MOLDOVA STATE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES

ENGLISH PHILOLOGY DEPARTMENT

A READER IN ENGLISH STYLISTICS

CHIINU

2005

D.MELENCIUC. A Reader i E !"i#$ S%&"i#%i'#. ( M)"d)*a S%a%e U i*er#i%&+ 2005. A"',%-i%)r. D-/i%r- MELENCIUC. S%i"i#%i'a "i/0ii e !"e1e 2're#%)/a3ie4 ( USM+ 2005.

INTRODUCTION This reader is a collection of theoretical materials and practical exercises intended as an aid in teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students to supplement the theoretical Course in Modern English Stylistics, which forms part of the curriculum for the English section of the Department of English Philology at Moldova State University, aculty of oreign !anguages and !iteratures" The material is divided into several parts, each providing exercises, test #uestions, tas$s and topics for discussion" Most of the materials are %orrowed from &Seminars in Style' %y (")"*u$haren$o +Moscow, ,-.,/, &Stylistics' %y 0"1"2alperin +Moscow, ,-.,/, &)n Essay in Stylistic )nalysis' %y 0"1" 2alperin +Moscow, ,-34/, &Comparativistics' %y D"Melenciuc +Chi5in6u, CEP USM, 7889/" Most of the examples come from newspapers and fiction written %y )%rahams, P" )ddison, :oseph )ldington, 1ichard )ldridge, :ames )scham, 1oger )llot, *enneth )ustin, :ane ;eaumont, rancis ;rown, Carter ;unyan, :ohn ;urns, 1o%ert ;yron, 2eorge 2ordon Carlyle, Thomas Carroll, !ewis Coleridge, Samuel Taylor Cronin, )rchi%ald :" Cummings, Edward Defoe, Daniel Dic$ens, Charles Dreiser, Theodore Elyot, Thomas Empson, <illiam ielding, =enry ord, !eslie rost, 1o%ert 2alsworthy, :ohn 2oldsmith, >liver 2reen, =enry, >", =emingway, Ernest =eym, Stefan =ood, Thomas :ames, =enry :erome *" :erome :ones, :ames *ipling, 1udyard !essing, Doris !ondon, :ac$ !ongfellow, =enry !yiy, :ohn Marlowe, Christopher Mar$ Twain Maugham, Somerset >?=ara, :ohn @AB, Edgar, )llan Pope, )lexander Prichard, *atherine Salinger, :" D" Scott, <alter Sha$espeare, <illiam Shaw, ;ernard Shelley, Percy ;ysshe Southey, 1o%ert Sterne, !aurence Stevenson, 1" !" Swift, :onathan Swin%urne, )lgernon Charles Thac$eray, <illiam Ma$epeace <hitman, <alt <ilde, >scar <ilson, Mitchel <ordsworth, <illiam, etc"

GENERAL NOTES ON STYLE AND STYLISTICS

The su%Cect of #%&"i#%i'# has so far not %een definitely outlined" irst of all there is confusion %etween the terms #%&"e and #%&"i#%i'#" The first concept is so %road that it is hardly possi%le to regard it as a term" <e spea$ of style in architecture, literature, %ehaviour, linguistics, dress and in other fields of human activity" Even in linguistics the word style is used so widely that it needs interpretation" The maCority of linguists who deal with the su%Cect of style agree that the term applies to the following fields of investigationD ,/ the aesthetic function of language, 7/ expressive means in language, 9/ synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea, E/ emotional colouring in language, F/ a system of special devices called stylistic devices, 3/ the splitting of the literary language into separate su%systems called styles, ./ the interrelation %etween language and thought and 4/ the individual manner of an author in ma$ing use of language" The term style is also applied to the teaching of how to write clearly, simply and emphatically" This purely utilitarian approach to the pro%lem of style stems from the practical necessity to achieve correctness in writing and avoid am%iguity" These heterogeneous applications of the word style in linguistics have given rise to different points of view as to what is the domain of stylistics" There is a widely held view that style is the correspondence %etween thought and its expression" The notion is %ased on the assumption that of the two functions of language, viG" communication and expression of ideas" !anguage is said to have two functionsD it serves as a means of communication and also as a means of shaping one?s thoughts" The first function is called ')//- i'a%i*e+ the second H e56re##i*e+ sentences specially arranged to convey the ideas and also to get the desired response" 0ndeed, every sentence uttered may %e characterised from two sidesD ,/ whether or not the string of language forms expressed is something wellH$nown and therefore easily understood and to some extent predicta%le, 7/ whether or not the string of language forms is %uilt anewI is, as it were, an innovation made on the spur of the moment, which re#uires a definite effort on the part of the listener to get at the meaning of the utterance, and is therefore unpredicta%le"

0n connection with the second function of language, there arises the pro%lem of the interrelation %etween the thought and its expression" The expression of the thought, the utterance, is viewed from the angle of the $ind of relations there may %e %etween the language units and the categories of thin$ing" The concept of this interrelation has given %irth to a num%er of wellH$nown epigrams and sententious maxims" =ere are some, which have %ecome a $ind of a"%er e!) of the word style" JStyle is a #uality of language which communicates precisely emotions or thoughts, or a system of emotions or thoughts, peculiar to the author"J J""" a true idiosyncrasy of style is the result of an author?s success in compelling language to conform to his mode of experience"J JThought and speech are insepara%le from each other" Matter and expression are parts of oneD spea$ing is a thin$ing out into language"J +Kewman/ J)s your idea?s clear or else o%scure, The expression follows, perfect or impure"J +;oileau/ Many great minds have made valua%le o%servations on the interrelation %etween thought and expression" The main trend in most of these o%servations may %e summarised as followsD the linguistic form of the idea expressed always reflects the peculiarities of the thought, and vice versa, the character of the thought will always in a greater or lesser degree manifest itself in the language forms chosen for the expression of the idea" 0n this connection the following #uotation is interestingD JTo finish and complete your thoughtL """=ow long it ta$es, how rare it is, what an immense delightL """)s soon as a thought has reached its full perfection, the word springs into %eing, offers itself, and clothes the thought"J +:ou%ert/ That thought and expression are insepara%le from each other is a wellHesta%lished fact" ;ut to regard this as the true essence of style is misleading, inasmuch as what is mainly a psychological pro%lem has %een turned into a linguistic one" =owever, although the insepara%ility of thought and expression is mainly the domain of logic and psychology, it must not %e completely excluded from the o%servation of a stylicist" The character of the interrelation %etween the thought and its expression may sometimes explain the author?s preference for one language form over another" The linguistic pro%lem of thought and expression, mista$enly referred to as one of the pro%lems of style, has given rise to another interpretation of the word #%&"e" The term is applied to the system of idiosyncrasies peculiar to one or another writer, and especially to writers who are recogniGed as possessing an ingenious turn of mind" This generally accepted notion has further contri%uted to the general

confusion as to how it should %e understood and applied" 0t is only lately that the addition of the attri%utive ?individual? has somehow clarified the notion, though it has not put a stop to further am%iguity" The term i di*id-a" #%&"e is applied to that sphere of linguistic and literary science, which deals with the peculiarities of a writer?s individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect he desires" Deli%erate choice must %e distinguished from a ha%itual idiosyncrasy in the use of language unitsI every individual has his own manner of using them" Manner is not individual style inasmuch as the word style presupposes a deli%erate choice" 0n order to distinguish something that is natural from something that is the result of long and perhaps painful experience, two separate terms must %e used, otherwise the confusion will grow deeper" <hen ;utton coined his famous saying which, due to its epigrammatical form, %ecame a %yHword all over the worldD JStyle is the man himselfJ H he had in mind those #ualities of speech which are inherent and which reveal a man?s %reeding, education, social standing, etc" )ll this is undou%tedly interwoven with individual style" ) man?s %reeding and education will always tell on his turn of mind and therefore will naturally %e revealed in his speech and writing" =owever a definite line of demarcation must %e drawn %etween that which is deli%erately done, in other words, that which is the result of the writer?s choice and, on the other hand, that which comes natural as an idiosyncrasy of utterance" Correspondingly, let us agree to name individual choice of language means, particularly in writing, i di*id-a" #%&"e and inherent, natural idiosyncrasies of speech i di*id-a" /a er" 0ndividual style is sometimes identified with style in general" This, as has already %een pointed out, is the result of the general confusion as to the meaning and application of the term style" The notion of individual style extends much %eyond the domain of linguistics" 0t is here that the two separate %ranches of human $nowledge, literature and linguistics come to grips in the most peculiar form" ) writer?s world outloo$ is one" of the essential constituents of his individual style" ;ut world outloo$ cannot %e included in the field of language investigation" !i$ewise the literary compositional design of a writer?s wor$ cannot %e su%Cected to linguistic analysis, although this is also one of the constituents of a writer?s individual style" 0t follows then that individual style cannot %e analysed without an understanding of these and other component parts, which are not purely linguistic" Therefore Middleton Murry

Custly arrives at the conclusion that J""" to Cudge style primarily %y an analysis of language is almost on a level with Cudging a man %y his clothes"J Kevertheless, analysis of an author?s language seems to %e the most important aspect in estimating his individual style" That this is a fact is not only %ecause the language reflects to a very considera%le extent the idea of the wor$ as a whole, %ut %ecause writers unwittingly contri%ute greatly to esta%lishing the system and norms of the literary language of a given period" 0n order to compel the language to serve his purpose, the writer draws on its potential resources in a way, which is impossi%le in ordinary speech" The essential property of a truly individual style is its permanence" 0t has great powers of endurance" 0t is easily remem%ered and therefore yields itself to repetition" Due to the careful selection of language forms it is easily recogniGa%le" Moreover, the form of the wor$, or in other words, the manner of using the language in which the ideas are wrought, assumes far greater significance than in any other style of language" 0t is sometimes even considered as something independent of meaning, i"e" of any idea" There are some critics who maintain that form is of paramount importance, and that in proper situations it can generate meaning" !eaving aside exaggeration of this $ind, it is however necessary to point out that in %ellesHlettres manner of expression may contri%ute considera%ly to the meaning of the smaller units in writing +phrase, sentence, paragraph/" This will %e shown later when we come to analyse the linguistic nature and functions of stylistic devices" Selection, or deli%erate choice of language, which we hold to %e the main distinctive feature of individual style, inevita%ly %rings up the #uestion of norms" 0n the literary language the )r/ is the invariant of the phonemic, morphological, lexical and syntactical patterns in circulation during a given period in the development of the given language" (ariants of these patterns may sometimes diverge from the invariant, %ut never sufficiently to %ecome unrecogniGa%le or misleading" The development of any literary language shows that the variants +of the levels enumerated a%ove/ will always centre around the axis of the invariant forms" The variants, as the term itself suggests, will never detach themselves from the invariant to such a degree as to claim entire independence" Met, nevertheless, there is a tendency to estimate the value of individual style %y the degree it violates the norms of the language" J0t is in the %reach or neglect of the rules that govern the structure of clauses, sentences, and paragraphs that the real secret of style consists,

and to illustrate this %reach or o%servation is less easyJ, writes 2eorge Saints%ury" Nuite a different point of view is expressed %y E" Sapir, who states that """the greatestHor shall we say the most satisfyingH literary artists, the Sha$espeares and =eines, are those who have $nown su%consciously how to fit or trim the deeper intuition to the provincial accents of their daily speech" 0n them there is no effect or strain" Their personal JintuitionJ appears as a completed synthesis of the a%solute art of intuition and the innate, specialiGed art of the linguistic medium"J The pro%lem of variants or deviations from the norms of the literary language has long %een under o%servation" 0t is the inade#uacy of the concept norm that causes controversy" )t every period in the development of a literary language there must %e a tangi%le norm, which first of all mar$s the difference %etween literary and nonHliterary language" ) too rigorous adherence to the norm %rands the writer?s language as %oo$ish, no matter whether it is a #uestion of speech or writing" ;ut on the other hand, neglect of the norm will always %e regarded with suspicion as %eing an attempt to violate the esta%lished signals of the language code, which facilitate and accelerate the process of communication" The freer the handling of the norms the more difficult is the exchange of thoughts and ideas" The use of variants to the norms accepted at a given stage of language development is not only permissi%le %ut to a very considera%le extent indispensa%le" (ariants interacting with invariants will guarantee the potentialities of the language for enrichment to a degree, which no artificial coinage will ever %e a%le to reach" The norm of the language always presupposes a recogniGed or re'ei*ed #%a dard" )t the same time, it li$ewise presupposes vacillations from the received standard" The pro%lem, therefore, is to esta%lish the range of permissi%le vacillations" There is a constant process of gradual change ta$ing place in the forms and meaning of the forms of language at any given period in the development of the language" 0t is therefore most important to understand the received standard of the given period in the language in order to comprehend the direction of its further progress" Some people thin$ that one has to possess what is called a feeling for the language in order to %e a%le to understand the norm of the language and its possi%le variants" ;ut it is not so much the feeling of the language as the $nowledge of the laws of its functioning and of its history which counts" <hen the feeling of the norm, which grows with the $nowledge of the laws of the language, is instilled in the mind, one %egins to appreciate the %eauty of Custifia%le fluctuations" ;ut the

norm can %e grasped and esta%lished only when there are deviations from it" 0t is, therefore, %est perceived in com%ination with something that %rea$s it" 0n this connection the following lines from !" (" Scher%a?s wor$ OCnopPQB ;onpocQ pyccRAS rpaTTUVWRWX are worth #uotingD J""" in order to achieve a free command of a literary language, even one?s own, one must read widely, giving preference to those writers who deviate %ut slightly from the norm"J JKeedless to say, all deviations are to some extent normaliGedD not every existing deviation from the norm is goodI at any rate, not in all circumstances" The feeling for what is permissi%le and what is not, and mainlyHa feeling for the inner sense of these deviations +and senseless ones, as has %een pointed out, are naturally %ad/, is developed through an extensive study of our great 1ussian literature in all its variety, %ut of course in its %est examples"J Katurally, there are no writers who do not deviate from the esta%lished norms of the language H they would %e un%eara%ly tedious if there were" >nly when the feeling of the norm is well developed, does one %egin to feel the charm of motivated deviations from the norm" Then !" (" Scher%a adds an explanation, which throws light on the pro%lem of deviation from the norm from the point of view of the conditions under which a deviation may ta$e placeD J0 say Custifia%le or ?motivated? %ecause %ad writers fre#uently ma$e use of deviations from the norm which are not motivated or Custified %y the su%Cect matter H that is why they are considered %ad writers"J K" :" Shvedova in her interesting article on the interrelation %etween the general and the individual in the language of a writer statesD JThe language of a writer is a peculiar, creatively wor$ed out concentration of the expressive means of the common language, which have undergone special literary treatmentD it is a reflection of the common language of the given period, %ut a prismatic reflection, in which the language units have %een selected and com%ined individually, their interrelation %eing seen through the prism of the writer?s world outloo$, his aim and his s$ill" The language of a writer reflects the tendencies of the common language"J <hat we call here individual style, therefore, is a uni#ue com%ination of the language units, expressive means and stylistic devices of a language peculiar to a given writer, which ma$es that writer?s wor$s or utterances easily recogniGa%le" =ence individual style may %e li$ened to a proper name" 0t has a nominal character" 0t is %ased on a thorough $nowledge of the contemporary literary language and of earlier periods in its development as well" 0t allows certain

deviations from the esta%lished norms" This, needless to say, presupposes a perfect $nowledge of the invariants of the norms" 0ndividual style re#uires to %e studied in a course of stylistics in so far as it ma$es use of the potentialities of language means, whatever the character of these potentialities may %e" )nother commonly accepted connotation of the term style is e/0e""i#$/e % )7 "a !-a!e. This concept is popular and is upheld in some of the scientific papers on literary criticism" !anguage and style are regarded as separate %odies" !anguage can easily dispense with style, which is li$ened to the trimming on a dress" Moreover, style as an em%ellishment of language is viewed as something that hinders understanding" 0t is alien to language and therefore is identified with falsehood" 0n its extreme, style may dress the thought in such fancy attire that one can hardly get at the idea hidden %ehind the ela%orate design of tric$y stylistic devices" This notion presupposes the use of %are language forms deprived of any stylistic devices, of any expressive means deli%erately employed" 0n this connection Middleton Murry writesD JThe notion that style is applied ornament had its origin, no dou%t, in the tradition of the school of rhetoric in Europe, and in its place in their teaching" The conception was not so monstrous as it is today" or the old professors of rhetoric were exclusively engaged in instructing their pupils how to expound an argument or arrange a pleading" Their classification of rhetorical devices was undou%tedly formal and extravagant""" The conception of style as applied ornament""" is the most popular of all delusions a%out style"J Perhaps it is due to this notion that the word JstyleJ itself still %ears a somewhat derogatory meaning" 0t is associated with the idea of something pompous, showy, artificial, something that is set against simplicity, truthfulness, the natural" Sha$espeare was a determined enemy of all $inds of em%ellishments of language" To call style em%ellishment of language is to add further am%iguity to the already existing confusion" ) very popular notion among practical linguists, teachers of language, is that style is the %e'$ i8-e )7 e56re##i) . 0n this sense style is generally defined as the a%ility to write clearly, correctly and in a manner calculated to interest the reader" Though the last re#uirement is not among the indispensa%les, it is still found in many practical manuals on style" Style in this utilitarian sense should %e taught, %ut it %elongs to the realm of grammar, and not to stylistics" 0t is sometimes, and more correctly, called composition" Style as the techni#ue of expression studies the normalised forms of the language" 0t sets up a num%er of rules as to how to spea$ and write,

and discards all $inds of deviations as %eing violations of the norm" The norm itself %ecomes rigid, selfHsustained and, to a very great extent, inflexi%le" =er%ert Spencerl writesD J""" there can %e little #uestion that good composition is far less dependent upon ac#uaintance with its laws, than upon practice and natural aptitude" ) clear head, a #uic$ imagination and a sensitive ear, will go far towards ma$ing all rhetorical precepts needless" =e who daily hears and reads wellHframed sentences, will naturally more or less tend to use similar ones"J The utilitarian approach to the pro%lem is also felt in the following statement %y E" :" Dunsany, an 0rish dramatist and writer of short storiesD J<hen you can with difficulty write anything clearly, simply, and emphatically, then, provided that the difficulty is not apparent to the reader, that is style" <hen you can do it easily, that is genius"J (" 2" ;elins$y also distinguished two aspects of style, ma$ing a hard and fast distinction %etween the technical and the creative power of any utterance" JTo language merits %elong correctness, clearness and fluency,J he states, J#ualities which can %e achieved %y any talentless writer %y means of la%our and routine"J J;ut style H is talent itself, the very thought"?? 0n traditional 1ussian linguistics there are also adherents of this utilitarian approach to the pro%lem of style" or instance, Prof" 2voGdev thin$s that JStylistics has a practical value, teaching students to master the language, wor$ing out a conscious approach to languageJ" 0n England there are in fact two schools of stylistics H the one represented %y Prof" Middleton Murry whom we have already cited and the other, that of Prof" !ucas" Prof" Murry regards style as individual form of expression" Prof" !ucas considers style from the purely practical aspect" =e states that the aims of a course in style areD Ja/ to teach to write and spea$ well, %/ to improve the style of the writer, and c/ to show him means of improving his a%ility to express his ideasJ" 0t is important to note that what we here call the practical approach to the pro%lem of style should not %e regarded as something erroneous" 0t is #uite a legitimate concept of the general theory of style" =owever, the notion of style cannot %e reduced to the merely practical aspect %ecause in this case a theoretical %ac$ground, which is a verified foundation for each and every practical understanding, will never %e wor$ed out" :ust as the relations %etween lexicology and lexicography are accepted to %e those of theory and practice, so theoretical and practical stylistics should %e regarded as two interdependent %ranches of linguistic science" Each of these %ranches may develop its own methods of investigation and

approach to linguistic data" The term style also signifies a "i%erar& !e re. Thus we spea$ of classical style or the style of classicismI realistic styleI the style of romanticism and so on" >n the other hand, the term is widely used in literature, %eing applied to the various $inds of literary wor$, the fa%le, novel, %allad, story, etc" Thus we spea$ of a story %eing written in the style of a fa%le or we spea$ of the characteristic features of the epistolary style or the essay and so on" 0n this application of the term, the arrangement of what are purely literary facts is under o%servationI for instance, the way the plot is dealt with, the arrangement of the parts of the literary composition to form the whole, the place and the role of the author in descri%ing and depicting events" 0n some of these features, which are characteristic of a literary composition, the purely literary and purely linguistic overlap, thus ma$ing the composition neither purely linguistic nor purely literary" This however is inevita%le" The fact that the lines of demarcation are %lurred ma$es the contrast %etween the extremes more acute, and therefore re#uires the investigator to %e cautious when dealing with %orderline cases" inally, there is one more important application of the term style" <e spea$ of the different styles of language" A #%&"e )7 "a !-a!e is a system of interrelated language means, which serves a definite aim in communication" Each style is recogniGed %y the language community as an independent whole" The peculiar choice of language means is primarily dependent on the aim of the communication" >ne system of language means is set against other systems with other aims, and arising from this, another choice and arrangement of the language means is made" Thus, we may distinguish the following styles within the English literary languageD ,/ the %ellesHlettres style, 7/ the pu%licistic style, 9/ the newspaper style, E/ the scientific prose style, F/ the style of official documents, and presuma%ly some others" Most of these styles %elong exclusively to writing, inasmuch as only in this particular form of human intercourse can communications of any length %e completely unam%iguous" This does not mean, however, that spo$en communications lac$ individuality and have no distinct styles of their own" ;ut they have not yet %een properly su%Cected to scientific analysis" ol$lore, for example, is undou%tedly a style inasmuch as it has a definite aim in communicating its facts and ideas, and is therefore characteriGed %y a deli%erately chosen language means" ;ut so far fol$lore has %een too little investigated to %e put on the same level of linguistic o%servation as the styles mentioned a%ove" <e shall not therefore ma$e a study of those types of literature,

which %egan life purely as speech and were passed on %y word of mouth, though many of them are today perpetuated in writing" <e shall confine our attention to the generally accepted styles of language" Each style of language is characteriGed %y a num%er of individual features" These can %e classified as leading or su%ordinate, constant or changing, o%ligatory or optional" Each style can %e su%divided into a num%er of su%styles" The latter represent varieties of the root style and therefore have much in common with it" Still a su%style can, in some cases, deviate so far from the root style that in its extreme it may even %rea$ away" ;ut still, a su%Hstyle retains the most characteristic features of the root style in all aspects" )mong the styles, which have %een more or less thoroughly investigated are the followingD ,/ The %ellesHlettres style" 0t falls into three varietiesD a/ poetry properI %/ emotive prose and c/ drama" 7/ The style that we have named pu%licistic comprises the following su%stylesD a/ speeches +oratory/I %/ essaysI c/ articles in Cournals and newspapers" 9/ The newspaper style has also three varietiesD a/ newspaper headlinesI %/ %rief news items and communi#ues and c/ advertisements" E/ The scientific prose style has two main divisions, *i1" the prose style used in the humanitarian sciences, and that used in the exact sciences" F/ The style of official documents, as the title itself suggests, covers a wide range of varying material which, however, can %e reduced to the following groupsD a/ language of commercial documents, %/ language of diplomatic documents, c/ language of legal documents, d/ language of military documents" The classification presented here is not ar%itrary, the wor$ is still in the o%servational stage" The o%servational stage of any scientific research will ensure o%Cective data, inasmuch as it ena%les the student to collect facts in sufficient num%er to distinguish %etween different groups" The classification su%mitted a%ove is not proof against criticism, though no one will deny that the five groups of styles exist in the English literary language" ) line of demarcation must %e drawn %etween literary stylistics and linguistic stylistics" 0t is necessary to %ear in mind the constant interrelation %etween the two" Some linguists consider that the su%Cect of linguistic stylistics is confined to the study of the effects of the message, i" e" its impact on the reader or listener" Thus Michael 1iffaterre writes that JStylistics will %e a linguistics of the effects of the message, of the output of the act of communication, of its attentionHcompelling function"J, This point of view is influenced %y recent developments in the general theory of information" !anguage, %eing one of the means of communication or, to %e exact, the most important means of communication, is regarded as an instrument

%y means of which the actual process of conveying ideas from one person to another is carried out" Stylistics in that case is confined to the study of expressions of thought" JStylistics,J writes 1iffaterre further, Jstudies those features of linguistic utterance that are intended to impose the encoder?s way of thin$ing on the decoder, i" e" studies the act of communication not as merely producing a ver%al chain, %ut as %earing the imprint of the spea$er?s personality, and as compelling the addressee?s attention"J This point of view on style is shared %y Prof" <" PorGig who says that the means which J"""would produce an impression, would cause a definite impact, effectJ is the science of stylistics" Nuite a different definition of style and stylistics, one that is interesting in more than one way, is that given %y )rchi%ald )" =ill" J) current definition of style and stylistics,J writes )" =ill, Jis that structures, se#uences, and patterns which extend, or may extend, %eyond the %oundaries of individual sentences define style, and that the study of them is stylistics"J The truth of this approach to style and stylistics lies in the fact that the author concentrates on such phenomena in language as present a system, in other words on facts which are not confined to individual use" )lmost the same view is held %y Seymour Chatman, who writes of Jstyle as a product of individual choices and patterns of choices among linguistic possi%ilities"J Prof" Chatman, though he uses the word ?individual? in a different meaning, practically says the same as Prof" =ill, %ut unli$e him, confines style to what we have called here individual style or the style of the author" ) %roader view of style is expressed %y <erner <inter, who maintains that J) style may %e said to %e characteriGed %y a pattern of recurrent selections from the inventory of optional features of a language" (arious types of selection can %e foundD complete exclusion of an optional element, o%ligatory inclusion of a feature optional elsewhere, varying degrees of inclusion of a specific variant without complete elimination of competing features"J The idea of distinguishing styles %y various types of selection seems to %e a sound one" ) significant contri%ution to the cause of stylistics is %eing made %y the Cournal S%&"e pu%lished %y the University of )rcansas" rom numerous conferences, discussions, theses, monographs and articles pu%lished in our country and a%road there emerges a more or less clear statement as to what the su%Cect of linguostylistics represents" This isD ,/ The study of the styles of language as su%systems of the literary language and distinguished from each other %y a peculiar set of interdependent language means and 7/ The study of these means in

a system disclosing their linguistic properties and nature as well as the functioning of their laws" These two tas$s of linguostylistics correspond to a certain degree ?with what Kils Eric En$vist, of )%o )cademy, inland, has called JmicrostylisticsJ and JmacrostylisticsJ" =e defines the first as J"""the study of style mar$ers and stylistics sets within the sentence or within units smaller than the sentence,J and the second as J"""stylistics of sentence se#uences"J 0n order to investigate these two issues it is necessary to review certain general linguistic phenomena on which the science of stylistics rests" The su%Cect of stylistics can %e outlined as the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on the one hand, and, on the other, the study of each style of language as classified a%ove, i" e" its aim, its structure, its characteristic features and the effect it produces, as well as its interrelation with other styles of language" The tas$ we set %efore ourselves is to ma$e an attempt to single out such pro%lems as are typically stylistic and cannot therefore %e treated in any other %ranch of linguistic science" Kow a #uestion arisesD why are some of the notions of style enumerated not treated in this %oo$Y The reply is that, on the one hand, not all of these notions are relevant to the domain of linguistics, and, on the other, this wor$ is intended to %e a theoretical course of stylistics in which only crucial issues shall %eta$en up" 0ndeed, individual styles or manners of writing do not come under our o%servation, this %eing an entirely different field of linguistic and literary study" 0t has already %een pointed out that individual manner, though it may conform to the norms of the language to a greater or lesser degree, will nevertheless %e the practical realiGation of a%stract language units" 0n other words here we have "a !-a!e(i ( a'%i) that is, #6ee'$" Stylistic devices are a%stract categories of "a !-a!e(a# a #&#%e/, that is, "a !-a!e 6r)6er" ;ut the practical application of these a%stract categories, %eing spontaneous, represents languageHinHaction, or speech" This is in accordance with the laws, which govern the functioning of every language fact" <e shall therefore ma$e an extensive analysis of individual usage of stylistic devices inasmuch as they disclose their as yet un$nown or unused potentialities" ;ut it must %e remem%ered that the use made in this %oo$ of individual styles, i" e" the writings of wellH$nown English menHofHletters, will not have as its aim the generaliGation of the data o%tained" >ur tas$ is to show the varia%le functioning of stylistic devices" This will help us to define the means existing in the English language, and perhaps in other languages as well, which are used to serve definite aims of communication" 0t is o%vious that o%servation of the variety of uses to

which a stylistic device can advantageously %e put, can only %e carried out where there is a field for innovation and contextual meanings, viG", in the style of %ellesH lettres" )s regards to style as a techni#ue of expression, we hold the view that this very important issue must %e presented in a special wor$ on composition" 0n the recent development of the theory of language the dichotomy of language and speech occupies an important place" !anguageHasHaHsystem may figuratively %e depicted as a usurper or an exploiter of languageHinHaction, or speech" <henever Speech produces anything that can %e given a name, whatever it may %e, it immediately %ecomes a fact of languageHasHaHsystem" 0t is hallowed into a language means" So it is with stylistic devices" ;eing %orn in speech, after recognition as rightful mem%ers of the system in which they generally operate, they are duly ta$en away from their mother?s %reast, Speech, and made independent mem%ers of the family, !anguage" These features have %een carefully studied and on the %asis of previous investigation into the linguistic character of stylistic devices %rought into a $ind of system" 0t is sometimes enough merely to point out the interrelation of the characteristic features of a given style of language to %e a%le to tell one style from another" ) course in this relatively new science, stylistics, will %e profita%le to those who have a sound linguistic %ac$ground" The expressive means of English and the stylistic devices used in the literary language can only %e understood +and made use of/ when a thorough $nowledge of the phonetic, grammatical and lexical data of the given language has %een attained" The stylistic devices +SD/ must %e o%served on different levelsD on the phonetic, morphemic, lexical, phraseological, syntactical levels and on the utterance level" 0f a thorough command of language data has not %een ac#uired, the su%tleties of the theory of stylistics may escape the student or may prove to %e %eyond his grasp" or example, we can easily distinguish %etween a piece of emotive prose and a %usiness letter" :ust as easily can we tell a newspaper %rief from a scientific thesisI a poem from a military documentI a piece of oratory from a diplomatic pact and so on" )pparently our $nowledge of the characteristic features of different styles of language is %ased not only on our intuition" There must %e some o%Cective criteria which the system relies on and which we can define as the leading or principal features of a given style" ) special part of this %oo$ is devoted to a description of the styles, which have already manifested themselves as more or less independent systems" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66.:(2<4.

E=PRESSIVE MEANS 2EM4 AND STYLISTIC DEVICES 2SD4 0n linguistics there are different terms to denote those particular means %y which a writer o%tains his effect" Expressive means, stylistic means, stylistic devices andJ other terms are all used indiscriminately" or our purposes it is necessary to ma$e a distinction %etween expressive means and stylistic devices" )ll stylistic means of a language can %e divided into e56re##i*e /ea # 2EM4+ which are used in some specific way, and special devices called #%&"i#%i' de*i'e# 2SD/" T$e e56re##i*e /ea # )7 a "a !-a!e are %$)#e 6$) e%i' /ea #+ /)r6$i)")!i'a" 7)r/#+ /ea #>)7 ?)rd(0-i"di !+ a d "e5i'a"+ 6$ra#e)")!i'a" a d #& %a'%i'a" 7)r/#+ a"" )7 ?$i'$ 7- '%i) i %$e "a !-a!e 7)r e/)%i) a" )r ")!i'a" i %e #i7i'a%i) )7 %$e -%%era 'e. These intensifying forms of the language, wrought %y social usage and recogniGed %y their semantic function have %een fixed in grammars and dictionaries" Some of them are normaliGed, and good dictionaries la%el them as i %e #i7ier#" 0n most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymous forms" The most powerful expressive means of any language are the phonetic ones" The human voice can indicate su%tle nuances of meaning that no other means can attain" Pitch, melody, stress, pausation, drawling, drawling out certain sylla%les, whispering, a singHsong manner of speech and other ways of using the voice are more effective than any other means in intensifying the utterance emotionally or logically" )mong the morphological expressive means the use of the Present 0ndefinite instead of the Past 0ndefinite must %e mentioned first" This has already %een ac$nowledged as a special means and is named the =istorical Present" 0n descri%ing some past event the author uses the present tense, thus achieving a more vivid picturisation of what was going on" The use of #$a"" in the second and third person may also %e regarded as an expressive means" Compare the following synonymous statements and you will not fail to o%serve the intensifying element in the sentence with #$a"" +which in such cases always gets emphatic stress/" =e shall do it +Z 0 shall ma$e him do it/" =e has to do it +Z 0t is necessary for him to do it/" )mong wordH%uilding means we find a great many forms, which, serve to ma$e the utterance more expressive and fresh or to intensify it" The diminutive suffixes as (&2ie4+ ("e%+ e. !. dear+ dearie+ #%rea/+ #%rea/"e% , add some emotional colouring to the words" <e may also refer to what are called neologisms and nonceHwords formed with nonHproductive suffixes or with 2ree$ roots, asD /i#%re##/a #$i6+ '"ea )(ra/a+ ?a"@a%$) " Certain affixes have gained such a power of

expressiveness that they %egin functioning as separate words, a%sor%ing all of the generaliGing meaning they usually attach to different roots, as for exampleD ?isms and ologies?" )t the lexical level there are a great many words, which due to their inner expressiveness, constitute a special layer" There are words with emotive meaningJ only, li$e interCections, words which have %oth referential and emotive meaning, li$e some of the #ualitative adCectivesI words, which still retain a twofold meaningI denotative and connotativeI or words %elonging to special groups of literary English or of nonHStandard English +poetic, archaic, slang, vulgar, etc"/ and some other groups" The expressive power of these words cannot %e dou%ted, especially when they are compared with the neutral voca%ulary" ? The same can %e said of the set expressions of the language" Prover%s and sayings as well as catchH words form a considera%le num%er of language units which serve to ma$e speech more emphatic, mainly from the emotional point of view" Their use in everyHday speech can hardly %e overestimated" Some of these prover%s and sayings are so wellH$nown that their use in the process of communication passes almost uno%servedI others are rare and therefore catch the attention of the reader or the listener" =ere is an example of a prover% used %y Dic$ens in JDom%ey and SonJ to ma$e up a simile" AA# %$e "a#% #%ra? 0rea@# %$e "ade 'a/e"B# 0a'@+ this piece of underground information crushed the sin$ing spirits of Mr" Dom%ey"J 0n everyHday speech you often hear such phrases as J<ell, it will only add 7-e" %) %$e 7ireJ, and the li$e, which can easily %e replaced %y synonymous neutral expressions, li$e J0t will only ma$e the situation worse"J inally at the syntactical level there are many constructions, which, %eing set against synonymous ones, will reveal a certain degree of logical or emotional emphasis" !et us compare the following pairs of structuresD J0 have never seen such a film"J JNe*er $a*e 0 seen such a film"J Mr" Smith came in first"J J I% ?a# Mr" Smith ?$) came in first"J The second structure in each pair contains emphatic elements" They cause intensification[of the utteranceD in the first case emotional in character, in the second, logical" J0n the English language there are many syntactical patterns which serve to intensify emotional #uality" Examples of these emotional constructions areD =e is a %rute of a man, i# C)$ . I# B% #$e '-%eD F))" %$a% he wasL These expressive means of the English language have so far %een very little investigated except, perhaps, certain set expressions and to some extent affixation" Most of them still await researchers" They are widely used for stylistic purposes, %ut these purposes li$ewise have not yet %een ade#uately explained and

hardly at all specified" Met they exist in the language as forms that can %e used for emphasis, i" e", to ma$e a part of the utterance more prominent and conspicuous, as a segmental analysis of the utterance shows" This inevita%ly calls for a more detailed analysis of the nature of the emphatic elements, which we have named expressive means of the language" Kot infre#uently, as we shall see later, some expressive means possess a power of emotional intensification, which radiates through the whole of the utterance" !ately a new concept has %een introduced into linguisticsH that of suprasegmental analysis" This ta$es into account not only what the words mean in the given context, %ut also what new shades of meaning are at issue when the utterance is analysed as a whole" The expressive means of the language are studied respectively in manuals of phonetics, grammar, lexicology and stylistics" Stylistics, however, o%serves not only the nature of an expressive means, %ut also its potential capacity of %ecoming a stylistic device" <hat then is a #%&"i#%i' de*i'e +SD/Y 0t is a conscious and intentional literary use of some of the facts of the languageJ +including expressive means/, in which the most essential features +%oth structural and semantic/ of the language forms are raised to a generaliGed level and there%y present a generative model" Most stylistic devices may %e regarded as aiming at the further intensification of the emotional, or logical emphasis contained in the corresponding expressive means" This conscious transformation of a language fact into a stylistic device has %een o%served %y certain linguists, whose interests in scientific research have gone %eyond the %oundaries of grammar" Thus )" )" Pote%nCa writesD J)s far %ac$ as in ancient 1ome and 2reece and with few exceptions up to the present time, the definition of a figurative use of a word has %een %ased on the contrast %etween ordinary speech, used in its own, natural, primary meaning and transferred speech"J )" )" Pote%nCa thus shows how the expressive means of the 1ussian language are transformed into stylistic devices" =e descri%es how 2ogol uses the literal repetition characteristic of fol$lore instead of allusions and refrences" The %irth of a SD is not accidental" !anguage means which are used with more or less definite aims of communication and in one and the same function in various passages of writing, %egin gradually to develop new features, a wider range of functions and %ecome a relative means of expressiveness alongside the already recogniGed expressive means of the language, li$e prover%s or sayings, diminutive suffixes and the li$e" These SDs form a special group of language means, which are more a%stract in[nature than the expressive means of the language" 0t would,

perhaps %e more correct to say that unli$e expressive means, stylistic devices are patterns of the language whereas the expressive means do not form patterns" They are Cust li$e words themselves, they are facts of the language, and as such are, or should %e, registered in dictionaries" This can %e illustrated in the following mannerD Prover%s and sayings are facts of language" They are collected in dictionaries" There are special dictionaries of prover%s and sayings" 0t is impossi%le to arrange prover%s and sayings in a form that would present a pattern even though they have some typical features %y which it is possi%le to determine whether or not we are dealing with one" These typical features areD rhythm, sometimes rhyme and\or alliteration" ;ut the most characteristic feature of a prover% or a saying lies not in its formal linguistic expression, %ut in the contentHform of the utterance" )s is $nown, a prover% or a saying is a peculiar mode of utterance, which is mainly characteriGed %y its %revity" The utterance itself, ta$en at its face value, presents a pattern, which can %e successfully used for other utterances" The peculiarity of the use of a prover% lies in the fact that the actual wording %ecomes a pattern, which needs no new wording to suggest extensions of meaning, which are contextual" 0n other words a prover% presupposes a simultaneous application of two meaningsD the face value or primary meaning, and an extended meaning drawn from the context, %ut %ridled %y the faceHvalue meaning" 0n other words the prover% itselfH%ecomes a vessel into which new content is poured" The actual wording of a prover%, its primary meaning, narrows the field of possi%le extensions of meaning, i" e" the filling up of the form" That is why we may regard the prover% as a pattern of thought" So it is in every other case at any other level of linguistic research" )%stract formulas offer a wider range of possi%le applications to practical purposes than concrete words, though they have the same purpose" The interrelation %etween expressive means and stylistic devices can %e worded in terms of the theory of information" Expressive means have a greater degree of predicta%ility than stylistic devices" The latter may appear in an environment, which may seem alien and therefore %e only slightly or not at all predicta%le" Expressive means are commonly used in language, and are therefore easily predicta%le" Stylistic devices carry a greater amount of information %ecause if they are at all predicta%le they are less predicta%le than expressive means" 0t follows that stylistic devices must %e regarded as a special code which has still to %e deciphered" Stylistic devices are generally used sparingly, lest they should

over%urden the utterance with information" Kot every stylistic use of a language fact will come under the term SD" There are practically unlimited possi%ilities of presenting any language fact in what is vaguely called its stylistic use" ;ut this use in no way forms an SD" or a language fact to %ecome an SD there is one indispensa%le re#uirement, viG" that it should %e so much used in one and the same function that it has %ecome generaliGed in its functions" True, even a use coined for the occasion that is a nonce use can, and very often does create the necessary conditions for the appearance of an SD" Thus many facts of English grammar are said to %e used with ]a stylistic function, e" g" some of the English morphemes are used in definite contexts as full words, %ut these facts are not SDs of the English language" They are still wandering in the vicinity of the realm of stylistic devices without %eing admitted into it" Perhaps in the near future they will %e accepted as SDs, %ut in the meantime they are not" This can indirectly %e proved %y the fact that they have no special name in the English language system of SDs" Compare such SDs as metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, parallel construction and the li$e" These have %ecome facts of a special %ranch of linguistic science, viG", stylistics" )ll these facts, however, are facts of general linguistics as well" ;ut in general linguistics they are viewed as means either of creating new meanings of words, or of serving the purpose of ma$ing the utterance more comprehensi%le +cf" the repetition of the su%Cect of a sentence when there is a long attri%utive clause following the su%Cect, which %rea$s the natural se#uence of the primary mem%ers of the sentence and therefore re#uires the repetition of the su%Cect/" So far stylistic devices have not %een recogniGed as lawful mem%ers of the system of language" They are set apart as stylistic phenomena, this %eing regarded as a special domain, not part and parcel of the system of language" ;ut the process of the development of language does not ta$e into consideration the li$es or disli$es of this or that linguist, it Hesta%lishes its own paths along which the formation of the whole system of a language is moulded" The stylistic devices of a highly developed language li$e English or 1ussian have %rought into the literary language a separate %ody of means of expression, which have won recognition as a constituent to %e studied in the %ranch of language study named Stylistics" )nd yet some scholars still regard stylistic devices as violations of the norms of the language" 0t is this notion, which leads some prominent linguists +2" (andryes, for example/ to the conclusion that JThe ;ellesH!ettres Style is always a reaction against the common languageI to some extent it is a Cargon, a literary Cargon, which

may have varieties"J The study of the linguistic nature of SDs in any language therefore %ecomes an essential condition for the general study of the functions of the SDs and ultimately for the system oi the language in general, not excluding such elements of language as deal with the emotional aspect" 0t is in view of this particular pro%lem that so much attention is paid in this %oo$ to the analysis of the expressive means +EMs/ and stylistic devices +SDs/, their nature and functions, their classification and possi%le interpretations" They occupy considera%le part of the %oo$ and constitute the concrete linguistic %ody of the manual" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66.2E(2:4. SOME NOTES ON THE PROFLEM OF THE ENGLISH LITERARY LANGUAGE 2STANDARD ENGLISH4 0n order to get an o%Cective description of the nature, peculiarities and functional characteristics of the styles and stylistic devices of language, it is necessary to ma$e clear what is meant %y the literary language" !iterary language is a historical category" 0t exists as a variety of the national language" The division of the language into literary and vernacular only means that there are, as it were, a rough unpolished tongue and one wrought %y menHofHletters"J, The literary language is that variety of the national language, which imposes definite morphological, phonetic, syntactical, lexical, phraseological and stylistic norms" 0t allows modifications %ut within the frame wor$ of the system of esta%lished norms" 0t casts out some of the forms of language, which are considered to %e %eyond the esta%lished norm" The norm of usage is esta%lished %y the language community at every given period in the development of the language" 0t is ever changing and therefore not infre#uently evasive" )t every period the norm is in a state of fluctuation and it re#uires a very sensitive and efficient eye and ear to detect and specify these fluctuations" Sometimes we may even say that two norms coHexist" ;ut in this case we may %e positive that one of the coHexisting forms of the language will give way to its rival and either vanish from the language entirely or else remain on its outs$irts" 0n this connection it will not come amiss to note that there are two conflicting tendencies in the process of esta%lishing the normD ," preservation of the already existing norm, sometimes with attempts to reHesta%lish old forms of the languageI 7" introduction of new norms not yet firmly esta%lished" 0n this connection it will %e interesting to #uote the following lines from =" C" <yld?s J=istory of Modern

Collo#uial English"J J0f it were necessary Jto attempt to formulate the general tendencies which have %een discerni%le in 1eceived Standard English during the last three centuries and a half, and which have %een increasingly potent during the last hundred and fifty years, we should name two, which are to some extent opposed, %ut %oth of which are attri%uta%le to social causes" The first is the gradual decay of ceremoniousness and formality, which has overta$en the speech and modes of address, no less than the manners, of good society" The second of the effort H sometimes conscious and deli%erate, sometimes unconscious ^ after _correctness? or correctitude, which, on the one hand, has almost eliminated the use of oaths and has softened away many coarsenesses and crudities of expression H as we should now feel them to %e, however little s#ueamish we may %e H while on the other it has, %y a rigid appeal to the spelling H the very worst and most unrelia%le court for the purpose H definitely ruled out, as ?incorrect? or ?slipshod? or ?vulgar?, many pronunciations and grammatical constructions which had arisen in the natural course of the development of English, and were formerly universal among the %est spea$ers" ;oth of these tendencies are due primarily to the social, political and economic events in our history""" These social changes have inevita%ly %rought with them corresponding changes in manners and in speech""" %ut the speech and ha%its of a lifetime are not changed in a moment, as a vesture" Much of the old remains, and slowly and impercepti%ly the newcomers react upon their environment, almost as much as they are influenced %y it" Thus, for instance, it is suggested that the Middle Class Puritan ideals have gradually %rought a%out a greater reticence of expression and a more temperate use of expletives, and also a greater simplicity of manners, from which many of the airs and graces of the older were eliminated" )gain, a highly cultivated and intellectual section of the Middle Class have played a prominent part in Church and State since the time of EliGa%eth" <e see under that monarch a generation of courtiers, statesmen, and prelates, who were also scholars, and even some who""" were educational reformers and writers upon language, as well as statesmen" The influence of these learned courtiers would %e in the direction of correctness and elegance of utterance, in opposition to the more careless and unstudied speech of the mere men of fashion"J 0t is interesting to note that much of what was considered a violation of the norm in one period of the development of a language %ecomes ac$nowledged and is regarded as perfectly normal in another period" Many words and constructions, which were once considered illiterate have %ecome literary" )nd no effort was

spared to %an innovations, particularly in the sphere of voca%ulary, %y the purists of any given period" ;ut most of their efforts were in vain" The people, who are the only lawgivers of the language, gradually accepted changes in all language levels and in voca%ulary" There is no hard and fast division %etween the literary and nonHliterary language" They are interdependent" The literary language constantly enriches its voca%ulary and forms from the inexhausti%le resources of the vernacular" 0t also adopts some of its syntactical peculiarities and %y so doing, gives them the status of norms of the literary language" Thus, selection is the most typical feature of the literary language" 0t is interesting to note that the process of selecting and admitting lexical or morphological forms into the literary language is not a conscious effort on the part of scholars" 0t is rather a reluctant concession than a free and deli%erate selection" <hen a linguistic item circulating in the nonH literary language gains admission into the sacred precincts of the literary language, it is mostly due to the conscious choice of the manHofHletters, who finds either an aesthetic value in the given unit, or some other merit that will Custify its recognition as a lawful mem%er of the literary language" This, however, is not the case with structural units" )s the national language is the creation of the people as a whole, morphological and syntactical changes, which gradually and impercepti%ly ta$e place in their speech from one generation to another, cannot fail in the long run to enter the literary language" MenHofHletters not only write the language, they also spea$ it and in most cases Cust li$e any one of their countrymen" KewlyHcoined words, or neologisms, as they are called, which are created according to the productive models of wordH%uilding in the given language do not go %eyond the %oundaries of the literary norms" 0f a newly coined word is understood %y the community, it may %ecome a fact of the literary language" ;ut the literary language casts off any form that is unrecogniGa%le" The development of the literary language is governed %y its own laws" 0t is highly resistant to innovations of speech" The English literary language was particularly regulated and formaliGed during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries" The influence of the menHofHletters on this process can hardly %e overestimated" Some of them, noneHtheHless, hindered the natural, organic process of development" ;augh? points out that Swift, for example, Jin matters of language""" was a conservative"J ;yron on the other hand was very li%eral and introduced into the literary language many new words and phrases" Kot all of them gained recognition and stayed in the literary languageI %ut nevertheless they were facts of the literary

language %y their very nature" Ta$e for example the word JweatherologyJ coined %y ;yron" The literary language greatly influences the nonHliterary language" Many words, constructions and particularly phonetic improvements have %een introduced through it into the English collo#uial language" This influence had its greatest effect in the ,-th century with the spread of general education, and in the present century with the introduction of radio and television into the daily lives of the people" Many words of a highly literary character have passed into the nonHliterary language, often undergoing peculiar morphological and phonetic distortions in the process" The nonHliterary language manifests itself in all aspects of the languageD phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactical" Such formerly dialectal peculiarities as m? instead of i !I `aDa instead of `aeaI the dropping of +h/ and the insertion of +h/ at the %eginning of some wordsI `aia instead of `eia, `raina H `reina, are typical phonetic peculiarities of nonHliterary English" The difficulty that one faces when attempting to specify the characteristic features of the nonHliterary variety lies mainly in the fact that it does not present any system" The %est way to chec$ this or that form of nonHliterary English is to contrast it to the existing" !iterary English is almost synonymous with the term S%a dard E !"i#$. Standard English is %est descri%ed in an interesting %oo$ written %y 1andolph Nuir$, Professor of English language in the University of !ondon, the title of which is JThe Use of English"J =e statesD J<e have seen that Standard English is %asically an ideal, a mode of expression that we see$ when we wish to communicate %eyond our immediate community with mem%ers of the wider community of the nation as a whole" )s an ideal, it cannot %e perfectly realised, and we must expect that mem%ers of different ?wider communities? +;ritain, )merica, Kigeria, for example/ may produce different realisations" 0n fact, however, the remar$a%le thing is the very high degree of unanimity, Hthe small amount of divergence" )ny of us can read a newspaper printed in !eeds or San rancisco or Delhi without difficulty and often even without realising that there are differences at all"J Coc$ney, regarded as the remnants of the !ondon dialect, seems to %e growing into a generic term for any form of nonHStandard English in ;ritain, although nonHstandard varieties of English exist in territorial variants" !iterary English is indifferent to territorial usage" Standard English is an a%straction, an ideal" To use presentHday terminology, Standard English is a $ind of invariant, which stands a%ove all $inds of variants of English %oth within and without 2reat ;ritain" This ideal helps to esta%lish more or less strict norms for all aspects of the

language" The pu%lication of dictionaries does much to esta%lish the literary language norms" )s a matter of fact it is impossi%le to esta%lish any norm once and for all" )t the very moment it is esta%lished, it %egins to fluctuate" Such fluctuations not infre#uently result in considera%le changes" )nd the compilers of English dictionaries are forced willy nilly to ac$nowledge a variant and present it as coHexisting alongside the one previously recogniGed as solely accepta%le" This is particularly the case with reference to pronunciation" The scholar fixing the language norm is made to %ow to his maCesty the people" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.<0(<<4.

