read in the wrong three-base groups and the genetic message is altered. Causes of Mutations Gene mutations can arise spontaneously. However, they arise with a set frequency - typically around one or two mutations per 100,000 genes per generation. This basic mutation rate is increased by mutagenic agents or mutagens, including: high-energy radiation that can disrupt the DNA molecule chemicals that alter the DNA structure or interfere with transcription Genetic Control of Cell Division Proto-oncogenes stimulate cell division. In a normal cell, growth factors attach to a receptor protein on the cell-surface membrane and, via relay proteins in the cytoplasm, 'switch on' the genes necessary for DNA replication. A gene mutation can cause proto-oncogenes to mutate into oncogenes. These oncogenes can affect cell division in two ways: The receptor protein on the cell-surface membrane can be permanently activated, so that cell division is switched on even in the absense of growth factors The oncogene may code for a growth factor that is then produced in excessive amounts, again stimulating excessive cell division. Role of Tumour Suppressor Genes They inhibit cell division. A normal tumour suppressor gene will therefore gene will therefore maintain normal rates of cell division and prevent the formation of tumours. If a tumour suppressor gene becomes mutated it is inactivated. It stops inhibiting cell division, which therefore increases. Most mutated cells die but any that survive are capable of making clones of themselves and forming tumours. Cystic Fibrosis CF is a genetic disorder caused by mutation of a single gene. It codes for the CFTR protein that allows chloride ions to pass through cell membranes. Effects of CF Gas Exchange mucus accumulates in lungs, bacteria trapped in mucus (infection?), mucus block bronchioles, reduce number of alveoli, reducing surface area for gas exchange. Digestion mucus blocks pancreatic duct, enzymes cant reach small intestine, food not properly digested, can lead to diabetes by damage to insulin producing cells. Reproduction mucus can block cervix preventing entry of sperm, in men the sperm duct is either missing or blocked with mucus.

UNIT 2: DEVELOPMENT, PLANTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT TOPIC 3

Cells and Organelles
Nucleus

Its function is to control the cell's activities and retain the chromosomes. The nucleus is bound by a double membrane, the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope has pores in it to allow the transport of mRNA. The cytoplasm like material is called nucleoplasm which contains chromatin (coils of DNA and histone proteins), it is chromatin that condenses to form chromosomes during cell division.

Within the nucleus is a small spherical body called the nucleolus which manufactures RNA to from ribosomes. Ribosomes

Are very small organelles but are present in large numbers. They are made up of two subunits, the large subunit and the small subunit. 70s ribosomes are found in prokaryotes whilst 80s ribosomes are found in eukaryotes. They are involved in protein synthesis. They can either be found free in the cytoplasm or on the outer surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Mitochondria

Aerobic respiration occurs here producing ATP (the energy currency of the cell). They have a highly folded inner membrane which provides a large surface area for the respiration reactions. Some reactions also take place in the matrix (Kreb's cycle) as well as the cytosol of the cytoplasm. The number of mitochondria varies from cell to cell. More are found in cells with greater ATP requirements these are; cells that move a lot (sperm, muscle), cells with a high metabolic rate (liver) and cells that carry out active transport (small intestine). Endoplasmic reticulum Is an elaborate system of membrane bound sacs (cisternae) that are often continuous with the Golgi body and the nuclear envelope. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Rough ER (rER) - has ribosomes lining it and is involved in protein synthesis as a transport system

Smooth ER (sER) - lacks ribosomes and is involved in the synthesis and transport of lipids

Golgi Apparatus Is a collection of flattened membrane bound sacs that are constantly forming on one side and budding off as vesicles on the other. Its functions are:

to package proteins for secretion to secrete carbohydrates to produce glycoproteins to transport and store lipids to form lysosomes

Lysosomes

They are membrane bound vesicles which contain digestive enzymes. They are especially abundant in secretory cells and phagocytic blood cells. Its functions are to:

digest material from the environment. Useful chemicals are absorbed into cytoplasm and waste is egested by exocytosis e.g white blood cells and bacteria digest damaged or worn out organelles (autophagy). After cell death they completely breakdown the cell (autolysis) release their enzymes outside the cell (exocytosis) in order to breakdown other cells.