A FRIEF OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LITERARY LANGUAGE The E !"i#$ "i%erar& "a !-a!e has had a long and peculiar history" Throughout the stages of its development there has %een a struggle for progressive tendencies, which on the one hand aim at %arring the language from the intrusion of contaminating elements such as Cargonisms, slang, vulgarisms and the li$e, and on the other hand at manifesting themselves in protest against the reactionary aspirations of some Gealous scholars to preserve the English language in a fixed form" The English language, as is $nown, is the result of the integration of the tri%al dialects of the )ngles, Saxons and :utes who occupied the ;ritish 0sles in the 9rdH Fth centuries" The first manuscripts of the language %elong to the 4th century" ;ut the language of the 4th and consecutive centuries is so unli$e present day English that Englishmen do not understand it" This language is called )ngloHSaxon or >ld English" >ld English is a dead language, li$e !atin or classic 2ree$" !i$e them and li$e the 1ussian language, it is an inflected language" The >ld English period lasted approximately until the end of the twelfth century" During the next stage in its development the English language rapidly progressed towards its present state" ;y this time it had greatly enlarged its voca%ulary %y %orrowings from Korman rench and other languages" The structure of the language had considera%ly changed due to the loss of most of the inflections and also to other very important changes" ;y the middle of the thirteenth century Korman rench, which had %een the official language since the Korman Con#uest in ,833, was almost completely

ousted %y English" 0n ,937 Parliament was first opened in English, and a few years later court proceedings were ordered to %e carried on in English and not in rench, Jwhich was too little $nown"J The Kew English period, as it is called, is usually considered to date from the fifteenth century" This is the %eginning of the English language $nown, spo$en and written at the present time" This period cannot yet %e characteriGed %y any degree of uniformity in the language" The influence of the various dialects was still strongly felt, %ut the !ondon dialect was gradually winning general recognition" )ccording to many historians of the English language, %y the latter part of the ,Fth century the !ondon dialect had %een accepted as the standard, at least in writing, in most parts of the country" This should to a very great extent %e attri%uted to Caxton, the first English printer, who in his translations and in the %oo$s he printed, used the current speech of !ondon" Caxton writes that he was advised %y learned men to use the most curious terms that he could find, and declares that he found himself in a dilemma J%etween the plain, rude and curious" ;ut in my CudgementJ, he goes on, Jthe common terms that %e daily used %een lighter to understand than the old and ancient English"J Puttenham, author of JThe )rt of English Poesie,J declares that as the norm of literary English J""" ye shall therefore ta$e the usual speech of the court, and that of !ondon and the shires lying a%out !ondon within !b +sixty/ miles and not much a%ove"J ;ut the process of esta%lishing the !ondon speech as a single norm throughout the country was very slow and hardly percepti%le" Even the language of the ,3 th century according to C"<yld J"""%oth in printed wor$s and in private letters, still shows considera%le dialectal individualism" The Standard""" is not yet completely fixed"J 0n the sixteenth century literary English %egan mar$edly to flourish" The rapid development of printing went parallel with the general growth of culture, to which much was contri%uted %y the two universities, >xford and Cam%ridge" 0n the second half of the ,3th century, a century mar$ed %y the political and economic rise of England, literature %egan to flourish in all forms, drama, poetry and prose" The wor$s of literary criticism written at the time show the interest awa$ened in poetry and drama" re#uent translations were now made from the 2ree$ and !atin classic writers" Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, <illiam Sha$espeare, and later, ;en :onson, ;eaumont and letcher and many other writers of the period exerted a very great influence on the growth and perfection of the English literary language"

The freedom in the use of language so characteristic of this epoch was often su%Cected to wise and moderate restrictions set %y these writers" So, for example, ;en :onson, while accepting Nuintillian?s statement that J"""custome is the most certain mistress of language,J at the same time warns J"""not to %e fre#uent with every day coining,J nor to use words from past ages which were no longer in use, that is, archaic words, as for instance, Chaucerisms" 0n their use of the language there were two tendencies among the writers of this ageD one was the free and almost unrestricted use of new words and forms, coined or imported into the English languageI the other was the revival of archaic words, the latter %eing a counterHweight to the former" Two names may %e called to mind as representing the two tendenciesD Spencer on the one hand, Sha$espeare on the other" Spencer tried to preserve the old English words, especially those denoting a%stract ideas, which had %een replaced %y words of rench or !atin origin" =e praised these words as %eing more expressive than the %orrowed ones" >n the contrary, Sha$espeare advocated in his sonnets and plays the unrestricted use of words of all $inds and particularly new coinages" Sha$espeare himself coined many new words" Marlowe and letcher drew widely on the resources of vernacular English and this, to a large extent, explains the remar$a%le vigour and expressiveness of their language" To give a general idea of the factors influencing the development of literary English in the ,Fth and ,3th centuries, it will suffice to point out the following threeD ,"/ ) common interest in classical literature during the 1enaissance and hence the application of classical grammar, spelling and rhetoric to the English language" )ttempts were made %y scholars to force the classical norms into the English language" 7/ ) desire to $eep the language pure, to retain and revive old English words and as far as possi%le old English morphological and syntactical forms" This tendency has %een called ar'$ai' 6-ri#/" The influence of archaic purism led to an acute struggle against the intrusion of foreign words, particularly those of !atin and continental rench origin, and as a conse#uence of this struggle an orientation towards the o%solescent forms of the language" 9/ )n orientation towards the living, developing and rapidly changing norms of the collo#uial language" ree use was made of the inherent properties of the English language as they had materialiGed %y this time, for example, free use of conversion, word composition, derivation and semantic change" 0n the domain of syntax and word order too, there was already considera%le freedom of usage" The Protestant

1eformation, which gradually gained strength and popularity throughout the ,3th century, played a great role in the development of the English literary language" ;oo$s on religion, translated or composed in strong, simple, living English with few JlearnedJ words, and understanda%le to the masses of ordinary people, were %y act of Parliament placed in the churches and read aloud" Parts of the ;i%le and later the whole ;i%le, were also translated in the same manner" ;y order of Nueen EliGa%eth 0 a ;i%le was placed in every church and people floc$ed to read it or hear it read" +Up to the reign of EliGa%eth it had %een for%idden to read the ;i%le in English and people were punished and %urnt to death for doing so"/ The interaction of these three factors is reflected in the grammars and %oo$s on rhetoric of the time, which serve to illustrate to the presentHday reader the fluctuation of the norms then existing, as well as the linguistic ideas, tastes and credos of the scholars who laid down the law" The uncritical applications of the laws of !atin grammar to the norms o%served in the English language were o%Cected to even in the ,3th century" Philip Sidney, for instance, stated that the English language must have its own grammar" =e saw that such grammatical categories as case, gender, tense and mood, which are natural to !atin, could not %e applied mechanically to English" =owever, %oo$s on rhetoric have played a considera%le part in esta%lishing the norms of literary English in the ,3th as well as in the following centuries" )s far %ac$ as in ,F7E !eonard Cox pu%lished a text%oo$ entitled JThe )rte or Crafte of 1hetori#ueJ which was followed %y a series of wor$s of this $ind" Many of them have helped to lay the foundation for the study of the laws of composition and of the ways and means to ma$e writing emphatic in order that the desired effect on the reader should %e achieved and the main function of languageHcommunicationH guaranteed to the full" >ne of the most popular wor$s of the time was Thomas <ilson?s J)rte of 1hetori#ueJ pu%lished in ,FF9" ollowing the ancient !atin tradition of rhetoric, <ilson divides style of expression into three $indsD elevated, middle and low, a division, which was in vogue up to the ,-th century and which greatly influenced the course of development of the English literary language" <riting devoid of all ornament was considered coarse" 0t was in this period, the ,3th century, that a literary trend $nown as euphuism came into vogue" The euphuistic manner of writing was characteriGed %y a pedantic affectation of elegant and highHflown language a%ounding in all $inds of stylistic devices" 0t was not only the syntactical aspect of the English literary language that was influenced %y the laws of rhetoric"

The choice of words was also predetermined %y the laws set %y the rhetoricians of the ,3th century" !atin words, either directly or through the rench language, poured into the English literary language %ecause English had never had, or had lost the words re#uired to give expression to scientific ideas" Sir Thomas More, for example, introduced into the English language a great many words in spite of the opposition of the purists of the time" To him the English language owes such words as a0#-rdi%&+ a''e6%a 'e+ a %i'i6a%e+ ')/6a%i0"e+ ')/6re$e #i0"e+ ') !ra%-"a%e+ e56"ai + 7a'%+ i di77ere 'e+ /) )6)"&+ e'e##i%a%e+ )0#%r-'%i) + 6arad)5+ 6re%e5% and many others" Philip Sidney is said to have coined such words as e/a 'i6a%e+ eradi'a%e+ e5i#%+ e5%i !-i#$+ $ara##+ /edi%a%e and many other words and phrases" )s illustrations we have chosen words, which have found a permanent place in the English stoc$ of words" Most of them have already passed into the neutral layer of words" ) great many words introduced %y menHofHletters in the ,3th century and later have disappeared entirely from English literature" urther, there were great difficulties in spelling" Ko two writers spelt all words exactly ali$e" rom the >ld English period up to the ,Fth century there had %een chaos in English spelling" The >ld English system, which was phonetic, had %ro$en down %ecause the language had changed" Then %esides that, no writer $new exactly how to spell %orrowed words H in the !atin, the rench or the KormanH rench way, or according to the rules, which individual writers applied in their own way when spelling words of English origin" Even the pu%lication ofHdictionaries, which %egan in the middle of the ,.th century, did not fix English spelling" >ne of the first dictionaries was called JTa%le )lpha%etical conteyning and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usual English words"J This was the first dictionary confined entirely to the English language" Spelling was one of the pro%lems, which the English language %egan consciously to face in the ,3th century and it was fairly settled %efore the end of the ,.th century" )nd yet this period is characteriGed mainly %y freedom of the norms used in the literary language" The interaction of the lively everyday speech and the unsta%le rules of English grammar led to a peculiar enrichment of the literary language" Kew word com%inations were coined with ease and new meanings attached to them +for example %) ')/e a0)-% in the meaning of ?to happen?I %) ')/e 0&Z ?to get?I %) ')/e -6) Z ?to near?/" The same can %e o%served in the composition of compound words, particularly words with adCectives as first components +for example with the word dee6 ( dee6(di*)r'i !G dee6(6re/edia%edG dee6(#ear'$edG dee6(#)reG

dee6(#?ee%G dee6(?)- dedG dee6(0rai ed" 0t is interesting to notice in passing that the element dee6 in these examples loses its primary logical meaning and assumes a new meaning, halfHgrammatical, which we call emotional" The word thus assumes a new #ualityD it is a semiHprefix, indicating the intensification of the #uality em%odied in the second adCective" The free use of words in spite of the restrictions imposed on this freedom %y certain ardent adherents of the JpurityJ of the language, resulted in the appearance of new meanings of words" irst they were perceived as contextual, pro%a%ly accompanied %y suggestive intonation and gestures, and then, in the course of time, through fre#uency of repetition, the new meanings were a%sor%ed into the semantic structure of the word" )s an illustration of the insta%ility of the norms of usage it will %e interesting to point out the variety of prepositions that could %e used with ver%s" Thus the ver% %) re6e % was used with the following prepositionsD Bre6e % a%B+ Bre6e % 7)rB+ Bre6e % )*erB+ re6e % i B+ Bre6e % of" The syntactical patterns of this period were also mar$ed %y noticea%le variety arising from the relative freedom of usage" This freedom is o%serva%le not only in the word order %ut in the use of dou%le negations, as in #a& )%$i ! ei%$er, and the li$e" 0n morphology it is mar$ed %y the use of %oth adCectives and adver%s in the function of modifiers of ver%s, as in %) #6ea@ 6"ai + #$e i# e5'eedi ! ?i#e and the li$e" The fluctuation in the norms of the English literary language of the ,3th century is ascri%ed to a variety of causes" >ne is that the !ondon dialect, which formed the core of the national literary language, was not yet spo$en all over the country" Conse#uently, an educated man who came, let us say, from the Korth of England, still retained in his speech certain of the morphological and syntactical forms of his native dialect" Then, in view of the fact that the norms of the literary language were not yet hard and fast, he used these dialectal forms in his writing" There was a great influx of forms from the common speech of the people into the literary language, which, however, was still the domain of the few" Students of the history of the English language give a num%er of reasons explaining this influx of forms from the everyday language of the people" >ne of them is that after the Church of England refused to ac$nowledge the authority of 1ome, church services had %een translated from !atin into simple, strong English" Services were held daily and long sermons delivered in English" Many of the clergy found that the literary English did not have much more meaning to the people than church !atin had had, so they modified it, %ringing it closer to the speech of the people among whom they lived"

Clergymen who were una%le to write their own sermons used those of the great protestant reformers of the ,3th century, which were written in simple forceful English with a minimum of %orrowed words" 0t was in the choice of the words to %e used in literary English that the sharpest controversy arose and in which the two tendencies of the period were most apparent" >n the one hand there was a fierce struggle against Jin$HhornJ terms as they were then called" )mong the learned men of the ,3th century who fought against the introduction of any innovations into the English language must %e mentioned Sir :ohn Che$e, 1oger )scham and in particular Thomas <ilson, whose well $nown J)rte of 1hetori#ueJ has already %een mentioned" =e severely attac$ed Jin$HhornJ terms" Some of the words that were o%Cected to %y Thomas <ilson were a77a0i"i%&+ i !e i)-#+ 'a6a'i%&+ 'e"e0ra%e+ i""-#%ra%e+ #-6eri)ri%&+ 7er%i"e+ a%i*e+ ') 7ide 'e and many others that are in common use toHday" Puttenham, although issuing a warning against Jin$H horn termsJ, admits having to use some of them himself, and see$s to Custify them in particular instances" =e defends the words #'ie %i7i'+ /aH)r(d)/e+ 6)"i%ie +?politician?/, ') d-'t +ver%/ and others" >n the other hand, there was an e#ually fierce struggle against the tendency to revive o%solete words and particularly the voca%ulary and phraseology of Chaucer" ;en :onson in this connection saidD JSpencer in affecting the ancients writ no language"J Sir :ohn Che$e, one of the purists of the century, tried to introduce English e#uivalents for the rench %orrowingsD he invented such words as /)) ed +?lunatic?/, 7)re#&er +?prophet?/, 0&?)rd +B6ara0"eB4+ 7re#$/a 2B6r)#e"&%eB4+ 'r)##ed 2B'r-'i7iedB4+ !ai ri#i ! 2Bre#-rre'%i) B4. O7 %$e#e ?)rd# ) "& 7re#$/a in the sense of ?firstHyear student? and 0&?)rd in the sense of ?a saying? remain in the language" The tendency to revive archaic words however has always %een o%served in poetic language" The ,3th century may Custly %e called crucial in esta%lishing the norms of presentHday literary English" ;oth of the tendencies mentioned a%ove have left their mar$ on the Standard English of toHday" SixteenthHcentury literary English could not, however, %e called Standard English %ecause at that time there was no received standard" Se*e %ee %$('e %-r& literary English is characteriGed %y a general tendency to refinement and regulation" The orientation towards classical models, strong enough in ,3th century English, assumed a new function, that of refining, polishing and improving the literary language" This was, of course, one of the trends leading to the final esta%lishment of the norms of literary English" The tendency to refine the

language, to give it the grace and gallantry of the no%ility of the period, is manifested in the writings of language theoreticians and critics of the time" 0llustrative of this is the JEssay on Dramatic PoesyJ %y :ohn Dry den, where we find the followingD J0 have always ac$nowledged the wit of our predecessors""" %ut 0 am sure their wit was not that of gentlemenI there was ever somewhat that was ill %red and clownish in it and which confessed the conversation of the authors"""" 0n the age wherein these poets lived, there was less of gallantry than in oursI neither did they $eep the %est company of theirs +their age/"""" The discourse and raillery of our comedies excel what has %een written %y them"J >ne of the many manifestations of the process of regulation and refinement can %e seen in the successive editions of Sha$espeare?s wor$s in ,379, ,397, ,33E, ,34F, in which the language of the great playwright was su%Cected to considera%le change in order to ma$e it conform to the norms esta%lished %y his successors" There were not only morphological and syntactical changes, %ut even changes in Sha$espeare?s voca%ulary" <ords that were considered ?ill %red and clownish? were sometimes changed, %ut more often they were omitted altogether" 0n ,33E a special committee was set up to normaliGe and improve the English language" ;ut the Committee did not last long and had little influence in deciding upon the norms of usage" ) considera%le role in the regulation of the norms was played %y a num%er of new grammars, which appeared at this period" )mong these the J2rammatica !inguae )nglicanaeJ written in !atin %y :ohn <allis and pu%lished in ,3F9 is particularly nota%le" 0t was a $ind of protest against the %lind imitation of !atin grammars, although the author could not free himself entirely from the influence of the !atin grammatical system and the !atin theory of language" The tendency of refining and polishing the English literary language %y modeling it on the classic 2ree$ and !atin masterpieces was counteracted, however, %y another strong movement, that of restricting literary English to a simple collo#uial language which would easily %e understood %y the ordinary people" The Protestant 1eformation also played its role in safeguarding the English literary language for the people" So, on the one hand, there was the rhetoric which was J"""a potent force in shaping the English language in the period following the 1enaissanceJ and which undou%tedly paved the way for the norms of the Standard English of the ,.th century" >n the other hand, there was the authoriGed version of the English ;i%le first pu%lished in ,3,,, which J"""has served to $eep alive English words and to fix their meanings, and it has provided language material and pattern in word, in phrase, in rhythm""" to

English writers and spea$ers of all su%se#uent times"J )ccording to ran$ )" (isetelly, the ;i%le contains -. per cent of )ngloHSaxon words, more than any other English %oo$" Early in the seventeenth century English dictionaries %egan to appear as practical guides to the use of new words, terms %elonging to science and art and also Jin$HhornJ terms, which had poured into the English language in the ,3th century and continued to flow in the seventeenth" )s in every century, there was a struggle %etween the purists, the J$eepersJ of the already esta%lished norms of the language, who mainly orientate towards the literary and somewhat o%solescent forms of language, and the admirers of novelty who regard everything new that appears on the surface of the language as representing its natural development and therefore as something that should %e readily accepted into the system without its %eing su%Cected to the test of time" Such a struggle is the natural clash of tendencies, which leads to changes in the literary language of each linguistic period" ;ut there is nevertheless a general tendency in each period, which will undou%tedly %e reflected in the literary language" The normaliGing tendency so apparent in the seventeenth century continues into the eighteenth" ;ut %y the ei!$%ee %$ 'e %-r& it had %ecome a conscious goal" The aim of the language scholars who sought to lay down the law in the eighteenth century may %e expressed as the desire to fix the language for all time, to esta%lish its laws once and for all" >rder and regularity were the #ualities they esteemed" Their need for standardiGation and regulation was summed up in their word JascertainmentJ of the language" :" ="Mc*night, a student of the history of modern Standard English, whom we have already cited, descri%es the general tendency of the development of the literary English of the eighteenth century in the following wordsD JThe littleHcontrolled English language of the time of Sidney and Sha$espeare, the elegant freedom of expression of the 1estoration period, was to %e su%Cected to authority" ;oth learning represented %y :ohnson and fashiona%le %reeding represented %y Chesterfield came together in a common form of language reduced to regularity and uniformity"J ;ut the actual history of the development of Standard English cannot %e reduced to the interaction of learning and fashiona%le %reeding" The development of the literary language is mar$ed %y the process of selection" The real creator of the literary form of the language remains the people, the actual law giver of the norms" Scientists and menHofHletters only fix what has already %een esta%lished %y general usage" Kew norms of usage cannot %e imposed"

;ut to historians of language the opinions of writers and scholars of a given period as well as those of ordinary people are of great value" They help to trace the fluctuating trends leading to the esta%lishment of the norms of the period and influence to some extent the progress of literary English" 0n the eighteenth century two men had a great influence on the development of the norms of literary English" These were :onathan Swift and Samuel :ohnson" 0n an attempt to regulariGe the use of English, Swift condemned %oth Jvulgar slanginessJ and Jintolera%le preciosityJ" )ccording to Swift the Jvulgar slanginessJ came from a certain school of young men from the universities, Jterri%ly possessed with fear of pedantryJ, who from his description wished to %e what we should call ?up to date?J" J?They""" come up to town, rec$on all their errors for accomplishments, %orrow the newest set of phrases and if ta$e a pen into their hands, all the odd words they have pic$ed up in a coffeeHhouse, or at a gaming ordinary are produced as flowers of style"? JSuch a ?strange race of wits? with their ?#uaint fopperies? of manner and speech, exist in every age" Their mannerisms rarely pass %eyond their immediate cli#ue, and have no more permanence than foam on the river"J The ?intolera%le preciosity? as Swift understands it was the tendency to use em%ellishments to the detriment of clarity and exactness" 0t was Swift who declared the necessity Jto call a spade a spadeJ, a phrase, which has %ecome a sym%ol for a plain and simple way of expression" Samuel :ohnson?s attitude toward language is %est expressed in his 2rammarD J or pronunciation, the %est rule is to consider those as the most elegant spea$ers who deviate least from the written words"J aithful to this doctrine :ohnson in trying to JascertainJ the English language was mainly concerned with the usage of great English writers" 0n his famous dictionary, first pu%lished in ,.F9, the influence of which on su%se#uent dictionaries of the English language can hardly %e overestimated, :ohnson made his selection only from words found in literary pu%lications, ignoring the words and collocations used in oral intercourse, in the lively collo#uial English of his day" The definitions given %y :ohnson reflect only the usage of the great writers of his own and of preceding centuries" The literaryH %oo$ish character of :ohnson?s dictionary has greatly influenced the word usage of written English and also the formation of different styles in literary English" EighteenthHcentury concepts in the fields of philosophy and natural sciences had considera%le influence on contemporary theoretical linguistic thought" Even the titles of certain grammars of the period reflected the general tendency to lay

down categorical laws" Thus, for example, the titleD J1eflections on the Kature and Property of !anguage in 2eneral, on the )dvantages, Defects, and Manner of 0mproving the English Tongue in ParticularJ %y Thomas Stac$house +,.9,/ clearly shows the aims of the writer, aims which were common to most of the ,4th century wor$s on language, i" e" improving the language and fixing its laws for the use of the people" This general trend of language theory is also expressed %y Samuel :ohnson in the preface to his dictionary" J!anguageJ, he writes, Jis only the instrument of science, and the words are %ut the signs of ideas" 0 wish, however, that the instrument might %e less apt to decay, and that the signs might %e permanent, li$e the things which they denote"J =owever, adherence to the theoretical trends of the century was not universal" There were some scholars who protested against ar%itrarily imposing laws and restrictions on the language" Thus, for example, :ohn ell in his JEssay towards an English 2rammarJ pu%lished in ,.4E declaresD J0t is certainly the %usiness of a grammarian to find out, and not to ma$e, the laws of language"J 0n this wor$ the author does not assume the character of a legislator, %ut appears as a faithful compiler of the scattered laws" J""" 0t matters not what causes these customs and fashions owe their %irth to" The moment they %ecome general they are laws of the languageI and a grammarian can only remonstrate how much so ever he disapprove"J The eighteenth century literary trend was also influenced to a considera%le degree %y the rhetoric, which since the 1enaissance had played a noticea%le role in all matters of language" ;ut the maCority of language scholars were concerned with the use of words, inasmuch as the lexical units and their functioning are more o%serva%le and discerni%le in the slow progress ofHlanguage development" The wellH$nown article %y :onathan Swift J) Proposal for the Correcting, 0mproving, and )scertaining the English TongueJ in its very title sums up the general attitude of scholars towards the English of their century" The main issues of this document, remar$a%le in many ways, centre around the use of words and set expressions" Meanwhile, however, collo#uial English, following its natural path of progress and living its own life, although it was su%Cected to some extent to the general tendencies laid down %y the menHofHletters, exhi%ited a $ind of independence in the use of words, expressions, syntax, and pronunciation" The gap %etween the literary and collo#uial English of the ,4th century was widening" The restrictions forced on the written language are felt in the speech of

the characters in the novels and plays of this period" Their speech is under the heavy influence of literary English and therefore it is erroneous to understand it as representing the norms of ,4th century spo$en English" The i e%ee %$ 'e %-r& trends in literary English are %est summariGed in the following statement %y Mc*nightD JThe spirit of purism was evidently alive in the early nineteenth century" The sense of a classical perfection to %e striven for survived from the eighteenth century" The language must not only %e made more regular, %ut it must %e protected from the corrupting influences that were felt to %e on all sides" (ulgarisms were to %e avoided and new words, if they were to %e tolerated, must conform not only to analogy %ut to good taste"J This puristic spirit is revealed mainly in the attitude towards voca%ulary and pronunciation" Syntactical and morphological changes are not so apparent as lexical and phonetic ones and therefore are less exposed to the criticism of the purists" Many new words that were coming into use as, for example + re"ia0"e+ e *ir) /e %+ "e !%$& were o%Cected to on the principle that they were unnecessary innovations replacing, e" g", %r-#%?)r%$&+ #'e er& or 'ir'-/#%a 'e# a d ") !. 0t is interesting to remar$ in passing that language theories of the ,3th to the ,4th centuries were in general more concerned with what we would now call macroHlinguistics in contrast to the present time when the process of atomiGation of language facts not infre#uently overshadows o%servations concerning the nature and properties of units of communication" The tendency to protest against innovation, however, gradually gave way to new trends, those of the ,-th century, which can %e defined as the %eginning of the recognition of collo#uial English as a variety of the national language" Collo#uial words and expressions created %y the people %egan to pour into literary English" The literary critics and menHofHletters o%Cected to the maxims laid down %y their predecessors and %egan to lay the foundation for new theoretical concepts of the literary language" Thus De Nuincey in his essay on rhetoric declaresD J"""since Dr" :ohnson?s time the freshness of the idiomatic style has %een too fre#uently a%andoned for the lifeless mechanism of a style purely %oo$ish and mechanical"J JThe restriction of the English voca%ulary which was promoted %y the classiciGing tendencies of the eighteenth century,J writes Mc*night, Jwas apprecia%ly loosened %y the spirit which produced the 1omantic movement"J =owever, the purists never ceased to struggle against new coinages and there were special lists of proscri%ed words and expressions" The constant struggle of those who endeavour to safeguard the purity of their language against new

creations or %orrowings, which alone can supply the general need for means to render new ideas, seems to represent a natural process in language development" 0t is this struggle that ma$es the literary language move forward and forces the recognition of new forms, words and syntactical patterns" The wor$s of ;yron, Thac$eray, Dic$ens and other classic writers of the ,-th century show how many words from the collo#uial language of that period have %een adopted into standard literary English" )nother feature of the ,-th century literary English to %e noted is a more or less firmly esta%lished differentiation of styles, though this process was not fully appreciated %y the scholars of the period" The dichotomy of written and oral intercourse which manifested itself mainly in the widening of the gap %etween the literary and nonHliterary forms, so typical of the ,4th century English, led the way to a cluster of varieties within the literary language, viG" to its stratification into different styles" ) particularly conspicuous instance of this stratification was the singling out of poetic diction and the esta%lishment of a set of rules %y which the language of poetry was governed" Strict laws concerning word usage and imagery in poetry had long %een recogniGed as a specific feature of the style of poetry" The norms of ,-th century literary English were considera%ly influenced %y certain other styles, which %y this period had already shaped themselves as separate styles" ;y this period the shaping of the newspaper style, the pu%licistic style, the style of scientific prose and the official style may %e said to have %een completed and language scholars found themselves faced with new pro%lems" 0t %ecame necessary to see$ the foundation and distinctive characteristics of each individual style and analyse them" The shaping of the %ellesHlettres prose style called forth a new system of expressive means and stylistic devices" There appeared a stylistic deviceH represented speech, which #uic$ly developed into one of the most popular means %y which the thought and feeling of a character in a novel can %e shown, the speech of the character com%ining with the exposition of the author to give a fuller picture" The favourite stylistic devices of the prose style of the ,4th century, rhetorical #uestions, climax, anaphora, antithesis and some others gave way to more lively stylistic devices as %rea$ing off the narrative, detached constructions and other devices so typical of the norms of lively collo#uial speech" Stylistic devices regarded with suspicion and disapproval in the ,4th century were %eginning to gain popularity" The realistic tendencies and trends in English literature during this period made it necessary to introduce nonHliterary forms of English when depicting

characters from the soHcalled lower classes through the idiosyncracies of their speech" 0n this connection another feature must %e mentioned when characteriGing the ways and means %y which literary English of the ,-th century progressed" This was a more li%eral admission of dialectal words and words from the Scottish dialect in particular" To a considera%le extent this must %e attri%uted to 1o%ert ;urns, whose poems were widely read and admired and who, as is $nown, wrote in the Scottish +Scots/ dialect" The novels of <alter Scott also aided the process" 0n summing up the main features of the struggle to esta%lish norms for ,-th century literary English, special mention must %e made of the two tendencies characteristic of this period" >ne was reactionary purism, the principles of which were laid down in the ,.th and ,4th centuries and which %ecame manifest in the struggle against any innovation no matter where it came from" The purist was e#ually against words %orrowed from other languages, the coinage of new words and also semantic changes in the native stoc$ of words" This reactionary purism orientated the literary language towards a revival of old words, which had gone out of use and of constructions typical of earlier stages in the history of English" The other tendency was to draw on the inexhausti%le resources of the vernacular %oth in voca%ulary and in the lively syntactical patterns of collo#uial English so suggestive of the warm intonation of the human voice" This tendency was particularly o%serva%le in the %ellesHlettres style, and ;yron, Thac$eray and Dic$ens contri%uted greatly to the enrichment of the literary language" The end of the century led practically to no change in the general direction of the two tendencies" ;ut there is undou%ted evidence that the second of the two a%oveHmentioned tendencies has ta$en the upper hand" 1eactionary purism is dying down and giving way to strong moderniGing tendencies, which flourish particularly in the newspaper style and the %ellesHlettres style" The recognition in the 78th century of the everyday speech of the people as a variety of the national language has done much to legaliGe the collo#uial form of English which, until the present century had %een %arred from the domain of language studies" <e must point out that the functional styles of language have shaped themselves within the literary form of the English language" The division of the Standard English language into two varieties written and spo$en +the literary language and the collo#uial language/, which was recogniGed earlier and which was ac$nowledged as a natural coexistence, now goes alongside the pro%lem of the JclosedJ systems of styles of language" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+66.<E(E;4.

VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE The functioning of the literary language in various spheres of human activity and with different aims of communication has resulted in its differentiation" This differentiation is predetermined %y two distinct factors, namely, the actual situation in which the language is %eing used and the aim of the communication" The actual situation of the communication has evolved two varieties of languageD the spo$en and the written" The varying aims of the communication have caused the literary language to fall into a num%er of selfHsufficient systems or styles of language" >f the two varieties of language diachronically the spo$en is primary and the written is secondary" Each of these varieties has developed its own features and #ualities, which in many ways may %e regarded as opposed to each other" The situation in which the spo$en variety of language is used and in which it develops, can %e descri%ed concisely as the presence of an interlocutor" The written variety, on the contrary, presupposes the a%sence of an interlocutor" The spo$en language is maintained in the form of a dialogue H the written in the form of a monologue" The spo$en language has a considera%le advantage over the written, in that the human voice comes into play" This is a powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all $inds of gestures, which together with the intonation, give additional information" 0ndeed, the rise and fall of the voice, whether the utterance is shouted, whispered, drawled or expressed in some other tone of voice all have an effect on the melody of the utterance and conse#uently on its general meaning" The written language has to see$ means to compensate for what it lac$s" Therefore, the written utterance will inevita%ly %e more diffuse, more explanatory" 0n other words, it has to produce an enlarged representation of the communication in order to %e explicit enough" The forms of the written language replace those of the spo$en language when the dissemination of ideas is the purpose in view" 0t is the written variety of language with its careful organiGation and deli%erate choice of words and constructions that can have political, cultural and educational influence on a wide and scattered pu%lic" 0n the long process of its functioning, the written language has ac#uired its own characteristic features emanating from the need to amplify the utterance, which is an essential point in the written language" The gap %etween the spo$en and written varieties of language, wider or narrower at different periods in the development of the literary language, will always remain apparent due to the difference in circumstances in which the two are

used" =ere is an example showing the difference" JMarvellous %east, a fox" 2reat places for wild life, these wooded chinesI so steep you can?t distur% them H pigeons, Cays, woodpec$ers, ra%%its, foxes, hares, pheasants H every mortal thing"J 0ts written counterpart would run as followsD ?<hat a marvellous %east a fox isL These wooded chines are splendid places for wild life" They are so steep that one can?t distur% anything" Therefore one can see every imagina%le creature here H pigeons, Cays, woodpec$ers, ra%%its, foxes, hares and pheasants"? JThe use of the peculiarities of the spo$en variety in the written language, or vice versa, the peculiarities of the written language in lively speech, will always produce a ludicrous effect 0t must %e %orn in mind that in the %ellesHlettres style there may appear elements of collo#uial language +a form of the spo$en variety/, %ut it will always %e styliGed to a greater or lesser degree %y the writer" The term %ellesHlettres itself suggests the use of the written language" The spo$en language %y its very nature is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting" 0t vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is to communicate a thought, no matter whether it is trivial or really important" The idea remains, the language dissolves in it" The written language, on the contrary, lives together with the idea it expresses" )n interesting o%servation on the difference %etween the spo$en and written varieties of language is made %y Prof" )rchi%ald )" =ill in his J)n )nalysis of ?The <indhover"? J>rdinary speech is ephemeral, meant to %e reacted to and forgotten, """chains in speech, therefore, wor$ mostly forward and over a fairly short span" 0n literature they can also wor$ %ac$ward and there can %e more than one chain running at a time, so that a given item can have one meaning in one span, a different one in a second"J The spo$en language cannot %e detached from the user of it, the spea$er, who is una%le to view it from the outside" The written language on the contrary, can %e detached from the writer, ena%ling him to loo$ upon his utterance o%Cectively and giving him the opportunity to correct and improve what has %een put on paper" That is why it is said that the written language %ears a greater volume of responsi%ility than its spo$en counterpart" The peculiarities of %oth varieties can roughly %e descri%ed as followsD the spo$en variety differs from the written language phonetically +that is, in its written representation/, morphologically, lexically and syntactically" Thus, of morphological forms the spo$en language

commonly uses contracted forms as $eBd+ #$eB# +?she has?, ?she 0s?/ and the li$e, e" g" J0?d?ve $illed himJ +Salinger/" >ther peculiarities of the spo$en language are the use of ?don?t? instead of ?doesn?t?, as in J0t?s a wonder his father d) B% ta$e him in his %an$J +Dreiser/I ?he? instead of ?him?, as in J0 used to play tennis with $e and Mrs" )ntoliniJ +Salinger/I ?0 says?, ?ain?t? instead of ?am not?, ?is not?, ?are not?, ?them? instead of ?these?, or ?those?, as in AT$e/B# some of your chaps, ai B% theyYJ +Tressell/I Le!!)Z ?let go?, $e"")*a Z ?hell of a? and others" These morphological and phonetic peculiarities are sometimes regarded as violations of grammar rules caused %y a certain carelessness, which accompanies the #uic$ tempo of collo#uial speech or an excited state of mind" >thers are typical of territorial or social dialects" The following passage is illustrative in this respectD JMum, 0?ve as$ed a young lady to come to tea tomorrow" 0s that all rightYJ JMou d) e whatYJ as$ed Mrs" Sun%ury, for a moment forgetting her grammar" JMou heard, mum"J +Somerset Maugham/ Some of these improprieties are now recogniGed as %eing legitimate forms of collo#uial English" Thus, Prof" M" <hitehall of 0ndiana University now admits that JCollo#uial spo$en English often uses %$e/ as the plural form of %$i# and %$a%+ written English uses %$e#e and %$)#e" ?Them men have arrived?"' The most stri$ing difference %etween the spo$en and written language is, however in the voca%ulary used" There are words and phrases typically collo#uial on the one hand and typically %oo$ish on the other" This pro%lem will %e dealt with in detail in the next chapter" Such words and phrases as #")66&+ %) 0e !) e ) #)/e0)d& +?to %e violently in love with?/I 0 %a@e i% +?0 understand?/ a #)r% )7G %) $)0( )0 ?i%$ +?%e very familiar with?/ and others immediately mar$ the utterance as %eing collo#uial, that is, %elonging to the spo$en variety of language" They are rarely found in the author?s narrative unless special stylistic aims are pursued" <hen set against ordinary neutral words or literaryH%oo$ish words and expressions, they produce a mar$ed stylistic effect" =ere is an exampleD J=e says you were #%r-'@ )77 %$e r)""# for something"J JBRe/)*ed 7r)/ %$e Re!i#%er is the correct expression,? placidly interrupted the doctor"J +Maugham/" =ere are some more examples of present day collo#uial phrases which are gaining ground in Standard English %ut which are strongly felt to %e collo#uialD H)? ')/eI +ZwhyY =ow does that happenY/ J$a% %i/e d) &)- /a@e i%I+ #) /-'$ %$e 0e%%er+ %) 0e -6 %) #)/e%$i !. The spo$en language ma$es ample use of intensifying words" These are interCections and words with strong emotive meaning, as oaths, swear words and adCectives, which have

lost their primary meaning and only serve the purpose of intensifying the emotional charge of the utterance" =ere are some examplesD J0?d #-re li$e to hear some more a%out them people"J +Don 2ordon/ J0n fact, you ought to %e dar glad you went to ;urtingame"J +!" ord/ J=e put my !)dda/ paper down"""J +Salinger/ The words ?here? and ?there? are also used to reinforce the demonstrative pronouns, as inD J0f 0 can get a tal$ with %$i# $ere servant"""J said <eller" JT$a% %$ere food is good"J AI# %$i# Bere +here/ hall +all/ you?ve doneYJ he shouts out" There is another characteristic feature of collo#uial language which is half linguistic, half psychological, that is the insertion into the utterance of words without any meaning, which are appropriately called &fill ups' of empty words" To some extent they give a touch of completeness Jto the sentence if used at the end of it or, if used in the middle, help the spea$er to fill the gap when una%le to find the proper word" 0llustrative in this respect is =olden?s manner of speech in Salinger?s novel JThe Catcher in the 1ye"J =ere are some examplesD JShe loo$ed so damn nice, the way she $ept going around and around in her %lue coat a d a"".A J"""splendid and clearHthin$ing a d a"".A J"""he is my %rother a d a"".A Such words and set expressions as ?e""+ #) %) #a&+ &)- #ee+ &)- @ )?+ &)- - der#%a d+ a d a"", as well as what may %e called Jmum%ling wordsJ li$e (/(/+ er(r, also %elong to the category of fillHups" The syntactical peculiarities of the spo$en language are perhaps not so stri$ing as the lexical ones, %ut more than any other features, they reveal the true nature of the spo$en variety of language, that is the situational character of the communication" The first of them is what is erroneously called ellipsis, that is, the omission of parts of the utterance easily supplied %y the situation in which the communication ta$es place" These are in fact not omissions, %ut the regular a%sence of parts unnecessary in lively conversation when there are two or more people spea$ing" =ere are some a%solutely normal and legitimate constructions, which have missing elements in the spo$en language, elements, which are indispensa%le in the written language, however" ?<ho you withY +<ho are you withY/? ?Care to hear my ideas a%out itY? ?Ever go %ac$ to EnglandY? ?:ust doing a short story to $ill the time?" The second feature is the tendency to use the direct word order in #uestions or omit the auxiliary ver%, for exampleD J S'r))!e @ e? Marley was deadYJ +Dic$ens4 AMi## H)""a d "))@ a7%er &)- and all thatYJ Unfinished sentences are also typical of the spo$en language, for example, ?0f you %ehave li$e that 0?ll"""?

There is a syntactical structure with a tautological su%Cect, which is also considered characteristic of collo#uial English" 0t is a construction in which two su%Cects are used where one is sufficient reference" Usually they are noun and pronoun, as inD ?=e was a $ind %oy, Harr&.B BHe"e , she was there" )s$ her"? 0n the spo$en language it is very natural to have a string of sentences without any connections or lin$ed with and, that servant of all wor$, for exampleD ?Came home late" =ad supper and went to %ed" Couldn?t sleep, of course" The evening had %een too much of a strain"? 0t has already %een pointed out that the spo$en variety of language is far more emotional than its counterpart, due mainly to the advantage the human voice supplies" This emotiveness of collo#uial language has produced a num%er of syntactical structures which so far have %een little investigated and the meaning of which can hardly %e discerned without a proper intonation design" =ere are some of themD J0sn?t she cuteLJ JDon?t you tell me that"J J) witch she isLJ J)nd didn?t she come over on the same %oat as myselfLJ J=e fair %eats me, does :amesLJ JClever girl that she isLJ JMou are telling meLJ JThere you have the manLJ JSome%ody is going to touch you with a %roomstic$LJ The characteristic syntactical features of the written variety of language can easily %e perceived %y the student of languageJ )s the situation must %e made clear %y the context, the utterance %ecomes more exact" That means the relations %etween the parts of the utterance must %e precise" =ence the a%undance of all $inds of conCunctions, adver%ial phrases and other means which may serve as connectives" )s someone has said, a clear writer is always conscious of a reader over his shoulder" =e must explain" Most of the connecting words were evolved in the written language and for the most part are used only there" Such connectives as /)re)*er+ 7-r%$er/)re+ "i@e?i#e+ #i/i"ar"&+ e*er%$e"e##+ ) %$e ') %rar&+ $)?e*er+ 6re#e %"&+ e*e %-a""&+ %$ere7)re+ i ') e'%i) ?i%$+ $erei a7%er+ $e 'e7)r%$+ have a decidedly %oo$ish flavour and are seldom used in ordinary conversation" )nother syntactical feature of the written language is its use of complicated sentenceHunits" The written language prefers hypotaxis to parataxisI long periods are more fre#uent than short utterances" The monologue character of the written language forci%ly demands logical coherence of the ideas expressed and the %rea$ing of the utterance into o%serva%le spansI hence units li$e the syntactical whole, and the paragraph" The words and word com%inations of the written language have also gained recognition as a separate layer of the English voca%ulary" 1ichard D" )ltic$, Prof"

of English at the >hio State University, calls many phrases that tend to %e %oo$ish JspaceHwastersJ" These are de#6i%e %$e 7a'% +Z?although?/I i %$e /a%%er )7 +Z ?a%out?/I a ") ! 6eri)d )7 %i/e 2 Z ?a long time?4G i %$e 'a6a'i%& )7 +Z ?as?/I re#e/0"i ! i a%-re +Z?li$e?/I rea'$ a de'i#i) +ZZ ?decide?/I /e% ?i%$ %$e a66r)*a" )7 C) e# +Z?:ones approved?/I a )- 'ed $i/#e"7 %) 0e i 7a*)-r )7 +Z ?said he favoured?/ and others" =owever, these JspaceHwastersJ cannot always %e so easily dispensed with, and Prof" )ltic$ seems not to ta$e into consideration the su%tle difference in meaning carried %y such pairs as i %$e 'a6a'i%& )7 and as, re#e/0"i ! i a%-re and "i@e. >f course there are the JhighHtal$ersJ who fre#uently overHindulge in %oo$ishness of expression, thus causing a natural protest on the part of ordinary readers" :" D" )dams, an )merican linguist and critic, gives an example of such over%oo$ishness from an )cademy of Science reportD JThe evolution of an optimum scientific payload will re#uire a continuing dialogue among all potential investigators and the engineers responsi%le for implementing their scientific goals"J Then he gives what he calls a Jpossi%le translationJD J inding the right cargo will re#uire continuing conferences of those wor$ing on the proCect"J 0t is worthy of note that most of the ridicule poured on the %oo$ish language used %y different writers is concentrated on the voca%ulary" !ittle or no moc$ery is made of the syntactical pattern even though in the long run it is this feature that has as great a weight as any of the others distinguishing the written from the spo$en language" The syntactical structure, no matter how complicated it may %e, reflects the essential difference %etween the two varieties of language, and is accepted without #uestion" )ny syntactical pattern of the written variety will always show the interrelation %etween the parts of the utterance, so there is nothing to hinder the reader in grasping the whole" This is the case with prose writing" <ith regard to poetry, the situation is somewhat different" 1ecent o%servations on the peculiarities of the language of modern English and )merican poetry have proved that it is mainly the %reach of syntactical laws, that hinders understanding to a degree that the message %ecomes undecoda%le" Coherence and logical unity %ac$ed up %y purely linguistic means is therefore an essential property of the written variety of language" The %oo$ish voca%ulary, one of the nota%le properties of the written language may, on the contrary, go %eyond the grasping powers of even the most intelligent reader and may very fre#uently need interpretation" +I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+66.EK(5E4.

TYPES OF LE=ICAL MEANING ) num%er of stylistic devices are %ased on the peculiar use of lexical meanings" Therefore it seems to %e necessary to define with precision the types of meanings words may have which we meet in stylistic devices" <ords can %e approached from multifarious aspects, some of which go %eyond the %oundaries of pure linguistics, though they are deeply rooted in the texture of the language" The most common and accepta%le definition of a word is the following" ) word is a language sign that expresses a concept %y its forms and meanings" ;y concept is meant an a%stract or general idea of some phenomenon of o%Cective reality including the su%Cective feelings and emotions of human %eings" The forms of a word show its relation to the other words in a sentence" The meaning of a word is the means %y which the concept is materialiGed" The meaning will always direct the mind to the o%Cect or o%Cects we thin$ of" The forms of a word will direct the mind to the correlation %etween the words in a sentence" The forms of a word are also said to have meanings" Therefore we distinguish %etween lexical meaning and grammatical meaning, the former referring to the phenomena of o%Cective reality and the latter to the correlation %etween the words in a sentence" ;oth lexical and grammatical meaning may %e polysemantic" This means that a word may have a num%er of meanings" So here we? meet the first contradiction in terms" >n the one hand a word expresses a concept %y its meanings" >n the other hand each meaning may denote a separate concept" The contradiction is to some extent removed %y introducing the notion of progress in language" The meanings are lia%le to change" <hen there is an o%vious connection %etween different meanings, we call them shades of meaning, nuances of meaning and even separate meaning, the latter %eing on the verge of %ecoming separate words" <hen the process of %rea$ing away from the %asic meaning has gone so far that we scarcely feel any connection %etween the meanings, we say that the word has split into two different words, which in this case %ecome homonyms" The meanings of a word are the only means of materialiGing a concept in language, though some concepts may %e materialiGed not %y means of the signs of language %ut %y other signs H %y gestures, mimicry, music, painting, sculpture and the other fine arts" 0t is of paramount importance in stylistics to %ear in mind that concepts of o%Cective reality have different degrees of a%stractness" This is ade#uately manifested in language" )dCectives are more a%stract in meaning than nouns" )dver%s may %e considered more a%stract than adCectives inasmuch as they usually

characteriGe an a%stract notion, action or state" ConCunctions and prepositions have a still higher degree of a%stractness %ecause it is not o%Cects as such that they indicate, %ut the correlation of the concepts involved" Therefore, we may consider conCunctions and prepositions, and some auxiliary words as well, to %e on the %orderline %etween lexical and grammatical categories, or in terms of meaning, having a grammatical meaning, which suppresses the lexical meaning" <ithin the grammatical classes of words, there are also different degrees of a%stractness" Kouns, as is $nown, are divided into two large classes, a%stract and concrete" ;ut this division does not correspond to the actual difference in the degree of a%stractness" This will %e explained later when we come to illustrate a%stractness and concreteness" ) word, as is $nown, generaliGes" Conse#uently, a word will always denote a concept, no matter whether it names a definite o%Cect or em%races all the o%Cects of a given $ind" The pro%lem of a%stractness, and especially the degree of a%stractness, is of vital importance in stylistics in more than one respect" Stylistics deals not only with the aesthetic and emotional impact of the language" 0t also studies the means of producing impressions in our mind" 0mpression is the first and rudimentary stage of concept" ;ut the concept through a reverse process may %uild another $ind of impression" 0mpressions that are secondary to concepts, in other words, which have %een %orn %y concepts, are called i /a!er&" 0magery is mainly produced %y the interplay of different meanings" Concrete o%Cects are easily perceived %y the senses" )%stract notions are perceived %y the mind" <hen an a%stract notion is %y the force of the mind represented through a concrete o%Cect, an image is the result" 0magery may %e %uilt on the interrelation of two a%stract notions or two concrete o%Cects or an a%stract and a concrete one" Three types of meaning can %e distinguished, which we shall call ")!i'a"+ e/)%i*e and )/i a" respectively" L)!i'a" meaning is the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or o%Cect, the name %y which we recogniGe the whole of the concept" This meaning is also synonymously called referential meaning or direct meaning" <e shall use the terms logical and referential as %eing most ade#uate for our purpose" 1eferential meanings are lia%le to change" )s a result the referential meanings of one word may denote different concepts" 0t is therefore necessary to distinguish %etween primary and secondary referential, or logical, meaning"

Thus the adver% i ?ard"& has the primary logical meaning of i %er a""& or ?i%$i . 0ts secondary logical meanings areD %)?ard# %$e 'e %re+ /e %a""&+ #e're%"&+ which are to some extent derived from the primary meaning" Some dictionaries give a very extended list of primary and secondary logical meanings and it is essential for stylistic purposes to distinguish them, as some stylistic devices are %uilt on the interplay of primary and secondary logical meanings" )ll the meanings fixed %y authoritative English and )merican dictionaries comprise what is called %$e #e/a %i' #%r-'%-re )7 %$e ?)rd. The meanings that are to %e found in speech or writing and which are accidental should not %e regarded as components of the semantic structure of the word" They may %e transitory, inasmuch as they depend on the context" They are generally called contextual meanings" !et us compare the meanings of the word 6re#e 'e in the following two sentences" JThe governor said that he would not allow %$e 6re#e 'e )7 7edera" %r))6# on the soil of his State"J J"""the 2eneral has %een faced with a pro%lem as old as Fra 'eB# 6re#e 'e i A"!eria, the stu%%orn resistance of officers and officials"""J 0n the first sentence the word ?presence? merely means ?"""the state of %eing present?, whereas in the second sentence the meaning of the word expands into ?"""occupation?, i" e" the seiGure and control of an area, especially foreign territory, %y military forces" The first meaning is the dictionary meaning of the word" The second meaning is a contextual one" 0t lives only in the given text and disappears if the context is altered" =owever, there are definite reasons to assume that a num%er of derivative meanings are given place in dictionaries on the %asis of contextual meanings" <hen the two meanings clearly coHexist in the utterance, we say there is an interaction of dictionary and contextual meanings" <hen only one meaning is perceived %y the reader, we are sure to find this meaning in dictionaries as a derivative one" Sometimes it is difficult to decide whether there is a simultaneous materialiGation of two dictionary logical meanings or an interplay of a dictionary and a contextual meaning" The difficulty is caused, on the one hand, %y insufficient o%Cective criteria of what should %e fixed in dictionaries as already esta%lished language facts, and on the other hand, %y deli%erate political, Jaesthetic, moral and other considerations on the part of the compilers of the dictionaries" Thus in ;yron?s use of the word ?arise? in the line J)wa$e ye sons of Spain, awa$e, ariseLJ the word ?arise? has the longHesta%lished meaning of ?revolt?" 0t is not contextual any longer" ;ut no English or )merican dictionary fixes this particular meaning in the semantic structure of the word ?arise? and it is left to the a%ility of

the attentive reader to supply the o%vious meaning to the word" The same can %e said a%out the word ?appeasement?" There is an implicit difference in the treatment of the semantic structure of this word in ;ritish and )merican dictionaries" 0n no ;ritish dictionary will you find the new derivative meaning, *i1. Ba #a'ri7i'e )7 /)ra" 6ri 'i6"e i )rder %) a*er% a!!re##i) B. Some modern )merican dictionaries include this meaning in the semantic structure of the word ?appeasement?" The reason for the difference is apparent H the ;ritish Prime minister Cham%erlain in ,-94 played an igno%le role in Munich, sacrificing Che$oslova$ia to =itler?s greed" The new meaning that was attached to the word +in connection with this historical event/ cannot now %e removed from its semantic structure" ) dictionary meaning is materialiGed in the contextI a contextual meaning is %orn in the context" =owever, dictionaries, though the only relia%le sources of information regarding the meanings of a given word, apply very diverse and even contradictory principles in ascertaining the general accepta%ility and recognition of some of the shades of meaning which are in process of %eing shaped as independent meanings" Thus, %) e5'-#e ) e#e"7 in the meaning of ?to leave?, as in ?Soames e5'-#ed $i/#e"7 directly after dinner? +2alsworthy/I or the meaning of a %$)-!$% Z ?a little? as in BA %$)-!$%L more fashiona%ly than usual? +2alsworthy/ are fixed as separate meanings in some modern ;ritish and )merican dictionaries, %ut are neglected in others" Every word possesses an enormous potentiality for generating new meanings" This power is often underestimated %y scholars who regard a word as a unit complete in itself and ac$nowledge a newH%orn meaning only when it has firmly asserted itself in language and %ecome accepted %y the maCority of the language community" ;ut not to see the latent possi%ilities of a word is not to understand the true nature of this unit of language" The potentiality of words can also %e noted in regard to e/)%i*e /ea i !. Emotive meaning also materialiGes a concept in the word, %ut unli$e logical meaning, emotive meaning has reference not directly to things or phenomena of o%Cective reality, %ut to the feelings and emotions of the spea$er towards these things or to his emotions as such" Therefore the emotive meaning %ears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through a $ind of evaluation of them" or exampleD 0 feel so dar ed lonely" +2raham 2reen, JThe Nuiet )mericanJ"/ =e classified him as a man of monstrous selfishnessI he did not want to see that $nife descend, %ut he felt it for one !rea% 7"ee%i ! instant" +!ondon/ The italiciGed words have no logical meaning, only emotive meaning" Their function is to reveal the su%Cective, evaluating attitude of the writer to the things or

events spo$en of" MenHofHletters themselves are well aware that words may reveal a su%Cective evaluation and sometimes use it for definite stylistic effects, thus calling the attention of the reader to the meaning of such words" Thus, for example, in the following passage from JThe Man of PropertyJ %y 2alsworthyD JShe was not a 7"ir%, not even a ')8-e%%e ( words dear to the heart of his generation, which loved to define things %y a good, %road, inade#uate word H %ut she was dangerous"J =ere the words ?flirt? and ?co#uette? retain some of their logical meaning" They mean a person +particularly a girl/ who endeavours to attract the opposite sex, who toys with her admirers" ;ut %oth words have ac#uired an additional significance, *i1" a derogatory shade of meaning" This shade may grow into an independent meaning and in this case will %e fixed in dictionaries as having a special emotive meaning, as, for example, have the words 7a0-")-#+ %erri7&i !+ #%- i !+ #6e'%a'-"ar+ #?e""+ 7)6+ #/ar%+ '-%e+ /a##i*e and the li$e" Many words ac#uire an emotive meaning only in a definite context" 0n that case we say that the word has a contextual emotive meaning" Stephen Ullmann holds that J>nly the context can show whether a word should %e ta$en as a purely o%Cective expression, or whether it is primarily designed to convey and arouse emotions" This is o%vious in the case of words li$e "i0er%&+ and H-#%i'e+ which are fre#uently charged with emotional implications" ;ut even colourless everyday terms may, in frea$ contexts, ac#uire unexpected emotional overtones, as for instance ?wall? in this passage from a Midsummer Kight?s DreamD ?)nd thou, > wall, > sweet, > lovely wall, """Than$s, courteous wall""" > wic$ed wall"J? Ullmann?s point of view is only partly true" There are, of course, words, which as we have pointed out may ac#uire emotive meaning in a context" >rdinarily though, and particularly when ta$en as isolated lexical units, they can hardly %e said to possess emotive meaning" ;ut Ullmann?s opinion that only the context can inCect emotional meaning into words, contradicts the facts" 0n the voca%ulary of almost any European language there are words, which are undou%tedly %earers of emotive meaning" These are interCections, oaths or swear words, exclamatory words +variants of interCections/ and a great num%er of #ualitative or intensifying adCectives some of which have already %een mentioned" The emotive meaning of some of these classes of words is so strong that it suppresses the coHexisting logical meaning, as for example in #%- i ! a d #/ar%. 0t is significant that these words are explained in dictionaries %y means of synonymous words charged with strong emotional implications, i" e" words that direct the mind not to o%Cective things, ideas or phenomena %ut to the feelings"

Thus the word #/ar% is explained in JThe Penguin English DictionaryJ thusD Jstinging, pungent, $eenI vigorous, %ris$I clever, intelligentI impertinentI shrewdI wittyI spruce, neat, gay, fashiona%leLJ >ther classes of words with emotive meaning have entirely lost their logical meaning and function in the language as interCections" Such words as a"a#+ )$+ a$+ 6))$+ dar + !)#$ and the li$e have practically no logical meaning at allI words li$e the devil, Christ, 2od, goodness gracious, etc", are fre#uently used only in their emotive meaning" The Jsame can %e said a%out the words 0"))d&+ da/ and other expletives" Contrary to Stephen Ullmann, we thin$ that emotional meaning is inherent in a definite group of words and adherent to many words denoting emotions and feelings even when ta$en out of the context" Ullmann?s example of the word ?a"" as %earing strong emotional meaning does not stand scrutiny" =e overloo$s the real %earers of emotional meaning, *i1" the words preceding or following itD O+ #?ee%+ ")*e"& +these three words are repeated several times/, courteous, wic$ed" 0t goes without saying that these words strongly colour the word ?a""+ hut no emotional meaning as a counterpart of logical meaning can %e o%served here" Emotive meaning of words plays an important role in stylistics" Therefore it should never %e underrated" ) very $een eye or ear will always distinguish elements of emotive meaning" Emotional colouring may %e regarded as a rudimentary stage of emotive meaning, which is generally fixed as an independent meaning in good dictionaries" )nything recogniGa%le as having a strong impact on our senses may %e considered as having emotive meaning, either dictionary or contextual" )nd, finally, we come to )/i a" /ea i !. There are words, which, while expressing concepts, indicate a particular o%Cect out of a class" 0n other words these units of the language serve the purpose of singling out one definite and singular o%Cect out of a whole class of similar o%Cects" These words are classified in grammars as proper nouns" The nature of these words can %e understood if we have a clear idea of the difference %etween the two main aspects of a wordD JnominationJ and JsignificationJ" These aspects are also called JreferenceJ and JsignificationJ or JdenotationJ and JconnotationJ" The difference can roughly %e illustrated %y the following example" !et us ta$e the word %a0"e. The first thing that appears in our mind is %$e !e era" )%i) deprived of any concrete features or properties" This is the signification" ;ut %y the word %a0"e we may also denote a de7i i%e %a0"e. 0n this

case we use a definite article and the meaning %ecomes nominating" ;ut we may also fix a definite name to the o%Cect, which ?e want to %e recogniGed as a uni#ue o%Cect %ecause of its peculiar properties" 0n this way proper names appear" Their function is not to single out one of the o%Cects of the class for one particular occasion, as in the case with the use of the definite article, %ut to ma$e it the %earer of the properties, which our mind has attached to it" Thus nominal meaning is a derivative logical meaning" To distinguish nominal meaning from logical meaning the former is designated %y a capital letter" Such words as S/i%$+ L) !7e"")?+ E*ere#%+ F"a'@ Sea+ T$a/e#+ F&r) are said to have nominal meaning" The logical meaning, from which they originate, may in the course of time %e forgotten and therefore not easily traced %ac$" Most proper names have nominal meanings which may %e regarded as homonyms of common nouns with their logical or emotional meanings, as H)6e+ Fr)? i !+ Ta&")r+ S')%"a d+ F"a'@+ C$a d"er+ C$e#%er +from the !atin word 'a#%ra H ?camp?/" =ence logical meanings, which nominate an o%Cect, at the same time, signify the whole class of these o%Cects" Kominal meanings, which nominate an o%Cect, are deprived of the latter function %ecause they do not represent a class" 0t must %e remem%ered however that the nominal meaning will always %e secondary to the logical meaning" The process of development of meaning may go still further" ) nominal meaning may assume a logical meaning due to certain external circumstances" The result is that a logical meaning ta$es its origin in a nominal meaning" Some feature of a person which has made him or her noticea%le and which is recogniGed %y the community is made the %asis for the new logical meaning" Thus d- 'e H +?a dullard, a stupid person?/ is derived from the personal name ^ D- # S')%-#+ a medieval scholasticI $))"i!a H +?a ruffian?/ is pro%a%ly derived from the name of a rowdy family, '7. the 0rish name H)-"i!a , in a comic song popular a%out ,44FI 0)&')%% +?refuse to do %usiness with,? ?com%ine together against a person %y %rea$ing off all relations with him?/" The ver% 0)&')%% was first used in ,448 to descri%e the action of the !and !eague towards Captain F)&')%%, an 0rish landlord" The nominal meanings of these words have now faded away and we perceive only one, the logical meaning" ;ut sometimes the process of attaching nominal meaning to a word with a logical meaning ta$es place, as it were, %efore our eyes" This is done for purely stylistic purposes and is regarded as a special stylistic device" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+66.55(M94.

STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH VOCAFULARY GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

0n order to get a more or less clear idea of the word stoc$ of any language, it must %e presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent" Some linguists, who clearly see the systematic character of language as a whole, deny, however, the possi%ility of systematically classifying the voca%ulary" They say that the word stoc$ of any language is so large and so heterogeneous that it is impossi%le to formaliGe it and therefore present it in any system" The words of a language are thought of as a chaotic %ody whether viewed from their origin and development or from their present state" 0ndeed, the coinage of new lexical units, the development of meaning, the differentiation of words according to their stylistic evaluation and their spheres of usage, the correlation %etween meaning and concept and other pro%lems connected with voca%ulary are so multifarious and varied that it is difficult to grasp the systematic character of the word stoc$ of a language, though it coHexists with the systems of other levels H phonetics, morphology and syntax" To deny the systematic character of the word stoc$ of a language amounts to denying the systematic character of language as a whole, words %eing elements in the general system of language" The word stoc$ of a language may %e represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may %e singled out as interdependent" ) special %ranch of linguistic science H lexicology H has done much to classify voca%ulary" ) glance at the contents of any %oo$ on lexicology will suffice to ascertain the outline of the system of the word stoc$ of the given language" or our purpose, i" e" for linguistic stylistics, a special type of classification, viG" stylistic classification is the most important" 0n accordance with the alreadyHmentioned division of language into literary and collo#uial, we may represent the whole of the word stoc$ of the English language as %eing divided into three main layersD the "i%erar& "a&er, the e-%ra" "a&er and the ')"")8-ia" "a&er" The literary and the collo#uial layers contain a num%er of su%groups each of which has a property it shares with all the su%groups within the layer" This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may %e called its aspect" The aspect of the literary layer is its mar$edly %oo$ish character" 0t is this that ma$es the layer more or less sta%le" The aspect of the collo#uial layer of words is its lively spo$en character" 0t is this that ma$es it unsta%le, fleeting" The aspect of the neutral layer is

its universal character" That means it is unrestricted in its use" 0t can %e employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity" 0t is this that ma$es the layer the most sta%le of all" The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate mem%ers of the English voca%ulary" They have no local or dialectal character" The collo#uial layer of words as #ualified in most English or )merican dictionaries is not infre#uently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates" The literary voca%ulary consists of the following groups of wordsD ," common literaryI 7" terms and learned wordsI 9" poetic wordsI E" archaic wordsI F" %ar%arisms and foreign wordsI 3" literary coinages including nonceHwords" The collo#uial voca%ulary falls into the following groupsD ," common collo#uial wordsI 7" slangI 9" CargonismsI E" professional wordsI F" dialectal wordsI 3" vulgar wordsI ." collo#uial coinages" The common literary, neutral and common collo#uial words are grouped under the term S%a dard E !"i#$ *)'a0-"ar&. >ther groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary voca%ulary and those in the collo#uial layer are regarded as special collo#uial +nonHliterary/ voca%ulary" The accompanying diagram on p" 39 illustrates this classification graphically" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66.M2(ME4. NEUTRAL+ COMMON LITERARY AND COMMON COLLONUIAL VOCAFULARY Ne-%ra" ?)rd#+, which form the %ul$ of the English voca%ulary, are used in %oth literary and collo#uial language" Keutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy" 0t is the neutral stoc$ of words, that is so prolific in the production of new meanings" The wealth of the neutral stratum of words is often overloo$ed" This is due to their inconspicuous character" ;ut their faculty for assuming new meanings and generating new stylistic variants is often #uite amaGing" This generative power of the neutral words in the English language is multiplied %y the very nature of the language itself" 0t has %een estimated that most neutral English words are of monosylla%ic character, as, in the process of development from >ld English to Modern English, most of the parts of speech lost their distinguishing suffixes" This phenomenon has led to the development of conversion as the most productive means of word %uilding" <ord compounding is not so productive as conversion or word derivation, where a new word is formed %ecause of a shift in the part of speech in the first case and %y the addition of an

affix in the second" Unli$e all other groups, the neutral group of words cannot %e considered as having a special stylistic colouring, whereas %oth literary and collo#uial words have a definite stylistic colouring" C)//) "i%erar& ?)rd# are chiefly used in writing and ?in polished speech" >ne can always tell a literary word from a collo#uial word" The reason for this lies in certain o%Cective features of the literary layer of words" <hat these o%Cective features are, is difficult to say %ecause as yet no o%Cective criteria have %een wor$ed out" ;ut one of them undou%tedly is that literary units stand in opposition to collo#uial units" This is especially apparent when pairs of synonyms, literary and collo#uial, can %e formed which stand in antonymic relation" The following synonyms illustrate the relations that exist %etween the neutral, literary and collo#uial words in the English language" C)"")8-ia". @idI daddyI comfyI chapI get outI go aheadI teenagerI flapperI Ne-%ra". child fatherI comforta%leI fellowI go awayI continueI %oy +girl/I young girlI Li%erar&. infantI parentI commodiousI associateI retireI proceedI youth +maiden/I maiden" 0t goes without saying, that these synonyms are not only stylistic %ut ideographic as well, i" e" there is a definite though slight semantic difference %etween the words" ;ut this is almost always the case with synonyms" There are very few a%solute synonyms in English Cust as there are in any language" The main distinction %etween synonyms remains stylistic" ;ut stylistic difference may %e of various $indsD it may lie in the emotional tension connoted in a word or in the sphere of application or in the degree of the #uality denoted" Collo#uial words are always more emotionally coloured than literary ones" The neutral stratum of words, as the term itself implies, has no degree of emotiveness, nor have they any distinctions in the sphere of usage" ;oth literary and collo#uial words have their upper and lower ranges" The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and has a mar$edly o%vious tendency to pass into that layer" The same may %e said of the upper range of the collo#uial layerD it can very easily pass into the neutral layer" The lines of demarcation %etween common collo#uial and neutral on the one hand, and common literary and neutral, on the other, are %lurred" 0t is here that the process of interHpenetration of the stylistic strata %ecomes most apparent" Still the extremes remain antagonistic and therefore are often used to %ring a%out a collision of manners of speech for special stylistic purposes" The difference in the stylistic aspect of words may colour the whole of an utterance" 0n this

example from J anny?s irst PlayJ +Shaw/, the difference %etween the common literary and common collo#uial voca%ulary is clearly seen" JD>1)D >h, 0?ve let it out" =ave 0Y +') %e/6"a%i ! C-!!i # a66r)*i !"& a# $e 6"a'e# a '$air 7)r $er 0e%?ee %$e %a0"e a d %$e #ide0)ard4. ;ut he?s the right sortD 0 can see that 20-%%) $)"i ! $i/4. Mou won?t let it out downstairs, old man, will youY :U220KSD The family can rely on my a%solute discretion"J The words in :uggins? answer are on the %order line %etween common literary and neutral, whereas the words and expressions used %y Dora are clearly common collo#uial, not %ordering on neutral" This example from JDavid CopperfieldJ +Dic$ens/ illustrates the use of literary English words, which do not %order on neutralD JMy dear Copperfield,J said Mr" Micaw%er, Jthis is luxurious" This is a way of life which reminds me of a period when 0 was myself in a state of celi%acy, and Mrs" Micaw%er had not yet %een solicited to plight her faith at the =ymeneal altar"J J=e means, solicited %y him, Mr" Copperfield,J said Mrs" Micaw%er, archly" J=e cannot answer for others"J JMy dear,J returned Mr" Micaw%er with sudden seriousness, J0 have no desire to answer for others" 0 am too well aware that when, in the inscruta%le decrees of ate, you were reserved for me, it is possi%le you may have %een reserved for one destined, after a protracted struggle, at length to fall a victim to pecuniary involvements of a complicated nature" 0 understand your allusion, my love, 0 regret it, %ut 0 can %ear it"J JMicaw%erLJ exclaimed Mrs" Micaw%er, in tears" J=ave 0 deserved thisL 0, who never have deserted youI who never will desert you, Micaw%erLJ JMy love,J said Mr" Micaw%er, much affected, Jyou will forgive, and our old and tried friend Copperfield will, 0 am sure, forgive the momentary laceration of a wounded spirit, made sensitive %y a recent collision with the Minion of PowerHin other words, with a ri%ald Turncoc$ attached to the waterwor$s H and will pity, not condemn, its excesses"J There is a certain analogy %etween the interdependence of common literary words and neutral ones, on the one hand, and common collo#uial words and neutral ones on the other" ;oth sets can %e viewed as %eing in invariant H variant relations" The neutral voca%ulary may %e viewed as the invariant of the Standard English voca%ulary" The stoc$ of words forming the neutral stratum should in this case %e regarded as an a%straction" The words of this stratum are generally deprived of any concrete associations and refer to the concept more or less directly" Synonyms of neutral words, %oth collo#uial and literary, assume a far greater degree of concreteness" They generally present the same notions not a%stractly %ut as a more or less concrete image, that is, in a form

percepti%le %y the senses" This percepti%ility %y the senses causes su%Cective evaluations of the notion in #uestion, or a mental image of the concept" Sometimes an impact of a definite $ind on the reader or hearer is the aim lying %ehind the choice of a collo#uial or a literary word rather than a neutral one" C)//) ')"")8-ia" *)'a0-"ar& is, represented as overlapping into the Standard English voca%ulary and is therefore to %e considered part of it" 0t %orders %oth on the neutral voca%ulary and on the special collo#uial voca%ulary, which, as we shall see later, falls out of Standard English altogether" :ust as common literary words lac$ homogeneity so do common collo#uial words and set expressions" Some of the lexical items %elonging to this stratum are close to the nonHstandard collo#uial groups such as Cargonisms, professionalisms, etc" These are on the %orderline %etween the common collo#uial voca%ulary and the special collo#uial or nonHstandard voca%ulary" >ther words approach the neutral %ul$ of the English voca%ulary" Thus, the words %ee a!er +?a young girl or young man?/ and 7"a66er +?a young girl/ are collo#uial words passing into the neutral voca%ulary" They are gradually losing their nonHstandard character and %ecoming widely recogniGed" =owever they have not lost their collo#uial association and therefore still remain in the collo#uial stratum of the English voca%ulary" So also are the following words and expressionsD %a@e +in ?as 0 ta$e it? Z as 0 understand/I %) !) 7)r + ?to %e attracted %y?, ?li$e very much?, as in JMou thin$ she still goes for the guyYJ/I !-& +?young man?/I %) 0e !) e ) +Z?to %e madly in love with?/I 6r) +Z a professional, e"g" a professional %oxer, tennisHplayer, etc"/" The spo$en language a%ounds in set expressions which are collo#uial in character, e"g" a"" #)r%# )7 %$i !#+ H-#% a 0i%+ He? i# "i7e %rea%i ! &)-I+ #)(#). J$a% %i/e d) &)- /a@e )77+ %) $)0( )0 +Z to %e very friendly with, to drin$ together/, #) /-'$ %$e 0e%%er+ %) 0e #i'@ a d %ired )7+ %) 0e -6 %) #)/e%$i !. The stylistic function of the different strata of the English voca%ulary depends not so much on the inner #ualities of each of the groups, as on their interaction when they are opposed to one another" =owever, the #ualities themselves are not unaffected %y the function of the words, inasmuch as these #ualities have %een ac#uired in certain environments" 0t is interesting to note that anything written assumes a greater degree of significance than what is only spo$en" 0f the spo$en ta$es the place of the written or *i'e *er#a+ it means that we are faced with a stylistic device" Certain set expressions have %een coined within literary English and their use in ordinary speech will inevita%ly ma$e the utterance sound %oo$ish"

0n other words it will %ecome literary" The following are examples of set expressions, which can %e considered literary . i a'')rda 'e ?i%$+ ?i%$ re!ard %)+ 0& *ir%-e )7+ %) #6ea@ a% !rea% "e !%$+ %) "e d a##i#%a 'e+ %) dra? a "e##) + re#6) #i0i"i%& re#%#. 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66M5(MK4. SPECIAL LITERARY VOCAFULARY a4 Ter/# J)ll scientists are linguists to some extent" They are responsi%le for devising a consistent terminology, a s$eleton language to tal$ a%out their su%Cect matter" Philologists and philosophers of speech are in the peculiar position of having to evolve a special language to tal$ a%out language itself"J This #uotation ma$es clear one of the essential characteristics of a term, *i1. its highly conventional character" ) term is generally very easily coined and easily acceptedI and new coinages as easily replace outHdated ones" Terms therefore are rather transitory %y nature, though they may remain in the language as relics of a former stage in the development of a particular %ranch of science" J) word is organically one with its meaningI li$ewise a term is one with a concept" ConceptualiGation leaves, as it were, language %ehind, although the words remain as +scientific or philosophical/ terms" !inguistically the difference is important in that terms are much more easily su%stituta%le %y other terms than are words %y other wordsD it is easier to replace, say, the term 6$) )")!y %y 6$) e/i'# +provided 0 ma$e it clear what is meant/, than to replace everyday words li$e %a0"e a d '$air %y other words"J Terms are generally associated with a definite %ranch of science and therefore with a series of other terms %elonging to that particular %ranch of science" Terms $now no isolationI they always come in clusters, either in a text on the su%Cect to which they %elong, or in special dictionaries which, unli$e general dictionaries, ma$e a careful selection of terms" Ta$en all together, these clusters of terms form the nomenclature, or system of names, for the o%Cects of study of any particular %ranch of science" Terms are characteriGed %y a tendency to %e monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the re#uired concept" Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special wor$s dealing with the notions of some %ranch of science" Therefore, it may %e said that they %elong to the scientific style" ;ut their use is not confined to this style" They may as well appear in other styles H in newspaper style, in pu%licistic

style, in the %ellesHlettres style and practically in all other existing styles" ;ut their function in this case changes" They no longer fulfill their %asic function, that of %earing an exact reference to a given notion or concept" The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the su%Cect dealt with, or to ma$e some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions" 0n this connection it is interesting to analyse the stylistic effect of the medical terminology used %y )" :" Cronin in his novel JThe Citadel"J The fre#uent use of medical terms in the novel is explained %y its su%Cect matter H the life of a physician H and also %y the fact that the writer himself is a physician and finds it natural to use medical terminology" The piling up of difficult and special terms hinders the reader?s understanding of the text even when the writer strives to explain them" Moreover, such an accumulation of special terminology often suggests that the author is showing off his erudition" Terms must not %e overHused" 0t has %een pointed out, that those who are learning use far more complicated terms than those who have already learned" There is an interesting process going on in the development of any language" <ith the increase of general education and the expansion of techni#ue to satisfy the everHgrowing needs and desires of man$ind, many words that were once terms have gradually lost their #ualities as terms and have passed into the common literary voca%ulary" This process may %e called JdeHterminiGationJ" Such words as radi)+ %e"e*i#i) + and the li$e have long %een in common use and their terminological character is no longer evident" ) good writer will confine himself to the use of terms that are easily understood from the context and those also that he finds a%solutely necessary in the development of his theme" =ere is an example of a moderate use of special terminology %ordering on common literary voca%ulary" JThere was a long conversation H a long wait" =is father came %ac$ to say it was dou%tful whether they could /a@e %$e ")a . Eight per cent, then %eing #e'-red 7)r /) e&+ was a small ra%e )7 i %ere#%+ considering its need" or ten per cent Mr" *uGel might ma$e a 'a""(")a . ran$ went %ac$ to his employer, whose commercial choler rose at the report"J Such terms as ?loan?, ?rate of interest?, and the phrase ?to secure for money? are widely $nown financial terms which to the maCority of the English and )merican reading pu%lic need no explanation" The terms used here do not %ear any special meaning" Moreover, if they are not understood they may to some extent %e

neglected" 0t will suffice if the reader has a general idea, vague though it may %e, of the actual meaning of the terms used" The main tas$ of the writer in this passage is not to explain the process of %usiness negotiations, %ut to create the environment of a %usiness atmosphere" ) term has a stylistic function when it is used to create an atmosphere or to characteriGe a person through his calling and his conse#uent mode of expression" Sometimes terms are used with a satirical function" =ere is an interesting exampleD J<hat a fool 1awdon Crawley has %een,J Clump replied, Jto go and marry a governessL There was something a%out the girl too"J J2reen eyes, fair s$in, pretty figure+ 7a/)-# 7r) %a" de*e")6/e %+A S#uills remar$ed" The words ?frontal? and ?development?, in addition to their ordinary meanings, have a terminological aspect, i"e", they %elong %oth to the common literary stoc$ and to a special group of the literary voca%ulary, to the science of anatomy" ;ut %eing paired, they lose their common aspect and %ecome purely terminological" The com%ination %ecomes, as it were, an anatomical term signifying ?%reast?" ;ut %eing preceded %y the word ?famous? used in the sense indicated %y the Shorter >xford Dictionary as Ja strong expression of approval +chiefly collo#uial/D excellent, capital,J the whole expression %ecomes satirical" 0n the following passage the metaphorical use of ?little animal?, causes the terms to assume a satirical function" J0 should li$e,J said young :olyon, Jto lecture on itD Pr)6er%ie# a d 8-a"i%ie# )7 a F)r#&%e. This "i%%"e a i/a"+ distur%ed %y the ridicule of his )? #)r%, is unaffected in his motions %y the laughter of strange 'rea%-re# +you and 0/" Heredi%ari"& disposed to /&)6ia+ he recogniGes only the persons and $a0i%a%# of his own #6e'ie#, among which he 6a##e# a e5i#%e 'e of competitive %ra 8-i""i%&.A +:ohn 2alsworthy, JThe Man of PropertyJ/ The metaphor ?animal? has drawn into its terminological aspect such words and word com%inations as ?sort?, ?pass an existence?, ?tran#uillity?" >n the other hand, the word JanimalJ used as a term involves other terms from the nomenclature of %iologyD ?creature?, ?species?, ?ha%itats?, ?myopia? 2/ed.4. 04 P)e%i' a d Hi!$"& Li%erar& J)rd# P)e%i' ?)rd#, as the term itself implies, are used primarily in poetry" They may %e li$ened to terms in more than one way" irst of all, they %elong to a definite style of language and perform in it their direct function" 0f encountered in another style of speech, they assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the two notions, poetry and prose have %een opposed to each other from time immemorial" Poetic language has special means of communication, i" e" rhythmical arrangement, some

syntactical peculiarities and a certain num%er of special words" The special poetic voca%ulary has a mar$ed tendency to detach itself from the common literary word stoc$ and assume a special significance" Poetic words claim to %e, as it were, of higher ran$" They are aristocrats i the language and do not allow any mingling with the lower ran$s" They ma$e a careful selection of the company they circle in" Poetic words and expressions were called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry, a function, which they even now claim to carry out" (" (" (inogradov gives the following properties of poetic wordsD J"""the co%we% of poetic words and images veils the reality, styliGing it according to the esta%lished literary norms and canons" ) word is torn away from its referent" ;eing drawn into the system of literary styles, the words are selected and arranged in groups of definite images, in phraseological series, which grow standardiGed and stale and are %ecoming conventional sym%ols of definite phenomena or characters or of definite ideas or impressions"J Poetic words in the English language do not present a homogeneous groupD They include archaic words, such as ?$i")/e+ e+ "e/a , and many others, as in the second stanGa of Childe =arold?s PilgrimageD J$i")/e i A"0i) B# 0sles there dwelt a youth, <ho ne in virtue?s ways did ta$e delight, ;ut spent his days in riot most uncouth, )nd vex?d with mirth the drowsy ear of Kight" )h meL 0n sooth he was a shameless ?i!$% Sore given to revel and ungodly gleeI ew earthly things found favour in his sight Save ') '-0i e# and carnal companie, )nd flaunting ?a##ai"er# of high and low degree" Poetical tradition has $ept alive such archaic words and forms as &'"e6% +p" p" of the old ver% '"i6ie ( ?to call, name?/I 8-)%$ +p" t" of '-)e%$a H?to spea$?/I e7%#)) # 2e7%#) a,H?again?, ?soon after?/, which are used even %y modern %alladH mongers" !et us note in passing that archaic words are here to %e understood as units that have either entirely gone out of use, or as words some of whose meanings have grown archaic, e" g", $a"" in the following line from ;yron?s Childe =arold?s PilgrimageD Deserted is my own good $a"", its hearth is desolate" 0t must %e remem%ered though, that not all English poetry ma$es use of Jpoeticisms or poetical termsJ, as they might %e named" 0n the history of English literature there were periods, as there were in many countries, which were characteriGed %y

protests against the use of such conventional sym%ols" The literary trends $nown as classicism and romanticism were particularly rich in fresh poetic terms" Poetical words in an ordinary environment may also have a satirical function as seen in this passage from ;yron" ;ut )deline was not indifferentD for +Kow for a commonHplaceL/ %eneath the snow, )s a volcano holds the lava more <ithin H et cetera" Shall 0 go onY H Ko, 0 hate to hunt down a %ired /e%a6$)r+ So "e% %$e )7%e (-#ed *)"'a ) !). Poor thingD =ow fre#uently, %y me and others, 0t hath %een stirred up till its smo$e #uite smothersL +Don :uan/ The satirical function of poetic words and conventional poetic devices is well revealed in this stanGa" The ?tired metaphor? and the ?oftenHused volcano? are typical of ;yron?s estimate of the value of conventional metaphors and stereotyped poetical expressions" The striving for the unusual H the characteristic feature of some $inds of poetry H is a$in to the sensational and is therefore to %e found not only in poetry, %ut in many other styles" ) modern English literary critic has remar$ed that in Cournalese a policeman never goes to an appointed spotI he 6r)'eed# to it" The pictures#ue reporter seldom tal$s of a $)r#e+ it is a steed or a '$ar!er" The s$y is the ?e"@i G the *a""e& is the *a"eG 7ire is the de*)-ri ! e"e/e %... Poetical words and word com%inations can %e li$ened to terms in that they do not easily yield to polysemy" They are said to evo$e emotive meanings" They colour the utterance with a certain air of loftiness, %ut generally fail to produce a genuine feeling of delightD they are too hac$neyed for the purpose, too stale" )nd that is the reason that the excessive use of poetisms at present calls forth protest and derision towards those who favour this conventional device" The use of poetic words does not as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry in the true senseI it is a su%stitute for real art" This is pro%a%ly due to the very low degree of predicta%ility, which is a property of a truly poetical wor$" Poetic words are not freely %uilt in contrast to neutral, collo#uial and common literary words, or terms" The commonest means is %c compounding, e" g" ?youngHeyed?, ?oftenHused?, in the a%ove #uotations from ;yron" There is however one means of creating new poetic words still recogniGed as productive even in presentHday English, viG" the use of a contracted form of a word instead of the full one, e" g", drear instead of drear&+ #'a % +Z ?scanty?/" Sometimes the reverse process leads to the %irth of a poetism, e"

g.+ *a#%& +Z?vast? ?The vasty deep,? i" e" the ocean/I #"ee6& +Z?steep?/I ?paly? +Z?pale?/" These two conventional devices are called forth %y the re#uirements of the metre of the poem, to add or remove a sylla%le, and are generally avoided %y modern English poets, as the reader is apt to thin$ him a poor poet if he could not find a %etter way to express himself in the chosen form" Poetical words and set expressions ma$e the utterance understanda%le only to a limited num%er of readers" 0t is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical Cargon" 0n modern English poetry there is a strong tendency to use words in strange com%inations" 0t manifests itself in the coinage of new words and, most of all, in com%ining old and familiar words in a way that hinders understanding and forces the reader to stop and try to decipher the message so encoded" The following may serve as examplesD Jand time yet for a hundred indecisions"J +T" S" Eliot/ Jhe danced his did"J +E" E" Cummings/ Ja grief ago"J +Dylan Thomas/ '4 Ar'$ai' J)rd#. The word stoc$ of a language is in an increasing state of change" <ords change their meaning and sometimes drop out of the language altogether" Kew words spring up and replace the old ones" Some words stay in the language a very long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining new meanings and %ecoming richer and richer polysemantically" >ther words live %ut a short time and are li$e %u%%les on the surface of water H they disappear leaving no trace of their existence" 0n registering these processes the role of dictionaries can hardly %e overestimated" Dictionaries serve to retain this or that word in a language either as a relic of ancient times, where it lived and circulated, or as a still living unit of the system, though it may have lost some of its meanings" They may also preserve certain nonceHcreations, which were never intended for general use" 0n every period in the development of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage, from full vigour, through a mori%und state, to death, i" e", complete disappearance of the unit from the language" <e shall distinguish three stages in the aging process of wordsD The %eginning of the aging process when the word %ecomes rarely used" Such words are called )0#)"e#'e %, i" e", they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use" To this category first of all %elong morphological forms %elonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language" 0n the English language these are the pronouns thou and its forms thee, %$& and %$i eI the corresponding ver%al ending (e#% and the ver%HformsD ar%+ ?i"% 2%$)- /a@e#%+ %$)- ?i"%4G the ending (