Other organelles Peroxisomes - protect the cell from it's own production of hydrogen peroxide (which is produced by white blood cells). It makes oxidative enzymes that break hydrogen peroxide into water and hydrogen Secretory Vesicles - neurotransmitters are packaged in secretory vesicles at the Golgi apparatus. The vesicles are then transported to the cell surface from release Microtubules - move vesicles, granules and organelles via special attachment proteins. They may work alone or join with proteins to form more complex structures e.g cilia, flagella or centrioles. Centrioles - during cell division they migrate to opposite poles of the cell where they synthesis the microtubules of the spindle. Plant cell organelles Chloroplasts

Photosynthesis takes place here. It involves the production of sugars and other substances from carbon dioxide and water using light energy trapped by chloroplasts. They are bound by a double membrane called the chloroplast envelope. Inside is a colourless matrix called the stroma, floating in the stroma are thylakoids which are stacked to form a granum. Granum are interconnected by tubular extensions called intergranlar lamellea. Starch grains are present and they act as a temporary store for starch that is produced during photosynthesis. Vacuole

They are a fluid filled sac bound by a single membrane called the tonoplast In plants the vacuole is large and permanent. The vacuole is filled with cell sap, a concentrated solution which acts as a storage site fro chemicals, mineral salts, dissolved gasses, wastes and pigments. Their function is to provide support ,especially in young tissues, and to store soluble food.

Cell walls

Adjacent plant cells are connected as their cell walls are fused together. The middle lamella connects adjacent cell walls. The adjacent cells are connected by a plasmodesmata (strands of cytoplasm). The cell wall is made up to cellulose microfibriles embedded in a polysaccharide background matrix. The cellulose fibres have a high tensile strength and the background matrix transfer stress to the microfibrils making it very strong. ( example is reinforced concrete) The functions of a cell wall are:

to provide strength and support to permit the movement of water from cell to cell Tissues A tissues is a group of cells and their inter-cellular substances which are linked together and perform a particular function. Some tissues may be made up of a single type of cell whilst others have more than one type of cell included.

An organ is composed of different tissues that are co-ordinated to perform a function Organs work together as a single unit or organ system Organisms are made up of a number of different systems working together. In animals there are four main groups of tissues:

Epithelia - covers body surface and forms the lining of internal cavities. Major functions include protection, secretion, absorption and filtration. Connective - supports and protects. The main proteins in connective tissues are collagen and elastin Muscle - provides stability to skeleton and organs as well as allowing movement. 3 types of muscle; cardiac, skeletal and smooth Nervous - receives stimuli and conducts impulses to and from all parts of the body In plants the types of tissue is split up into simple and compound Simple

Parenchyma - wound healing and regeneration. Forms the most edible part of the plant Collenchyma - provides structural support and flexible support for organs, leaves and flowers Sclerenchyma - offers support and makes the seed coats, the shell of nuts and the stone of fruit Compound

Xylem - carries water and dissolved substances Phloem - carries dissolved food substances

Cellular organization
Cells are specialised to perform specific functions. Similar cells are then grouped together into tissues, tissues into organs and organs into organ systems for increased efficiency. Cell Differentiation

Single-celled organisms perform all essential life functions inside the boundaries of a single cell. Although they perform all functions adequately, they cannot be totally efficient at all of them, because each function requires a different type of cellular structure. For example, one activity may be best carried out by a long, thin cell, while another might suit a spherically shaped cell. No one cell can provide the best conditions for all functions, for this reason the cells of multicellular organisms are adapted in different ways to perform a particular role. All cells in an organism are identical; but as it matures, each cell takes on its own individual characteristics that suit it to the function that it will perform when it is mature - the cell becomes specialized; this is known as cell differentiation. All cells in an organism are derived by mitotic divisions of the fertilized eggs and all cells contain exactly the same genes. Cells become differentiated because; only a few of the genes that the cell possess are switched on (expressed). Different genes are switch on (expressed) in each type of differentiated cell, the rest of the genes are switched off.

Both shape and number of organelles within each cell varies from cell to cell, e.g. muscle or sperm cell have many mitochondria, while a bone cell has very few. The cells of a multicellular organism have therefore evolved to become more and more suited to one specialised function, and so have lost the ability to carry out other functions. They are therefore dependent on other cells to carry out these activities for them, as they are specially adapted for their own particular function and perform it more effectively. Tissues Tissues are a collection of similar cells that perform a specific function. Examples of tissues include:

Epithelial tissues: These are found in animals and consist of sheets of cells. They line the surfaces of organs and often have a protective secretory function. There are many types, including those made up of thin, flat cells that line organs where diffusion takes place, e.g. the alveoli of the lungs and ciliated epithelium that lines a duct, such as the trachea. The cilia are used to move mucus over the epithelial surface. Xylem: These are found in plants and are made up of a number of cell types. It is used to transport water and minerals ions throughout the plant. The xylem is also used for structural support. Organs An organ is a combination of tissues that are coordinated to perform a variety of functions; but they often have one predominant major function. An example for animals is the stomach, which carries out digestion of certain foods. It is made up of tissues such as:

Muscle to churn and mix the stomach contents. Epithelium to protect the stomach wall and produce secretions. Connective tissue to hold together the other tissues. In plants an example is the leaf, it is made up of the following tissues:

Palisade mesophyll made up of leaf palisade cells that carry out photosynthesis. Spongy mesophyll adapted for gaseous exchange. Epidermis to protect the leaf and allow gaseous exchange. Phloem to transport organic materials away from the leaf. Xylem to transport water and ions into the leaf. Organ Systems Organs work together as a single unit known as organ systems. These systems are grouped together to perform particular functions more efficiently. Examples of organ systems:

The digestive system - digests and processes food. It is made up of organs that include the salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, pancreas and liver. The respiratory system - used for breathing and gas exchange. It is made up of organs that include the trachea, bronchi and lungs. The circulatory system - pumps and circulates blood. It is made up of organs that include the heart, arteries and veins.

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

DNA replication ( HAS TO REPLICATE BEFORE NUCLEAR DIVISION ) Nuclear Division = process by which nuclei divide there are two types ; meosis and mitosis. INTERPHASE DNA replication occurs in the S phase of interphase - ITS NOT PART OF MITOSIS. This is because no division takes place just cell growth an replication in prepearation for mitosis stages of interphase include: G1- growth of cells S- replication of DNA ( semiconservative synthesis)

G2- preparation for mitosis - cell keeps growing) S phase and DNA Replication Major player of DNA replication; Original Dna Strand - used as a template to build new molecule of DNA. Helicase- a protein that 'unzips' DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds Free nuclotides- unused nucleotides floating in the cytoplasm is used to build new DNa Process Helicase unwinds the template DNA and DNA polymerase binds to each single strand and adds the matching loose nucleotides by frming hydrogen bonds between the matching bases. DNA polymerase then releases and two DNA strands are produced. Each DNA strand contains one strand from the original DNA and one new strand. Mitosis Prophase chromosomes become visible centrioles (protein) move to opposite end of the cell forming spindle fibres nucleolar envelope breaks down and the nucleolus dissapears chromosome lie free in the cytoplasm Metaphase chromosomes line up on the equator of th cell they become attatched to the spindle fibre by their centromere Anaphase centromere divides seperating pairs of sister chromatids the spindle contracts and chromatids are pulled to opposite ends centromere first Telophase chromatids reach opposite poles on the spindle and uncoil to form chromosomes a nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes and the nucleolus reforms the spindle breaks down and two nuclei are formed cytoplasm divides creating two daughter cells that are genetically identical NB: an acroynm to remember the order is I Pray More At Tylers

Meiosis and Genetic Variation

DNA from One Generation is passed to the next by Gametes

Gametes are the sperm cells in males and egg cells in females. They join together at fertilisation to form a zygote, which divides and develops into a new organism. Normal body cells have the diploid number (2n) of chromosomes - meaning each cell contains two of each chromosomes, one from the mum and one from the dad. Gametes have a haploid (n) number of chromosomes - there's only one copy of each chromosome. At fertilisation, a haploid fuses with a haploid egg, making a cell with the normal diploid number of chromosomes. Half these chromosomes are from the father (the sperm) and half are from the mother (the egg). Gametes are formed by Meiosis Meiosis is a type of cell division. Cells that divide by meiosis are diploid to start with, but the cells that are formed from meiosis are haploid - the chromosomes number halves. Without meiosis, you'd get double the number of chromosomes when the gametes fused. 1) The DNA unravels and replicates so there are are two copies of each chromosome, called chromatids. 2) The DNA condenses to form double-armed chromosomes, made from two sister chromatids. 3) Meiosis I (first division) - the chromosomes arrange themselves into homologous pairs. 4) These homologous pairs are then separated, halving the chromosomes number. 5) Meiosis II (second division) - the pairs of sister chromatids that make up each chromosome are separated. 6) Four haploid cells (gametes) that are genetically different from each other are produced. Chromatides Cross Over in Meiosis I

During meiosis I, homologous pairs of chromosomes come together and pair up. The chromosomes twist around each other and bits of chromatids swap over. The chromatids still contain the same genes but now have a different combination of alleles. Meiosis produces cells that are Genetically Different There are two main events during meiosis that lead to genetic variation: 1) Crossing over of chromatids The crossing over of chromatids in meiosis I means that each of the four daughter cells formed from meiosis contain chromatids with different alleles. 2) Independent segregation of chromosomes

The four daughter cells formed from meiosis have completely different combinations of chromosomes. All your cells have a combination of chromosomes from your parents, half from your mum (maternal) and half from your dad (paternal). When the gametes are produced, different combinations of those maternal and paternal chromosomes go into each cell. This is called independant segregation (separation) of the chromosomes.