2e4%$ instead of (2e4# 2$e /a@e%$O and the pronoun &e. To the category of o%solescent words %elong many rench %orrowings which have %een $ept in the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier periods, e" g" a 6a""e% +Z ?a straw mattress?/I a 6a"7re& +ZZBa small horse?/I !ar i%-re +ZZ?furniture?/I %) e/6"-/e +ZZ ?to adorn with feathers or plumes?/" The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use %ut are still recogniGed %y the English spea$ing communityD e" g" methin$s +Z ?it seems tome?/I nay +Z?no?/" These words are called )0#)"e%e. The third group, which may %e called ar'$ai' 6r)6er are words which are no longer recogniGa%le in modern English, words that were in use in >ld English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have %ecome unrecogniGa%le, e" g", %r)%$ +Z ?faith?/I a ")#e" +Z ?a worthless, laGy fellow?/" The %orderlines %etween the groups are not distinct" 0n fact they interpenetrate" 0t is especially difficult to distinguish %etween o%solete and o%solescent words" ;ut the difference is important when we come to deal with the stylistic aspect of an utterance in which the given word serves a certain stylistic purpose" >%solete and o%solescent words have separate functions, as we shall point out later" There is still another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, viG" historical words" ;yHgone periods in the life of any society are mar$ed %y historical events, and %y institutions, customs, material o%Cects, etc" which are no longer in use, for exampleD T$a e+ &e)/a + !)0"e%+ 0a"dri'+ /a'e. <ords of this type never disappear from the language" They are historical terms and remain as terms referring to definite stages in the development of society and cannot therefore %e dispensed with, though the things and phenomena to which they refer have long passed into o%livion" =istorical words have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have %een replaced %y modern synonyms" )rchaic words are primarily and predominantly used in the creation of a realistic %ac$ground to historical novels" 0t must %e pointed out, however, that the use of historical words +terms/ in a passage written in scientific style, say, in an essay on the history of the Danish invasion, will %ear no stylistic function at all" ;ut the same terms when used in historical novels assume a different stylistic value" They carry, as it were, a special volume of information adding to the logical aspect of the communication" This, the main function of archaisms, finds different interpretation in different novels %y different writers" Some writers overdo things in this respect, the result %eing that the reader finds all $inds of o%stacles in his

way" >thers underestimate the necessity of introducing o%solete or o%solescent elements into their narration and thus fail to convey what is called Jlocal colourJ" 0n his J!etter to the Moung <riterJ )" K" Tolstoi states that the heroes of historical novels must thin$ and spea$ in the way the time they live in, forces them to" 0f Stepan 1aGin, he maintains, were to spea$ of the initial accumulation of capital, the reader would throw the %oo$ under the ta%le and he would %e right" ;ut the writer must $now all a%out the initial accumulation of capital and view events from this particular position" >n the whole Tolstoi?s idea does not call for criticism" ;ut the way it is worded may lead to the misconception that heroes of historical novels should spea$ the language of the period they live in" 0f those heroes really spo$e the language of the time they lived in, the reader would undou%tedly throw the %oo$ under the ta%le %ecause he would %e una%le to understand it" )s a matter of fact the heroes of historical novels spea$ the language of the period the writer and the reader live in, and the s$ill of the writer is re#uired to colour the language with such o%solete or o%solescent elements as most naturally interweave with the texture of the modern literary language" These elements must not %e archaic in the narrow sense" They must %e recogniGa%le to the native reader and not hinder his understanding of the communication" The difficulty and su%tlety re#uired in handling archaic words and phrases was acutely felt %y )" S" Push$in" 0n his article J:uri Miloslavs$i, or the 1ussian of ,3,7,J Push$in writesD J<alter Scott carried along with him a crowd of imitators" ;ut how far they are from the Scottish charmerL !i$e )grippa?s pupil, they summoned the demon of the Past %ut they could not handle him and fell victims of their own imprudence"J <alter Scott was indeed an inimita%le master in the creation of an historical atmosphere" =e used the stylistic means that create this atmosphere with such s$ill and discrimination, that the reader is scarcely aware that the heroes of the novels spea$ his language and not that of their own epoch" <alter Scott himself states the principles, which he considers %asic for the purposeD the writer?s language must not %e out of date and therefore incomprehensi%le, %ut words and phrases of modern coinage should not %e used" J0t is one thing to use the language to express feelings common %oth to us and to our forefathers,J says Scott, J%ut it is another thing to impose upon them the emotions and speech characteristics of their descendants"J 0n accordance with these principles <alter Scott never photographs the language of earlier periodsI he sparingly introduces into the texture of his language

a few words and expressions more or less o%solescent in character, and this is enough to convey the desired effect without unduly interlarding presentHday English with outdated elements of speech" Therefore, we can find such words as /e%$i @#+ $a6"&+ a&+ %ra*ai"+ re6a#% and the li$e in great num%er and of course a multiplicity of historical terms" ;ut you will hardly find a true archaism of the nature indicated in our classification as archaisms proper" ;esides the function Cust mentioned, archaic words and phrases have other functions to %e found in other styles" They are, first of all, fre#uently to %e found in the style of official documents" 0n %usiness letters, in legal language, in all $inds of statutes, in diplomatic documents and in all $inds of legal documents one can find o%solescent words, which would long ago have %ecome o%solete if it were not for the preserving power of the special use within the a%oveHmentioned spheres of communication" 0t is the same with archaic and o%solete words in poetry" )s has already %een pointed out, they are employed in the poetic style as special terms and hence prevented from dropping completely out of the language" )mong the o%solescent elements of the English voca%ulary preserved within the style of official documents, the following may %e mentionedD a7)re#aid+ $ere0&+ %$ere?i%$+ $erei a7%er a/ed. The function of archaic words and constructions in official documents is terminological in character" They are used here %ecause they help to maintain that exactness of expression so necessary in this style )rchaic words and particularly archaic forms of words are sometimes used for satirical purposes" This is achieved through what is called )nticlimax" The situation in which the archaism is used is not appropriate to the context" There appears a sort of discrepancy %etween the words actually used and the ordinary situation, which excludes the possi%ility of such a usage" The low predicta%ility of an archaism when it appears in ordinary speech produces the necessary satirical effect" =ere is an example of such a use of an archaic form" 0n Shaw?s play J=ow =e !ied to =er =us%andJ a youth of eighteen, spea$ing of his feelings towards a Jfemale of thirtyHsevenJ expresses himself in a language which is not in conformity with the situation" =is words areD JPerfect love casteth off fear"J )rchaic words, wordHforms and word com%inations are also used to create an elevated effect" !anguage is specially moulded to suit a solemn occasionD all $inds of stylistic devices are used, and among them is the use of archaisms" d4 Far0ari#/# a d F)rei! J)rd#

0n the voca%ulary of the English language there is a considera%le layer of words called 0ar0ari#/#. These are words of foreign origin, which have not entirely %een assimilated into the English language" They %ear the appearance of a %orrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue" The role, foreign %orrowings played in the development of the English literary language, is well $nown, and the great maCority of these %orrowed words now form part of the ran$ and file of the English voca%ulary" 0t is the science of linguistics, in particular its %ranch Etymology, that reveals the foreign nature of this or that word" ;ut most of what were formerly foreign %orrowings are now, from a purely stylistic position, not regarded as foreign" ;ut still there are some words, which retain their foreign appearance to a greater or lesser degree" These words, which are called %ar%arisms, are, li$e archaisms, also considered to %e on the outs$irts of the literary language" Most of them have corresponding English synonymsI e" g . '$i'Z ZZ ?stylish?I 0) /)% +ZZ ?a clever witty saying?/I e 6a##a % +ZZ ?in passing?/I ad i 7i i%-/ +ZZ ?to infinity?/ and many other words and phrases" 0t is very important for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish %etween %ar%arisms and foreign words proper" ;ar%arisms are words, which have already %ecome facts of the English language" They are, as it were, part and parcel of the English word stoc$, though they remain on the outs$irts of the literary voca%ulary" oreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not %elong to the English voca%ulary" They are not registered %y English dictionaries, except in a $ind of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words most fre#uently used in literary English" ;ar%arisms are generally given in the %ody of the dictionary" 0n printed wor$s foreign words and phrases are generally italiciGed to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value" ;ar%arisms, on the contrary, are not made conspicuous in the text unless they %ear a special load of stylistic information" There are foreign words in the English voca%ulary, which fulfill a terminological function" Therefore, though they still retain their foreign appearance, they should not %e regarded as %ar%arisms" Such words as -@a#e+ -dar i@+ #)*ie%+ @)"@$)1 and the li$e denote certain concepts, which reflect an o%Cective reality not familiar to EnglishHspea$ing communities" There are no names for them in English and so they have to %e explained" Kew concepts of this type are generally given the names they have in the language of the people whose reality they reflect"

urther, such words as #)")+ %e )r+ ') 'er%)+ 0"i%1@rie! +?the %litG?/, "-7%?a77e and the li$e should also %e distinguished from %ar%arisms" They are different not only in their functions %ut in their nature as well" They are terms" Terminological %orrowings have no synonymsI %ar%arisms, on the contrary, may have almost exact synonyms" 0t is evident that %ar%arisms are a historical category" Many foreign words and phrases which were once Cust foreign words used in literary English to express a concept nonHexistent in English reality, have little %y little entered the class of words named %ar%arisms and many of these %ar%arisms have gradually lost their foreign peculiarities, %ecome more or less naturaliGed and have merged with the native English stoc$ of words" C) #'i)-#+ re%r)!rade+ #6-ri)-# and #%re -)-# are words in ;en :ohnson?s play JThe PoetasterJ which were made fun of in the author?s time as unnecessary %orrowings from the rench" <ith the passing of time they have %ecome common English literary words" They no longer raise o%Cections on the part of English purists" The same can %e said of the words #'ie %i7i'+ /e%$)di'a"+ 6e e%ra%e+ 7- '%i) + 7i!-ra%i*e+ )0#'-re+ and many others, which were once %ar%arisms, %ut which are now lawful mem%ers of the common literary word stoc$ )7 the language" ;oth foreign words and %ar%arisms are widely used in various styles of language with various aims, aims, which predetermine their typical functions" >ne of these functions is to supply local colour" 0n order to depict local conditions of life, concrete facts and events, customs and ha%its, special care is ta$en to introduce into the passage such language elements as will reflect the environment" 0n this respect a most conspicuous role is played %y the language chosen, in J(anity airJ Thac$eray ta$es the reader to a small 2erman town where a %oy with a remar$a%le appetite is made the focus of attention" ;y introducing several 2erman words into his narrative, the author gives an indirect description of the peculiarities of the 2erman menu and the environment in general" JThe little %oy, too, we o%served, had a famous appetite, and consumed #'$i @e , and 0ra%e , and @ar%)77e" , and cran%erry Cam""" with a gallantry that did honour to his nation"J The 2erman words are italiciGed to show their alien nature and at the same time their stylistic function in the passage" These words have not %ecome facts of the English language a d need special decoding to %e understood %y the ran$ and file EnglishHspea$ing reader" 0n this connection mention might %e made of a stylistic device often used %y writers whose $nowledge of the language and customs of the country they depict %ursts out from the texture of the narrative" They use foreign words and phrases

and, sometimes, whole sentences #uite regardless of the fact, that these may not %e understood %y the reader" =owever, one suspects, that the words are not intended to %e understood exactly" )ll that is re#uired of the reader is that he should %e aware that the words used are foreign and mean something, in the a%ove case connected with food" 0n the a%ove passage the association of food is maintained throughout %y the use of the words ?appetite?, ?consumed? and the English ?cran%erry Cam?" The context therefore leads the reader to understand that #'$i $e + 0ra%e and @ar%)77e" are words denoting some $ind of food, %ut exactly what $ind he will learn when he travels in 2ermany" The function of the foreign words used in the context may %e considered to provide local colour as a %ac$ground to the narrative" 0n passages of other $inds units of speech may %e used which will arouse only a vague conception in the mind of the reader" The significance of such units, however, is not communicative H the author does not wish them to convey any clearHcut idea H %ut to serve in ma$ing the main idea stand out more conspicuously" This device may %e li$ened to one used in painting %y representatives of the Dutch school who made their %ac$ground almost indistinguisha%le in order that the foreground elements might stand out distinctly and colourfully" )n example, which is even more characteristic of the use of the local colour function of foreign words is the following stanGa from ;yron?s JDon :uanJD ""more than poet?s pen Can point,H JC)#i *ia!!i ). Ri''$iDA +Excuse a foreign slipHslop now and then, 0f %ut to show 0?ve travelddD and what?s travel Unless it teaches one to #uote and cavilY/ The poet himself calls the foreign words he has used JslipHslopJ, i" e" twaddle, something nonsensical" )nother function of %ar%arisms and foreign words is to %uild up the stylistic device of nonHpersonal direct speech or represented speech" The use of a word or a phrase or a sentence in the reported speech of a local inha%itant helps to reproduce his actual words, manner of speech and the environment as well" Thus, in :ames )ldridge?s JSea EagleJHJ)nd the Cretans were very willing to feed and hide the I !"i#iJ H the last word is intended to reproduce the actual speech of the local people %y introducing a word actually spo$en %y them, a word which is very easily understood %ecause of the root"

2enerally such words are first introduced in the direct speech of a character and then appear in the author?s narrative as an element of reported speech" Thus in the novel JThe Sea EagleJ the word ?%enGina? +Zmotor %oat/ is first mentioned in the direct speech of a CretanD J0t was a warship that sent out its 0e 1i a to catch us and loo$ for guns"J !ater, the author uses the same word %ut already in reported speechD J=e heard too the noise of a 0e 1i a e !i e starting"J ;ar%arisms and foreign words are used in various styles of writing, %ut are most often to %e found in the style of %ellesHlettres and the pu%licistic style" 0n the %ellesHlettres style, however, foreignisms are sometimes used not only as separate units incorporated in the English narrative" The author ma$es his character actually spea$ a foreign language, %y putting a string of foreign words into his mouth, words, which to many readers may %e #uite unfamiliar" These phrases or whole sentences are sometimes translated %y the writer in a footnote or %y explaining the foreign utterance in English in the text" ;ut this is seldom done" =ere is an example of the use of rench %y :ohn 2alsworthyD J1evelation was alighting li$e a %ird in his heart, singingD AE""e e#% %) re*eD E""e e#% %) re*eDJ Ko translation is given, no interpretation" ;ut something else must %e pointed out here" oreign words and phrases may sometimes %e used to exalt the expression of the idea, to elevate the language" This is in some respect a$in to the function of elevation mentioned in the chapter on archaisms" <ords, which we do not #uite understand, sometimes have a peculiar charmI that is pro%a%ly the reason why some pseudoHscientists li$e wordH monsters so much" They may frighten the opponent out of the necessity of arguing on points the inventor of the term himself is not #uite sure of" This magic #uality in words, a #uality not easily grasped, has long %een o%served and made use of in various $inds of utterances, particularly in poetry and fol$lore" ;ut the introduction of foreign speech into the texture of the English language hinders understanding and if constantly used %ecomes irritating" 0t may %e li$ened, in some respect, to Cargon" Soames orsyte, for example, calls it exactly that" JE6a%a %D he heard one say" J:argonLJ growled Soames to himself" The introduction of actual foreign words in an utterance is not, to our mind, a special stylistic device, inasmuch as it is not a conscious and intentional literary use of the facts of the English language" =owever, foreign words, %eing alien to the texture of the language in which the wor$ is written, always arrest the attention of the reader and therefore have a definite stylistic function" Sometimes the s$ilful use

of one or two foreign words will %e sufficient to create the impression of an utterance made in a foreign language" Thus in the following exampleD ADe-%#'$e S)"da%e H a little while ago, you received a sample of )merican strength"J +Stefan =eym, JThe CrusadersJ/ The two words ?Deutsche Soldaten? are sufficient to create the impression that the actual speech was made in 2erman and not in English" The same effect is sometimes achieved %y the slight distortion of an English word, or a distortion of English grammar in such a way that the morphological aspect of the distortion will %ear a resem%lance to the morphology of the foreign tongue, for exampleD JHe "))@ at Miss orsyte so 7- & sometimes" 0 %e"" him all my storyI he so #&/6a%i#'$.A +2alsworthy/ ;ar%arisms have still another function when used in the %ellesHlettres style" <e may call it an JexactifyingJ function" <ords of foreign origin generally have a more or less monosemantic value" 0n other words, they do not tend to develop new meanings" The English So long, for example, due to its conventional usage has lost its primary meaning" 0t has %ecome a formal phrase of parting" Kot so with the rench JA- re-)ir.A <hen used in English as a formal sign of parting it will either carry the exact meaning of the words it is composed of, *i1" ?See you again soon?, or have another stylistic function" =ere is an exampleD JShe had said BA- re*)irD Kot goodH%yeLJ +2alsworthy/ The formal and conventional salutation at parting has %ecome a meaningful sentence set against another formal salutation at parting which in its turn is revived %y the process to its former significance of J2od %e with you,J i" e" a salutation used when parting for a long time, or forever" 0n pu%licistCc[style the use of %ar%arisms and foreign words is mainly confined to colouring the passage on the pro%lem in #uestion with a touch of authority" ) person who uses so many foreign words and phrases is o%viously a very educated person, the reader thin$s, and therefore a Jman who $nows"J =ere are some examples of the use of %ar%arisms in the pu%licistic styleD JMet e 6a##a % 0 would li$e to as$ here +and answer/ what did 1oc$efeller thin$ of !a%our"""J +Dreiser, JEssays and )rticlesJ/ JCiviliGationJ H as they $new it H still depended upon ma$ing profits ad i 7i i%-/.A 2i0id.4 <e may remar$ in passing that Dreiser was particularly fond of using %ar%arisms not only in his essays and articles %ut in his novels and stories as well" )nd this %rings us to another #uestion" 0s the use of %ar%arisms and foreign words a matter of individual preference of expression, a certain ideosyncrasy of this or that writerY >r is there a definite norm regulating the usage of this means of expression in different styles of speechY The reader is invited to ma$e his own o%servations and inferences on the matter" The

answer to the #uestion will %e arrived at after a thorough study of the properties and characteristic features of each of the styles" =owever, a preliminary remar$ will not come amiss" 0ndividual preference for one or another form or stylistic device is typical in the two styles of writing Cust mentioned" This property is not to %e o%served as typical in other styles, though it may %e encountered in some of those enumerated in this %oo$" e4 Li%erar& C)i a!e# 2I '"-di ! N) 'e(?)rd#4 There is a term in linguistics, which %y its very nature is am%iguous and that is the term e)")!i#/. 0n dictionaries it is generally defined as ?a new word ?or a new meaning for an esta%lished word" Everything in this definition is vague" =ow long should words or their meanings %e regarded as newY <hich words of those that appear as new in the language, say during the lifetime of one generation, can %e regarded as esta%lishedY 0t is suggestive that the latest editions of certain dictionaries avoid the use of the stylistic notation JneologismJ apparently %ecause of its am%iguous character" 0f a word is fixed in a dictionary and provided that the dictionary is relia%le, it ceases to %e a neologism" 0f a new meaning is recogniGed as an element in the semantic structure of a lexical unit, it ceases to %e new" =owever, if we wish to divide the word stoc$ of a language into chronological periods, we can conventionally mar$ off a period, which might %e called new" Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous num%er of new words or new meanings of esta%lished words" Most of them do not live long" They are not meant to live long" They are, as it were, coined for use at the moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property H that of temporariness" The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to Jserve the occasion"J =owever, such is the power of the written language, that a word or a meaning used only to serve the occasion, when once fixed in writing, may %ecome part and parcel of the general voca%ulary irrespective of the #uality of the word" That?s why the introduction of new words %y menHofHletters is pregnant with unforeseen conse#uencesD their new coinages may replace old words and %ecome esta%lished in the language as synonyms and later as su%stitutes for the old words" 0n this connection it might %e noted that such words as #-0He'%+ )0He'%+ and their derivatives as well as %&6e+ 6r)!re##+ and others introduced into the literary 1ussian language %y (" 2" ;elins$y have %ecome legitimate 1ussian words firmly esta%lished in the word stoc$ of the 1ussian language and are no longer felt to %e alien to the literary language as they were in the nineteenth century"

The coining of new words generally arises, first of all, with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth %y a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in #uestion" 0t may also %e the result of a search for a more economical, %rief and compact form of utterance, which proves to %e a more expressive means of communicating the idea" The first type of newly coined words, i" e" those, which designate new%orn concepts, may %e named terminological coinages or terminological neologisms" The second type, i" e" words coined %ecause their creators see$ expressive utterance may %e named #%&"i#%i' ')i a!e# )r #%&"i#%i' e)")!i#/#. Keologisms are mainly coined according to the productive models for word %uilding in the given language" ;ut the neologisms of the literaryH%oo$ish type we are dealing with in this chapter may sometimes %e %uilt with the help of affixes and %y other means which have gone out of use or which are in the process of dying out" 0n this case, the stylistic effect produced %y the means of word %uilding chosen %ecomes more apparent, and the stylistic function of the device can %e felt more acutely" 0t often happens, however, that the sensitive reader finds a new application of an already existing word almost revolting" Purists of all shades rise up in protest against what they call the highly o%Cectiona%le and illegitimate usage of the word" ;ut %eing once successfully used, it may %e repeated %y other writers and so may remain in the language and moreover, may influence the further history of the semantic development of the word" (" (" (inogradov Custly remar$s that J"""The turning point in the semantic history of many words is the new, vividly expressive, figurative, individual use of them" This new and genuinely artistic application of a word, if it is in conformity with the general tendencies of the semantic development of the language, not infre#uently predetermines the further semantic development of the word"J )mong new coinages of a literaryH%oo$ish type must %e mentioned a considera%le layer of words appearing in the pu%licistic style, mainly in newspaper articles and magaGines and also in the newspaper style H mostly in newspaper headlines" To these %elongs the word F"i/6 H a name coined %y !ow, the wellH $nown English cartoonist" The name was coined to designate an English colonel famous for his conceit, %rutality, ultraHconservatism" This word gave %irth to a derivative, *i1. F"i/6i#$. >ther examples are ?%ac$lash? +in ?%ac$lash policy"/ and its opposite ?frontlash?" !iterary critics, menHofHletters and linguists have manifested

different attitudes towards new coinages %oth literary and collo#uial" Ever since the ,3th century, literature has shown example after example of the losing %attle of the purists who try to hinder the natural progress of the language" >f course, there are different degrees of purism" 0n other words, the efforts of scholars to preserve the purity of their language should not always %e regarded as conservative" They do not loo$ upon any and every change with suspicion or regard an innovation as invaria%ly a corruption of the language" Most of the coinages of the ,3th century as well as those of the ,.th were foreign %orrowings from !atin, 2ree$ and continental rench" The words were introduced into the English language and used in the same sense and with almost the same pronunciation as in the language they were %orrowed from" ;ut most of those, which have remained in the language underwent changes due to the process of assimilation and were finally JnaturaliGed"J This process is slow" 0t sometimes ta$es centuries to ma$e a word %orrowed from another language sound #uite English" The tempo of assimilation is different with different %orrowings, depending in particular on the language the word is %orrowed from" ;orrowings from the rench language are easily and #uic$ly assimilated due to longH esta%lished tradition" The process of assimilation plays a rather important role in the stylistic evaluation of a lexical unit" The greater and the deeper the process of assimilation, the more general and common the word %ecomes, the less %oo$ish it sounds, and the greater the pro%a%ility of its %ecoming a mem%er of the neutral layer of words" Throughout the history of the English literary language, scholars have expressed their opposition to three main lines of innovation in the voca%ularyD firstly, to %orrowings which they considered o%Cectiona%le %ecause of the irregularity of their coinage, secondly, to the revival of archaic words and thirdly, %ecause the process of creation of new words was too rapid for the literary language to assimilate" The opposition to one or other of these lines of innovation increased in violence at different stages in the development of the language, and switched from one to another in accordance with the general laws of development in the given period" <e shall refer the reader to %oo$s on the history of the English language for a more detailed analysis of the attitude of purists of different shades to innovations" >ur tas$ here is to trace the literary, %oo$ish character of coinages and to show, which of their features have contri%uted to their stylistic la%els" Some words have indeed passed from the literaryH%oo$ish layer of the voca%ulary where they first appeared into the stratum of common literary words and then into the

neutral stratum" >thers have remained within the literaryH%oo$ish group of words and have never shown any tendency to move downwards in the scale" This fact is apparently due to the linguistic %ac$ground of the new coinages and also to the demand for a new unit to express nuances of meaning" 0n our times the same tendency to coin new words is to %e o%served in England and particularly in the United States of )merica" The literary language is literally inundated with all $inds of new coinages and a considera%le %ody of protest has arisen against them" 0t is enough to loo$ through some of the articles of the Ne? Y)r@ Ti/e# on the su%Cect to see what direction the protest against innovations ta$es" Unli$e earlier periods in the development of the English language, modern times are characteriGed? %y a vigorous protest against the unrestrained influx of new coinages, whether they have %een %uilt in accordance with the norms of the language, or whether they are of foreign origin" )n article in the O%%a?a E*e i ! C)-r a" + e%" ,-F./, entitled JMassey Deplores Use of ;ad English,J statesD JThe danger is not that the reading pu%lic would desert good %oo$s, %ut that a%use of the written language may ruin %oo$s" J)s for words, we are never at a lossI if they do not exist, we invent them" <e carry out purposeful proCects in a meaningful manner in order to achieve insightful experiences" J<e diariGe, we earliriGeI any day we may %egin to futuriGe" <e also itineriGe, relia%liGeI and we not only decontaminate and dehumidify %ut we de%ureaucratiGe and we deinsectiGe" <e are, in addition, discovering how good and pleasant it is to fellowship with one another" J0 can only say, ?let us finaliGe all this nonsense?"J The writer of the article then proceeds to give an explanation of the reasons for such unrestrained coinage" =e states that some of the writers J"""are not ashamed of writing %adly %ut rather proud of writing at all and H with a certain vanity H are attracted %y gorgeous words which give to their slender thoughts an appearance of power"J Perhaps the writer of this article is not far from the truth when he ascri%es literary coinage to the desire to ma$e utterances more pompous and sensational" 0t is suggestive that the maCority of such coinages are found in newspaper and magaGine articles, and li$e the articles themselves, live %ut a short time" )s their effect is transitory, it must %e instantaneous" 0f a newly coined word can serve the demand of the moment, what does it matter to the writer whether it is a necessary word or notY The freshness of the creation is its primary and indispensa%le #uality" The fate of literary coinages, unli$e collo#uial ones, mainly depends on the num%er

of rival synonyms already existing in the voca%ulary of the language" 0t also depends on the shade of meaning the new coinage may convey to the mind of the reader" 0f a neologism is approved of %y native spea$ers and %ecomes widely used, it ceases to %e a neologism and %ecomes part and parcel of the general voca%ulary in spite of the o%Cections of menHofHletters and other lawgivers of the language, whoever they may %e" Many new coinages disappear entirely from the language, leaving no mar$ of their even %rief existence" >ther literary neologisms leave traces in the voca%ulary %ecause they are fixed in the literature of their time" 0n other words new literaryH %oo$ish coinages will always leave traces in the language, inasmuch as they appear in writing" This is not the case with collo#uial coinages" These, as we shall see later, are spontaneous, and due to their linguistic nature, cannot %e fixed unless special care is ta$en %y specialists to preserve them" Most of the literaryH%oo$ish coinages are %uilt %y means of affixation and word compounding" This is %ut naturalI new words %uilt in this manner will %e immediately perceived %ecause of their unexpectedness" Unexpectedness in the use of words is the natural device of those writers who see$ to achieve the sensational" 0t is interesting to note in passing that conversion, which has %ecome one of the most productive wordH%uilding devices of the English language and which is more and more widely used to form new words in all parts of speech, is less effective in producing the sensational effect sought %y literary coinage than is the case with other means of wordH%uilding" Conversion has %ecome organic in the English language" Semantic word %uilding, giving an old word a new meaning, is rarely employed %y writers, who coin new words for Cournalistic purposes" 0t is too slow and impercepti%le in its growth to produce any $ind of sensational effect" Conversion, derivation and change of meaning may %e registered as means %y which literaryH%oo$ish neologisms are formed" These three means of word %uilding are mostly used to coin new terms where new meanings are imposed on old words" )mong new coinages of this $ind the word #-r*i*a" may %e mentioned" The new meaning, which has %een given to this word, is, according to the J)erospace 2lossaryJ, Jthe primitive act or state of continuing to live"J The new meaning coH exists with the old ones" 0n other words, new meanings imposed on old words form one system in which old and new meanings are ranged in a dictionary according to their rate of fre#uency or to some other underlying principle" ;ut there are cases when new meanings imposed on old words drive out old meanings" 0n this case we

register a gradual change in the meaning of the word, which may not incorporate the old one" 0n most cases, however, the old meaning is hardly feltI it is generally forgotten and can only %e reHesta%lished %y etymological analysis" Thus the word ad/ire+ which as in !atin first meant ?to feel or express surprise or astonishment?, has today lost its primary meaning and now has ac#uired a new one which however, still contains a shade of the old, viG" ?to regard with wonder and approval, esteem or affection, to delight in?" The process of elimination of the old meaning, as is seen 7r)/ this example, is slow and smooth" =ardly ever can we register a sudden switch from one meaning to anotherD there is always a gradual transition, and not infre#uently the two competing meanings coHexist, manifesting in this coHexistence an almost impercepti%le internal struggle which ends in the complete elimination of one of them" )lmost half of the words in the ,4th century JEnglish DictionaryJ compiled %y Samuel :ohnson may serve as examples of change of meaning" ) word or two ta$en at random will confirm the statement Cust made" The word %) 7a#'i a%e meant ?to %ewitch?I ?to enchant?I ?to influence in some wic$ed and secret manner?" The word a*ai"a0"e is explained in :ohnson?s Dictionary as J," Profita%leI )dvantageous" 7" Powerful, in force"J True, in some respects :ohnson?s Dictionary cannot %e regarded as a relia%le source of informationD his attitude towards collo#uial idiom is well $nown" 0t was not only aversion H it was a manifestation of his theoretical viewpoint" :ames ;oswell in? his J!ife of :ohnsonJ says that the compiler of the dictionary was at all times Cealous of infractions upon the genuine English language, and prompt to repress what he called collo#uial %ar%arismsI such as B6"ed!i ! /&#e"7 for ?underta$ing?, line for ?department? or ?%ranch?, as, the 'i*i" "i e+ %$e 0a @i ! "i e. =e was particularly indignant against the almost universal use of the word idea in the sense of ?notion? or ?opinion?, when it is clear that idea, %eing derived from the 2ree$ word meaning ?to see?, can only signify something of which an image can %e formed in the mind" <e may have an idea or image of a mountain, a tree, a %uildingI %ut we cannot surely have an idea or image of an argument or proposition" )s has %een pointed out, word %uilding %y means of affixation is still predominant in coining new words" Examples areD or0i%er H?a spacecraft designed to or%it a celestial %ody?I "a derH?a spacecraft designed to land on such a %ody?I /i##i"eer H?a person s$illed in missilry or in the launching and control of missiles?I 7r-i%)")!i#% and ?re'@)%)!i#%, which were used in a letter to the editor of T$e Ti/e# from a person

living in )ustralia" )nother monster of the in$Hhorn type is the word overdichotomiGeH to split something into too many parts, which is commented upon in an article in Ne?B Y)r@ Ti/e# Ma!a1i e. J0t is, alas, too much to expect that this fine flower of language, a verita%le hotHhouse specimen H com%ining as it does a vogue word with a vogue suffix H will long survive"J The literaryH%oo$ish character of such coinages is #uite apparent and needs no comment" They are always felt to %e overHliterary %ecause either the stem or the affix +or %oth/ is not used in the way the reader expects it to %e used" Perhaps it would %e more appropriate to say that %y forci%ly putting together a familiar stem and a familiar affix and thus producing an unfamiliar word, a neologism, the writer compels the reader to concentrate his attention on the new word, firstly %y its novelty and secondly %y the necessity of analysing it in order to decipher the message" ;y using a neologism instead of the pro%a%le word or com%ination of words, he violates the main property of a communication, which is to convey the idea straightforwardly and promptly" )mong new creations those with the suffix (i1e seem to %e the most fre#uent" The suffix (i1e gives a strong shade of %oo$ishness to new words" =ere are some more examples of neologisms with this suffixD ?detri%ahliGed +)fricans/?I ?accessoriGe?I ?moisturiGe? ?villagiGe?" Thomas Pyles writesD JThe (i1e suffix""" is very voguish in advertiGing copy, a most potent disseminator of modish expressionsI """its fashiona%leness may explain why ?hospitaliGe?, current since the turn of the century, has recently %egun to flourish"J Some affixes are themselves literary in character and naturally carry this property to derivatives formed with their help" Thus, for example, the prefix antiH has given us a num%er of new words, which are gradually %ecoming recogniGa%le as facts of the English voca%ulary, e" g" Ba %i H )*e"i#%B, Ba %i H$er)B, _a %i(?)r"d+ Pa %i(e/)%i) + Ba %iH%re dB, and the li$e" The prefix a %i(+ as is seen from these examples, has developed a new meaning" 0t is rather difficult to specify" 0n the most general terms H it may %e defined as ?the reverse of" 0n this connection it will %e interesting to #uote the words of an English Cournalist and essayist" JThe spirit of opposition is as necessary as the presence of rules and disciplines, %ut unlimited $ic$ing over traces can %ecome a tedious exercise" So can this popular %usiness of %eing ?anti? in general" 0n the world of letters the critical lingo of our time spea$s of the ?antiHnovel? or ?antiHplay? which has an ?antiHhero?" Since there is a fashion for characters una%le to communicate,

people with nothing to say and no voca%ulary with which to explain their vacuity, ?antiHwriting? may fairly %e descri%ed as possessing ?antiHdialogue?"J The suffix (d)/ has also developed a new meaning, as in B!a !d)/, B7re'@"ed)/, B/-#i'd)/B, where the suffix is used with the most general meaning of collectivity" The suffix (ee has %een given new life" <e have ?interrogatee?, auto%iographee? +J"""the pseudoHauto%iographer has swallowed the a-%)0i)!ra6$ee whole"J Kew Statesman, Kov" 7-, ,-39/I ?enrollee? +JEach e r)""ee is given a %oo$let filled with advice and suggestions, and attends the lecture"""J Ne? Y)r@ Ti/e# Ma!a1i e+ :an", 73, ,-3E/I B)/i%%eeB+ Ba#@eeB +JThat?s a %ad ha%it, as$ing a #uestion and not waiting for an answer, %ut it?s not always %ad for the a#@ee"J 1ex Stout, JToo many clientsJ/" The suffix (#$i6 has also developed a new shade of meaning which is now gaining literary recognition, as in the neologismsD ?#$)?/a #$i6?+ 0ri @/a #$i6B+ B"i7e/a #$i6B+ B"i6/a #$i6B+ B/i#%re##/a #$i6+ B#-6er/a #$i6B+ B) e(-6/a #$i6B, etc" 0n these coinages an interesting phenomenon seems to %e ta$ing place" The word /a is gradually growing first into a halfHsuffix and finally into part of the complex suffix (/a #$i6 with the approximate meaning ?the a%ility to do something %etter than another person?" )mong voguish suffixes which colour new coinages with a shade of %oo$ishness is the suffix (e#e+ the dictionary definition of which is J,/ %elonging to a city or country as inha%itant +inha%itants/ or language, e" g" Ge )e#e+ C$i e#eG 7/ pertaining to a particular writer +of style or diction/, e" g" C)$ #) e#e+ H)-r a"e#e"J Modern examples areD ?DailyHTelegraphese?, ?Kew Mor$ese?I recently a new word has appeared H ?T(Hese?" 0t is the novelty of these creations that attracts our attention and it is the unexpectedness of the com%ination that ma$es us feel that the new coinage is of a %oo$ish character" The resistance of purists to the unrestrained flow of new coinages of a %oo$ish character, which greatly outnum%ers the natural collo#uial creations, can %e illustrated in the following words of 1o%ert E" Morse%ergerD J)nyone familiar with the current crop of horror movies $nows that weird mutations caused %y atomic radiation have spawned a %rood of malignant monsters, from giant insects +half human and otherwise/ to %lo%s of glup" <hile these fortunately are confined to science fiction, our language itself demonstrates similar grotes#ue mutations in truncated, telescoped words and words with extra inflationary growths on the suffix end, not counting the Cargon of special groups from %eatni$s to sociologists" J)mong the more fre#uent and a%surd of these linguistic monsters are condensed

words ending in (ra/a and (%$) . The former comes from 6a )ra/a from the 2ree$ pan +Z?all?/ plus $)ra/a +Z ?a view?/ or '&'")ra/a from the 2ree$ @&@")# +Z ?a circle?/ plus $)ra/a again" So far so goodI the next development is 'i era/a, still sound, from the 2ree$ @i e/a +Z ?motion?/ and our old friend $)ra/a" JKow the advertisers have ta$en the suffixHroot and proceed to torture it out of sense and recognition, with $)ra/a +or rather a vowel followed %y (ra/a no longer meaning simply a view %ut an entire spectacle or simply a superlative, so that the suffix has devoured all the original 6a )ra/a in such distortions as '"ea )ra/a +Z ?a spectacular cleaning spree?/I %)/a%)(ra/a+ 0ea ara/a+ 0a a ara/a eZ ?a sensational sale of tomatoes, %eans or %ananas?/""" J*eeping pace with (ra/a 26a'era/a4 is Hthan, a suffix newly minted from ancient metal" Pheidippides? race from the %attlefield of Marathon and the later foot race of that name gave ?the noun Mara%$) the meaning of an endurance contestI %ut we now have to endure (%$) alone, divorced, and made into a selfHsustaining suffix in +sofL/ such words as %e"e%$) + ?a"@(a%$) + %a"@a%$) + da 'ea%$) + '"ea a%$) + """ Clearly (%$) a d (ra/a compete in the rivalry %etween '"ea a%$) and '"ea )ra/aI %oth %astard suffixes have swallowed their original noun, and it is only logical that they should next swallow each other in B%$) )ra/aB +Z?an endurance of various (ra/a#B4)r ra/a%$) +?ZZa panoramic or sensational endurance contest?/" The reader will undou%tedly not fail to o%serve that the protest against these Jin$HhornJ terms is not %ased on any sound linguistic foundation" 0t merely shows the attitude of the writer towards certain novelties in language" They seem to him monstrous" ;ut there is no indication as to what ma$es them monstrous" The writer himself readily uses new coinages such as !i-6+ 0ea% i@# without #uotation mar$s, which shows, evidently, that he is reconciled to them" S%r-!!"e#)/e+ i 7)r/a%a%i*e+ ') )%a%e+ - ?)r%$?$i"e+ i 7eri)ri#/+ deride+ %) 0e a''-#a%ed+ #edi/e %a"i%& are other words which he apparently considers distortions" The last string of literary coinages is supplied with the following footnoteD J)ll words used in this sentence are gratefully ac$nowledged as coming from college freshman themes"J Unfortunately there are no o%Cective criteria for ascertaining the stylistic aspect of words" Therefore the protest of many language purists is sometimes %ased on su%Cective idiosyncrasy" <e find o%Cections to the ways and means of coining new words, as in the #uotation a%ove, and also to the unrestrained inCection into some words of emotive meaning when this meaning, it is said, has not yet %een widely

recogniGed, as %)6 +Z?excellent?, ?wonderful?/, 7e& +Z?somewhat whimsical, in touch with the supernatural, a little crac$ed?/" This second o%Cection applies particularly to the collo#uial stratum of words" <e also find o%Cections to the new logical meanings forced upon words, as is done %y a certain :" ;ell in an article on advertiGing agencies" J=ighly literate men are %usy selling cancer and alcoholism to the pu%lic, commending inferior goods, gar%ling facts, confusing figures, exploiting emotions"""J =ere the word #e"" is used in the sense of esta%lishing confidence in something, of spea$ing convincingly, of persuading the pu%lic to do, or %uy and use something +in this case cigarettes, wine and spirits/I the word ')//e d has developed the meaning of ?recommend? and the word I 7eri)r has come to mean ?lower in price, cheap?I %) !ar0"e, the primary meaning of which is ?to sort %y sifting?, now also means ?to distort in order to mislead?I %) ') 7-#e is generally used in the sense of ?to mix up in mind?, %) e56")i% emotions means ?ma$ing use of people?s emotions for the sa$e of gain?" )ll these words have ac#uired new meanings %ecause they are used in com%inations not yet registered in the languageHasHaHsystem" 0t is a wellH$nown fact that any word, if placed in a strange environment, will inevita%ly and forci%ly ac#uire a new shade of meaning" Kot to see this, means not to correctly evaluate the inner laws of the semantic development of lexical units" There is still another means of wordH%uilding in modern English which may %e considered voguish at the present time, and that is the %lending of two words into one %y curtailing the end of the first component or the %eginning of the second" Examples are numerousD /-#i')/ed& +musicgcomedy/I 'i e/a'%re## +cinemagactress/I a*i!a%i) +aviationgnavigation/I and the already recogniGed %lends li$e #/)! +smo$egfog/I '$)r%"e +chuc$legsnort/I Ga"-/6$ +triumphggallop/ +%oth occur in =umpty Dumpty?s poem in !ewis Carroll?s JThrough the !oo$ing 2lassJ/" ) r)'@)) +roc$etg%alloon/ is ?a roc$et designed to %e launched from a %alloon?" Such newly coined words are called 0"e d#. 0n reviewing the ways and means of coining new words, we must not overloo$ one, which plays a conspicuous role in changing the meaning of words and mostly concerns stylistics" <e mean inCecting into wellH$nown, commonly used words with clearHcut concrete meanings, a meaning that the word did not have %efore" This is generally due to the com%inative power of the word" This aspect of words has long %een underestimated %y linguists" Pairing words, which hitherto have not

%een paired, ma$es the components of the word com%inations ac#uire a new, and sometimes #uite unexpected, meaning" Particularly productive is the ?adCective" 0t tends to ac#uire an emotional meaning alongside its logical meaning, as, for instance, %erri0"e+ a?7-". The result is that an adCective of this $ind %ecomes an intensifierD it merely indicates the degree of the positive or negative #uality of the concept em%odied in the word that follows" <hen it %ecomes generally accepted, it %ecomes part of the semantic structure of the word, and in this way the semantic wealth of the voca%ulary increases" True, this process is mostly found in the domain of conversation" 0n conversation an unexpectedly free use of words is constantly made" 0t is in conversation that such words as #%- i !+ !ra d+ ')")##a"+ B?) der7-"+ e5'i%i ! and the li$e have ac#uired this intensifying derivative meaning which we call emotive" ;ut the literaryH%oo$ish language, in #uest of new means of impressing the reader, also resorts to this means of word coinage" 0t is mostly the product of newspaper language, where the necessity, nay the urge, to discover new means of impressing the reader is greatest" 0n this connection it is interesting to #uote articles from English and )merican periodicals in which pro%lems of language in its functional aspect are occasionally discussed" 0n one of them, JCurrent Cliches and SolecismsJ %y Edmund <ilson, the improper application of the primary and accepted meanings of the words /a##i*e+ 'r-'ia"+ %ra #6ire and others is condemned" The author of the article is unwilling to ac$nowledge the o%Cective development of the word stoc$ and instead of fixing the new meanings that are gaining ground in the semantic structure of these words, he tries to %loc$ them from literary usage while neglecting the fact that these new meanings have already %een esta%lished in the language" This is what he saysD JMassiveL 0 have also written %efore of this stupid and oppressive word, which seems to have %ecome since then even more common as a ready cliche that acts as a %lac$out on thin$ing" >ne now meets it in every departmentD literary, political, scientific" 0n a period of moral impotence, so many things are thought as intimidating that they are euphemistically referred to as /a##i*e. 0 shall not present further examples except to register a feeling of horror at finding this adCective resorted to three times, and twice in the same paragraph, %y !ionetl Trilling in C)//e %ar&+ in the course of an otherwise admira%le discussion of the !eavisHSnow controversy. /a##i*e #i! i7i'a 'e of JThe Two CulturesJ, massive intention of JThe Two CulturesJ, #uite /a##i*e 0"- der of Snow in regard to the (ictorian writers" <as Snow?s essay really that huge and weightyY 0f it was,

perhaps it might follow that any %lunder in it must also %e massive"J )nother of these emotional intensifiers is the word 'r-'ia"" 0t also raises o%Cections on the part of purists and among them the one whose article we are #uoting" JThis wordJ, writes Edmund <ilson, Jwhich means properly de'i#i*e+ 'ri%i'a"+ has come to %e used, and used constantly, in writing as well as in conversation as if it meant merely important""" ?;ut what is 'r-'ia", of course, is that these %oo$s aren?t very good"""? ?>f course it is of 'r-'ia" importance?"J )nother type of neologism is the ) 'e(?)rd, i"e" a word coined to suit one particular occasion" KonceHwords remain on the outs$irts of the literary language and not infre#uently remind us of the writers who coined them" They are created to designate some insignificant su%Cective idea or evaluation of a thing or phenomenon and generally %ecome mori%und" They rarely pass into the language as legitimate units of the voca%ulary, %ut they remain in the language as constant manifestations of its innate power of word %uilding" =ere are some of these neologisms, which, %y the way, have the right to %e called so %ecause they will always remain neologisms, i" e" will never lose their noveltyD J!et me say in the %eginning that even if 0 wanted to avoid Texas 0 could not, for 0 am ?i*ed in Texas, and /)%$er((i ("a?ed+ and - '"ed+ and a- %ed, and ')-#i ed within an inch of my life"J The past participles /)%$er(i ("a?ed+ - '"ed+ a- %ed and ')-#i ed are coined for the occasion on the analogy of ?i*ed and can hardly %e expected to %e registered %y English dictionaries as ordinary English words" 0n modern English new words are also coined %y a means which is very productive in technical literature and therefore is mostly found in scientific style, *i1" %y contractions and a%%reviations" ;ut this means is sometimes resorted to for stylistic purposes" =ere are some of these coinages, which appear daily in different spheres of human activity" TRUD +Ztime remaining until dive/" The first letters of this word se#uence forms the neologism TRUD, which will presuma%ly remain as a professional term un$nown to wider circles of native English spea$ers" Such also are the words LO= +ZZ," li#uid oxygen explosive, 7" li#uid oxygen/ and GO= +gaseous oxygen/" To the layman, oxygen is a gas, %ut in missilry +also a new coinage/ it is more often a li#uid or even a solid, so gaseous oxygen has to %e distinguished" >ther %etterH $nown examples are LASER +Zlight amplification %y stimulated emission of radiation/I UNESCO +United Kations Education and Science >rganiGation/" Kot all of the means of word coinage existing in the English language have %een dealt

with in this short survey" The reason for this is simpleD in stylistics there are ways and means of producing an effect, which attract the attention of the reader not only %y the novelty of a coinage %ut %y a more ela%orate language effect" This effect must %e specified to ma$e clear the intentions of the writer" The writer in this case is see$ing something that will ade#uately convey his idea to the mind of the reader" The means assume some additional forceD )*e"%&Q7)r'e. Therefore in the survey of the means of word formation only those have %een selected which provide novelty force" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66.M:(:M4. SPECIAL COLLONUIAL VOCAFULARY a4 S"a ! There is hardly any other term that is as am%iguous and o%scure as the term #"a !. Slang seems to mean everything that is %elow the standard of usage of presentHday English" Much has %een said and written a%out it" This is pro%a%ly due to the uncertainty of the concept itself" Ko one has yet given a more or less satisfactory definition of the term" Kor has it %een specified %y any linguist who deals with the pro%lem of the English voca%ulary" The first thing that stri$es the scholar is the fact that no other European language has singled out a special layer of voca%ulary and named it slang, though all of them distinguish such groups of words as Cargon, cant, and the li$e" <hy was it necessary to invent a special term for something that has not %een clearly defined as Cargon or cant haveY 0s this phenomenon specifically EnglishY =as slang any special features, which no other group within the nonHliterary voca%ulary can lay claim toY The distinctions %etween slang and other groups of unconventional English, though perhaps su%tle and sometimes difficult to grasp, should nevertheless %e su%Cected to a more detailed linguistic specification" <e%ster?s JKew <orld Dictionary of the )merican !anguageJ gives the following meanings of the termD J," originally, the specialiGed voca%ulary and idioms of criminals, tramps, etc" the purpose of which was to disguise from outsiders the meaning of what was saidI now usually called 'a %. 7" the specialiGed voca%ulary and idioms of those in the same wor$, way of life, etc"I now usually called #$)6(%a"@+ ar!)%+ Har!) . 9" collo#uial language that is outside of conventional or standard usage and consists of %oth coined words 20"-r0+ ?$))6)ee4 and those with =ew or extended meanings 2r-00er e'@+ #a64G slang develops from the attempt to find fresh and vigorous,

colourful, pungent, or humorous expression, and generally either passes into disuse or comes to have a more formal status"J The JKew >xford English DictionaryJ defines slang as followsD Ja/ the special voca%ulary used %y any set of persons of a low or disreputa%le characterI language of a low and vulgar type" +Kow merged in c" R'a %R4 %/ the 'a % )r Har!) of a certain class or periodI c/ language of a highly collo#uial type considered as %elow the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense"J )s is seen from these #uotations slang is represented %oth as a special voca%ulary and as a special language" This is the first thing that causes confusion" 0f this is a certain lexical layer, then why should it %e given the ran$ of languageY 0f, on the other hand, slang is a certain language or a dialect or even a patois, then it should %e characteriGed not only %y its peculiar use of words %ut also %y phonetic, morphological and syntactical peculiarities" :" ;" 2reenough and C" !" *itteridge define slang in these wordsD JSlang""" is a peculiar $ind of vaga%ond language, always hanging on the outs$irts of legitimate speech %ut continually straying or forcing its way into the most respecta%le company"J )nother definition of slang, which is worthwhile #uoting is one made %y Eric Partridge, the eminent student of the nonHliterary language" JSlang is much rather a spo$en than a literary language" 0t originates, nearly always, in speech" To coin a term on a written page is almost inevita%ly to %rand it as a neologism which will either %e accepted or %ecome a nonceHword +orHphrase/, %ut, except in the rarest instances that term will not %e slang"J The attitude of many Englishmen towards the thing called slang is also revealed in the fact that it is assigned to the class of soHcalled social evils together with drun$enness, prostitution and the use of narcotics" 0n most of the dictionaries +slang/ is used as convenient stylistic notation for a word or a phrase that cannot %e specified more exactly" The o%scure etymology of the term itself affects its use as a stylistic notation" <henever the notation appears in a dictionary it may serve as an indication that the unit presented is nonHliterary, %ut not pinpointed" That is the reason why the various dictionaries disagree in the use of this term when applied as a stylistic notation" The following stylistic layers of words are generally mar$ed as slang" ," <ords which may %e classed as thieves? cant, or the Cargons of other social groups and professions, li$e dir% +Z ?money?/, d)%%& +Z ?mad?/, a 0ar@er +Z ?a gun?/, %) da 'e +Z ?to hang?/" 7"

Collo#uial words and phrases li$e 7)r !))d+ %) $a*e a $- '$+ a #$)? +at the theatre/ and the li$e" 0t is indeed sometimes impossi%le to distinguish %etween a collo#uial word and one, which we shall agree to call a Cargonism or a professionalism, or one %elonging to any other of the nonHliterary layers" Therefore such %orderline words which have the transitional characteristics of two neigh%ouring groups, as collo#uial and\or professionalI collo#uial or dialectal and the li$e" There is a general o%Cection to the use of a term that can %e applied indiscriminately to any unit, which cannot otherwise %e characteriGed" Thus such words as '$i @ +?money? 4+ 7i#$& +?suspicious?/, $-/ +?hum%ug?/, !)*er )r +?father?/ and many other words and phrases are in some dictionaries given with two stylistic notations, ')""" and\or #". 9" igurative words and phrases are not infre#uently regarded as slang and included in special slang dictionaries, e" g" S'r))!e +ZZ ?a mean person?/I #$ar@ +Z ?a pic$poc$et?, ?a swindler?/I 0"a'@')a% +Z?a clergyman?/" E" <ords derived %y means of conversion, one of the most productive means of wordH %uilding in present day English, are also sometimes classed as slang, for example, the noun agent is considered neutral %ecause it has no stylistic notation, whereas the ver% %) a!e % is included in one of the )merican dictionaries of slang" 0t is the same with such pairs as a"%ar ( %) a"%ar+ a 'ie % 2a4 ( a 'ie % +n/" F" )%%reviations of the la%Htype, for example, re6 2re6-%a%i) 4+ 'i! 2'i!are%%e4+ ad 2ad*er%i#e/e %4+ as well as of %$e 7"-(%&6e 2i 7"-e 1a4. 0t is worthy of note that such very commonly used a%%reviations as #i# 2#i#%er4+ /a 2/a/a4+ also fall into the category of slang" 3" Set expressions which are generally used in collo#uial speech and which are clearly collo#uial, are also mar$ed with the notation #"a !+ e. !.+ %) !) i 7)r+ %) '-% )77 ?i%$ a #$i""i !+ i a ?a&+ and many others" ." 0mproprieties of a morphological and syntactical character, e" g", H)? ')/e+ I #a&#, dou%le negatives as \ d) B% @ )? )%$i ! and others of this $ind" 4" )ny new coinage that has not gained recognition and therefore has not yet %een received into Standard English is easily %randed as slang" The Times of the ,7th of March, ,-F. gives the following illustrations of slangD "e!!) +?let go?/, sarge +?sergeant?/, BIB*e !)% a da%e with that Miss Morris to night?" ;ut it is o%vious that ?leggo? is a phonetic impropriety caused %y careless rapid spea$ingI sarge is a vulgar e#uivalent of the full form of the wordI date is a widely recogniGed collo#uial e#uivalent +synonym/ of the literary and even %oo$ish re de1(*)-# +?a meeting?/" These different and heterogeneous phenomena united under the vague term #"a ! cause natural confusion and do not

encourage scholars to see$ more o%Cective criteria in order to distinguish the various stylistic layers of the English collo#uial voca%ulary" The confusion is made still deeper %y the fact that any word or expression apparently legitimate, if used in an ar%itrary, fanciful or metaphorical sense, may easily %e la%eled as slang" Many words formerly la%eled as slang have now %ecome legitimate units of Standard English" Thus the word @id +Z ?child?/, which was considered low slang in the nineteenth century, is now a legitimate collo#uial unit of the English literary language" Some linguists, when characteriGing the most conspicuous features of slang, point out that it re#uires continuous innovation" 0t never grows stale" 0f a slang word or phrase does %ecome stale, it is replaced %y a new slangism" 0t is claimed that this satisfies the natural desire for fresh, newly created words and expressions, which give to an utterance emotional colouring and a su%Cective evaluation" 0ndeed, it seems to %e in correspondence with the traditional view of English conservatism, that a special derogative term should have %een coined to help preserve the Jpurity of Standard EnglishJ %y hindering the penetration into it "of undesira%le elements" The point is that the heterogeneous nature of the term serves as a $ind of %arrier, which chec$s the natural influx of word coinages into the literary language" True, such %arriers are not without their advantage in polishing up the literary language" This can %e proved %y the progressive role played %y any conscious effort to sift innovations, some of which are indeed felt to %e unnecessary, even contaminating elements in the %ody of the language" 0n this respect the )merican newspaper may serve as an example of how the a%sence of such a sifting process results in the contamination of the literary tongue of the nation with ugly redundant coinages" Such a %arrier however sometimes turns into an o%stacle, which hinders the natural development of the literary language" The term #"a !+ which is widely used in English linguistic science, should %e clearly specified if it is to %e used as a term, i" e" it should refer to some definite notion and should %e defina%le in explicit, simple terms" 0t is suggested here that the term JslangJ should %e used for those forms of the English language which are either mispronounced or distorted in some way phonetically, morphologically or lexically" The term JslangJ should also %e used to specify some elements, which may %e called overHcollo#uial" )s for the other groups of words hitherto classified as slang, they should %e specified according to the universally accepted classification of the voca%ulary of a language" ;ut this must %e done %y those whose mother tongue is English" They, and they only, %eing native spea$ers of the

English language, are its masters and lawgivers" 0t is for them to place slang in its proper category %y specifying its characteristic features" Slang is nothing %ut a deviation from the esta%lished norm at the level of the voca%ulary of the language" (" (" (inogradov writes that one of the tas$s set %efore the %ranch of linguistic science that is now called stylistics, is a thorough study of all changes in voca%ulary, set phrases, grammatical constructions, their functions, an evaluation of any %rea$ing away from the esta%lished norm, and classification of mista$es and failures in word coinage" =" <entworth and S" lexner in their JDictionary of )merican SlangJ writeD JSometimes slang is used to escape the dull familiarity of standard words, to suggest an escape from the esta%lished routine of everyday life" <hen slang is used, our life seems a little fresher and a little more personal" )lso, as at all levels of speech, slang is sometimes used for the pure Coy of ma$ing sounds, or even for a need to attract attention %y ma$ing noise" The sheer newness and informality of certain slang words produce pleasure" J;ut more important than this expression of a more or less hidden aesthetic motive on the part of the spea$er is the slang?s reflection of the personality, the outward, clearly visi%le characteristics of the spea$er" ;y and large, the man who uses slang is a forceful, pleasing, accepta%le personality"J This #uotation from a wellH$nown scientific study of slang clearly shows that what is la%eled slang is either all $inds of nonceH formationsHso fre#uently appearing in lively everyday speech and Cust as #uic$ly disappearing from the languageH, or Cocular words and word com%inations that are formed %y using the various means of wordH%uilding existing in the language and also %y distorting the form or sense of existing words" =ere are some more examples of words that are considered slangD %) "a@e #%)'@ i +Z ?to %e interested in, attach importance, give credence to?/ 0read(0a#@e% +Z ?the stomach? a H)'-"ar -#e/ %) d) a 7"i% +Z ?to #uit one?s flat or lodgings at night without paying the rent or %oard?/ r)t +Z ?nonsenseL?/ %$e 'a%B# 6&Ha/a# +Z ?the correct thing?/ So %road is the term slang, that, according to Eric Partridge, there are many $inds of slang, e" g", Coc$ney, pu%licHhouse, commercial, society, military, theatrical, parliamentary and others" This leads the author to %elieve that there is also a #%a dard #"a !, the slang that is common to all those who, though employing received standard in their writing and speech, also use an informal language which, in fact, is no language %ut merely a way of spea$ing, using special words and phrases in some special sense" The most confusing definition of the nature of slang is the following one given %y Partridge" J"""personality and one?s

surroundings +social or occupational/ are the two coHefficients, the two chief factors, the determining causes of the nature of slang, as they are of language in general and of style"J )ccording to this statement language, style and slang all have the same nature, the same determining causes" Personality and surroundings determineD ," the nature of the slang used %y a definite person, 7" the nature of the language he uses, 9" the $ind of style he writes" There is a general tendency in England and to some extent in the US) to overHestimate the significance of slang %y attaching to it more significance than it deserves" Slang is regarded as the #uintessence of collo#uial speech and therefore stands a%ove all the laws of grammar" Though it is regarded %y some purists as a language that stands %elow Standard English, it is highly praised nowadays as JvividJ, Jmore flexi%leJ, Jmore pictures#ueJ, Jricher in voca%ularyJ and so on" Unwittingly one arrives at the idea that slang, as used %y English and )mericans, is a universal term for any word or phrase, which, though not yet recogniGed as a fact of Standard English, has won general recognition as a fresh innovation #uite irrespective of its natureD whether it is cant, Cargon, dialect, Cocular or a pure collo#uialism" 0t is therefore important, for the sa$e of a scientific approach to the pro%lem of a stylistic classification of the English voca%ulary, to ma$e a more exact discrimination %etween heterogeneous elements in the voca%ulary, no matter how difficult it may %e" The following is an interesting example illustrating the contrast %etween Standard English and nonHliterary English including slang" 0n the story J;y CourierJ >"=enry opposes neutral and common literary words to special collo#uial words and slang for a definite stylistic purpose, *i1" to distort a message %y translating the literary voca%ulary of one spea$er into the nonHliterary voca%ulary of another" JTell her 0 am on my way to the station, to leave for San rancisco, where 0 shall Coin that )las$a moose hunting expedition" Tell her that, since she has commanded me neither to spea$ nor to write to her, 0 ta$e this means of ma$ing one last appeal to her sense of Custice, for the sa$e of what has %een" Tell her that to condemn and discard one who has not deserved such treatment, without giving him her reason or a chance to explain is contrary to her nature as 0 %elieve it to %e"J This message was delivered in the following mannerD J=e told me to tell yer he?s got his collars and cuffs in dat, grip for a scoot clean out to ? risco" Den he?s goin? to shoot snow%irds in de *londi$e" =e says yer told him to send ?round no more pin$ notes nor come hangin? over de garden gate, and he ta$es dis mean +sending the %oy to spea$ for him"H +I. G.4 of putting yer wise" He #a&# &er re7erred %) $i/ "i@e a $a#(

0ee + a d e*er !i*e $i/ ) '$a 'e %) @i'@ a% de de'i#i) . He #a&# &er #?i"ed $i/ a d e*er #aid ?$&.A The contrast %etween what is Standard English and what is crude, %ro$en nonH literary or uneducated )merican English has %een achieved %y means of setting the common literary voca%ulary and also the syntactical design of the original message against Cargonisms, slang and all $inds of distortions of forms, phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactical" 04 Car!) i#/#. 0n the nonHliterary voca%ulary of the English language there is a group of words that are called Har!) i#/#. Car!) i# a recogniGed term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group" :argonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them" The traditional meaning of the words is immaterial, only the new, improvised meaning is of importance" Most of the Cargonisms of any language, and of the English language too, are a%solutely incomprehensi%le to those outside the social group, which has invented them" They may %e defined as a code within a code, that is special meanings of words that are imposed on the recogniGed code H the dictionary meaning of the words" Thus the word !rea#e means ?money?I ")a7 means ?head?I a %i!er $- %er is ?a gam%ler?I a "e5er is ?a student preparing for a law course?" :argonisms are social in character" They are not regional" 0n England and in the US) almost any social group of people has its own Cargon" The following Cargons are well $nown in the English languageD the Cargon of thieves and vaga%onds, generally $nown as cantI the Cargon of CaGG peopleI the Cargon of the army, $nown as military slangI the Cargon of sportsmen and many other varieties" The various Cargons +which, in fact, are nothing %ut a definite group of words/ remain a foreign language to the outsiders of any particular social group" 0t is interesting in connection with this to #uote a stanGa from JDon :uanJ %y ;yron where the poet himself finds it necessary to explain the meaning of the Cargonisms he has used for definite stylistic purposes" J=e from the world had cut off a great man, <ho in his time had made heroic %ustle" <ho in a row li$e Tom could lead the van, ;ooGe in the $en,, or at the spell$en hustleY <ho #ueer a flatY <ho +spite of ;ow street?s %an/ >n the high to%yHspice so flash the muGGleY

<ho on a lar$, with %lac$Heyed Sal +his %lowing/ So prime, so swell, so nutty, and so $nowingYJ The explanation of the words used here was made %y ;yron?s editor %ecause they were all Cargonisms in ;yron?s time and no one would understand their meaning unless they were explained in normal English" , $enZa house which har%ours thieves 7 spell$enZa playHhouse or theatre 9 to #ueer a flatZZto puGGle a silly fellow E to flash the muGGle +gun/ on the high to%yHspiceZto ro% on horse %ac$ 3 a lar$Zfun or sport of any $ind ,, a %lowingZa girl . swellZgentlemanly 4 nuttyZ pleasing +to %e nuts onZto %e infatuated with/ ;yron wrote the following ironic comment to this stanGaD JThe advance of science and of language has rendered it unnecessary to translate the a%ove good and true English, spo$en in its original purity %y the select no%ility and their patrons" The following is a stanGa of a song, which was very popular, at least in my early daysD J>n the high to%yHspice flash the muGGle, 0n spite of each gallows old scoutI 0f you at all spell$en can?t hustle, Mou?ll %e ho%%led in ma$ing a Clout" Then your ;lowing will wax gallows haughty, <hen she hears of your scaly mista$e, She?ll surely turn snitch for the forty H That her :ac$ may %e regular weight"J 0f there %e any gemman +Z gentleman/ so ignorant as to re#uire a traduction, 0 refer him to my old friend and corporeal pastor and master, :ohn :ac$son, Es#", Professor of pugilismI who, 0 trust, still retains the strength and symmetry of his model of a form, together with his good humour and athletic as well as mental accomplishments"J Slang, contrary to Cargon, needs no translation" 0t is not a secret code" 0t is easily understood %y the EnglishHspea$ing community and is only regarded as something not #uite regular" 0t must also %e remem%ered that %oth Cargon and slang differ from ordinary language mainly in their voca%ularies" The structure of the sentences

and the morphology of the language remain practically unchanged" ;ut such is the power of words, which are the %asic and most conspicuous element in the language, that we %egin unwittingly to spea$ of a separate language" :argonisms do not always remain the possession of a given social group" Some of them migrate into other social strata and sometimes %ecome recogniGed in the literary language of the nation" 2" =" Mc*night writesD JThe language of the underworld provided words facetiously adopted %y the fashiona%le world, many of which, such as 7a and 8-eer and 0a %er and 0"-77 and #$a/ and $-/0-!, eventually made their way into dignified use"J There are hundreds of words, once :argonisms or slang, which have %ecome legitimate mem%ers of the English literary language" :argonisms have their definite place of a%ode and are therefore easily classified according to the social divisions of the given period" )lmost any calling has its own Cargon, i" e" its set of words with which its mem%ers intersperse their speech and render it incomprehensi%le to outsiders" Some linguists even maintain thatD J<ithin the limits of any linguistic unity there are as many languages as there are groups of people thrown together %y propin#uity and common interests"J This is, of course, an overstatement" irst of all, one should not mix up such notions as language and voca%ulary" True, un$nown words and phrases, if too many, may render speech unintelligi%le" ;ut this fact does not raise speech to the level of a different language" 0t is %etter to ma$e use here of the theory of the invariant and variants of the language, the invariant %eing what is called Standard English and the variants H all $inds of deviations particularly in voca%ulary which do not %rea$ away from the traditional system of the language" :argonisms however, do %rea$ away from the accepted norms of semantic variants of words" They are a special group within the nonHliterary layer of words" There is a common Cargon and special professional Cargons" Common :argonisms have gradually lost their special #uality, which is to promote secrecy and $eep outsiders in the dar$" 0n fact, there are no outsiders where common Cargon is concerned" 0t %elongs to all social groups and is therefore, easily understood %y every%ody" That is why it is so difficult to draw a hard and fast line %etween slang and Cargon" <hen a Cargonism %ecomes common, it has passed on to a higher step on the ladder of word groups and %ecomes slang or collo#uial" =ere are some further examples of CargonD Pi)-(Pi)- H?a rench soldier, a private in the infantry?" )ccording to Eric Partridge this word has already passed from military Cargon to ordinary collo#uial speech" H-//e H?a false arrest? +A/eri'a 4 Dar( S7r)/

da/ ed a*era!e rai#er/ H?a persevering and assiduous student?" 2U i*er#i%& Har!) 4 Ma%")2?4 ( Ba #ai")rB 27r)/ %$e Fre '$ ?)rd B/a%e")%4 Ma a d ?i7e ( Ba @ i7eB 2r$&/i ! #"a !4 Ma a & H ?a sailor who is always putting off a Co% of wor$? 2 a-%i'a" Har!) 4 27r)/ %$e S6a i#$ ?)rd /a a d H ?toHmorrow?/ The word 0ra## in the meaning of ?money in general, cash? is not Cargon inasmuch as there is an apparent semantic connection %etween ?the general name for all alloys of copper with tin or Ginc? and 'a#$. The metonymic ties %etween the two meanings prevent the word from %eing used as a special code word" The same can %e said of the words C)@er +Z?something used to play a tric$ or win one?s point or o%Cect with? 7r)/ 'ard(6"a&i !4G dra! +ZZ ?to ro% vehicles?/I %) #)a6(0)5 +Z ?to ma$e speeches outHofHdoors #%a di ! ) a #)a6(0)5B4. These are easily understood %y native spea$ers and therefore fail to meet the most indispensa%le property of Cargon words" They are slangHwords or perhaps collo#uial" >n the other hand, such words as #)a6 and 7"a e" meaning ?%read? and B'$ee#eB 2 a*a"4+ and some of the words mentioned a%ove are scarcely li$ely to %e understood %y the language community" >nly those who are in the $now understand such words" Therefore they can %e classed as Cargonisms" 0t will not come amiss to mention here the words of (andryes, a wellH$nown rench linguist, who said that J"""Cargon distorts words, it does not create them"J 0ndeed, the creation of really new words is a very rare process" 0n almost any language you can find only a few entirely new words" 0t is not accidental, therefore, that the efforts of some poets to coin completely new words have proved to %e a complete failure, their attempts %eing utterly reCected %y the language community" 0n passing, we must remar$ that %oth slang and the various Cargons of 2reat ;ritain differ much more from those of )merica +the United States and Canada/ than the literary language in the two countries does" 0n fact, the most stri$ing difference is to %e o%served in the nonHliterary layer of words and particularly in slang and Cargonisms and professionalisms"" J)merican slang,J remar$s 2" =" Mc*night, Jon the whole remains a foreign language to the Englishman" )merican plays such as J0s Gat soJ and )merican novels such as J;a%%ittJ have had to %e provided with glossaries in order to %e intelligi%le in England" :ohn 2alsworthy in his recent novel JThe Silver SpoonJ ma$es a naturalistic use of collo#uial idiom" =e exhi%its the rich element of native slang in the collo#uial speech of England"J :argonisms, li$e slang and other groups of the nonHliterary layer, do not always remain on the outs$irts of the literary language" Many words have overcome the

resistance of the language lawgivers and purists and entered the standard voca%ulary" Thus the words @id+ 7- + 8-eer+ 0"-77+ 7i0+ $-/0-!+ formerly slang words or Cargonisms, are now considered common collo#uial" They may %e said to %e deCargoniGed" The tendency to hide the true meaning of a Cargonism explains not only the process of distorting words %ut also another source of Cargonisms in the English language, *i1. foreign words" Thus words li$e %?i! +ZZ ?to understand? )7 Iri#$ )ri!i and 7r)/ +ZZ ?a girl or wife? 7r)/ Ger/a B7ra-B4 are considered Cargonisms, %ut they may find their way into legitimate use and thus ac#uire the ran$ of elements of the Standard English voca%ulary, first collo#uial and then, in due time, neutral" '4 Pr)7e##i) a"i#/# , as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling %y people connected %y common interests %oth at wor$ and at home" They commonly designate some wor$ing process or implement of la%our" Professionalisms are correlated to terms" Terms, as has already %een indicated, are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the process of, and as a result of, technical progress and the development of science" Professional words name anew alreadyHexisting concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code" The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality" Professionalisms are special words in the nonH literary layer of the English voca%ulary, whereas terms are a specialiGed group %elonging to the literary layer of words" Terms, if they are connected with a field or %ranch of science or techni#ue well $nown to ordinary people, are easily decoded and enter the neutral stratum of the voca%ulary" Professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite community, as they are lin$ed to a common occupation and common social interests" The semantic structure of the term is usually transparent and is, therefore, easily understood" The semantic structure of a professionalism is often dimmed %y the image on which the meaning of the professionalism is %ased, particularly when the features of the o%Cect in #uestion reflect the process of the wor$, metaphorically or metonymically" !i$e terms, professionalisms do not allow any polysemy, they are monosemantic" =ere are some professionalisms used in different tradesD %i (7i#$ +ZZ ?su%marine?/I 0")'@(0-#%er +Z ?a %om% especially designed to destroy %loc$s of %ig %uildings?/I 6i6er +Z?a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a creamH pipe?/I a /idder 'a#e +Z?a midwifery case?/I )-%er +ZZ ?a $noc$out %low?/"

Some professionalisms, however, li$e certain terms, %ecome popular and gradually lose their professional flavour" Thus the word 'ra e which ;yron used in his JDon :uanJ""" was a ver% meaning ?to stretch out the nec$ li$e a crane %efore a dangerous leap? +in hunting, in order to ?loo$ %efore you leap?/" Kow, according to Eric Partridge, it has %roadened its meaning and is used in the sense of ?to hesitate at an o%stacle, a danger?" ;y ,438 it was no more a professionalism used in hunting %ut had %ecome a collo#uial word of the nonHliterary stratum and finally, since ,4-8, entered the Standard English voca%ulary" JKo good 'ra i ! at it" !et?s go down"J +2alsworthy/ Professionalisms should not %e mixed up with Cargonisms" !i$e slang words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy" They fulfill a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a #uic$ and ade#uate grasp of the message" 2ood examples of professionalisms as used %y a manHofHletters can %e found in Dreiser?s J inancier"J The following passage is a good illustration" J ran$ soon pic$ed up all the technicalities of the situation" ) J%ullJ, he learned, was one who %ought in anticipation of a higher price to comeI and if he was JloadedJ up with a JlineJ of stoc$s he was said to %e JlongJ" =e sold to JrealiGeJ his profit, or if his margins were exhausted he was Jwiped outJ" ) J%earJ was one who sold stoc$s, which most fre#uently he did not have, in anticipation of a lower price at which he could %uy and satisfy his previous sales" =e was JshortJ when he had sold what he did not own, and he was JcoveredJ when he %ought to satisfy his sales and to realiGe his profits or to protect himself against further loss in the case prices advanced instead of declining" =e was in a JcornerJ when he found that he could not %uy in order to ma$e good the stoc$ he had %orrowed for delivery and the return of which had %een demanded" =e was then o%liged to settle practically at a price fixed %y these to whom he and other JshortsJ had sold"J )s is seen, each financial professionalism is explained %y the author and the words themselves are in inverted commas to stress their peculiar idiomatic sense and also to indicate that the words do not %elong to the Standard English voca%ulary in the meanings they are used" There are certain fields of human activity, which gain a nationHwide interest and popularity" This, for example, is the case in 2reat ;ritain where sports and games are concerned" English pugilistic terminology, for example, has gained particularly wide recognition and therefore is fre#uently used in a transferred meaning, thus adding to the general imageH%uilding function of emotive prose" =ere is an example of the use of such professionalisms

in fiction" J ather *nic$er%oc$er met them at the ferry giving one a ri!$%($a der on the nose and the other an -66er'-t with his "e7% Cust to let them $now that %$e 7i!$% ?a# ) "J This is from a story %y >" =enry called JThe DuelJ in which the writer depicts two characters who came from the <est to con#uer Kew Mor$" The voca%ulary of %oxing 2ri!$%($a der+ -66er'-%O+ as well as other professional terms found in the story, li$e ri !+ %) ')- %er+ %) '"i '$, etc", help to maintain the atmosphere of a fight, which the story re#uires" Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character" The s$ilful use of a professional word will show not only the vocation of a character, %ut also his education, %reeding, environment and sometimes even his psychology" That is why perhaps a literary device $nown #6ee'$('$ara'%eri1a%i) is so a%undantly used in emotive prose" The use of professionalisms forms the most conspicuous element of this literary device" )n interesting article was pu%lished in the Canadian G")0e a d Mai", which the author shows how a Cournalist who moc$s at the professionalisms in the language of municipal planners, which render their speech almost incomprehensi%le, himself uses words and expressions unintelligi%le to the lay reader" =ere is the article" COURNALESE 0 was glad to read recently how incomprehensi%le the language of city planners is to newspapermen" 0 decided to call the author of the article and express my appreciationD J=ello, 0?d li$e to spea$ to a reporter of yours named Terrance <ills"J J0s he ) 'i%& #ide or the i!$% re?ri%e de#@IA J0?m not sure" May%e he?s at his typeHwriter"J The operator said something under his %reath and then connected me to the third assistant executive city editor" )fter a%out ,F minutes of this 0 was finally a%le to communicate directly with Mr" <illsD JThat was a great story you did on ?plannerese?, sir,J 0 told him" J<here did you get the idea for itYJ J<hy, 0 Cust went to the morgue one day when there weren?t many )0i%# to do and 0 got a few '"i66i !#. Then 0 tal$ed with the ')6&(edi%)r and he gave me a Si(6)i % i%a"i' $ead"i e ?i%$ a )*er$a !i ! de'@.A J0t that goodYJ JSure it is" Even a '-0 $nows that" <ell 0 wrote a couple of %a@e# and got it i %$e 0)5 Cust %efore the dead"i e for the second i!$% 7i a" edi%i) .A J0s that hard to doYJ 0 as$ed" My head was %eginning to ache" J<hatY Sure, 0 guess" !isten, 0?d li$e to discuss this with you further %ut 0?m on the re?ri%e de#@ and my "e!/a is going to %e calling in a #'))6 any minute now" 2oodH%ye"J 0 sat there with the phone in my hand, than$ful that in this complex age the Cournalists are still preserving simple English"

d4 Dia"e'%a" J)rd# This group of words is o%viously opposed to the other groups of the nonH literary English voca%ulary and therefore its stylistic functions can %e more or less clearly defined" Dia"e'%a" ?)rd# are those, which in the process of integration of the English national language remained %eyond its literary %oundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality" <e exclude here what are called social dialects or even the still looser application of the term as in expressions li$e poetical dialect or styles as dialects" <ith reference to this group there is a confusion of terms, particularly %etween the terms dia"e'%a"+ #"a ! and *er a'-"ar. 0n order to ascertain the true value and the stylistic functions of dialectal words it is necessary to loo$ into their nature" or this purpose a #uotation from Cecil <yld?s J=istory of Modern Collo#uial EnglishJ will %e to the point" JThe history of a very large part of the voca%ulary of the presentHday English dialects is still very o%scure, and it is dou%tful whether much of it is of any anti#uity" So far very little attempt has %een made to sift the chaff from the grain in that very vast receptacle of the English Dialect Dictionary, and to decide which elements are really genuine ?corruptions? of words, which the yo$el has heard from educated spea$ers, or read, misheard, or misread, and ignorantly altered, and adopted, often with a slightly twisted significance" Pro%a%ly many hundreds of ?dialect? words are of this origin, and have no historical value whatever, except inasmuch as they illustrate a general principle in the modification of speech" Such words are not, as a rule, characteristic of any 1egional Dialect, although they may %e ascri%ed to one of these, simply %ecause some collector of dialect forms has happened to hear them in a particular area" They %elong rather to the category of ?mista$es? which any ignorant spea$er may ma$e, and which such persons do ma$e, again and again, in every part of the country"J <e are not concerned here with the historical aspect of dialectal words" or our purpose it will suffice to note that there is a definite similarity of functions in the use of slang, coc$ney and any other form of nonHliterary English and that of dialectal words" )ll these groups when used in emotive prose are meant to characteriGe the spea$er as a person of a certain locality, %reeding, education, etc" There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing dialectal words from collo#uial words" Some dialectal words have %ecome so familiar in good collo#uial or standard collo#uial English that they are universally accepted as recogniGed units of the standard collo#uial English" To these words %elong lass, meaning ?a girl or a

%eloved girl? and the corresponding "ad+ ?a %oy or a young man?, da7% from the Scottish and the northern dialect, meaning of unsound mind, ?silly?I 7a#$ also Scottish, with the meaning of ?trou%le, cares?" Still they have not lost their dialectal associations and therefore are used in literary English with the a%oveHmentioned stylistic function of characteriGation" >f #uite a different nature are dialectal words, which are easily recogniGed as corruptions of Standard English words, although etymologically they may have sprung from the peculiarities of certain dialects" The following words may serve as examplesD $i & from $) e&G %i%%"e apparently from #i#%er+ %eing a childish corruption of the wordI '-%%& meaning a ?testy or naughty girl or woman?" Most of the examples so far #uoted come from the Scottish and the northern dialect" This is explained %y the fact that Scotland has struggled to retain the peculiarities of her language, claiming it to %e independent" Therefore many of the words fixed in dictionaries as dialectal are of Scottish origin" )mong other dialects used for stylistic purposes in literature is the southern dialect +in particular that of Somersetshire/" This dialect has a phonetic peculiarity that distinguishes it from other dialects, *i1" initial `sa and `fa are voiced, and are written in the direct speech of characters as `Ga and `va, for exampleD ?vol$? 27)"@4+ ?vound? 27)- d4+ B1eeB 2#ee4+ ?Gin$ing? 2#i @i !4. To show how the truly dialectal words are intermingled with all $inds of improprieties of speech, it will %e enough to #uote the following excerpt from 2alsworthy?s J) ;it of !ove"J JMrs" ;urlacom%leD T-re"&D 0 give Bi/ a -//i% a7)re ?e gets upI an? Be Ba# Bi# 0re@H-# re!B"ar at nine" Must feed - up" =e?m on ?is feet all day, goin? to 1ee fol$ that ?idde want to 1ee an angel, %$e&B/ that %usyI a B when Be comes in Be BII play Bi# flute there" HeB/ ?a#%i away for want of ?is wife" That?s what?tis" O B Bi/ #) 1?ee7(#6)@e + %-, ?tis a pleasure to &earB i/ H Kever 1a&# a wordLJ Dialectal words are only to %e found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other styles" )nd even here their use is confined to the function of characteriGing personalities through their speech" Perhaps it would not %e a false supposition to suggest that if it were not for the use of the dialectal words in emotive prose they would have already disappeared entirely from the English language" The unifying tendency of the literary language is so strong that language elements used only in dialect are doomed to vanish except, perhaps those which, %ecause of their vigour and %eauty, have withstood the integrating power of the written language" <riters, who use dialectal words for the purpose of characteriGing the speech of a person in a piece of emotive prose or drama,

introduce them into the word texture in different ways" Some writers ma$e an unrestrained use of dialectal words and also slang, Cargonisms and professionalisms, not only in characteriGation, %ut also in their narrative" They mista$e units of language, which have not yet esta%lished themselves in Standard English for the most stri$ing features of modern English" )n overHa%undance of words and phrases of what we call nonHliterary English not only ma$es the reading difficult, %ut actually contaminates the generally accepted norms of the English language" >ther writers use dialectal words sparingly, introducing only units, which are understanda%le to the intelligent English reader, or they ma$e use of units, which they thin$ will enrich the Standard English voca%ulary" )mong words, which are easily understood %y the average Englishman areD /ai#%er+ ?ee"+ e e-!$+ "aird+ ae%$i ! and the li$e, characteristic of Scottish" Dialectal words, unli$e professionalisms, are confined in their use to a definite locality and most of the words deal, as =" C" <yld points out, with the everyday life of the country" JSuch words will for the most part %e of a more or less technical character, and connected with agriculture, horses, cattle and sport"J e4 V-"!ar J)rd#. The term *-"!ari#/+ as used to single out a definite group of words of nonHStandard English, is rather misleading" <e%ster?s JKew 0nternational DictionaryJ defines vulgarism as J) vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in collo#uial, or, esp", in unrefined or low, speech"J Then follows the explanation, J) vulgarism is a phrase or expression which is in common, %ut in good, useI the word does not necessarily connote coarseness"J The JShorter >xford DictionaryJ defines vulgarism as J) vulgar phrase or expressionI a collo#uialism of a low or unrefined character"J <hat is meant %y good use in the definition given %y the <e%ster?s Dictionary remains unexplained" Particularly misleading is the phrase that the word does not necessarily connote coarseness" <e shall define vulgarisms as expletives or swear words and o%scene words and expressions" They have nothing to do with words in common use nor can they %e classed as collo#uialisms" There are different degrees of vulgar words" Some of them, the o%scene ones should not even %e fixed in common dictionaries" They are euphemistically called JfourHletterJ words" ) lesser degree of vulgarity is presented %y expletives, words li$e da/ + 0"))d&+ #) )7 a 0i%'$+ %) $e"" , and others" These vulgarisms sometimes appear in a euphemistic spelling, viG" only the initial letter is printedD dH H H+da/ U4 0((( 20"))d&4. Sometimes they assume the form of a word, as in 2alsworthy?s J0t?s a 0ee nuisance"J J0t?s 0ee wea$Hminded"J

The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of interCections, that is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the li$e" They are not to %e found in any style of speech except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters" The language of the underworld is rich in coarse words and expressions" ;ut not every expression, which may %e considered coarse should %e regarded as a vulgarism" Coarseness of expression may result from improper grammar, nonHstandard pronunciation, from the misuse of certain literary words and expressions, from a deli%erate distortion of words" )ll these improprieties of speech cannot %e regarded as vulgarisms" 74 C)"")8-ia" C)i a!e# +nonceHwords/, unli$e those of a literaryH%oo$ish character, are spontaneous and elusive" This proceeds from the very nature of the collo#uial words as such" Kot all of theHcollo#uial nonce words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it whatsoever" Unli$e literaryH%oo$ish coinages, nonce words of a collo#uial nature are not usually %uilt %y means of affixes %ut are %ased on certain semantic changes in words that are almost impercepti%le to the linguistic o%server until the word finds its way into print" 0t is only a careful stylistic analysis of the utterance as the whole that will reveal a new shade of meaning inserted into the semantic structure of a given word or word com%ination" <riters often show that they are conscious of the specific character of the nonce words they use %y various means" The following are illustrations of the deli%erate use of a new word that either was already esta%lished in the language or that was in process of %eing esta%lished as suchD J"""%esides, there is a %a'% +That modern phrase appears to me sad stuff" ;ut it will serve to $eep my verse compact/" +;yron" JDon :uanJ/ )ccording to the >xford Dictionary the meaning of the word tact used in these lines appeared in the English language in ,48E" ;yron, who $eenly felt any innovation introduced into the literary language of his time, accepts it unwillingly" ) similar case in which a writer ma$es use of a newly invented collo#uial expression, evidently strongly appreciating its meaning, may %e noticed in J0n ChanceryJ, where 2alsworthy uses %) 0e %$e "i/i% in the sense of ?to %e un%eara%le? and comments on it" J<atching for a moment of wea$ness she wrenched it freeI then placing the diningHta%le %etween them, said %etween her teethD Y)- are %$e "i/i%+ Monty"J +Undou%tedly the inception of this phrase HH so is English formed under the stress of circumstance"/ Kew expressions, accepted %y menHofHletters and

commented on in one way or another are not literary coinages %ut collo#uial ones" Kew literary coinages will always %ear the %rand of individual creation and will therefore have more or less precise semantic %oundaries" The meaning of literary coinages can easily %e grasped %y the reader %ecause of the use of the productive means of word %uilding, and also from the context, of course" This is not the case with collo#uial nonce words" The meaning of these new creations creeps into wellH $nown words impercepti%ly" >ne hardly notices the process leading to the appearance of a new meaning" Therefore, collo#uial nonceHformations are actually not new words %ut new meanings of existing words" True, there are some words that are %uilt with the help of affixes, %ut these are few and they are generally %uilt with the most common suffixes or prefixes of the English language, which have no shade of %oo$ishness, as (er+ (a"+ - (+ and the li$e" Kew coinage in collo#uial English awa$ens as emphatic a protest on the part of literaryHconscious people as do nonceHwords in literary English" =ere is an interesting #uotation from an article in T$e Ne? Y)r@ Ti/e# Ma!a1i e. APre#e %"& used to mean Jat the present moment? %ut %ecame so completely coloured with idea of ?in the near future? that when its older meaning came %ac$ into general use after <orld <ar 00, through reH introduction into civilian speech of the conservative military meaning, many people were outraged and insisted that the )"d meaning was %eing ')rr-6%ed H whereas, in fact, the ?corruption? was %eing purged" =uman nature %eing what it is, and promptness ever %ehind promise, the chances are strong that the renewed meaning will fade" APe'-"iar originally meant ?%elonging exclusively to?" <e still $eep the older meaning in such statement as ?a custom 6e'-"iar to that country?" ;ut %y extension it came to mean ?uncommon? and thence ?odd? with the overtones of suspicion and mistrust that oddness moves us to"J Some changes in meaning are really stri$ing" <hat are called semantic changes in words have long %een under the o%servation of %oth lexicologists and lexicographers" )lmost every text%oo$ on the study of words a%ounds in examples of words that have undergone such considera%le changes in meaning that their primary meanings are almost lost" See the changes in the words i'e+ @ a*e+ /ar#$a"+ 7e"")?+ for example" 0n some cases it is difficult to draw a line of demarcation %etween nonce words of %oo$ish and of collo#uial origin" Some words, which have undou%tedly sprung from the literaryH%oo$ish stratum have %ecome popular in ordinary collo#uial language and have ac#uired new meanings in their new environment" ;ergan Evans, coHauthor of J) Dictionary of Contemporary UsageJ in an article pu%lished

in T$e Ne? Y)r@ Ti/e# F))@ Re*ie? says, that J<ords are living things" They grow, ta$e roots, adapt to environmental changes li$e any plant or animal"J This of course, should %e ta$en as a metaphor" ;ut in o%serving the changes of meaning that words may undergo, the comparison is really apt" The author shows how the word #)6$i#%i'a%ed+ undou%tedly a word of %oo$ish origin, has developed new meanings" !et us follow his trend of investigation" The word #)6$i#%i'a%ed originally meant ?wise?" Then, through its association with the Sophists, it came to mean ?overHsu%tle?, ?mar$ed %y specious %ut fallacious reasoning?, ?a%le to ma$e the worse appear the %etter reason?" Then it developed the additional, derivative sense of ?adulterated?, i" e" ?spoiled %y admixture of inferior material?" This meaning naturally gave %irth to a new shade of meaning, *i1" ?corrupted?" Then suddenly +as Evans has it/ the attitude implicit in the word was reversedI it ceased to mean unpleasantly wordly wise and came to mean admira%ly worldlyHwise" or the past fifteen years #)6$i#%i'a%i) has %een definitely a term of praise" ;y ,-F4 in :ohn >?=ara?s J rom the Terrace A+ #)6$i#%i'a%i) had come to signify not JcorruptionJ %ut almost the Jirreduci%le minimum of good mannersJ Sudden alterations in meaning have fre#uently %een o%served in studies of semantic change" The unexpectedness of some of the changes is really stri$ing and can %e accounted for only %y the shift of the sphere of usage from literary to collo#uial" 0t is evidently the intonation pattern that %rings forth the change" Perhaps the real cause of such changes is the ironic touch attached to the word #)6$i#%i'a%i) and other words, which have undergone such an unexpected shift in meaning" 0t follows then that some nonce words and meanings may on the one hand ac#uire legitimacy and thus %ecome facts of the language, while on the other hand they may %e classified as literary or collo#uial according to which of the meanings is %eing dealt with" The ways and means of semantic change are sometimes really mysterious" To use Evans?s words, Jsome words go hog wild in meaning" The word #)6$i#%i'a%ed from its collo#uial use denoting some passive #uality started to mean ?delicately responsive to electronic stimuli?, ?highly complex mechanically?, ?re#uiring s$illed control?, ?extraordinarily sensitive in receiving, interpreting and transmitting signals?" >r at least that is what one must guess it means in such statements as JModern rader is vastly more #)6$i#%i'a%ed than #uaint, oldHfashioned raderJ" 2Ti/e4G later Jthe 0!H,4 is aeronautically more #)6$i#%i'a%ed %$a the giant TUH ,,E"J JPioneer ( is exceedingly #)6$i#%i'a%ed"J 2C$i'a!) S- da& Ti/e#/ and

JThe )nti$ythera mechanism is far more #)6$i#%i'a%ed than any descri%ed in classical scientific texts"J +S'ie %i7i' A/eri'a /"J Mr" Evans?s article shows how unexpected changes in meaning may %e, and how strangely literary and collo#uial nonceHcoinage may interweave" There is another feature of collo#uial nonceHwords which must not %e overloo$ed" There are some, which enCoy hopeful prospects of staying in the voca%ulary of the language" The nature of these creations is such that if they appear in speech they %ecome noticea%le and may develop into catch words" Then they %ecome fixed as new collo#uial coinages and cease to %e nonce words" They have ac#uired anew significance and a new stylistic evaluation" They are then la%elled as slang, collo#uial, vulgar or something of this $ind" !iterary nonce words on the other hand may retain the la%el ) 'e for ever, as for example ;yron?s Jweatherology"J <hen a nonce word comes into general use and is fixed in dictionaries, it is classed as a neologism for a very short period of time" This shows the o%Cective reality of contemporary life" Technical progress is so rapid that it %uilds new notions and concepts, which in their turn re#uire new words to signify them" To la%el them e)")!i#/# would mislead the reader" KonceHcoinage appears in all spheres of life" )lmost every calling has some favourite catch words which may live %ut a short time" They may %ecome permanent and generally accepted terms, or they may remain nonce words, as for example $a%e#$i6# used %y :ohn >?=ara in JTen Korth rederic"J Particularly interesting are the contextual meanings of words" They may rightly %e called nonceHmeanings" They are fre#uently used in one context only, and no traces of the meaning are to %e found in dictionaries" Thus, the ?)rd )6e i ! in the general meaning of a way in the sentence JThis was an )6e i ! and 0 followed itJ, is a contextual meaning which may or may not in the long run %ecome one of the dictionary meanings" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66.:M(99;4. PRACTICAL E=ERCISES Li%erar& S%ra%-/ )7 J)rd# E5er'i#e I. State the type and the functions of archaisms" ," 0 was surprised to see =eathcliff there also" =e stood %y the fire, his %ac$ towards me, Cust finishing a Stormy scene to poor hillah, who ever and anon interrupted her la%our to pluc$ up the corner of her apron, and heave an indignant groan"""