Fertilization
Mammalian fertilization 1) The sperm is attracted to the ovum by chemical hormones released by the follicle cells 2) The chemicals become stronger triggering the acrosome reaction 3) The Acrosome swells up with hydrolytic enzymes 4) The acrosome bursts 5) The hydrolytic enzymes digest through the follicle cells, and the Zona Pellucida becomes 6) Sperm and ovum haploid nucleus fuse together 7) Specialized lysosomes called 'cortical granules' are released to thicken the zona pellucida, this prevents polyspermy Plant Fertilization

surrounding the ovum

hydrolysed

In plants: In flowering plants, nuclei from the gametes also have to combine in the process of fertilization. fertilization takes place in the embryo sac within the ovule the pollen grain germinates on the style a pollen tube grows down through the style towards the ovary, with its growth controlled by the tube nucleus. the pollen grain contains two nuclei ( the tube nucleus and the generative nucleus on germination of the pollen, the generative nucleus divides to form two haploid gamete nuclei which move down the pollen tube. the tube grows through a microscopic pore into the embryo sac and the two male gamete nuclei enter the sac. one fuses with the egg cell and forms a diploid zygote the second fuses with two nuclei in the embryo sac called polar nuclei to form a triploid cell. This diploid zygote divides to form the embryo. The triploid cell divides to form the seed's storage tissue, endosperm.

Stem cells and cell specialization

Stem cells are unspecialised and can develop into any cell, these can be found: 1. In the first few days of an embryo's life. 2. In adults they're only found in a few places e.g. Bone Marrow but are limited to what they can develop into. Differentiation is the process whereby stem cells become specialised: In the bone marrow of an adults main bones stem cells divide and differentiate to replace erythrocytes (red blood cells) and neutrophils (infection fighting white blood cells). In plants that are growing new shoots/stems, Cambuim contains the stem cells that differentiate into Xylem and Phloem: 1. Cambium cells divide and differentiate. 2. Over time they differentiate on either side of the Cambium into the Xylem vessels and sieve tube elements. 3. Because of the way they differentiate, Cambium forms a ring inside the roots and shoots.

Examples of specialised cells. In Humans: Neutrophils have a flexible shape that allows them to ingest pathogens. Lysosomes are present so that they can digest them. Erythrocytes car Oxygen and have a biconcave shape providing a large surface area for gas exchange. The have no nucleus which allows for more Haemoglobin. Epithelial Cells cover organ surfaces with interlinking surface membranes; some have cilia to beat the particles away. Others have microvilli to increase their surface area e.g. in the small intestine. Sperm cells have a flagellum enabling them to swim,, there are lots of mitochondria to make release energy. The Acrosome at the head has a digestive enzyme to penetrate the egg.

In Plants: Palisade mesophyll cells in leave carry out much of the photosynthesis that occurs in the plant. The contain lots of chloroplasts and have a thin cell wall to allow Carbon Dioxide to diffuse in. Root hair cells have a large surface area with a thin permeable cell wall. The cytoplasm contains extra mitochondria to provide energy for active transport. Guard cells in the stomata. In light conditions they take up water and become turgid, thin outer and thicker inner walls forces them to bend open to allow gas exchange. Embryonic Stem Cells 1) Totipotent stem cells can 'give rise to/ differentiate' into all cell types, into a whole new individual 2) They are not differentiated, (unspecialized) 3) Totipotent stem cells occur between the 1 to 8 cell stage 4) All the genes are switched on, and 'potentially active' 5) Source of totipotent stem cells are from: left over from IVF treatment trials, and cord blood from the umbilical cord 6) They are in a dividing state (mitosis)

Variation in Phenotype
It is the outward expression of a cell/organism due to interaction of genotype/environment. 1) Genotype Seeds taken from mature plants (seeds will genetically be different) Supply seeds with same environmental conditions (keeping all environmental variables constant) Allows to grow into plants Observing differences height etc. 2) Environment Plant clones are used (no genetic difference in plants) All environmental conditions kept the same except one (altering only one environmental factor) Allow to grow into plants Observe any differences (any differences must be due to that altered