JThou art the ManLJ cried :a%es, after a solemn pause, leaning over his cushion" JSeventy times seven times didst thou gapingly contort thy visageHseventy times seven did 0 ta$e council with my soulH!oL this is human wea$nessD this also may %e a%solvedL The first of the seventyHfirst is come" ;rethren H execute upon him the Cudgement written" Such honour has all =is saintsLJ 7" )non she murmured, J2uidoJHand %ewhiles a deep sigh rent her %reast""" She was %egirt with allowing $irtle of deep %lue, %e%ound with a %elt, %e%uc$led with a silvern clasp, while a%out her waist a stomacher of point lace ended in a ruffled farthingale at her throat" O her head she %ore a sugarHloaf hat shaped li$e an extinguisher and pointing %ac$ward at an angle of EF degrees" J2uido,J she murmured, J2uido"J )nd erstwhile she would wring her hands as one distraught and mutter, J=e cometh not"J 9" J>dd ;odi$insLJ he roared, J%ut the tale is as rare as it is newL and so the wagoner said to the Pilgrim that he had as$ed him to pull him off the wagon at that town, put him off he must, al%eit it was %ut the small of the night %y St" Pancras whence hath the fellow so novel a taleY Hnay, tell it me %ut once more, haply 0 may remem%er ifHand the ;aron fell %ac$ in a perfect paroxysm of merriment" E" =e $ept loo$ing at the fantastic green of the Cungle and then at the orangeH%rown earth, fe%rile and pulsing as though the rain was cutting wounds into it" 1idges flinched %efore the power of it" The !ord giveth and =e ta$eth away, 1idges thought solemnly" F" 0f manners ma$eth man, then manner and grooming ma$eth poodle" 3" )nthony " " " clapped him affectionately on the %ac$" JMou?re a real $nightHerrant" :immy,J he said"." J=e of the iron garment,J said Daigety, entering, Jis %ounden unto you, MacEagh, and this no%le lord shall %e %ounden also"J 4" J=e had at his %ac$ a satchel, which seemed to contain a few necessaries, a haw$ing gauntlet on his left hand, though he carried no %ird, and in his right hand a stout hunter?s pole"J E5er'i#e II. 2ive the English e#uivalents, state the origin and stylistic purpose of %ar%arisms and foreign words" Pay attention to their interrelation with the context" ," She caught herself criticiGing his %elief that, since his Co$e a%out trying to $eep her out of the poorhouse had once %een accepted as admira%le humor, it should continue to %e his daily 0) /)%. 7" Kevertheless, despite her experience, she hadn?t yet reached the stage of thin$ing all men %eastlyI though Fhe could readily sympathiGe with the state of mind of any woman driven to utter that particular 'ri de ')e-r" 9" Then, of course, there ought to %e one or two outsidersHCust to give the thing a 0) a 7ide appearance" 0 and Eileen could see to thatHyoung people,

uncritical, and with no idea of politics" E" JTyree, you got half of the profitsLJ Dr" ;ruce shouted" JMou?re my de 7a'%) partner"J J<hat that de 7a'%) mean, DocY""J JPapa, it means you a partner in fact and in law,J ish%elly told him" F" Mates remained serious" J<e have time, =err hippmann, to try your #'$ a66#. )re there any 2erman troops in KeustadtYJ JKo, =err >ffiGier, that?s Cust what 0?ve to tell you" This morning, four gentlemen in all, we went out of Keustadt to meet the Herre A/eri@a er"J 3" )nd now the roof had fallen in on him" The first shoc$ was over, the dust had settled and he could now see that his whole life was @a6-%. ." J0 never sent any telegram" <hat did it sayYJ J0 %elieve it is still on the ta%le "a( 0a#,J Elise retired, pounced upon it, and %rought it to her mistress in triumph" JV)i"a+ madameLJ 4" <hen Danny came home from the army he learned that he was an heir and owner of property" The *ieH)+ that is the grandfather, had died leaving Danny the two small houses on the Tortilla lat" E5er'i#e III. State the nature and role of the terms" ," J""" don?t you go to him for anything more serious than a pendectomy of the left ear or a stra%ismus of the cardiograph"J Ko one save *ennicott $new exactly what this meant, %ut they laughed" 7" J2ood,J )%%ey said suddenly" =e too$ up a specimenHit was an aneurism of the ascending aortaHand %egan in a friendly manner to #uestion )ndrew""" JDo you $now anything of the history of aneurismYJ J)m%roise Pare,J )ndrew answered, and )%%ey had already %egun his approving nod, Jis presumed to have first discovered the condition"J 9" Philip =eatherhead, H whom we designate Physiological Philip H as he strolled down the lane in the glory of early :une, presented a splendid picture of young manhood" ;y this we mean that his %ony framewor$ was longer than the average and that instead of wal$ing li$e an ape he stood erect with his s$ull %alanced on his spinal column in a way rarely excelled even in a museum" The young man appeared in the full glory of perfect healthD or shall we say,J to %e more exact, that his temperature was -4, his respiration normal, his s$in entirely free from mange, erysipelas and pric$ly heat""" )t a turn of path Philip suddenly %ecame aware of a young girl advancing to meet him" =er Spinal column though shorter than his, was elongated and ere'%+ and ,8 Philip saw at once that she was not a chimpanGee" She wore no hat and the thic$ capillary growth that covered her cranium waved in the sunlight and fell low over her eye soc$ets" The elasticity of her step revealed not the slightest trace of apendicitis or locomotor ataxia, while all thought of ecGema, measles or spotty discoloration was precluded %y the smoothness and homogeneity of her s$in" )t the sight of Philip the

su%cutaneous pigmentation of the girl?s face underwent an intensification" )t the same time the %eating of the young man?s heart produced in his countenance also a temporary inflammation due to an underoxydiGation of the tissues of his face" They met, and their hands instinctively clasped %y an interadCustment of the %ones $nown only in man$ind and the higher apes %ut not seen in the dog""" Philip drew the girl?s form towards him till he had it close to his own form, and parallel to it, %oth remaining perpendicular, and then %ending the upper verter%rae )7 his spinal column forwards and sideways he introduced his face into a close proximity with hers" 0n this attitude, difficult to sustain for a prolonged period, he %rought his upper and lower lips together, protruded them forward, and placed them softly against hers in a movement seen also in the orangoutang %ut never in the hippopotamus" E" )t noon the hooter and everything died" irst, the pulley driving the punch and shears and emery wheels stopped its lic$ and slap" Simultaneously the compressor providing the %last for a doGen smithHfires went dead" inally old Peter was left standing dead struc$Has if it had never happened to him %efore, as if he wasn?t an old miser for wor$Hspecifically, pieceHwor$, always trying to $noc$ the extra piece %efore the power went" F" " " "he rode up to the campus, arranged for a room in the graduate dormitory and went at once to the empty Physics %uilding" 3" JThey?re realLJ he murmured" JMy 2od, they are a%solutely realLJ Eri$ turned" JDidn?t you %elieve that the neutron existedYJ ? J>h, 0 %elieved,J a%ermacher shrugged away the phrase" JTo me neutrons were sym%ols, n with a mass of m n Z,"884" ;ut until now 0 never saw them"J E5er'i#e IV. Define "the pattern of creation and the function of the following individual neologisms" ," She was a young and un%eautiful woman" 7" 0?ll disown you, 0?ll disinherit you, 0?ll unget youL and damn me, if ever 0 call you %ac$ againL 9" +She was/ waiting for something to happen" >r for everything to unHhappen" E" She was " " " doing duty of her waitresshood" F" Every man in his hours of success, tasted godhood" 3" " " "tiny %alls of fluff +chic$ens/ passed on into semiHna$ed pullethood and from that into dead henhood" ." =is youngness and singlemindedness were o%vious enough" 4" ;ut Miss 2olightly, a fragile eyeful, " " " appeared relatively unconcerned" -" or a headful of reasons 0 refuse" ,8" 0t is the middle of a wee$day morning with a stateful of sand and mountains around him" ,," =is father " " " installed Custly to ma$e little %oys feel littler and stupid %oys aware of their stupidity" ,7" Mou are %ecoming tireder and tireder" ,9" J0 love you mucher"J JPlenty mucherY Me tooer"J ,E" >h, it was the $illingest thing

you ever saw" ,F" JMr" =amilton, you haven?t any children, have youYJ J<ell, no" )nd 0?m sorry a%out that, 0 guess" 0?m sorriest a%out that"J ,3" Sometimes we are sleepy and fall asleep together in a corner, sometimes we are very hungry, sometimes we are a little frightened, %ut what is oftenest hard upon us is the cold" ,." Mou?re goddamndest %oy" ,4" She?s the goddamest woman 0 ever saw" ,-" 0?ve %een as$ed to appear in 1ostand?s wonderful fairy play" <ouldn?t it %e nice if you Englished it for usY 78" SoD 0?m not Cust talented" 0?m geniused" 7," There were ladies too " " " some of whom $new ,7 Tril%y, and thee?d and thou?d with familiar and friendly affection while others mademoiselle?d her with distant politeness and were mademoiselle?d and madame?d %ac$ again" 77" Mrs" Tri%ute Jmy dearedJ every%ody, even things inanimate, such as the pump in the dairy" 79" ) luxury hotel for dogs is to %e opened at !ima, Peru, a city of 98,888 dogs" The furry guests will have separate hygienic $ennels, top medical care and high standard cuisine, including the %est %ones" )lso on hand at the JdogotelJHtrees" 7E" " " "the country %ecame his Stepfatherland" 7F" ) college education is all too often merely sheepH s$indeep" E5er'i#e V. C)/6are the neutral and the literary modes of expression" ," JMy children, my defrauded, swindled infantsLJ cried Mrs" 1enwigs" 7" =e turned round and " " " encountered " " " the Coyous face of Mr" !ipman, the serene countenance of Mr",<in$le, and the, intellectual lineaments of Mr" Shodgrass" 9" J0 am )lpha and >mega,Hthe first and the last,J the solemn voice would announce" E" Twenty miles west of Tueson the JSunset ExpressJ stopped at a tan$ to ta$e on water" ;esides the a#ueous addition the engine of that famous flyer ac#uired some other things that were not good for it" F" " " "the famous )lderman who o%Cected to the phrase in Canning?s inscription for a Pitt Memorial J=e died poorJ and wished to su%stitute J=e expired in indigent circumstances"J 3" =e is always in extremesI perpetually in the superlative degree" C)"")8-ia" S%ra%-/ )7 J)rd#. E5er'i#e 9. State the function of slang in the following examples, also paying attention to the morphological and syntactical characteristics of slang units and semantic and structural changes some of them underwent to %ecome a slang expression" ," J0?m the first one saw her" >ut at Santa )nita she?s hanging around the trac$ every day" 0?m interestedD professionally" 0 find out she?s some Coc$?s regular, she?s living with the shrimp, 0 get the Coc$ told Drop it if he don?t want conversation with the vice %oysD see, the $id?s fifteen" ;ut stylishD she?s o$ay, she

comes across" Even when she?s wearing glasses this thic$I even when she opens her mouth and you don?t $now if she?s a hill%illy or an >$ie or what, 0 still don?t" My guess, no%ody?ll ever $now where she came from" 7" ;eCees, if you thin$ you can play me for an easy mar$, you?ve come\to the wrong house" Ko one ever played =arry =ope for a suc$erL 9" ) cove couldn?t %e too careful" E" 0?ve often thought you?d ma$e a cor$ing good actress" F" J<hen he told me his name was =er%ert 0 nearly %urst out laughing" ancy calling anyone =er%ert" ) scream, 0 call it"J 3" 0 steered him into a side street where it was dar$ and propped him against a wall and gave him a fris$" ." J0 live upstairs"J The answer seemed to explain enough to relax him" JMou got the same layoutYJ JMuch smaller"J =e tapped ash on the floor" JThis is a dump" This is un%elieva%le" ;ut the $id don?t $now how to live even when she?s got the dough"J 4" 0t is" ;ut not so much the hope of %ooGe, if you can %elieve that" 0?ve got the %lues and =ic$ey?s a great one to ma$e a Co$e of everything and cheer you up" -" J2eorge,J she said, Jyou?re a rotten liar" , " The part a%out the peace of Europe is all %osh"J ,8" She came in one night, plastered, with a sun%urned man, also plastered " ,," JMour friend got stin$o and ane had to send out for a %ouncer"J ,7" JThat guy Cust aint hep,J MaGGi said decisively" J=e?s as unhep as a %ox, 0 can?t stand people who aint hep"J E5er'i#e II. Specify hac$neyed vulgarisms and vulgarisms properI determine the $ind of emotion, which had caused their usage" ," " " "a hyena crossed the open on his way around the hill" JThat %astard crosses there every night,J the man said" 7" Suddenly Percy snatched the letter " " " J2ive it %ac$ to me, you rotten devil,J Peter shouted" JMou $now damn well it doesn?t say that" 0?ll $ic$ your %ig fat %elly" 0 swear 0 will"J 9" J!oo$ at the son of a %itch down thereD pretending he?s one of the %oys today"J E" J=ow are you, CartwrightY This is the very devil of a %usiness, you $now" The very devil of a %usiness"J F" JPoor son of a %itch,J he said" J0 feel for him, and 0?m sorry 0 was %astardly"J 3" 0?m no damned foolL 0 couldn?t go on %elieving forever that gang was going to change the world %y shooting off their loud traps on soap%oxes and snea$ing around %lowing up a lousy %uilding or a %ridgeL 0 got wise, it was all a craGy pipe dreamL E5er'i#e III. Differentiate professional amid social CargonismsI classify them according to the narrow sphere of usage, suggest a terminological e#uivalent where possi%leD ," She came out of her sleep in a nightmare struggle for %reath, her eyes distended in horror, the strangling cough fearing her again and again " " " ;art gave her the needle" 7" 0?m here #uite oftenHta$ing patients to hospitals for maCors, and so

on" 9" J0 didn?t $now you $new each other,J 0 said" J) long time ago it was,J :ean said" J<e did =istory inal together at Coll"J E" They have graduated from >hio State together, himself with an engineering degree" F" The arrangement was to $eep in touch %y runners and %y wal$ieHtal$ie" 3" J>$ay Top,J he said" JMou $now 0 never argue with the irst Sergeant"J ." Star$ %ought each one of them the traditional %eer a new noncom always %uys" 4" J)ll the men say 0?m a good noncom """ for 0?m fair and 0 ta$e my Co% seriously"J -" J<e stopped the attac$ on Paragon <hite ; and C " " " Personally 0 thin$ it was a feeler, and they?re goingI to try again toHnight"J ,8" DaveD *arach " " " That?s where 0 met !i%%y DodHson """ Me and him were going to do everything together when we got %ac$ to Ciwy Street, " " 0?ll wor$ as a chippy on the Colonel?s farm" ,," JSo you?ll %oth come to dinnerY Eight fifteen" Dinny, we must %e %ac$ to lunch" SwallowsLJ added !ady Mont round the %rim of her hat and passed out through the porch" JThere?s a houseH party,J said Dinny to the young man?s elevated eye%rows" JShe means tails and a white tie"J J>hL >hL ;est %i% and tuc$er, :ean"J ,7" J0 thin$ we?ve had enough of the metrop for the time %eing and re#uire a change"J ,9" =e learned his English as a waiter in 2i%" ,E" They can?t dun you for %ills after seven years, can theyY ,F" J=ow long did they coo$ youLJ Dongere?s stopped short and loo$ed at him" J=ow long did they coo$ youYJH JSince eight this morning" >ver twelve hours " "" " "JMou didn?t un%utton thenY )fter twelve hours of iHtYJ JMeY " " " They got a lot of dancing to do %efore they?ll get anything out of me"J ,3" ;ut, after all, he $nows 0?m preggers" E5er'i#e IV. >%serve the dialectal peculiarities of dialogue in the following examplesI pay attention to changes in spelling caused %y specific pronunciation" ," J;y the way, 0nspector, did you chec$ up that story of erguson?sYJ J ergusonYJ said the 0nspector, in the resentful accents of a school%oy %urdened with too much homewor$" J>o, ay, we havena forgot erguson" 0 went tae Spar$es of them remem%ered him weel enough" The lad doonstairs in the showHroom couldna spea$ with cairtainty tae the time, %ut he recogniGed erguson from his photograph, as havin? %rocht in a magneto on the Monday afternoon" =e said Mr" Saunders wad %e the man tae that, and pit a ca? through on the house telephone tae Mr" Spar$es, an? he had the young fellow in" Saunders is one o? they %right lads" =e pic$ed the photograph at once oot o? the six 0 showed him an? timed up the entry o? ithe magneto in the dayH%oo$"J JCould he swear to the time erguson came inYJ J=e wadna charge his memory wi? the precise minute, %ut he had Cuist come in fra? his

lunch an? found erguson waitm? for him" =is lunchtime is fra? ,"98 tae 7"98, %ut he was a %it late that day, ah? erguson had %een waitin? on him a wee while" =e thin$s it wad %e a%oot ten minutes tae three"J JThat?s Cust a%out what erguson made it"J JKear enough"J J=?m" That sounds all right" <as that all Saunders had to sayYJ J)y" or%ye that he said he couldna weel understand whit had happened tae the magneto" =e said it loo$ed as though some yin had %een daein? it a wilfu? damage"J 7" JThat?s so, my !ord" 0 remem%er having tae du much the same thing, mony years since, in an in#uest upon a sailingHvessel ran aground in the estuary and got %ro$en up %y %umping herself to %its in a gale" The insurance fol$ thocht that the accident wasna a?togither straightforwards" <e itu$ it upon oorselG tae demonstrate that wi? the wind and tide setti? as they did, the %oat should ha? %een wellHaway fra? the shore if they started at the hour they claimed tae ha? done" <e lost the case, %ut 0?ve never altered my opeenion"J 9" J<e?ll show !evenford what my clever lass can do" 0?m loo$ing ahead, and" 0 can see it" <hen we?ve made ye the head scholar of )cademy, then you?ll see what your father means to do wi? you" ;ut ye must stic$ in to your lessons, stic$ in hard"J E" 0 wad na %een surpris?d to spy Mou on an auld wife? flainen toyD Or ai%lins some %it duddie %oy, O B# wyliecoat" E5er'i#e V. Comment on the structure and function of the standai collo#uial words and expressions" ," JCan we have some money to go to the show this a% DaddyYJ 7" J<e <oosters are, all for that good old medieval hosp and all that, %ut when it comes to finding chappie collaring your %ed, the thing %ecomes a trifle too mouldy" 9" J>fficers? dance last night, Sir,J this tech said " " JCongrats"J E" <inter garments surpassed even personal gossip as the topic at parties" 0t was good form to as$, JPut on your heavies yetYJ F" 0 was feeling a%out as cheerio as was possi%le undera the circs when a muffled voice hailed me from the northeast""" 3" J<hat did ;la$e say a%out the pictures of 2odfreyYJ J)%out what 0 expected" =e?s pretty sure the man he tailed was 2odfrey, %ut refuses to positively identify him from the pix"J ." J0 was snooping round for news of you, when 0 connected with this dame" She wasn?t at all what 0 thought she?d %eHsome swell naughty Society lady that?d scare the life out of me"J 4" =is expenses didn?t go down " " " washing cost a pac$et and you?d %e surprised the amount of linen he needed" -" 0 was the %iggest draw in !ondon" )t the old )#uarium, that was" )ll the swells came to see me """ 0 was the tal$ of the town" ,8" JSay, what do you two thin$ you?re doingY Telling fortunes or ma$ing loveY !et me warn you that the dog is a fris$y %acheldore, Carol" Come on, now, fol$s, sha$e a leg" !et?s have some stunts or a dance or something"J ,," )

heart man told me 0 was going to die in six months" ,7" J=ello, $idL 2ee, you loo$ cute, all right"J ,9" Mr" Mar%ury captured her with a loud, J>h, #uit fussing now" Come over here and sit down and tell us how?s tric$s"J ,E" JSayL Mou cut out o?this now %efore 0" do something to you, do you hearY 0?m not the one to let you pull this stuff on me """ ;eat if %efore 0 do something to you, do you hearYJ E5er'i#e VI. Compare the neutral and collo#uial +standard or with a limited range of application/ modes of expression" ," J2et on a little faster, put a little more steam on, Ma?am, pray"J 7" J0 gave him your story in the magaGine" =e was #uite impressed " " ;ut he says you?re on the wrong trac$" Kegroes and childrenD who caresYJ JKot Mr" ;erman, 0 gather" <ell, 0 agree with him" 0 read that story twiceD ;rats and niggers"J 9" J0 do thin$ the Scandinavian are the heartiest and %est peopleHJ J>h, do you thin$ soYJ protested Mrs" :ac$son Elder" JMy hus%and says the Svens$as that wor$ in the planingHmill are perfectly terri%leHJ E" =e tried these engineers, %ut no soap" Ko answer" F" =D 0?d have %een elected easy" MD Mou would, =arry, it was a sure thing" ) dead cinch" =arry, everyone $nows that" 3" J;igH=earted =arry" Mou want to $now what 0 thin$Y 0 thin$ you?re nuts" Pure plain craGy" 2oofy as a loon" That?s what 0 thin$"J ." There were " " " with a corner of the %ar to themselves what 0 recogniGed at once to %e a 1egular 2ang, a ;unch, a Set" 4" J0 met a cousin of yours, Mr" Mus$ham"JH J:ac$YJHJMes"J J!ast of the dandies" )ll the difference in the world, Dinny, %etween the ?%uc$?, the ?dandy?, the ?swell?, the ?masher?, the ?%lood?, the ?$nut?, and what?s the last variety calledH0 never $now" There?s %een a steady decrescendo" ;y his age :ac$ %elongs to the masher? period, %ut his cut was always pure dandy"J E5er'i#e VII. Compare the literary and collo#uial modes of expression" ," JThe scheme 0 would suggest cannot fail of success, %ut it has what may seem to you a draw%ac$, sir, in that it re#uires a certain financial outlay"J J=e means,J 0 translated to Cor$y, Jthat he has got a pippin of an idea %ut it?s going to cost a %it"J 7" J0 say old %oy, where do you hang outYJ Mr" Pic$wic$ responded that he was at present suspended at the 2eorge and (ulture" 9" JPrithee, give me some ham, piping hot, fragrant with the flavour of cloves, %rown sugar and tasty sauce" Serve it %etween fresh slices of nourishing %rown and %uttered %read" )nd draw for your faithful servant a cup of aromatic coffee with cream that is rich and pure"J The girl gave him a frigid glance and cried to the $itchen" JPig on rye and :ava with"J E" J>%viously an emissary of Mr" ;unyan had o%tained clandestine access to her apartment in her a%sence and purloined the communications in #uestion"J 0t too$

!ord Uffenham some moments to wor$ this out, %ut eventually he unraveled it and was a%le to translate it from the %utlerese" <hat the man was trying to say that some low %lister, %ought with ;unyan?s gold, had snea$ed into the girl?s flat and pinched the %ally things" F" J=ere she is,J said Nuilp , " " Jthere is the woman 0 ought to have marriedHthere is the %eautiful SarahH there is the female who has all the charms of her sex and none of their wea$ness" >h, Sally, Sally"J 3" 0 need the stimulation of good company" =e terms this riffHraff" The plain fact is, 0 am misunderstood" E5er'i#e VIII. )nalyse the voca%ulary of the followingI indicate the type and function of stylistically coloured units" ," J<hat the hell made you ta$e on a Co% li$e thatYJ J) regretta%le necessity for cash" 0 can assure you doesn?t suit my temperament"J :immy grinned" JKever a hog for regular wor$, were youYJ 7" JMou?ll pro%a%ly see me at a loss for one toHnight"J J0 %et" ;ut you?ll stic$ to me, won?t youYJ J!i$e a %loody leech, man"J 9" )t the counter of the 2ree$ Confectionery Parlour, while they ate dreadful messes of decayed %ananas, acid cherries, whipped cream, and gelatinous iceHcream, they screamed to one anotherD J=ey, lemme? lone,J JNuit doggone you, loo$a what you went and done, you almost spilled my glass swater,J J!i$e hell 0 did,J J=eygol darn your hide, don?t you go stic$ing your coffinh nail in my iHscream,J J>h you ;atty, how Cuh li$e dancing with Tilly Mc2uire last nightY Some s#ueeGing, heh, $idYJ E" J!isten, you son of a %itch,J he said feeling an icy calm ?that was a flaming rapture of a%andon" J*eep your %ig yap away from me, or 0?ll sow it shut for you"J F" JKow that the g"d" war is over and you pro%a%ly have a lot of time over there, how a%out sending the $ids a couple of %ayonets or Swasti$as " " "J 3" 1oma a%andoned herself to the fascinations of the scene, and her gaiety infected every%ody" JCamillo, you must tell me who they all are" There now those men who come first in %lac$ and redYJ J!aymen,J said the young 1oman" JThey?re called the )postolis Cursori" <hen a Cardinal is nominated they ta$e him the news, and get two or three thousand francs for their %r)-0"e.A J2ood for themL )nd those fine fellows in tight %lac$ vestment li$e Spanish %ullfightersYJ JThe MaGGieriL They carry the mace to clear the way"J" J2o on, Camillo mio"J JThose men in the long %lac$ ro%es are lawyers of the )postolis palace"J J)nd this dear old friar with the mittens and rosary and the comforta%le linseyHwoolsey sort of faceYJ JThat?s ather Pifferi of San !orenGo,?confessor to the Pope" =e $nows all the Pope?s sins """ =e is a Capucin and those rati in different colours coming %ehind him """J J0 $now themD see if 0

don?t,J she cried, as there passed under the %alcony a dou%le file of friars and mon$s nearly all ali$e fat, ungainly, fla%%y, puffy specimens of humanity, carrying torches of triple candles, and telling their %eads as they wal$ed"J ." JKicholas, my dear, recollect yourself,J remonstrated Mrs" Kic$le%y" JDear Kicholas, pray,J urged the young lady" J=old your tongue, Sir,J said 1alph" 4" <hen Mr" and Mrs" Sun%ury went to %ed on the night of =er%ert?s twentyHfirst %irthday, and in passing 0 may say that Mrs" Sun%ury never went to %ed, she retired, %ut Mr" Sun <ry who was not #uite so refined as his wife always saidD JMe for ;edfordJ" -" There are many ways to do this and you learn most of them" ;ut the Cer$s and ?twerps, the creeps and the s#uares and the strips flourish and seem, with the new anti%iotics, to have attained a sort of creeping immortality, while people that you care for die pu%licly or anonymously each month" ,8" JKow ta$e fried, croc$ed, s#uiffed, loaded, plastered" %lotto, tiddled, soa$ed, %oiled, stin$o, oiled, polluted"J JMes,J 0 said" JThat?s the next set of words 0 am decreasing my voca%ulary %y,J said )therton" JTossing them all out in favor ofHJ J0ntoxicated,J 0 supplied" J0 favor drun$,J said )therton" J0t?s shorter and monosylla%ic, even though it may sound a little harsher to the s#ueamishHminded"J J;ut there are degrees of difference,J 0 o%Cected" J:ust %eing tiddled isn?t the same as %eing %lotto, orHJ J<hen you get into the voca%ularyHdecreasing %usiness,J he interrupted, Jyou don?t %other with technicalities" Mou throw out the whole $it and ca%oodleH0 mean the whole %unch,J he hastily corrected himself" ,," 0 repented having tried this second entrance, and was almost inclined Jto slip away %efore he finished cursing ere %ut ere 0 could execute this intention, he ordered me in and shut and refastened the door" There was a great fire and that was all the light in the huge apartment, whose floor had grown a uniform greyI and the once %rilliant pewter dishes, which used to attract my gaGe when 0 was a girl, partoo$ of a similar o%scurity, created %y tarnish and dust" 0 in#uired whether 0 might call the maid, and %e conducted to a %edroom" Mr" Earnshaw vouchsafed no answer" 2V.A.V-@$are @). Se/i ar# i S%&"e. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.K(224.

PHONETIC E=PRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES

The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and sense" There is another thing to %e ta$en into account, which, in a certain type of communication, viG" %ellesHlettres, plays an important role" This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds" The sound of most words ta$en separately will have little or no aesthetic value" 0t is in com%ination with other words that a word may ac#uire a desired phonetic effect" The way a separate word sounds may produce a certain euphonic impression, %ut this is a matter of individual perception and feeling and therefore su%Cective" or instance, a certain English writer expresses the opinion that a !i a, 6 e-/) ia, a d -*-"a would ma$e %eautiful girl?s names instead of what he calls Jlumps of names li$e :oan, :oyce and MaudJ" 0n the poem JCargoesJ %y :ohn Masefield he considers the words li$e i*)r&+ #a da"(?))d+ 'edar(?))d+ e/era"d# and a/e%$&#%# as used in the first two stanGas to %e %eautiful, whereas those in the 9rd stanGa Jstri$e harshly on the earLJ J<ith a cargo of Tyne coal, 1oadHrails, pigHlead, ireHwood, ironHware and cheap tin trays"J )s one poet has it, this is J"""a com%ination of words which is difficult to pronounce, in which the words ru% against one another, interfere with one another, push one another"J (erier, a rench scientist, who is a specialist on English versification, suggests that we should try to pronounce the vowels `aD, iD, uDa in a strongly articulated manner and with closed eyes" 0f we do so, he says, we are sure to come to the conclusion that each of these sounds expresses a definite feeling or state of mind" Thus he maintains that the sound `uDa generally expresses sorrow or seriousnessI `iDa produces the feeling of Coy and so on" !" ;loomfield, a wellH$nown )merican linguist saysD J"""in human speech, different sounds have different meaning" To study the coordination of certain sounds with certain meanings is to study languageJ" )n interesting statement in this regard is made %y a =ungarian linguist, 0van onagyD JThe great semantic entropy +a term from theory of communication denoting the measure of the un$nown, 0"2/ of poetic language stands in contrast to the predicta%ility of its sounds" >f course, not even in the case of poetry can we determine the sound of a word on the %asis of its meaning" Kevertheless in the

larger units of line and stanGa, a certain relationship can %e found %etween sounds and content"J The 1ussian poet ;" Pasterna$ is of #uite a different opinion" =e says that he has J"""always thought that the music of words is not an acoustic phenomenon and does not consist of the euphony of vowels and consonants ta$en separately" 0t results from the correlation of the meaning of the utterance with its sound"J The theory of the senseHindependence of separate sounds is %ased on a su%Cective interpretation of sound associations and has nothing to do with o%Cective scientific data" =owever, as is stated a%ove, the sound of a word, or perhaps more exactly the way words sound in com%ination, cannot fail to contri%ute something to the general effect of the message, particularly when the sound effect has clearly %een deli%erately wor$ed out" This can easily %e discerned when analysing alliterative word com%inations or the rhymes in certain stanGas or from a more ela%orate analysis of sound arrangement" O )/a%)6)eia is a com%ination of speechHsounds, which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature +wind, sea, thunder, etc/, %y things +machines or tools, etc/, %y people +sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc/ and %y animals" Com%inations of speech sounds of this type will inevita%ly %e associated with whatever produces the natural sound" Therefore the relation %etween onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonomy" There are two varieties of onomatopoeiaD direct and indirect" Dire'% ) )/a%)6)eia# contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as di !(d) !+ 0-11+ 0a !+ '-'@))+ %i %i a0-"a7.i) + /e?+ 6i !(6) !+ r)ar and the li$e" These words have different degrees of imitative #uality" Some of them immediately %ring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound" >thers re#uire the exercise of a certain amount of imagination to decipher it" >nomatopoetic words can %e used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, di !(d) !, which represents the sound of %ells rung continuously, may mean ,/ noisy, 7/ strenuously contested" Examples areD a di !(d) ! #%r-!!"e+ a di !(d) ! !) a% #)/e%$i !. 0n the following newspaper headlineD DING(DONG 1>< >PEKS >K ;0!!, %oth meanings are implied" I dire'% ) )/a%)6)eia is a com%ination of sounds the aim of which is to ma$e the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense" 0t is sometimes called JechoH writingJ" )n example isD ?)nd the sil$en, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple

curtain? +E" )" Poe/, where the repetition of the sound `sa actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain" 0ndirect onomatopoeia, unli$e alliteration, demands some mention of what ma$es the sound, as r-#%"i ! +of curtains/ in the line a%ove" The same can %e said of the sound `wa if it aims at reproducing, let us say, the sound of wind" The word wind must %e mentioned, as inD J<henever the moon and stars are set, <henever the wind is high, )ll night long in the dar$ and wet ) man goes riding %y"J +1" S" Stevenson/ 0ndirect onomatopoeia is sometimes very effectively used %y repeating words which themselves are not onomatopoetic, as in Poe?s poem JThe ;ellsJ where the words %i @"e and 0e""# are distri%uted in the following mannerD JSilver %ells""" how they tin$le, tin$le, tin$leJ and further JTo the tintina%ulation that so musically wells rom the %ells, %ells, %ells, %ells, ;ells, %ells, %ells H rom the Cingling and the tin$ling of the %ells"J )longside o%viously onomatopoetic words as %i @"e+ %i %i a0-"a%i) a d Hi !"i ! the word 0e""# is drawn into the general music of the poem and %egins to display onomatopoetic properties through the repetition" ) s$ilful example of onomatopoetic effect is shown %y 1o%ert Southey in his poem J=ow the <ater Comes down at !odore"J The title of the poem reveals the purpose of the writer" ;y artful com%ination of words ending in (i ! and %y the gradual increase of the num%er of words in successive lines, the poet achieves the desired sound effect" The poem is rather too long to %e reproduced here, %ut a few lines will suffice as illustrationsD J)nd nearing and clearing, )nd falling and crawling and sprawling, )nd gleaming and streaming and steaming and %eaming, )nd in this way the water comes down at !adore"J A""i%era%i) is a phonetic stylistic device, which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance" The essence of this device?J lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the %eginning of successive wordsD JThe possessive instinct never stands still" Through florescence and feud, frosts and fires it follows the laws of progressionJ" +:" 2alsworthy/ or, JDeep into the dar$ness peering, long 0 stood there wondering,

fearing, JDou%ting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream %efore"J +E" )" Poe/ )lliteration, li$e most phonetic expressive means, does not %ear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such" ;ut even so we may not %e a%le to specify clearly the character of this meaning, and the term will merely suggest that a certain amount of information is contained in the repetition of sounds, as is the case with the repetition of lexical units" =owever certain sounds if repeated may produce an effect that can %e specified" or example the sound `ma is fre#uently used %y Tennyson in the poem JThe !otus EatersJ to give a somnolent effect" J=ow sweet it were,""" To lend our hearts and spirits wholly To the music of mildHminded melancholyI To muse and %rood and live again in memory"J Therefore alliteration is generally regarded as a musical accompaniment of the author?s idea, supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere, which each reader interprets for himself" Thus the repetition of the sound `da in the lines #uoted from Poe?s poem JThe 1avenJ prompts the feeling of anxiety, fear, horror, anguish or all these feelings simultaneously" Sometimes a competent reader, if una%le to decipher the implied purpose of the alliteration, may grow irritated if it is overdone and %e ready to discard it from the arsenal of useful stylistic devices" )n interesting example of the overuse Hof alliteration is given in Swin%urne?s JKephelidiaJ where the poet parodies his own styleD J2aunt as the ghastliest of glimpses that gleam through the gloom of the gloaming when ghosts go aghast"J <hen the choice of words depends primarily on the principle of alliteration, exactitude of expression, and even sense may suffer" ;ut when used sparingly and with at least some slight inner connection with the sense of the utterance, alliteration heightens the general aesthetic effect" )lliteration in the English language is deeply rooted in the traditions of English fol$lore" The laws of phonetic arrangement in )ngloHSaxon poetry differed greatly from those of presentHday English poetry" 0n >ld English poetry alliteration was one of the %asic principles of verse and considered along with rhythm to %e its main characteristic" Each stressed meaningful word in a line had to %egin with the same sound or com%ination of sounds" The repetition of the initial sounds of the stressed words in the line, as it were, integrates the utterance into a compositional unit" Unli$e rhyme in modern English verse, the semantic function of which is to

chain one line to another, alliteration in >ld English verse was used to consolidate the sense within the line, leaving the relation %etween the lines rather loose" ;ut there really is an essential resem%lance structurally %etween alliteration and rhyme +%y the repetition of the same sound/ and also functionally +%y communicating a consolidating effect/" )lliteration is therefore sometimes called initial rhyme" The traditions of fol$lore are exceptionally sta%le and alliteration as a structural device of >ld English poems and songs has shown remar$a%le continuity" 0t i# fre#uently used as a well tested means not only in verse %ut in emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of %oo$s, in prover%s and sayings, as for example in the followingD Tit for tatI %lind as a %at, %etwixt and %etweenI 0t is nec$ or nothingI to ro% Peter to pay PaulI or in the titles of %oo$sD JSense and Sensi%ilityJ +:" )ustin/I JPride and PreCudiceJ +:" )ustin/I JThe School for ScandalJ +Sheridan/I J) ;oo$ of Phrase and a%leJ +;rewer/" R$&/e is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound com%inations of words" 1hyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other" 0n verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines" 0dentity and particularly similarity of sound com%inations may %e relative" or instance, we distinguish %etween 7-"" r$&/e# and i ')/6"e%e r$&/e#. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed sylla%le, as in /i!$%+ ri!$%G eed"e##, $eed"e##. <hen there is identity of the stressed sylla%le, including the initial consonant of the second sylla%le +in polysylla%ic words/, we have exact or identical rhymes" 0ncomplete rhymes present a greater variety" They can %e divided into two main groupsD vowel r$&/e# and ') #) a % r$&/e#. 0n vowelHrhymes the vowels of the sylla%les in corresponding words are identical, %ut the consonants may %e different as in 7"e#$(7re#$(6re##. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels, as in ?)r%$(7)r%$G %a"e(%))"(Tre0"e(%r)-0"eG 7"- !(") !. Modifications in rhyming sometimes go so far as to ma$e one word rhyme with a com%ination of wordsI or two or even three words rhyme with a corresponding two? or three words, as in -6) $er $) )-r(?) $erG 0)%%)/(7)r!)%Be/(#$)% $i/. Such rhymes are called compound or %ro$en" The peculiarity of rhymes of this type is that the com%ination of words is made to sound li$e one word H a device, which inevita%ly gives a collo#uial and sometimes a humorous touch to the utterance"

Compound rhyme may %e set against what is called e&e(r$&/e, where the letters and not the sounds are identical, as in ")*e ( 6r)*e+ 7"))d ( 0r))d+ $a*e ( !ra*e. 0t follows therefore that whereas compound rhyme is perceived in reading aloud, eyeHrhyme can only %e perceived in the written verse" Many eyeHrhymes are the result of historical changes in the vowel sounds in certain positions" The continuity of English verse manifests itself also in retention of some pairs of what were once rhyming words" ;ut on the analogy of these pairs, new eyeHrhymes have %een coined and the model now functions alongside earHrhymes" )ccording to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanGa, certain models have crystalliGed, for instanceD 9. ')-6"e%# H when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed" This is commonly mar$ed aa. 2. %ri6"e rhymes W aaa <. 'r)## rhymes ^ a0a0 E. 7ra/i ! or ri ! rhymes ^ a00a. There is still another variety of rhyme, which is called i %er a" r$&/e. The rhyming words are placed not at the end of the lines %ut within the line, as inD J0 %ring fresh #$)?er# for the thirsting flowers"J +Shelley/ or, J>nce upon a midnight drear& while 0 pondered wea$ and ?ear&.A +Poe/ 0nternal rhyme %rea$s the line into two distinct parts, at the same time more strongly consolidating the ideas expressed in these two parts" Thus rhyme may %e said to possess two seemingly contradictory functionsD di##e*eri ! on the one hand, and ') #)"ida%i ! on the other" )s in many stylistic devices, these two functions of rhyme are realiGed simultaneously in a greater or lesser degree depending on the distri%ution of the rhymes" I aa rhymes the consolidating function is rather conspicuous" 0n aa0aa0 rhymes the rhyming words 00 may not immediately reveal their consolidating function" The dissevering function of internal rhyme ma$es itself felt in a distinctive pause, which is a natural result of the longer line" This #uality of internal rhyme may %e regarded as a leading one" The distinctive function of rhyme is particularly felt when it occurs unexpectedly in ordinary speech or in prose" The listener?s attention is caught %y the rhyme and he may lose the thread of the discourse" R$&%$/ exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms" 0t is a mighty weapon in stirring up emotions whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical, or symmetrical as in architecture" The most general definition of rhythm may %e expressed as followsD Jrhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc", characteriGed %y %asically regular recurrence of elements or features, as %eat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different

elements or featuresJ 2Je0#%erB# Ne? J)r"d Di'%i) ar&4. 1hythm can %e perceived only provided that there is some $ind of experience in catching the opposite elements or features in their correlation, and, what is of paramount importance, experience in catching the regularity of alternating patterns" 1hythm is primarily a 6eri)di'i%&, which re#uires specification as to the type of periodicity" )ccording to some investigations, rhythmical periodicity in verse Jre#uires intervals of a%out three #uarters of a second %etween successive pea$s of periods"J, 0t is a deli%erate arrangement of speech into regularly recurring units intended to %e grasped as a definite periodicity, which ma$es rhythm a stylistic device" 1hythm, therefore, is the main factor, which %rings order into the utterance" The influence of the rhythm on the semantic aspect of the utterance is now %eing carefully investigated and it %ecomes apparent that orderly phonetic arrangement of the utterance calls forth orderly syntactical structures, which, in their turn, suggest an orderly segmenting of the sense groups" The conscious perception of rhythms must %e ac#uired %y training, as must the perception of any stylistic device" Some people are said to %e completely deaf to rhythm and whatever efforts are exerted to develop this sense in them inevita%ly fail" ;ut this is not true" ) person may not %e a%le to produce a flow of rhythmical units, %ut he can certainly ac#uire a feeling for rhythm if he trains his ear" 1hythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternateD long, shortI stressed, unstressedI high, low and other contrasting segments of speech" Some theoreticians maintain that rhythm can only %e perceived if there are occasional deviations from the regularity of alternations" 0n this connection deH2root writesD J0t is very strange indeed that deviations from the theme +i" e", the accepted $ind of periodicity, + 2"/ in separate lines +called irregularities of the line/ have %een loo$ed upon as deficiencies of the poem %y such eminent scholars as Mespersen and =eusseler" >n the contrary, they are indispensa%le, and have %oth a formal and expressive function" =armony is not only a matter of similarity, %ut also of dissimilarity, and in good poetry, irregularities of lines are among the most important features of the poem %oth in their formal and their expressive functions" )ctually, the %eauty of a poem is less dependent upon the regularities than upon the irregularities of the poem"J )cademician (" M" hhirmuns$y suggests that the concept of rhythm should %e distinguished from that of metre" Me%re is any form of periodicity in verse, its $ind %eing determined %y the character and num%er of sylla%les of which

it consists" The metre is an ideal phenomenon characteriGed %y its strict regularity, consistency and unchangea%ility" 1hythm is flexi%le and sometimes an effort is re#uired to perceive it" 0n classical verse it is perceived at the %ac$ground of the metre" 0n accented verse H %y the num%er of stresses in a line" 0n proseH%y the alternation of similar syntactical patterns" =e gives the following definition of verse rhythm" 0t is Jthe actual alternation of stress which appears as a result of interaction %etween the ideal metrical law and the natural phonetic properties of the given language material"J =e holds the view that romantic poetry regards metrical forms as a conventional tradition, which hinders the vigorous individual creativity of the poet and narrows the potential variety of poetic material" This trend in literature Custifies all $inds of deviations from the metrical scheme as well as the dissimilarity of stanGasI it favours enCam%ment %ecause it violates the monotonous concurrence of the rhythmical and syntactical units of the metrical systemI it ma$es ample use of imperfect rhymes, inasmuch as they violate the trivial exactness of sound correspondence" 0t follows then that the concept of rhythm should not %e identified with that of metre, the latter, %e it repeated, appearing only in classical verse as an ideal form, an invariant of the given scheme of alternation" =owever, the deviations +the variants/ must not go so far as to o%scure the consciously perceived ideal scheme" )s has %een pointed out %efore, stylistic effect can only %e achieved if there is a clearHcut dichotomy of the constituent elements +two $inds of meaning realiGed simultaneously, as in metaphor and metonymyI or two constructions, as in rhetorical #uestions and litotes, and so on/" 0n the present case the dichotomy is perceived in the simultaneous materialiGation of the orthodox and free patterns of metrical alternation" :" Middleton Murry statesD J0n order that rhythmic effects should %e successful they must %e differentiated with certaintyI and to manage contrasts of rhythm H without contrast there is no differentiation H with so much su%tlety that they will remain su%ordinate to the intellectual suggestion of the words, is the most delicate wor$ imagina%le"J 0n his notes on Sha$espeare?s plays the 1ussian poet ;" Pasterna$ expressed the same idea in the following wordsD J"""The metre is not made conspicuous" This is not a recitation" The form with its selfHadmiration does not overshadow the content, which is infathoma%le and chaste" 0t is an example of su%lime poetry which in its finest examples has always the simplicity and freshness of prose"J