Mitosis & Meiosis (THOROUGH)

G1 - first gap

S - DNA synthesis (replication) G2 - second gap M - mitosis

The Cell Cycle

mitosis - nuclear/chemical events resulting in two daughter nuclei which have identical genetic material to each other and to the mother cell cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm. This usually occurs with mitosis, but in some organisms this is not so

Mitosis

The stages of the cell cycle can be broken down into six stages: o Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

Interphase

is the "resting" or non-mitotic portion of the cell cycle. It is comprised of G1, S, and G2 stages of the cell cycle. DNA is replicated during the S phase of Interphase

Prophase - the first stage of mitosis.

The chromosomes condense and become visible The centrioles form and move toward opposite ends of the cell ("the poles") The nuclear membrane dissolves The mitotic spindle forms (from the centrioles in animal cells) Spindle fibers from each centriole attach to each sister chromatid at the kinetochore

Compare Prophase to the Prophase I and to the Prophase II stages of mitosis.

Metaphase

The Centrioles complete their migration to the poles The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell ("the equator")

Compare Metaphase to the Metaphase I and to the Metaphase II stages of mitosis.

Anaphase

Spindles attached to kinetochores begin to shorten. This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pulls them apart. Spindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling chromatids to opposite poles. This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes

Compare Anaphase to the Anaphase I and to the Anaphase II stages of mitosis.

Telophase

The chromosomes decondense The nuclear envelope forms Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two daughter cells

Compare Telophase to the Telophase I and to the Telophase II stages of mitosis.

Meiosis Meiosis Is a Special Type of Cell Division That Occurs in Sexually Reproducing Organisms Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half, enabling sexual recombination to occur. Meiosis of diploid cells produces haploid daughter cells, which may function as gametes. Gametes undergo fertilization, restoring the diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote Meiosis and fertilization introduce genetic variation in three ways: Crossing over between homologous chromosomes at prophase I. Independent assortment of homologous pairs at metaphase I: Each homologous pair can orient in either of two ways at the plane of cell division. The total number of possible outcomes = 2n (n = number of haploid chromosomes). Random chance fertilization between any one female gamete with any other male gamete. The Role of Sexual Reproduction in Evolution Sexual reproduction in a population should decline in frequency relative to asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction. No males are needed, all individuals can produce offspring. Sexual reproduction. Only females can produce offspring, therefore fewer are produced. Sexual reproduction may exist because it provides genetic variability that reduces susceptibility of a population to pathogen attack.

Stages 1) Meiosis I Prophase I - most of the significant processes of Meiosis occur during Prophase I

The chromosomes condense and become visible The centrioles form and move toward the poles The nuclear membrane begins to dissolve The homologs pair up, forming a tetrad o Each tetrad is comprised of four chromotids - the two homologs, each with their sister chromatid Homologous chromosomes will swap genetic material in a process known as crossing over (abbreviated as XO) o Crossing over serves to increase genetic diversity by creating four unique chromatids

Crossing Over

Genetic material from the homologous chromosomes is randomly swapped This creates four unique chromatids Since each chromatid is unique, the overall genetic diversity of the gametes is greatly increased

Metaphase I

Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres The tetrads line up along the cell equator

Compare Metaphase I to Metaphase II and to the Metaphase stage of mitosis.

Anaphase I

The centromeres break and homologous chromosomes separate (note that the sister chromatids are still attached) Cytokinesis begins

Compare Anaphase I to Anaphase II and to the Anaphase stage of mitosis.

Telophase I

The chromosomes may decondense (depends on species) Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two haploid daughter cells

Compare Telophase I to Telophase II and to the Telophase stage of mitosis.

MEIOSIS II

Prophase II

Centrioles form and move toward the poles The nuclear membrane dissolves

Compare Prophase II to Prophase I and to the Prophase stage of mitosis.

Metaphase II

Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres The sister chromatids line up along the cell equator

Compare Metaphase II to Metaphase I and to the Metaphase stage of mitosis.

Anaphase II

The centromeres break and sister chromatids separate Cytokinesis begins

Compare Anaphase II to Anaphase I and to the Anaphase stage of mitosis.

Telophase II

The chromosomes may decondense (depends on species) Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating four haploid daughter cells

Compare Telophase II to Telophase I and to the Telophase stage of mitosis.

A Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis

TOPIC 4