The 1ussian poet )" ;lo$ said that the poet is not one who writes verses, %ut the %earer of rhythm" (erse did not %ecome entirely divorced from music when it %egan to live as an independent form of art" )s is $nown, verse has its origin in songI %ut still the musical element has never %een lostI it has assumed a new form of existence H rhythm" 0t follows then that rhythm is not a mere addition to verse or emotive prose, which also has its rhythm, and it must not %e regarded as possessing Jphonetic autonomy amounting to an ?irrelevant texture?, %ut has a meaning"J This point of view is now gaining ground" Many attempts have %een made to ascri%e meaning to rhythm and even to specify different meanings to different types of metre" This is important, inasmuch as it contri%utes to the nowHprevailing idea that any form must ma$e some contri%ution to the general sense" 1hythm intensifies the emotions" 0t also specifies emotions" Some students of rhythm go so far as to declare that J"""one o%vious agency for the expression of his +a poet?s/ attitude is surely metreJ and that J"""the poet?s attitude toward his reader is reflected in his manipulation H sometimes his disregard H of metre"J So divergence from the ideal metrical scheme is an inherent #uality of rhythm in verse" The range of divergence must, however, have its limits" Deviations from the metrical theme are free within the given frame of variation, %ut they cannot go %eyond that frame lest the rhythmical pattern should %e destroyed" Permissi%le deviations from the given metre are called /)di7i'a%i) # of the rhythmical pattern" Some of them occur so fre#uently in classical verse, that they %ecome, as it were, constituents of the rhythm" J0f violations of the metre ta$e root,J writes 1" :a$o%son, Jthey themselves %ecome rules"""J and further J"""these are allowed oscillations, departures within the limits of the law" 0n ;ritish parliamentary terms, it is not an opposition to its maCesty the metre, %ut an opposition of its maCesty"J 0t has already %een pointed out that if rhythm is to %e a stylistic category, one thing is re#uired H the simultaneous perception of two contrasting phenomena, a $ind of dichotomy" Therefore rhythm in verse as an SD is defined as a com%ination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it, variations which are governed %y the standard" There are however certain cases in verse where no departures are allowed and the rhythm stri$es the ear with its strict regularity" These are cases where the rhythm contri%utes to the sense" Thus in 1o%ert Southey?s J=ow the <ater Comes

Down at !adoreJ +See p" ,7,/ the rhythm itself is meant to interpret the monotonous roar of the waterfallI or in Edward !ear?s poem J?The Kutcrac$ers and the SugarHtongsJ where the rhythm reproduces the %eat of galloping horses? feet, or in march rhythm where the %eat of the lines suggests a musical foundation" 0n short, wherever there is a recogniGa%le semantic function of the rhythm few, if any, deviations are evident" 1hythm reveals itself most conspicuously in music, dance and verse" <e have so far dealt with verse %ecause the properties of rhythm in language are most o%serva%le in this mode of communication" <e shall now proceed to the analysis of rhythm in prose, %earing in mind that the essential properties of prose rhythm are governed %y the same general rules, though not so apparent, perhaps, as in verse, and falling under different parameters of analysis" Much has %een said and written a%out rhythm in prose" Some investigators, in attempting to find rhythmical patterns of prose, superimpose metrical measures on prose and regard instances, which do not fall under the suggested metrical scheme as variants" ;ut the parameters of the rhythm in verse and in prose are entirely different" 1" :a$o%son states J"""any metre uses the sylla%le as a unit of measure at least in certain sections of the verse"J9 The unit of measure in prose, however, is not the sylla%le %ut a structure, a word com%ination, a se#uence of words, that is, phrases, clauses, sentences, even syntactical wholes"E The structural pattern, which in the particular case is the rhythmical unit, will %e repeated within the given span of prose" The rhythm will %e %ased not on the regular alternation of opposing units, i" e" a regular %eat, %ut on the repetition of similar structural units following one another or repeated after short intervals" The peculiar property of prose rhythm particularly in 78th century prose, is that it occurs only in relatively short spans of text, and that it constantly changes its patterns and may suddenly drop to a normal almost unapparent rhythmical design or to no rhythm at all" 0t must %e made clear that metrical or accented rhythm, which is an internal and indispensa%le property of verse, is incidental in prose, which in its very essence is nonHrhythmical" ) prose passage interpolated into a wor$ written in verse, a device so favoured %y some poets, has its significance in the acute opposition of the two modes of expressionD rhythmical versus nonHrhythmical" The most o%serva%le rhythmical patterns in prose are %ased on the use of certain stylistic syntactical devices namely, enumeration, repetition, parallel construction +in particular,

%alance/ and chiasmus" The %eginning of Dic$ens?s J) Tale of Two CitiesJ may serve as an illustration of prose rhythm" =ere the rhythm is easily discerni%le" 0n the following passage it is more difficult to catch the rhythm, though when the passage is read aloud, the rhythm is clear" JThe $i!$(#")6i ! roof, of a 7i e #))%& pin$ was almost Danish, and two Bd-'@&B "i%%"e windows loo$ed out of it, giving an impression that *er& %a"" servants lived up there"J =ere the rhythmical pattern of the utterance is almost impercepti%le to an untrained ear, %ut will clearly %e felt %y one with rhythmical experience" The paired attri%utes $i!$(#")6i !+ 7i e #))%&+ d-'@& "i%%"e and li$ewise the attri%ute with an adver%ial modifier *er& %a"" are all structurally similar word com%inations and therefore create the rhythm" )s a good example of oscillating prose rhythm hardly dissecta%le into rhythmical units is the following excerpt from Somerset Maugham?s JThe Painted (eilJD J<alter, 0 %eseech you to forgive me,J she said, leaning over him" or fear that he could not %ear the pressure she too$ care not to touch him" J0?m so desperately sorry for the wrong 0 did you" 0 so %itterly regret it"J =e said nothing" =e did not seem to hear" She was o%liged to insist" 0t seemed to her strangely that his soul was a fluttering moth and its wings were heavy with hatred" JDarling"J ) shadow passed over his wan and sun$en face" 0t was less than a movement, and yet it gave all the effect of a terrifying convulsion" She had never used that word to him %efore" Perhaps in his dying %rain there passed the thought, confused and difficultly grasped, that he had only heard her use it, a commonplace of her voca%ulary, to dogs, and %a%ies and motorcars" Then something horri%le occurred" She clenched her hands, trying with all her might to control herself, for she saw two tears run slowly down his wasted chee$s" J>h, my precious, my dear, if you ever loved me H 0 $now you loved me and 0 was hateful H 0 %eg you to forgive me" 0?ve no chance now to show my repentance" =ave mercy on me" 0 %eseech you to forgive"J She stopped" She loo$ed at him, all %reathless, waiting passionately for a reply" She saw that he tried to spea$" =er heart gave a great %ound"J The long passage is necessary in order that the fluctuating, rhythmical pattern of %oth the author?s and the character?s speech might %e o%served" The most o%vious rhythmical unit here is the structural similarity of the sentences" The overwhelming maCority of the sentences are short, simple, almost unextended, resem%ling each other in structural design H ?=e said nothing?, ?=e did not seem to hear?, ?She was o%liged to insist?, ?) shadow passed over his wan and sun$en face?,

?She had never used that word to him %efore?, ?She saw that he tried to spea$?, ?=er heart gave a great %ound?" !i$ewise the character?s speech is mar$ed %y the same feature H the sentences are short, simple, resem%ling each other in their structural design, as J?<alter, 0 %eseech you to forgive me?, ?0 %eg you to forgive me?, ?0?ve no chance now to show my repentance?, ?0 %eseech you to forgive? and earlier ?0?m so desperately sorry""" 0 so %itterly regret it"""J ;ut it is not only the repetition of the structural design of the sentences that ma$es the rhythmD there are other elements contri%uting to it" <ith the increase of emotional tension the author almost slips into the iam%ic rhythm of %lan$ verse" Dramatic feeling demands regular rhythm" )s the emotion %ecomes tenser, the rhythmical %eat and cadence of the words %ecomes more evident" Mar$ the sentence which %egins with JPerhaps in his dying %rain"""J" =ere a $ind of metrical rhythm can easily %e discerned H Jthere passed the thought H confused and difficultly grasped that he had only heard her use it, """ and so it goes on until the phrase Jthen something horri%le occurred"J >f course this interHcorrelation of the rhythmical units in the passage is open to discussion" There may %e various delivery instances" 0n this connection 1" :a$o%son says that Ja variation of verse instances within a given poem must %e strictly distinguished from the varia%le delivery instances"J 0ndeed, almost any piece of prose, though in essence nonH rhythmical, can %e made rhythmical %y isolating words or se#uences of words and ma$ing appropriate pauses %etween each" 0n order to distinguish the varia%le delivery instances of an utterance from its inherent structural and semantic properties, it is necessary to su%Cect the text to a thorough analysis of the correlated component parts" The short survey of the passage a%ove shows that the prose rhythm is interspersed with genuine metrical rhythm not devoid, of course, of the modifications, which ma$e the verseHrhythm less conspicuous" ) very good example of prose rhythm can %e seen in the chapter from 2alsworthy?s JMan of PropertyJ entitled ?:une?s Treat? a passage from which is given later" 0t must %e noted that the irruption of prose into a metrical pattern is generally perceived as annihilation of rhythm, whereas the introduction of metrical pattern into prose aims at consolidating the already vaguely perceived rhythm of the utterance" Prose rhythm, unli$e verse rhythm, lac$s consistency, as it follows various principles" ;ut nevertheless, a trained ear will always detect a $ind of alternation of syntactical units" The tas$ is then to find these units and to ascertain the manner of alternation" This is not an easy tas$ %ecause, as has already %een

pointed out, rhythm is not an essential property of prose, whereas it is essential in verse" Prose is the opposite of verse and this opposition is primarily structural, in this case, rhythmical structure versus nonHrhythmical structure" The incursion of prose into poetry is a deli%erate device to %rea$ away from its strict rhythm" )n interesting suggestion is made %y (" M" =amm who says that J"""song %rea$s down under the stress of reflection H truth el%ows out %eauty, if you will" The poet thin$s, therefore he cannot singI feeling is inhi%ited" 0t is as if he were saying, ?Poetry is, after all, only a game, and 0 have more serious concerns than the $eeping of an accent?" 0s he thus trying to show his superiority to his artYJ This, of course, should not %e ta$en literally" ;ut on the whole, there is much in it" Poetry is the domain of feeling and thought where feeling predominates" Emotive prose is the domain of thought and feeling where thought predominates" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66.99K(9<94. PRACTICAL E=ERCISES E5er'i#e I" 0ndicate what graphical expressive means are used in the following extractsD ," J"" ", refuse his money altogeGGer"J 7" "" "on pain of %eing called a gHirl, 0 spent most of the remaining twilights that summer with Miss Maudie )tH$inson on her front porch" 9" J""")dieu you, old man, grey" 0 pity you, and 0 despise you"J E" =e misses our father very much" =e was sH,HaHiHn in Korth )frica" F" <e?ll teach the children to loo$ at things""" 0 shall ma$e it into a sort of game for them" Teach them to ta$e notice" Don?t let the world pass you %y, 0 shall tell them""" or the sun, 0 shall say, open your eyes for that laaaarge sun""" 3" J"" ", rHrHrHruin my character %y remaining with a !adyship so infameLJ ." Mou have no conception no conception of what we are fighting over here" 4" J>h, what?s the difference" MotherYJ JMuriel, 0 want to @ )?.A -" J)nd it?s my %ounden duty as a producer to resist every attac$ on the integrity of )merican industry to the last ditch" MesHS01LJ ,8" JKow listen, Ed, stop that, nowL 0?m desperate" I a/ desperate, Ed, do you hearY Can?t you seeYJ ,," 0t was almost three o?cloc$ when Mary :ane finally found Eloise?s house" She explained to Eloise, who came out to the driveHway to meet her, that everything had %een a%solutely 6er7e'%, that she had remem%ered the way e5a'%"&, until she had turned off the Merric$ Par$way" Eloise said, JMerritt Par$way, %a%yJ""" Eloise as$ed Mary :ane how it happened that she had theHday off" Mary :ane said she didn?t have the ?$)"e day offI it was Cust that Mr" <eyn%urg had a hernia and was home in !archmont, and she had to %ring him his mail""" She as$ed Eloise, J:ust

what exactly is hernia, anywayYJ Eloise, dropping her cigarette on the soiled snow underfoot, said she didn?t a'%-a""& $now %ut that Mary :ane didn?t JKo,J Eloise was saying, J0t was actually red $a*e %) ?)rr& /-'$ a0)-% !e%%i ! ) e. J J0 heard it was %lond,J Mary :ane repeated""" JUhHuh" Definitely"J Eloise yawned" J0 was almost in the room with her when she dyed itJ """,7" """<hen <ill?s ma was down here $eeping house for himH #$e used to run in to see me, real )7%e . E5er'i#e II. 0ndicate the causes and effects of the following cases of alliterationD ," ;oth were flushed, fluttered and rumpled, %y the late scuffle" 7" The moan of doves in immemorial elms, )nd murmuring of innumera%le %ees""" 9" =is wife was shrill, languid, handsome and horri%le" E" "" "he swallowed the hint with a gulp and a gasp and a grin" F" Mou lean, long, lan$y lath of a lousey %astard""" 3" J!uscious, languid and lustful, isn?t sheYJ JThose are not the correct epithets" She isHor rather wasHsurly, lustrous and sadistic,J ." The wic$y, wac$y, woc$y %ird, =e sings a song that can?t %e heard""" =e sings a song that can?t %e heard" The wic$y, wac$y, woc$y %ird" The wic$y, wac$y, woc$y mouse, =e %uilt himself a little house""" ;ut snug he lived inside his house, The wic$y, wac$y, woc$y mouse" E5er'i#e III. State the part of speech, through which onomatopoeia is expressed, and its function" ," Then with an enormous, shattering rum%le, sludgeHpuff sludge""" puff, the train came into the station" 7" J, hope it comes and GGGGGG everything %efore it"J 9" 0 had only this one year of wor$ing without shhhL E" Cecil was immediately shushed" F" Strea$ed %y a #uarter moon, the Mediterranean shushed gently into the %each" 3" JShHsh"J J;ut 0 am whispering"J This continual shushing annoyed him" ." The 0talian trio""" tutHtutted their tongues at me" E5er'i#e IV. )nalyse the following cases of occasional graphon and indicate the causes, which produced the mispronunciation +or misinterpretation/ of a word, reflected in graphon +age, lac$ of education, intoxication, stutter, etc"/D ," J<hat is thatYJ J) ninse$,J the girl said" 7" My daddy?s coming tomorrow on a nairplane" 9" J<hy doesn?t he have his shirt onYJ the child as$s distinctly" J0 don?t $now,J her mother says" J0 suppose he thin$s he has a nice chest"J J0s that his %ooHGimYJ :oyce

as$s" JKo, darlingD only ladies have %osom"J E" )fter a hum a %eautiful Kegress sings J<ithout 0 song, the dahay would nehever end"""J F" =e duc$s into the ord and in that dusty hot interior starts to murmurD JEv, ree%ody loves the, cha cha cha"' 3" =e spo$e with the flat ugly JaJ and withered JrJ of ;oston 0rish, and !evy loo$ed up at him and mimic$ed J)ll right, 0?ll give the caaads a %rea$, and staaat playing"J ." J""" ord automo%ile """ operates, on a revHrevHaHluH shunHary principle"J 4" "" "she returned to Mexico City at noon" Kext morning the children made a cele%ration and spent their time writing on the %lac$%oard, J<e lov ar ticher"' -" She mimic$ed a lisp" J0 don?t weally $now wevver 0?m a good girl"J ,8" J<ho are they going to hang for itYJ he as$ed Tom" JPro%a%ly the (icar" They $now that the last thing he?d do would %e to %e mixed up with a howwid woman"' E5er'i#e V. Proceeding from your reading experience classify the following examples of permanent graphon according to patterns of their formation and fre#uency of usage" ," J0 got to meet a fella,J said :oe" )lt pretended not to hear him""" =e saw with satisfaction that the fella :oe was going to meet would wait a long time" 7" =e?s the only one of your friends who?s worth tupence, anyway" 9" Kow pour us another cuppa" E" =ow are you, dullinY F" Come on, 0?ll show you summat" 3" <ell, 0 dunno" 0 was $inda threatening him" ." J"" ", declare 0 don?t $now how you spend it all"' J)w, Ma,H0 gotta lotta things to %uy"J 4" JThat?s my nic$name, Cat" =ad it all my life" They say my old lady must of %een scared %y a cat when she was having me"J -" J=ope you fellers don?t mind" 2ladys, 0 told you ?e oughtn?t to of eaten them onions, not %efore comin? on the %oat"J J2imme a $iss an? 0?ll tell ye if 0 mind or not"J said 0$eD ? ,8" Say, 0$e, what do you thin$ we oughta doY 0 thin$ we oughta go down on the %oat to Seattle, <ash", li$e a coupla dude passengers" ,," <ilson was a little hurt" J!isten, %oy,J he told him, J)h may not %e a%le to read eve?thin? so good, %ut they ain?t a thing )h can?t do if )h set mah mind to it" E5er'i#e VI. Su%stitute the given graphons %y their normative graphical interpretationD ," JMou remem%er him at allYJ J:ust, sort of" !ittle ole privateY Terri%ly unattractive"J 7" JMou?re one that ruint it"J 9" JMou ast me a #uestion" 0 answered it lor you" E" JMou?ll pro%ly %e sic$ as a dog tomorra, Tills"J F" Marrow saidD JChawming climate out heah in the tropics, old chap"J 3" <hat this place needs is a woman?s touch, as they say in the pitchers" ." JMou ain?t invited,J Doll drawled" J<hada you mean 0 ain?t invitedYJ 4" J0?ve never seen you around much with the rest ot the girls" Too %adL >therwise we mighta met" 0 ve met all the rest of

?em so far"J -" Mou?re rench Canadian aintchaY 0 %et all thegirls go for you, 0 %et you?re gonna %e a great success" ,8" JMou loo$ awful H whatsamatter with your laceY ,," J(eronica,J he thought" J<hy isn?t she hereY 2odamnit, why isn?t she hereYJ ,7" J<uddaya thin$ she?s doing out thereY ,9" J" " " for a helluva intelligent guy you re a%out as tactless as it?s humanly possi%le to %e"J ,E" J)h you guys whattaya doinYJ ,F" =ow many cupsacoffee you have in Choy?s this morningY ,3" Mou %een in the army what nowY ive yearsY ivenahalfY 0t?s a%out time for you to get over %ein a pun$ reeHcroot" ,." J<hat you gonna do, MouseYJ ,4" JDo me a favor" 2o out in the $itchen and tell whosis to give her her dinner early" <illyaYJ ,-" JDont?cha remem%er meYJ he laughed" 78" "" "loo$ing him straight in the eye, suggested" JMeetcha at the cornerYJ 7," J<hatch?yu wantY This is 1ome"J 77" J<hereCa get all these picturesYJ he said" 2V.A.V-@$are @)+ Se/i ar# i S%&"e. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.90;(9924.

LE=ICAL E=PRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES. INTENTIONAL MI=ING OF THE STYLISTIC ASPECT OF JORDS
=eterogeneity of the component parts of the utterance is the %asis for a stylistic device called 0a%$)# Unrelated elements are %rought together as if they denoted things e#ual in ran$ or %elonging to one class, as if they were of the same stylistic aspect" ;y %eing forci%ly lin$ed together, the elements ac#uire a slight modification cf" meaning" This device, which calls forth an acute feeling of incongruity, is halfHlinguistic, halfHlogical" The heterogeneity may manifest itself in a%solutely unrelated concepts %eing Coined together, for example, elevated and commonplace" =ere is a passage from ;yron?s JDon :uanJ in which the elevated diction of a young man, who is torn away from his %eloved, is interlarded with everyday phrases and expressions, reflecting the situation H he gets seaHsic$D J)nd ohL if e?er 0 should forget, 0 swear H ;ut that?s impossi%le, and cannot %e ^ Sooner shall this %lue ocean melt to air, Sooner shall earth resolve itself to sea, Than 0 resign thine image, oh, my fairL >r thin$ of any thing excepting theeI ) mind diseased no remedy can physic ^

2Here %$e #$i6 !a*e a "-r'$+ a d $e !re? #ea(#i'@4 JSooner shall heaven $iss earth H 2$ere $e 7e"" #i'@er4 >h, :uliaL what is every other woeY H 2F)r G)dB# #a@e "e% /e $a*e a !"a## )7 "i8-)rG Pedr)+ Fa%%i#%a+ $e"6 /e d)? 0e")?O . :ulia, my loveL 2&)- ra#'a"+ Pedr)+ 8-i'@erO ( >h, :uliaL ( 2%$i# '-r#% *e##e" 6i%'$e# #)4 W ;eloved :ulia, hear me still %eseechingDA 2Here $e !re? i ar%i'-"a%e ?i%$ re%'$i !.4 Such poetic expressions as ?heaven $issing the earth?, ?what is every other woe?I ?%eloved :ulia, hear me still %eseeching? are Coined in one flow of utterance with collo#uial expressionsD ? or 2od?s sa$eI you rascalI help me down %elow?, ?this curst vessel pitches so?" This produces an effect, which serves the purpose of lowering the loftiness of expression, inasmuch as there is a sudden drop from the elevated to the commonplace or even the ridiculous" )s is seen from this example, it is not so easy to distinguish whether the device is more linguistic or more logical" ;ut the logical and linguistic are closely interwoven in pro%lems of stylistics" )nother example is the followingD J;ut ohY a/0r)#ia" 'a#$D )hL who would lose theeY <hen we no more can use, or even a%use theeLJ +JDon :uanJ/ A/0r)#ia" is a poetic word meaning ?delicious?, ?fragrant?, ?divine?" Ca#$ is a common collo#uial word meaning ?money?, ?money that a person actually has?, ?ready money?" <henever literary words come into collision with nonHliterary ones there arises incongruity, which in any style is always deli%erate, inasmuch as a style presupposes a conscious selection of language means" The following sentence from Dic$ens? J) Christmas CarolJ illustrates with what s$ill the author com%ines elevated words and phrases and common collo#uial ones in order to achieve the desired impact on the reader H it %eing the com%ination of the supernatural and the ordinary" J;ut the wisdom of our ancestors is in the simileI and my unhallowed hands shall not distur% it, or the Country?s done for"J The elevated a 'e#%)r#+ #i/i"e+ - $a"")?ed+ di#%-r0 +in the now o%solete meaning of %ear %) 6ie'e#4 are put alongside the collo#uial contraction %$e C)- %r&B# +?the country is?/ and the collo#uial done for" This device is a very su%tle one and not always discerni%le even to an experienced literary critic, to say nothing of the ran$HandHfile reader"

The difficulty lies first of all in the ina%ility of the inexperienced reader to perceive the incongruity of the component parts of the utterance" Thus in ;yron?s linesD JThey grieved for those who perished with the cutter A d a"#) for the %iscuitHcas$s and %utter"J the copulative conCunction a d as well as the adver% a"#) suggest the homogeneity of the concepts %$)#e ?$) 6eri#$ed and 0i#'-i%('a#@# a d 0-%%er. The people who perished are placed on the same level as the %iscuits and %utter lost at the same time" This arrangement may lead to at least two inferencesD ," for the survivors the loss of food was as tragic as the loss of friends who perished in the shipwrec$I 7" the loss of food was even more disastrous, hence the elevated !rie*ed ... for food" 0t must %e %orn in mind, however, that this interpretation of the su%tle stylistic device employed here is prompted %y purely linguistic analysisD the ver%s %) !rie*e and %) 6eri#$+ which are elevated in connotation, are more appropriate when used to refer to people H and are out of place when used to refer to food" The everyHdayHlife cares and worries overshadow the grief for the dead, or at least are put on the same level" The ver% %) !rie*e+ when used in reference to %oth the people who perished and the food, which was lost, wea$ens, as it were, the effect of the first and strengthens the effect of the second" The implications and inferences drawn from a detailed and meticulous analysis of language means and stylistic devices can draw additional information from the communication" This $ind of implied meaning is sometimes called #-6er"i ear )r #-6er(#e!/e %al, i" e", a meaning derived not directly from the words, %ut from a much finer analysis" )lmost of the same $ind are the following lines, also from ;yronD J!et us have wine and women, mirth and laughter, Ser/) # a d #)da(?a%er ( the day after"J )gain we have incongruity of concepts caused %y the heterogeneity of the conventionally paired classes of things in the first line and the alliterated unconventional pair in the second line" 0t needs no proof that the words #er/) # a d #)da(?a%er are used metonymically here signifying ?repentance? and ?sic$ness? correspondingly" The decoded form of this utterance will thus %eD J!et us now enCoy ourselves in spite of conse#uences"J ;ut the most significant item in the linguistic analysis here will of course %e the identical formal structure of the pairs ," ?i e a d ?)/e G 2. /ir%$ a d "a-!$%er and 9" #er/) # a d #)da(?a%er. The first and second pairs consist of words so closely related that they may %e considered almost synonymous" This affects the last pair and ma$es the words

#er/) # a d #)da(?a%er sound as if they were as closely related as the words in the first two pairs" ) deeper insight into the author?s intention may lead the reader to interpret them as a tedious %ut unavoida%le remedy for the sins committed" ;yron especially favours the device of %athos in his JDon :uan"J )lmost every stanGa contains ordinarily unconnected concepts lin$ed together %y a coordinating conCunction and producing a moc$ing effect or a realistic approach to those phenomena of life, which imperatively demand recognition, no matter how elevated the su%CectHmatter may %e" =ere are other illustrations from this epochH ma$ing poemD A$ea*i e## of $ear% or rather #%)/a'$IJ JThere?s nought, no dou%t, so much the spirit calms )s rum and true re"i!i) A J"""his %-%)r and his #6a ie"A Jwho loved 6$i")#)6$& and a !))d di erA J0 cried upon my first wife?s d&i ! da& )nd also when my second ra a?a&.A <e have already pointed out the peculiarity of the device, that it is half linguistic, half logical" ;ut the linguistic side %ecomes especially conspicuous when there is a com%ination of stylistically heterogeneous words and phrases" 0ndeed the Cuxtaposition of highly literary norms of expression and words or phrases that must %e classed as nonHliterary, sometimes low collo#uial or even vulgar, will again undou%tedly produce a stylistic effect, and when decoded, will contri%ute to the content of the utterance, often adding an element of humour" Thus, for instance, the following from Somerset Maugham?s JThe =our %efore DawnJD J<ill you )0"i!e me %y $eeping your %ra6 #$-%+ dar"i !I he retorted"J The device is fre#uently presented in the structural model, which we shall call $e%er)!e e)-# e -/era%i) . 2I.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9. 66.9<2(9<54. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LE=ICAL MEANING <ords in a context, as has %een pointed out, may ac#uire additional lexical ?meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we have called ') %e5%-a" /ea i !#. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even %ecomes the opposite of the primary meaning, as, for example, with the word #)6$i#%i'a%ed" This is especially the case when we deal with transferred meanings" <hat is $nown in linguistics as %ra #7erred /ea i ! is

practically the interrelation %etween two types of lexical meaningD dictionary and contextual" The contextual meaning, as has %een pointed out, will always depend on the dictionary +logical/ meaning to a greater or lesser extent" <hen the deviation from the ac$nowledged meaning is carried to a degree that it causes an unexpected turn in the recogniGed logical meanings, we register a stylistic device" The transferred meaning of a word may %e fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and fre#uent use of the word other than in its primary meaning" 0n this case we register a derivative meaning oi the word" The term transferred is meant to point to the process of the formation of the derivative meaning" =ence the term transferred should %e used, to our mind, as a lexicographical term signifying diachronically the development of the semantic structure of the word" 0n this case we do not perceive two meanings" <hen, however, we perceive two meanings of the word simultaneously, we are confronted with a stylistic device in which the two meanings interact" 2I.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.9<5(9<M4. INTERACTION OF DICTIONARY AND CONTE=TUAL LOGICAL MEANINGS The relation %etween the dictionary and contextual logical meanings may %e maintained along different linesD on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or sym%ol H referent relations, or on opposition" Thus, the stylistic device %ased on the first principle is /e%a6$)r+ on the second, /e%) &/& and on the third, ir) &. Metaphor" ) metaphor is a relation %etween the dictionary and contextual logical meanings %ased on the affinity or similarity of certain properties of features of the two corresponding concepts" JThe more o%vious the similarity, the less need there is for deciphering words in the context" Thus in JDear Na%-re is the $indest M)%$er still"J +;yron, JChilde =aroldJ/ no explanatory words are used" Kature is li$ened to a Mother in her attitude to man" The action of nursing is implied %ut not directly stated" 0n the following example, however, an explanation is givenD JThe i di'a%)r# %ecame e e/ie# if they lagged %ehind his wishD dear and relia%le friends when they showed what he wanted"J +Mitchel <ilson, J!ive with !ightningJ/ The explanatory words ?if they"""?, ?when they"""? help the reader to decipher the true meaning of the metaphor" Metaphor can %e em%odied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adCectives, ver%s, adver%s and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech, as in prepositions" 0n JThe $-/a %ide is rolling westward"J +Dic$ens, JDom%ey and SonJ/, the metaphor is em%odied in the

adCective" J0n the slanting %eams that #%rea/ed through the open window, the dust da 'ed and was golden" +>" <ilde, JThe Picture of Dorian 2rayJ/ =ere the metaphors lie in the ver%s" JThe leaves fell #)rr)?7-""&.J =ere it is the adver% that is a metaphor" The metaphor is a wellH$nown semantic way of %uilding new meanings and new words" J0t is due to the metaphorJ according to the remar$ of Nuintilian, Jthat each thing seems to have its name in language"J Even language has %een figuratively defined as a dictionary of faded metaphors" JTry to %e precise,J writes :" Middleton Murry, Jand you are %ound to %e metaphoricalI you simply cannot help esta%lishing affinities %etween all the provinces of the animate and inanimate world"J Metaphors, li$e all stylistic devices can %e classified according to their degree of unexpectedness" Thus metaphors, which are a%solutely unexpected, i" e", are #uite unpredicta%le, are called !e -i e metaphors" Those, which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are %ri%e /e%a6$)r#+ )r dead /e%a6$)r#" Their predicta%ility therefore is apparent" 2enuine metaphors are regarded as %elonging to languageHinHaction, i"e" speech metaphors, trite metaphors %elong to the languageHasHaHsystem, i"e" language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language" (" (" (inogradov statesD J"""a metaphor, if it is not a cliche, is an act of esta%lishing an individual world outloo$, it is an act of su%Cective isolation""" Therefore a word metaphor is narrow, su%Cectively enclosed, """it imposes on the reader a su%Cective view of the o%Cect or phenomenon and its semantic ties"J The examples given, a%ove may serve as illustrations of genuine metaphors" =ere are some examples of metaphors that are considered trite" They are timeHworn and well ru%%ed into the language. a ra& )7 $)6e, 7"))d# of tears, a #%)r/ of indignation+ a 7"i!$% of fancy, Ja !"ea/ of mirth, a shadow of a smile and the li$e" The interaction of the logical dictionary meaning and the logical contextual meaning assumes different forms" Sometimes this interaction is perceived as a deli%erate interplay of the two meanings" 0n this case, each of the meanings preserves its relative independence" Sometimes, however, the metaphoric use of a word %egins to affect the source meaning, i" e" the meaning from which the metaphor is derived, with the result that the target meaning, that is the metaphor itself, ta$es the upper hand and may even oust the source meaning" 0n this case we spea$ of dead metaphors" Thus in such words as %) !ra#6 +HZ ?to understand?/, %) !e% +ZZ ?to

understand?/, %) #ee +Z?to understand?/, the meaning in %rac$ets has %ecome a derivative logical meaning and is fixed %y all existing dictionaries as such" The metaphorical origin of these meanings can hardly %e perceived" There is no interplay of the two meanings" Conse#uently, there is no stylistic device, no metaphor" 0n such words as %) /e"% 2a?a&4 as in Jthese misgivings gradually /e"%ed a?a&,J we can still recogniGe remnants of the original meaning and in spite of the fact that the meaning %) *a i#$+ %) di#a66ear is already fixed in dictionaries as one of the derivative meanings, the primary meaning still ma$es itself felt" Trite metaphors are sometimes inCected with new vigour, i" e" their primary meaning is reHesta%lished alongside the new +derivative/ meaning" This is done %y supplying the central image created %y the metaphor with additional words, %earing some reference to the main word" or exampleD JMr" Pic$wic$ 0)%%"ed -6 his vengeance and ')r@ed i% d)? "J The ver% %) 0)%%"e -6 is explained in dictionaries as followsD Jto $eep in chec$J +JPenguin DictionaryJ/I Jto conceal, to restrain, repressJ +JCassell?s Kew English DictionaryJ/" So the metaphor in the word can hardly %e felt" ;ut it is revived %y the direct meaning of the ver% %) ')r@ d)? . This context refreshes the almost dead metaphor and gives it a second life" Such metaphors are called #-#%ai ed )r 6r)") !ed. =ere is another example of a sustained metaphorD &Mr" D%m%ey?s '-6 of satisfaction was so 7-"" at this moment, however, that he felt he could afford a dr)6 )r %?) )7 i%# ') %e %#+ even to #6ri @"e on the dust in the %yHpath of his little daughter"J +Dic$ens, JDom%ey and SonJ/ <e may call the principal metaphor the central image of the sustained metaphor and the other words, which %ear reference to the central image H contri%utory images" Thus in the example given the word '-6 +of satisfaction/ %eing a trite metaphor is revived %y the following contri%utory imagesD 7-""+ dr)6+ ') %e %#+ #6ri @"e. 0t is interesting to note that %oth the central image 2%$e '-64 and the contri%utory words are used in two senses simultaneouslyD direct and indirect" The second plane of utterance is maintained %y the $ey word H #a%i#7a'%i) " 0t is this word that helps us to decipher the idea %ehind the sustained metaphor" Sometimes however the central image is not given, %ut the string of words all %earing upon some implied central point of reference are so associated with each other that the reader is %ound to create the re#uired image in his mind" !et us ta$e the following sentence from Sha$espeareD J0 have no #6-r %) 6ri'@ the #ide# of my intent"J The words #6-r+ %) 6ri'@+ %$e #ide# in their interrelation will

inevita%ly create the image of a steed" The same is to %e seen in the following lines from Shelley?s JCloudJD J0n a cavern under is 7e%%ered the thunder, 0t #%r-!!"e# and $)?"# at fits"J =ere the central image H that of a captive %east H is suggested %y the contri%utory images H 7e%%ered+ #%r-!!"e# a d $)?"#. The metaphor, is often defined as a compressed simile" ;ut this definition lac$s precision" Moreover it is misleading, inasmuch as the metaphor aims at identifying the o%Cects, while the simile aims at finding some point of resem%lance %y $eeping the o%Cects apart" That is why these two stylistic devices are viewed as %elonging to two different groups of SDs" They are different in their linguistic nature" True, the degree of identification of o%Cects or phenomena in a metaphor varies according to its syntactic function in the sentence and to the part of speech in which it is em%odied" Thus when the metaphor is expressed in a nounHpredicative, the degree of identification is very low" This is due to the character of the predicative relation in general" The metaphor in this case can %e li$ened to an epithet" 0ndeed, in the sentence ?Expression is the dre## of thought? we can hardly see any process of identification %etween the concepts e56re##i) and dre##G whereas in the lines JMet Time, who changes all, had altered him 0n soul and aspect as in ageD years #%ea" Fire from the mind as vigour from the lim%I )nd life?s enchanted '-6 %ut spar$les near the 0ri/. The metaphors #%ea"+ 7ire+ '-6+ 0ri/ em%odied in ver%s and nouns not used predicatively can %e regarded as fully identified with the concepts they aim at producing" The metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images" This is its main function" 2enuine metaphors are mostly to %e found? in poetry and emotive prose" Trite metaphors are generally used as expressive means in newspaperH articles, in oratorical style and even, in scientific language" The use of trite metaphors should not %e regarded as a draw%ac$ of style" They help the writer to enliven his wor$ and even ma$e the meaning more concrete" There is constant interaction %etween genuine and trite metaphors" 2enuine metaphors, i7 they are good and can stand the test of time, may through fre#uent repetition, %ecome trite and conse#uently easily predicta%le" Trite metaphors, as has %een shown, may regain their freshness through the process of prolongation of the metaphor"

Metaphors may %e sustained not only on the %asis of a trite metaphor" The initial metaphor may %e genuine and may also %e developed through a num%er of contri%utory images so that the whole of the utterance %ecomes one sustained metaphor" ) s$illfully written example of such a metaphor is to %e found in Sha$espeare?s Sonnet Ko 7E" The central image H JThe eye H the painterJ is developed through a num%er of contri%utory imagesD %) dra?+ %a0"e+ 7ra/e+ $a !i ! +picture/ and the li$e" 0n conclusion it will %e of interest to show the results of the interaction %etween the dictionary and contextual meanings" The constant use of a metaphor, i" e" a word in which two meanings are %lended, gradually leads to the %rea$ing up of the primary meaning" The metaphoric use of the word %egins to affect the dictionary meaning, adding to it fresh connotations or shades of meaning" ;ut this influence, however strong it may %e, will never reach the degree where the dictionary meaning entirely disappears" 0f it did, we should have no stylistic device" 0t is a law of stylistics that in a stylistic device the sta%ility of the dictionary meaning is always retained, no matter how great the influence of the contextual meaning may %e" Me%) &/& is %ased on a different type of relation %etween the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation %ased not on affinity, %ut on some $ind of association connecting the two concepts, which these meanings represent" Thus the word 'r)? may stand for $ing or #ueen?, '-6 or !"a## for ?the drin$ it contains?, ?))"#a'@ for ?the Chancellor of the Exche#uer who sits on it, or the position and dignity of the !ord Chancellor?, e" g",'=ere the no%le lord inclined his $nee to %$e J))"#a'@"J +from =ansard/" =ere also the interrelation %etween the dictionary and contextual meanings should stand out clearly and conspicuously" >nly then can we state that a stylistic device is used" >therwise, we must turn our mind to lexicological pro%lems, i" e" to the ways and means %y which new words and meanings are coined" The examples of metonymy given a%ove are traditional" 0n fact, they are derivative logical meanings and therefore fixed in dictionaries" =owever, when such meanings are included in dictionaries, there is usually a la%el 7i! +?figurative use?/" This shows that the new meaning has not entirely replaced the primary one, %ut, as it were, coH exists with it"

Still the new meaning has %ecome so common, that it is easily predicta%le and therefore does not %ear any additional information, which is an indispensa%le condition for an SD" =ere are some more widely used metonymical meanings, some of which are already fixed in dictionaries without the la%el 7i!. %$e 6re## for ?+the personnel connected with/ a printing or pu%lishing esta%lishment?, or for ?the newspaper and periodical literature which is printed %y the printing press?" The 0e '$ is used as a generic term for ?magistrates and Custices?" ) $a d is used for a ?)r@erI the 'rad"e stands for i 7a '&+ ear"ie#% #%a!e#+ 6"a'e )7 )ri!i and the !ra*e stands for dea%$. Metonymy used in languageHinHaction or speech, i"e" ') %e5%-a" /e%) &/&, is genuine metonymy and reveals a #uite unexpected su%stitution of one word for another, or even of one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression produced %y a chance feature of the thing, for exampleD JMiss Tox?s hand trem%led as she slipped it through Mr" Dom%ey?s arm, and felt herself escorted up the steps, 6re'eded 0& a ')'@ed $a% a d a Fa0&") ia ')""ar.A C)'@ed $a% a d Fa0&") ia ')""ar stand for the wearer of the articles in #uestion" >ne can hardly admit that there is a special characteriGing function in such a su%stitution" The function of these examples 0 of genuine metonymy is more li$ely to point out the insignificance of the wearer rather than his importance, for his personality is reduced to his externally conspicuous features, the hat and red collar" =ere is another example of genuine metonymyD JThen they came in" Two of them, a man with long fair moustaches and a silent dar$ man""" Definitely, %$e /)-#%a'$e and 0 had nothing in common"J +Doris !essing" J1etreat to 0nnocenceJ/ )gain we have a feature of a man, which catches the eye, in this case his facial appearanceD the moustache stands for the man himself" The function of the metonymy here is to indicate that the spea$er $nows nothing of the man in #uestion, moreover there is a definite implication that this is the first time the spea$er has seen him" =ere is another example of the same $indD JThere was something so very agreea%le in %eing so intimate with such a ?ai#%')a%G in %eing on such offHhand terms so soon with such a 6air )7 ?$i#@er# that Tom was uncommonly pleased with himself"J 0n these two cases of genuine metonymy a %roader context than that re#uired %y a metaphor is necessary in order to decipher the true meaning of the stylistic device" 0n %oth cases it is necessary to understand the words in their proper meanings first" >nly then is it possi%le to grasp the metonymy"

0n the following example the metonymy !ra6e also re#uires a %road contextD J)nd this is stronger than the strongest !ra6e Could e?er express in its expanded shape"J ;yron/ Metonymy and metaphor differ also in the way they are deciphered" 0n the process of disclosing the meaning implied in a metaphor, one image excludes the other, that is the metaphor "a/6 in the ?The s$y lamp of the night? when deciphered, means the moon, and though there is a definite interplay of meanings, we perceive only one o%Cect, %$e /)) . This is not the case with metonymy" Metonymy, while presenting one o%Cect to our mind does not exclude the other" 0n the example given a%ove %$e /)-#%a'$e a d %$e /a $i/#e"7 are %oth perceived %y the mind" Many attempts have %een made to pinpoint the types of relation which metonymy is %ased on" )mong them the following are most commonD ," a concrete thing used instead of an a%stract notion" 0n this case the thing %ecomes a sym%ol of the notion, as in JT$e 'a/6+ %$e 6-"6i% and the law or rich men?s sons are free"J 7" The container instead of the thing containedD T$e $a"" applauded" 9" The relation of proximity, as inD JThe round !a/e %a0"e was %oisterous and happy"J E" The material instead of the thing made of it, as inD JThe /ar0"e spo$e"J F" The instrument, which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer himself, as inD J<ell, Mr" <eller, says the gentl?mn, you?re a very good ?$i6+ and can do what you li$e with your horses, we $now"J J A# %$e #?)rd is the worst argument that can %e used, so should it %e the last"J The list is in no way complete" There are many other types of relations, which may serve as a %asis for metonymy" 0t must also %e noted that metonymy, %eing a means of %uilding up imagery, generally concerns concrete o%Cects, which are generaliGed" The process of generaliGation is easily carried out with the help of the definite article" Therefore instances of metonymy are very often used with the definite article, or with no article at all as in JThere was perfect sympathy %etween P-"6it and Pe?,J where ?Pulpit? stands for the clergyman and ?Pew? for the congregation" This is pro%a%ly due to the fact that any definition of a word may %e ta$en for metonymy, inasmuch as it shows a property or an essential #uality of the concept, thus disclosing a $ind of relation %etween the thing as a whole andHa feature of it which may %e regarded as part of it" Ir) & is a stylistic device also %ased on the simultaneous realiGation of two logical meanings H dictionary and contextual, %ut the two meanings stand in opposition to each other" Thus in the sentenceD J0t must %e de"i!$%7-" to find

oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one?s poc$et"J H the italiciGed word ac#uires a meaning #uite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, that is ?unpleasant?, B )% delightfuld" The word containing the irony is strongly mar$ed %y intonation" 0t has an emphatic stress and is generally supplied with a special melody design, unless the context itself renders this intonation pattern unnecessary, as in the following excerpt from Dic$ens? JPosthumous Papers of the Pic$wic$ Clu%JD JKever mind,J said the stranger, cutting the address very short, Jsaid enough H no moreI smart chap that ca%man H handled his fives wellI %ut if 0?d %een your friend in the green Cemmy H damn me H punch his head H, Cod 0 would H pig?s whisper H pieman too, H no gammon"J JThis ')$ere % speech was interrupted %y the entrance of the 1ochester coachman, to announce that"""J The word ?coherent?, which descri%es Mr" :ingle?s speech, is inconsistent with the actual utterance, and therefore %ecomes selfH contradictory" 0n no other device where we can o%serve the interplay of the dictionary and contextual meanings, is the latter so fluctuating, suggestive, and dependent on the environment as is irony" That is why there are practically no cases of irony in the languageHasHaHsystem" 0rony must not %e confused with humour, although they have very much in common" =umour always causes laughter" <hat is funny must come as a sudden clash of the positive and the negative" 0n this respect irony can %e li$ened to humour" ;ut the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect" 0n a sentence li$e J=ow clever of youLJ where, due to the intonation pattern, the word ?clever? conveys a sense opposite to its literal signification, the irony does not cause a ludicrous effect" 0t rather expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret" ) word used ironically may sometimes express very su%tle, almost impercepti%le nuances of meaning, as the word Jli$eJ in the following lines from J;eppoJ %y ;yron" b!(00 0 "i@e a 6ar"ia/e %ar& de0a%e+ Particularly when ?tis not too late" b!(000 0 "i@e %$e %a5e#+ when they?re not too manyI 0 "i@e a #ea')a" 7ire, when not too dearI 0 li$e a 0ee7(#%ea@, too, as well as anyI =ave no o%Cection to a pot of %eerI 0 "i@e %$e ?ea%$er, when it is not rainy, That is 0 "i@e %?) /) %$# )7 e*er& &ear. )nd so 2od save the 1egent, Church and *ingL

<hich means that 0 "i@e a"" a d e*er&%$i !. 0n the first line the word ?li$e? gives only a slight hint of irony" Parliamentary de%ates are usually long" The word ?de%ate? itself suggests a lengthy discussion, therefore the word ?li$e? here should %e a$in with some reservation" 0n other words, a hint of the interplay %etween positive and negative %egins with the first ?li$e?" The second use of the word ?li$e? is definitely ironical" Ko one would %e expected to li$e taxes" 0t is so o%vious that no context is necessary to decode the true meaning of ?li$e?" The attri%utive phrase ?when they?re not too many? strengthens the irony" Then ;yron uses the word ?li$e? in its literal meaning" ?!i$e? in com%inations with ?seacoal fire? and ?a %eefHstea$? and with ?two months of every year? maintains its literal meaning, although in the phrase J0 li$e the weatherJ the notion is very general" ;ut the last line again shows that the word ?li$e? is used with an ironic touch, meaning ?to li$e? and ?to put up with? simultaneously" 1ichard )ltic$ says, JThe effect of irony lies in the stri$ing disparity %etween what is said and what is meant"J, This Jstri$ing disparityJ is achieved through the intentional interplay of the two meanings, which are in opposition to each other" )nother important o%servation must %e %orne in mind when analysing the linguistic nature of irony" 0rony is generally used to convey a negative meaning" Therefore, only positive concepts may %e used in their logical dictionary meanings" 0n the examples #uoted a%ove, irony is em%odied in such words as ?delightful?, ?clever?, ?coherent?, ?li$e?" The contextual meaning always conveys the negation of the positive concepts em%odied in the dictionary meaning" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66.9<M(9EE.4. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS P)"&#e/&. Derivative logical meanings have a peculiar property, *i1. they always retain some semantic ties with the primary meaning and are strongly associated with it" Most of the derivative logical meanings, when fixed in dictionaries, are usually shown with the words they are connected with and are therefore fre#uently referred to as 0)- d logical meanings" The primary and derivative meanings are sometimes called 7ree and 0)- d meanings respectively, though some of the derivative meanings are not %ound in presentHday English" P)"&#e/& is a generic term the use of which must %e confined to lexicology as an aspect of the science of language" 0n actual speech polysemy vanishes unless it

is deli%erately retained for certain stylistic purposes" ) context that does not see$ to produce any particular stylistic effect generally materialiGes one definite meaning" That is why we state that polysemy vanishes in speech, or language Hin Haction" !et us analyse the following examples where the $eyHwords are intentionally made to reveal two or more meaningsD JThen $a%e me if thou wilt, if ever now"J The ver% ?hate? here materialiGes several meanings" This %ecomes apparent when one reads sonnet -8 to the end and compares the meaning of this word with other ver%s used synonymously" The principal meanings of this word areD ?disli$e?, ?stop loving?, ?%ecome indifferent to?, ?feel aversion for?, etc" )nother exampleD JMassachusetts was hostile to the )merican 7"a!, and she would not allow it to %e hoisted on her State =ouse"J The word ?flag? is used in its primary meaning when it appears in com%ination with the ver% ?to hoist? and in its derivative +or contextual/ meaning in the com%ination ?was hostile to"? Te-!/a a d P- . There are special stylistic devices, which ma$e a word materialiGe two distinct dictionary meanings" They are 1e-!/a and the 6- . Te-!/a is the use of a word in the same grammatical %ut different semantic relations to two adCacent words in the context, the semantic relations %eing on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred" JDora, plunging at once i %) 6ri*i"e!ed i %i/a'& and i %) %$e /idd"e )7 %$e r))/ J" +;" Shaw/ ?To plunge? +into the middle of the room/ materialiGes the meaning ?to rush into? or ?enter impetuously?" =ere it is used in its concrete, primary, literal meaningI in ?to plunge into privileged intimacy? the word ?plunge? is used in its transferred meaning" The same can %e said of the use of the ver%s ?to stain? and ?to lose? in the following lines from Pope?s JThe 1ape of the !oc$JD J"""<hether theH Kymph shall #%ai $er H) )-r )r $er e? Fr)'ade Or ")#e $er Hear% )r e'@"a'e a% a Fa"".A This stylistic device is particularly favoured in English emotive prose and in poetry" The revival of the original meanings of words must %e regarded as an essential #uality of any wor$ in the %ellesHlettres style" ) good writer always $eeps the chief meanings of words from fading away, provided the meanings are worth %eing $ept fresh and vigorous" heugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when the two meanings clash" ;y ma$ing the two meanings conspicuous in this particular way, each of them stands out clearly" The structure of Geugma may present variations from the patterns given a%ove" Thus in the sentenceD J""")nd May?s mother a"?a&# #%))d ) $er !e %i"i%&G and Dot?s mother e*er #%))d ) a &%$i ! 0-% $er a'%i*e "i%%"e 7ee%. J

The word ?stood? is used twice" This structural variant of Geugma, though producing some slight difference in meaning, does not violate the principle of the stylistic device" 0t still ma$es the reader realiGe that the two meanings of the word ?stand? are simultaneously expressed, one literal and the other transferred" T$e 6- is another stylistic device %ased on the interaction of two wellH$nown meanings of a word or phrase" 0t is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction %etween Geugma and fhe pun" The only relia%le distinguishing feature is a structural oneD Geugma is the realiGation of two meanings with the help of a ver%, which is made to refer to different su%Cects or o%Cects +direct or indirect/" The pun is more independent" There need not necessarily %e a word in the sentence to which the punHword refers" This does not mean, however, that the pun is entirely free" !i$e any other stylistic device, it must depend on a context" ;ut the context may %e of a more expanded character, sometimes even as large as a whole wor$ of emotive prose" Thus, the title of one of >scar <ilde?s plays, JThe 0mportance of ;eing Ear e#%A has a pun in it, inasmuch as the name of the hero and the adCective meaning ?seriouslyHminded? are %oth present in our mind" =ere is another example of a pun where a larger context for its realiGation is usedD AF)? %) %$e 0)ard+A said ;um%le" >liver %rushed away two or three tears that were lingering in his eyesI and #eei ! ) 0)ard 0-% %$e %a0"e, fortunately 0)?ed %) %$a%.B +Dic$ens/ 0n fact the humorous effect is caused %y the interplay, not of two meanings of one word, %ut of two words" ?;oard? as a group of officials with functions of administration and management and ?%oard? as a piece of furniture +a ta%le/ have %ecome two distinct words" Devices of simultaneously realiGing the various meanings of words, which are ot a more su%tle character than those em%odied in puns and Geugma, are to %e found in poetry and poetical descriptions and in speculations in emotive prose" MenHofHletters are especially sensitive to the nuances of meaning em%odied in almost every common word, and to ma$e these words live with their multifarious semantic aspects is the tas$ of a good writer" Those who can do it easily are said to have talent" 0n this respect it is worth su%Cecting to stylistic analysis words ordinarily perceived in their primary meaning, %ut which in poetic diction %egin to ac#uire some additional, contextual meaning" This latter meaning sometimes overshadows the primary meaning and it may, in the course of time, cease to denote the primary meaning, the derived meaning esta%lishing itself as the most recogniGa%le one"

H;ut to deal with these cases means to leave the domain of stylistics and find ourselves in the domain of lexicology" To illustrate the interplay of primary and contextual meanings, let us ta$e a few examples from poetical wor$sD 0n 1o%ert rost?s poem JStopping %y <oods on a Snowy EveningJ the poet, ta$ing delight in watching the snow fall on the woods, concludes his poem in the following wordsD JThe woods are lovely, dar$ and deep" ;ut 0 have promises to $eep, )nd miles to go %efore 0 sleep, )nd miles to go %efore 0 sleep"J The word ?promises? here is made to signify two concepts, *i1.+ ,/ a previous engagement to %e fulfilled and 7/ moral or legal o%ligation" The plural form of the word as well as the whole context of the poem are convincing proof that the second of the two meanings is the main one, in spite of the fact that in com%ination with the ver% ?to $eep? +to $eep a promise/ the first meaning is more predicta%le" =ere is another example" 0n Sha$espearian sonnet 7- there are the following linesD J<hen in disgrace with fortune and men?s eyes, 0 all alone %eweep my outcast state, )nd trou%le deaf heaven with my %ootless cries )nd thin$ upon myself and curse my fate"J )lmost every word here may %e interpreted in different sensesD sometimes the differences are hardly percepti%le, sometimes they are o%viously antagonistic to the primary meaning" ;ut we shall confine our analysis only to the meaning of the word ?cries?, which signifies %oth prayer and lamentation" These two meanings are suggested %y the relation of the word ?cries? to ?trou%le deaf heaven?" ;ut the word ?cries? suggests not only prayer, it also implies violent prayer as if in deep despair, almost with tears +see the word ?%eweep? in the second line of the part of the sonnet #uoted/" 0t is very important to %e a%le to follow the author?s intention from his manner of expressing nuances of meaning, which are potentially present in the semantic structure of existing words" Those who fail to define the suggested meanings of poetic words will never understand poetry %ecause they are una%le to decode the poetic language" 0n various functional styles of language the capacity of a word to signify several meanings simultaneously manifests itself in different degrees" 0n scientific prose it almost e#uals Gero" 0n poetic style this is an essential property" To o%serve the fluctuations of meanings in the %ellesHlettres style is not

only important for a %etter understanding of the purpose or intention of the writer, %ut also profita%le to a linguistic scholar engaged in the study of semantic changes in words" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+66.9E5(9EK.4. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS The emotive meaning or emotional colouring +contextual emotive meaning/ of a word, as has already %een pointed out elsewhere, plays a considera%le role in stylistics" This is mainly due to the fact that no utterance can %e understood clearly without its %eing evaluated from the point of view of the author?s attitude towards the things descri%ed" 0n fact the term e-%ra" came to %e used in order to distinguish the unemotional communication from the emotional or otherwise distinguisha%le ) H e-%ra" forms of communication" ;oth words and constructions of an emotional character have a stylistic significance only when they are set against the nonHemotional" Thus, for instance, interCections, which are erroneously referred to as parts of speech are, in fact, signals of emotional tension" They must %e regarded as expressive means of the language and as such may %e effectively used as stylistic devices in the proper context" I %erHe'%i) # a d E5'"a/a%)r& J)rd#. I %erHe'%i) # are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may %e said to exist in language as conventional sym%ols of human emotions" The role of interCections in creating emotive meanings has already %een dealt with" 0t remains only to show how the logical and emotive meanings interact and to ascertain their general functions and spheres of application" 0n traditional grammars the interCection is regarded as a part of speech, alongside other parts of speech, as the noun, adCective, ver%, etc" ;ut there is another view, which regards the interCection not as a part of speech, %ut as a sentence" There is much to uphold this view" 0ndeed, a word ta$en separately is deprived of any intonation, which will suggest a complete idea, that is, a pronouncementI whereas an interCection will always manifest a definite attitude on the part of the spea$er towards the pro%lem and therefore have intonation" The pauses %etween words are very %rief, sometimes hardly percepti%le, whereas the pause %etween the interCection and the words that follow it is so long, so significant, that it may %e e#ualed to the pauses %etween sentences" =owever, a closer investigation into the nature and functions of the interCection proves %eyond dou%t that the interCection is not a sentenceI it is a word with strong emotive meaning" The pauses that frame interCections can %e accounted for %y the sudden

transfer from the emotional to the logical or vice versa" urther, the definite intonation with which interCections are pronounced depends on the sense of the preceding or following sentence" 0nterCections have no sentence meaning if ta$en independently" !et us ta$e some examples of the use of interCectionsD O$+ where are you going to, all you ;ig SteamersY +*ipling/ The interCection ?oh?, %y itself may express various feelings, such as regret, despair, disappointment, sorrow, woe, surprise, astonishment, lamentation, entreaty and many others" =ere it precedes, a definite sentence and must %e regarded as a part of it" 0t denotes the ardent tone of the #uestion" The ?>h? here may %e regarded, to use the terminology of theory of information, as a signal indicating emotional tension in the following utterance" The same may %e o%served in the use of the interCection ?oh? in the following sentence from J) Christmas CarolJ %y Dic$ensD J>hL %ut he was a tightHfisted hand at the grindHstone, Scrooge"J The ?>h? here is a signal indicating the strength of the emotions of the author, which are further revealed in a num%er of devices, mostly syntactical, li$e elliptical sentences, tautological su%Cects, etc" The meaning of the interCection ?>h? in the sentence can again %e pinned down only from the semantic analysis of the sentence following it and then it %ecomes clear that the emotion to %e understood is one of disgust or scorn" So interCections, as it were, radiate the emotional element over the whole of the utterance, provided, of course, that they precede it" 0t is interesting to note in passing how often interCections are used %y Sha$espeare in his sonnets" Most of them serve as signals for the sestet, which is the semantic or\and emotional counterpart to the octave, ? for exampleD J>, carve not with thy horns """J +Sonnet ,-/ J>, !et me, true in love, %ut"""J +7,/ J>, therefore, love %e of thyself"""J +77/ J>, let my %oo$s %e, then, the"""J +79/ J>, then vouchsafe me"""J +97/ J>, a%sence, what a torment"""J +9-/ J>, noL thy love, though much"""J +3,/ J>, fearful meditation"""J +3F/ J>, if 0 say, you loo$"""J +.,/ J>, lest your true love"""J +.7/

J>, $now, sweet love"""J +.3/ J)h, do not, when my heart"""J +-3/ 0nterCections can %e divided into 6ri/ary and deri*a%i*e" Primary interCections are generally devoid of any logical meaning" Derivative interCections may retain a modicum of logical meaning, though this is always suppressed %y the volume of emotive meaning" O$D A$D Fa$D P))$D G)#$D H-#$D A"a#D are primary interCections, though some of them once had logical meaning" ?=eavensL?, ?good graciousL?, ?dear meL?, ?2odL?, ?Come onL?, ?!oo$ hereL?, ?dearL?, ?%y the !ordL?, ?2od $nowsL?, ?;less meL?, ?=um%ugL? and many others of this $ind are not interCections as suchI a %etter name for them would %e exclamatory words generally used as interCections, i" e", their function is that of the interCection" 0t must %e noted here that some adCectives and adver%s can also ta$e on the function of interCections H for example, such words as %erri0"eD+ a?7-"D+ !rea%D+ ?) der7-"D+ #6"e didD 7i eD and the li$e" <ith proper intonation and with an ade#uate pause such as follows an interCection, these adCectives may ac#uire a strong emotional colouring and are e#ual in force to interCections" 0n that case we may say that some adCectives and adver%s have ac#uired a grammatical meaning, that of the interCection" MenHofHletters, most of which possess an acute feeling for words, their meaning, sound, possi%ilities, potential energy, etc", are always aware of the emotional charge of words in a context" )n instance of such acute awareness is the following excerpt from Somerset Maugham?s JThe 1aGor?s EdgeJ where in a conversation the word ?2od? is used in two different sensesD first in its logical meaning and then with the grammatical meanings of the interCectionD JPerhaps he won?t" 0t?s a long arduous road he?s starting to travel, %ut it may %e that at the end of it he?ll find what he?s see$ing"J J<hat?s thatYJ J=asn?t it occurred to youY 0t seems to me that in what he said to you he indicated it pretty plainly . G)d.A J2odLJ she cried" ;ut it was an exclamation of incredulous surprise" >ur use of the same word, %ut in such a different sense, had a comic effect, so that we were o%liged to laugh" ;ut 0sa%el immediately grew serious again and 0 felt in her whole attitude something li$e fear" The change in the sense of the word ?2od? is indicated %y a mar$ of exclamation, %y the use of the word ?cried? and the words ?exclamation of incredulous surprise, which are ways of conveying in writing the sense carried in the spo$en language %y the intonation" 0nterCections always attach a definite modal nuance to the utterance" ;ut it is impossi%le to define exactly the shade of meaning

contained in a given interCection, though the context may suggest one" =ere are some of the meanings that can %e expressed %y interCectionsD Coy, delight, admiration, approval, dis%elief, astonishment, fright, regret, woe, dissatisfaction, ennui +%oredom/, sadness, %lame, reproach, protest, horror, irony, sarcasm, meanness, selfHassurance, despair, disgust and many others" 0nteresting attempts have %een made to specify the emotions expressed %y some of the interCections" =ere are a few lines from ;yron?s JDon :uanJ which may serve as an illustrationD J)ll present life is %ut an interCection )n ?>h? or ?)h? of Coy or misery, >r a ?=aL haL? or ?;ahL? H a yawn or ?PoohL? >f which perhaps the latter is most true"J 0nterCections li$e other words in the English voca%ulary %ear features, which mar$ them as 0))@i#$+ e-%ra" )r ')"")8-ia"" Thus )$+ a$+ Fa$+ and the li$e are neutralI a"a#+ e!ad +euphemism for ?%y 2od?/, L)+ Har@ are %oo$ish,I !)#$+ ?$&+ ?e"" are collo#uial" ;ut as with other words in any stratum of voca%ulary, the %orderline %etween the three groups is %road and flexi%le" Sometimes therefore a given interCection may %e considered as %oo$ish %y one and as neutral %y another scholar or collo#uial %y one and neutral %y another" =owever, the difference %etween collo#uial and %oo$ish will always %e clear enough" 0n evaluating the attitude of a writer to the things, ideas, events and phenomena he is dealing with, the a%ility of the reader to pinpoint the emotional element %ecomes of paramount importance" 0t is sometimes hidden under seemingly impartial description or narrative, and only an insignificant lexical unit, or the syntactical design of an utterance, will reveal the author?s mood" ;ut interCections, as has %een said, are direct signals that the utterance is emotionally charged, and insufficient attention on the part of the literary critic to the use of interCections will deprive him of a truer understanding of the writer?s aims" T$e E6i%$e%. rom the strongest means of displaying the writer?s or spea$er?s emotional attitude to his communication, we now pass to a wea$er %ut still forceful means H %$e e6i%$e%. The epithet is su%tle and delicate in character" 0t is not so direct as the interCection" Some people even consider that it can create an atmosphere of o%Cective evaluation, whereas it actually conveys the su%Cective attitude of the writer, showing that he is partial in one way or another" T$e e6i%$e% i# a #%&"i#%i' de*i'e 0a#ed ) %$e i %er6"a& )7 e/)%i*e a d ")!i'a" /ea i ! i a

a%%ri0-%i*e ?)rd+ 6$ra#e )r e*e #e %e 'e+ -#ed %) '$ara'%eri1e a )0He'% a d 6)i %i ! )-% %) %$e reader+ a d 7re8-e %"& i/6)#i ! ) $i/+ #)/e )7 %$e 6r)6er%ie# )r 7ea%-re# )7 %$e )0He'% ?i%$ %$e ai/ )7 !i*i ! a i di*id-a" 6er'e6%i) a d e*a"-a%i) )7 %$e#e 7ea%-re# )r 6r)6er%ie#. The epithet is mar$edly su%Cective and evaluative" The logical attri%ute is purely o%Cective, nonH evaluating" 0t is descriptive and indicates an inherent or prominent feature of the thing or phenomenon in #uestion" Thus in !ree /ead)?#+ ?$i%e # )?+ r)- d %a0"e+ 0"-e #@ie#+ 6a"e ')/6"e5i) + ")7%& /)- %ai # and the li$e, the adCectives are more logical attri%utes than epithets" They indicate those #ualities of the o%Cects, which may %e regarded as generally recogniGed" ;ut in ?i"d+ ?i d+ ")-d )'ea + re/)r#e"e## da#$ )7+ 0i"")?#+ 7)r/ida0"e ?a*eB#+ $ear%(0-r i ! #/i"e the adCectives do not point to inherent #ualities of the o%Cects descri%ed" They are su%Cectively evaluative" The epithet ma$es a strong impact on the reader, so much so, that the leader unwittingly %egins to see and evaluate things as the writer wants him to" 0ndeed, in such word com%inations as de#%r-'%i*e '$ar/#+ !")ri)-# #i!$%+ e ')-ra!i ! #/i"e+ the interrelation %etween logical and emotive meanings may %e said to manifest itself in different degrees" The word de#%r-'%i*e has retained its logical meaning to a considera%le extent, %ut at the same time an experienced reader cannot help perceiving the emotive meaning of the word, which in this com%ination will signify ') 8-eri !+ irre#i#%i0"e+ da !er)-#" The logical meaning of the word !")ri)-# in com%ination with the word #i!$% has almost entirely faded out" G")ri)-# is already fixed in dictionaries as a word having an emotive meaning alongside its primary, logical meaning" )s to the word e ')-ra!i ! +in the com%ination e ')-ra!i ! #/i"e/ it is half epithet and half logical attri%ute" 0n fact, it is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line of demarcation %etween epithet and logical attri%ute" 0n some passages the logical attri%ute %ecomes so strongly enveloped in the emotional aspect of the utterance that it %egins to radiate emotiveness, though %y nature it is logically descriptive" Ta$e for example, the adCectives green, ?$i%e+ 0"-e+ ")7%& +%ut somehow not r)- d4 in the com%inations given a%ove" 0n a suita%le context they may all have a definite emotional impact on the reader" This is pro%a%ly explained %y the fact that the #uality most characteristic of the given o%Cect is attached to it, thus strengthening the #uality"

Epithets may %e classified from different standpointsD #e/a %i' and #%r-'%-ra". Semantically, epithets may %e divided into two groupsD those a##)'ia%ed with the noun following and those - a##)'ia%ed with it?" )ssociated epithets are those, which point to a feature, which is essential to the o%Cects they descri%eD the idea expressed in the epithet is to a certain extent inherent in the concept of the o%Cect" The associated epithet immediately refers the mind to the concept in #uestion due to some actual #uality of the o%Cect it is attached to, for instance ?dar$ 7)re#%B, ?dreary /id i!$%B, ?careful a%%e %i) B, ?unwearying re#ear'$B, ?indefatiga%le a##id-i%&B, ?fantastic %err)r#B+ etc" Unassociated epithet are attri%utes used to characteriGe the o%Cect %y adding a feature not inherent in it, i" e, a feature which may %e so unexpected as to stri$e the reader %y its novelty, as for instance, B$ear%(0-r i ! #/i"eB+ B0))%"e## 'rie#B+ B#-""e ear%$B+ B*)i'e"e## #a d#B+ etc" The adCectives here do not indicate any property inherent in the o%Cects in #uestion" They impose, as it were, a property on them, which is fitting only in the given circumstances" 0t may seem strange, unusual, or even accidental" 0n any com%ination of words it is very important to o%serve to what degree the components of the com%ination are lin$ed" <hen they are so closely lin$ed that the component parts %ecome insepara%le, we note that we are dealing with a set expression" <hen the lin$ %etween the component parts is comparatively close, we say there is a sta%le word com%ination, and when we can su%stitute any word of the same grammatical category for the one given, we note what is called a free com%ination of words" <ith regard to epithets, this division %ecomes of paramount importance, inasmuch as the epithet is a powerful means for ma$ing the desired impact on the reader, and therefore its ties with the noun are generally contextual" =owever, there are com%inations in which the ties %etween the attri%ute and the noun defined are very close, and the whole com%ination is viewed as a linguistic entity" Com%inations of this type appear as a result of the fre#uent use of certain definite epithets with definite nouns" They %ecome sta%le word com%inations" Examples areD ?0ri!$% face?, *a"-a0"e connections, #?ee% smile?, B- ear%$"& %eauty?, B6i%'$ dar$ness?, ?%$ir#%& deserts?, Bdee6 feeling?, ?'"a##i' example?, B6)?er7-" influence?, B#?ee% perfume? and the li$e" The predicta%ility of such epithets is very great" The function of epithets of this $ind remains %asically the sameD to show the evaluating, su%Cective attitude of the writer towards the thing descri%ed" ;ut for this purpose the author does not create his own, new, unexpected epithetsI he uses ones that have %ecome

traditional, and may %e termed Jlanguage epithetsJ as they %elong to the languageH asHaHsystem" Thus epithets may %e divided into "a !-a!e e6i%$e%# a d #6ee'$ e6i%$e%#. Examples of speech epithets areD B#"a*i#$ $nees?, B#"ee6"e## %ay.B The process of strengthening the connection %etween the epithet and the noun may sometimes go so far as to %uild a specific unit, which does not lose its poetic flavour" Such epithets are called 7i5ed and are mostly used in %allads and fol$ songs" =ere are some examples of fixed epithetsD B%r-e love?, Bdar@ forest?, ?#?eet Sir?, ?!ree wood?, ?!))d ship, 0ra*e cavaliers"? Structurally, epithets can %e viewed from the angle of a/ composition and %/ distri%ution" rom the point of view of their ')/6)#i%i) a" structure epithets may %e divided into #i/6"e+ ')/6)- d a d 6$ra#e e6i%$e%#" Simple epithets are ordinary adCectives" Examples have %een given a%ove" Compound epithets are %uilt li$e compound adCectives" Examples areD B$ear%(0-r i ! sigh?, B#&"6$("i@e figures?, B'")-d(#$a6e giant?, J"""'-r"&($eaded goodHforHnothing, )nd /i#'$ie7( /a@i ! mon$ey from his %irth"J +;yron/ The tendency to cram into one language unit as much information as possi%le has led to new compositional models for epithets, which we shall call 6$ra#e e6i%$e%#" ) phrase and even a whole sentence may %ecome an epithet if the main formal re#uirement of the epithet is maintained, *i1. its attri%utive use" ;ut unli$e simple and compound epithets, which may have preH or postHposition, phrase epithets are always placed %efore the nouns they refer to" )n interesting o%servation in this respect has %een made %y Prof" >" S" )$hmanova" JThe syntactical com%inations are, as it were, more explicit, descriptive, ela%orateI the lexical are more of an indication, a hint or a clue to some previously communicated or generally $nown fact, as if one should sayD ?Mou $now what 0 mean and all 0 have to do now is to point it out to you in this concise and familiar way?"J This inner semantic #uality of the attri%utive relations in lexical com%inations, as they are called %y Prof" )$hmanova, is perhaps most stri$ing in the phrase and sentence epithets" =ere the ?concise way? is most effectively used" =ere are some examples of phrase epithetsD J0t is this d)(i%( &)-r#e"7+ !)(i%(a") e attitude that has thus far held %ac$ real development of the Middle East?s river resources"J JPersonally 0 detest her +2ioconda?s/ smug, /&#%er&(/a@i !+ ')/e($i%$er(0-7(!)(a?a&(a!ai%i(0e'a-#e(0-%%er(?)-"d B%( /e"%(i (/&(/)-%$ expression" JThere is a sort of BO$(?$a% a(?i'@ed(?)r"d( %$i#(i#(a d($)?(I(?i#$(I(')-"d(d)(#)/e%$" !(%)(/a@e(i%(0e%%er(a d( )0"erB

expression a%out Montmorency that has %een $nown to %ring the tears into the eyes of pious old ladies and gentlemen"J J reddie was standing in front of the fireplace with a B?e""(%$a7#(%$e(#%)r&(?$a%(are(?e(!)i !(%)(d)(a0)-%(i7 air that made him a focal point"J )n interesting structural detail of phrase epithets is that they are generally followed %y the words e56re##i) + air+ a%%i%-de and others, which descri%e %ehaviour or facial expression" 0n other words, such epithets seem to transcri%e into language sym%ols a communication usually conveyed %y nonH linguistic means" )nother structural feature of such phrase epithets is that after the nouns they refer to, there often comes a su%ordinate attri%utive clause %eginning with %$a%. This attri%utive clause, as it were, serves the purpose of decoding the effect of the communication" 0t must %e noted that phrase epithets are always hyphenated, thus pointing to the temporary structure of the compound word" These two structural features have predetermined the functioning of phrase epithets" Practically any phrase or sentence, which deals with the psychological state of a person may serve as an epithet" The phrases and sentences transformed into epithets lose their independence and assume a new #uality, which is revealed %oth in the intonation pattern +that of an attri%ute/ and graphically +%y %eing hyphenated/" )nother structural variety of the epithet is the one, which we shall term re*er#ed. The reversed epithet is composed of two nouns lin$ed in an ofH phrase" The su%Cective, evaluating, emotional element is em%odied not in the noun attri%ute %ut in the noun descri%ed, for exampleD Jthe #$ad)? of a smileJI Ja de*i" of a Co%J +Maugham/I J"""he smiled %rightly, neatly, efficiently, a /i"i%ar& a00re*ia%i) of a smileJ J) de*i" of a sea rolls in that %ayJI J) "i%%"e F"&i ! D-%'$/a of a ca%JI Ja d)! of a fellowJI Jher 0r-%e of a %rotherJI J"""a ") ! i!$%#$ir% )7 a mac$intosh"""J 0t will %e o%served that such epithets are metaphorical" The noun to %e assessed is contained in the ofHphrase and the noun it #ualifies is a metaphor 2#$ad)?+ de*i"+ /i"i%ar& a00re*ia%i) . F"&i ! D-%'$/a + d)!4" The grammatical aspect, *i1" attri%utive relation %etween the mem%ers of the com%ination shows that the SD here is an epithet" 0t has %een ac$nowledged that it is sometimes difficult to draw a line of demarcation %etween attri%utive and predicative relations" Some attri%utes carry so much information that they may Custly %e considered %earers of predicativeness" This is particularly true of the epithet, especially genuine or speech epithets, which %elong to languageHinHaction and not to languageHasHaHsystem" These epithets are predicative in essence, though not in form" >n the other hand, some word com%inations where

we have predicative relations, convey so strongly the emotional assessment of the o%Cect spo$en of, that in spite of their formal, structural design, the predicatives can %e classed as epithets" =ere are some examplesD ? F))"# that they are?I ?Ji'@ed as he is"? The inverted position of the predicatives ?fools? and ?wic$ed? as well as the intensifying ?that they are? and ?as he is? mar$ this %orderline variety of epithet" Some language epithets, in spite of opposition on the part of orthodox language purists, esta%lish themselves in Standard English as conventional sym%ols of assessment for a given period" To these %elong words we have already spo$en of li$e %erri0"e+ a?7-"+ /a##i*e+ %)6+ /i!$%&+ 'r-'ia" " rom the point of view of the di#%ri0-%i) of the epithets in the sentence, the first model to %e pointed out is the #%ri ! )7 e6i%$e%#" =ere are a few examples" 0n his depiction of Kew Mor$, >" =enry gives the following string of epithetsD JSuch was the %ac$ground of the ?) der7-"+ 'r-e"+ e '$a %i !+ 0e?i"deri !+ 7a%a"+ !rea% cityIJ >ther examples areD a 6"-/6+ r)#&('$ee@ed+ ?$)"e#)/e a66"e(7a'ed &)- ! woman +Dic$ens/I Ja ?e""(/a%'$ed+ 7air"&(0a"a 'ed !i*e(a d(%a@e couple"J )s in any enumeration the string of epithets gives a manyHsided depiction of the o%Cect" ;ut in this manyH sidedness there is always a suggestion of an ascending order of emotive elements" This can easily %e o%served in the intonation pattern of a string of epithets" There is generally an ascending scale, which culminates in the last epithetI if the last epithet is a language epithet 2!rea%4+ or not an epithet 2&)- !O+ the culminating point is the last genuine epithet" The culminating point in the a%ove examples is at 7a%a"+ a66"e(7a'ed+ a d !i*e(a d(%a@e. )nother distri%utional model is the %ra #7erred e6i%$e%. Transferred epithets are ordinary logical attri%utes generally descri%ing the state of a human %eing, %ut made to refer to an inanimate o%Cect, for exampleD #i'@ '$a/0er+ #"ee6"e## 6i"")?+ re#%"e## 6a'e+ 0rea%$"e## ea!er e##+ - 0rea@7a#%ed /)r i !+ /err& $)-r#+ a di#a66r)*i ! 7i !er+ 0sa%el shrugged a i di77ere % #$)-"der" )s may %e seen, it is the force contri%uted to the attri%ute %y its position, and not %y its meaning, that hallows it into an epithet" The main feature of the epithet, that of emotional assessment, is greatly diminished in this modelI %ut it never #uite vanishes" The meaning of the logical attri%utes in such com%inations ac#uires a definite emotional colouring" !anguage epithets as part of the emotional word stoc$ of the language have a tendency to %ecome o%solescent" That is the fate of many emotional elements in the language" They gradually lose their emotive charge and are replaced %y new ones, which in their turn will %e replaced %y neologisms" Such was the fate of the language epithet

!))d( a%-red. 0n the wor$s of =enry ielding this epithet appears very often, as for example, ?a goodHnatured hole?, ?goodHnatured side?" The words *a#% and *a#%"& were also used as epithets in the wor$s of menHofHletters of the ,4th century, as in *a#% rai #+ *a#%"& a/-#ed The pro%lem of the epithet is too large and too significant to %e fully dealt with in a short chapter" 0ndeed, it may %e regarded as the crucial pro%lem in emotive language and correspondingly among the stylistic devices of the language" 0t remains only to say that the epithet is a direct and straightforward way of showing the author?s attitude towards the things descri%ed, whereas other stylistic devices, even imageH%earing ones, will reveal the author?s evaluation of the o%Cect only indirectly" That is pro%a%ly why those authors who wish to show a seeming impartiality and o%Cectivity in depicting their heroes and descri%ing events use few epithets" 1ealistic authors use epithets much more sparingly, as statistical data have shown" 1oughly spea$ing, 1omanticism on the other hand may to some extent %e characteriGed %y its a%undant use of epithets" 0n illustration we have ta$en at random a few lines from a stanGa in ;yron?s JChilde =arold?s PilgrimageJD The $)rrid crags, %y %)66"i ! convent, crowned, The cor$Htrees $)ar that clothe the #$a!!& steep, The mountainHmoss %y #')r'$i ! s$ies im%rown?d, The #- @e glen, whose #- "e## shru%s must weep, The )ra !e tints that gild the !ree e#% %ough""" O5&/)r) is a com%ination of two words +mostly an adCective and a, noun or an adver% with an adCective/ in which the meanings of the two clash, %eing opposite in sense, for exampleD B")? s$yscraper?, B#?ee% sorrow?, B i'e rascal?, B6"ea#a %"& ugly face?, B$)rri0"& %eautiful?, ?a dea7e i ! silence from <hitehall?" 0f the primary meaning of the #ualifying word changes or wea$ens, the stylistic effect of oxymoron is lost" This is the case with what were once oxymoronic com%inations, as for exampleD Ba?7-""& i'e+ Ba?7-""& glad?, B%erri0"& sorry? and the li$e, where the words a?7-""& and %erri0"& have lost their primary logical meaning and are now used with emotive meaning, only as intensifiers" The essence of oxymoron consists in the capacity of the primary meaning of the adCective or adver% to resist for some time the overwhelming power of semantic change, which words undergo in com%ination" The forci%le com%ination of nonHcom%inative words seems to develop what may %e called a $ind of centrifugal force, which $eeps them apart, in contrast to ordinary word com%inations where centripetal

force is in action" <e have already pointed out that there are different ratios of emotiveHlogical relations in epithets" 0n some of them the logical meaning is hardly perceived, in others the two meanings coHexist" 0n oxymoron the logical meaning holds fast %ecause there is no true word com%ination, only the Cuxtaposition of two nonHcom%inative words" ;ut still we may notice a peculiar change in the meaning of the #ualifying word" 0t assumes a new life in oxymoron, definitely indicative of the assessing tendency in the writer?s mind" !et us ta$e the following example from >" =enry?s story JThe DuelJ in which one of the heroes thus descri%es his attitude towards Kew Mor$" J0 despise its very vastness and power" 0t has the 6))re#% /i""i) aire#+ the "i%%"e#% !rea% /e + %$e $a-!$%ie#% 0e!!ar#+ %$e 6"ai e#% 0ea-%ie#+ %$e ")?e#% #@&#'ra6er#+ %$e d)"e7-"e#% 6"ea#-re# of any town 0 ever saw"J Even the superlative degree of the adCectives fails to extinguish the primary meaning of the adCectivesD 6))r+ "i%%"e+ $a-!$%&, etc" ;ut %y some inner law of word com%inations they also show the attitude of the spea$er, reinforced, of course, %y the preceding sentenceD J0 despise its very vastness and power"J 0t will not come amiss to express this language phenomenon in terms of the theory of information, which states that though the general tendency of entropy +the measure of the nonHorganiGed, also the measure of pro%a%ility/ is to enlarge, the encoding tendency in the language, which strives for an organiGed system of language sym%ols reduces entropy" Perhaps this is due to the organiGing spirit of the language, i" e" the striving after a system +which in its very essence is an organiGed whole/ that oxymoronic groups, if repeated fre#uently, lose their stylistic #uality and gradually fall into the group of ac$nowledged word com%inations which consists of an intensifier and the concept intensified" >xymoron as a rule has one structural modelD adHe'%i*eQ( )- " 0t is in this structural model that the resistance of the two component parts to fusion into one unit manifests itself most strongly" 0n the ad*er0(adHe'%i*e model the change of meaning in the first element, the adver%, is more rapid, resistance to the unifying process not %eing so strong" Sometimes the tendency to use oxymoron is the mar$ of certain literary trends and tastes" There are poets in search of new shades of meaning in existing words, who ma$e a point of Coining together words of contradictory meaning" JTwo ordinary words may %ecome almost new,J writes (" (" (inogradov, Jif they are Coined for the first time or used in an unexpected context"J Thus B6e)6"ed desert?I B6)6-")-# solitude?I ?6r)-d humility? +;yron/ are oxymoronic" Sometimes,

however, the tendency to com%ine the uncom%inative is revealed in structurally different forms, not in adCectiveHnoun models" 2or$i criticiGes his own sentenceD J0 suffered then from the 7a a%i'i#/ of $nowledge,J and calls it Ja %lunderJ" =e points out that the ac#uiring of $nowledge is not %lind as fanaticism is" The syntactic relations here are not oxymoronic" ;ut com%inations of this $ind can %e li$ened to oxymoron" The same can %e said of the following lines from ;yron?s Childe =arold?s PilgrimageD J air 2reeceL sad relic of departed <orthL I//)r%a"+ %$)-!$ ) /)re+ %$)-!$ 7a""e + !rea%DA >xymoronic relations in the italiciGed part can scarcely %e felt, %ut still the contrary signification is clearly perceived" Such structures may %e loo$ed upon as intermediate %etween oxymoron and antithesis" Kot every com%ination of words, which we have called nonHcom%inative should %e regarded as oxymoron, %ecause new meanings developed in new com%inations do not necessarily give rise to opposition" They are not infre#uently Cust o%scure" !et us ta$e for example the following lines from T" S" Eliot?s JThe !oveHsong of )lfred Prufroc$"J J)nd time for all the wor$s and days of hands That lift and drop a #uestion on your plateI Time for you and time for me, )nd time yet for a hundred indecisions, )nd for a hundred visions and revisions, ;efore the ta$ing of a toast and tea"J Perhaps some readers will find new meanings infused into these common words Jhands that lift and drop a #uestion on your plate,J %ut to express them in linguistic terms is so far impossi%le and pro%a%ly unnecessary" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+9:;9+ 66.9E:(9M04. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND NOMINAL MEANINGS A %) )/a#ia. <e have already pointed out the peculiarities of nominal meaning" The interplay %etween logical and nominal meanings of a word is called a %) )/a#ia. )s in other stylistic devices %ased on the interaction of lexical meanings, the two $inds of meanings must %e realiGed in the word simultaneously" 0f only one meaning is materialiGed in the context there is no stylistic device as in $))"i!a + 0)&')%% and other examples given earlier" =ere are some examples of genuine antonomasia"

J)mong the herd of Cournals which are pu%lished in the States, there are some, the reader scarcely need %e told, of character and credit" rom personal intercourse with accomplished gentlemen connected with pu%lications of this class, 0 have derived %oth pleasure and profit" ;ut the name of these is Fe?, and of the other Le!i) + and the influence of the good is powerless to counteract the mortal poison of the %ad" +Dic$ens/" The use of the word ?name? made the author write the words ? ew? and ?!egion? with capital letters" 0t is very important to note that this device is mainly realiGed in the written language, %ecause sometimes capital letters are the only signals to denote the presence of the stylistic device" The same can also %e o%served in the following example from ;yron?s JDon :uanJD JSociety is now one polished horde, orm?d of two mighty tri%es, the F)re# and F)red.A 0n these two examples of the use of antonomasia the nominal meaning is hardly perceived, the logical meaning of the words 7e?+ "e!i) + 0)re#+ 0)red %eing too strong" ;ut there is another point that should %e mentioned" Most proper names are %uilt on some law of analogy" Many of them end in (#) +as C)$ #) / or (er 2F"e%'$er4. <e easily recogniGe such words as S/i%$+ J$i%e+ Fr)? + Gree + F)?"er and others as proper names" ;ut such names as Miss F"-e(E&e# +Carter ;rown/ or S'r))!e or Mr. Ter) may %e called to$en or %e""(%a"e names" They give information to the reader a%out the %earer of the name" The nominal meaning is not intended to give any information a%out the person" 0t only serves the purpose of identification" Proper names, i"e", the words with nominal meaning can etymologically, in the maCority of cases, %e traced to some #uality, property or trait of a person, or to his occupation" ;ut this etymological meaning may %e forgotten and the word %e understood as a proper name and nothing else" 0t is not so with antonomasia +telltale or to$en names/" )ntonomasia is intended to point out the leading, most characteristic feature of a person or event, at the same time pinning this leading trait as a proper name to the person or event concerned" 0n fact antonomasia is a revival of the initial stage in naming individuals" )ntonomasia may %e li$ened to the epithet in essence if not in form" 0t categoriGes the person and thus simultaneously indicates %oth the general and the particular" )ntonomasia is a much favoured device in the %ellesHlettres style" 0n an article J<hat?s in a nameYJ, Mr" 1" Davis saysD J0n deciding on names for his characters, an author has an unfair advantage over other parents" =e $nows so much %etter how his child will turn out" <hen Saul ;ellow named )ugie March, he had already conceived a hero restlessly on the move, marching ahead with august ideas of

himself" =enry :ames saw in )dam (erver of JThe 2olden ;owlJ a selfHmade )merican, sprung from the soil, full of verve and Gest for life" 0n choosing names li$e ?Murdstone?, ?Scrooge?, and ?2radgrind?, Dic$ens was %eing even more o%vious"J )n interesting literary device to emphasiGe tellHtale names is employed %y ;yron in his JDon :uanJ where the name is followed or preceded %y an explanatory remar$ as in the followingD JSir :ohn P)%%"edee6+ %$e /i!$%& dri @er.A JThere was the sage Miss Readi !.A J)nd the two fair ')($eire##e# Gi"%0eddi !.A JThere was Dic$ D-0i)-#, the /e%a6$&#i'ia + <ho loved philosophy and a good dinnerI A !"e, the soiHdisant /a%$e/a%i'ia G Sir =enry Si"*er'-6+ the great ra'e(?i er.A The explanatory words, as it were, revive the logical meaning of the proper names thus ma$ing more apparent the interplay of logical and nominal meanings" The use of antonomasia is now not confined to the %ellesHlettres style" 0t is often found in pu%licistic style, that is in magaGine and newspaper articles, in essays and also in military language" The following are examplesD J0 say this to our )merican friends" Mr" Fa'i !(F)%$(Ja&# does not get very far in this world"J J0 suspect that the N)e# and D) L% V )?# would far outnum%er the Ye##e#.A So far we have dealt with a variety of antonomasia in which common words with o%vious logical meaning are given nominal meaning without losing their primary, %asic significance" ;ut antonomasia can also ma$e a word, which now has a %asic nominal meaning ac#uire a generic signification, thus supplying the word with an additional logical meaning" The latter can only %e deciphered if the events connected with a certain place mentioned or with a conspicuous feature of a person are well $nown" Thus the word D- @ir@ now means ?the evacuation of troops under heavy %om%ardment %efore it is too late?, Seda means ?a complete defeat?, C)*e %r& ( the destruction of a city %y air raids?, a 8-i1"i ! now means ?a traitor who aids occupying enemy forces?" The spelling of these words demonstrates the stages %y which proper nouns ac#uire new, logical meaningsD some of them are still spelt with capital letters +geographical names/I others are already spelt with small letters showing that a new word with a primary logical meaning has already come into existence" This variety of antonomasia is not so widely used as a stylistic device, most pro%a%ly due to the nature of words with nominal meaningD they tell very little or even nothing a%out the %earer of the name" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.9M9(9ME4.

INTENSIFICATION OF A CERTAIN FEATURE OF A THING OR PHENOMENON 0n the third group of stylistic devices, which we now come to, we find that one of the #ualities of the o%Cect in #uestion is made to sound essential" This is an entirely different principle from that on which the second group is %ased, that of interaction %etween two lexical meanings simultaneously materialiGed in the context" 0n this third group the #uality pic$ed out may %e seemingly unimportant, and it is fre#uently transitory, %ut for a special reason it is elevated to the greatest importance and made into a telling feature" Si/i"e. The intensification of some feature of the concept in #uestion is realiGed in a device called #i/i"e. >rdinary comparison and simile must not %e confused"" They represent two diverse processes" JComparison means weighing two o%Cects %elonging to one class of things with the purpose of esta%lishing the degree of their sameness or difference" To use a simile is to characteriGe one o%Cect %y %ringing it into contact with another o%Cect %elonging to an entirely different class of things" Comparison ta$es into consideration all the properties of the two o%Cects, stressing the one that is compared" Simile excludes all the properties of the two o%Cects except one which is made common to them"? or example, ? T$e 0)& seems to %e as '"e*er a# $i# /)%$erB is ordinary comparison" ?;oy? and ?mother? %elong to the same class of o%Cects H human %eings H and only one #uality is %eing stressed to find the resem%lance" ;ut in the sentenceD AMaide #+ "i@e /)%$#+ are ever caught %y glare,J +;yron/, we have a simile" _Mardens? and ?moths? %elong to heterogeneous classes of o%Cects and ;yron has found the concept /)%$ to indicate one of the secondary features of the concept /aide + i" e", to %e easily lured" >f the two concepts %rought together in the simile H one characteriGed + /aide 4O+ and the other characteriGing +/)%$4O H the feature intensified will %e more inherent in the latter than in the former" Moreover the o%Cect characteriGed is seen in #uite a new and unexpected light, %ecause the writer, as it were, imposes this feature on it" Similes forci%ly set one o%Cect against another regardless of the fact that they may %e completely alien to each other" )nd without our %eing aware of it, the simile gives rise to a new understanding of the o%Cect characteriGing as well as of the o%Cect characteriGed" The properties of an o%Cect may %e viewed from different angles, for example, its state, its actions, manners, etc" )ccordingly, similes may %e %ased on adCectiveHattri%utes, adver%Hmodifiers, ver%Hpredicates, etc" Similes have formal elements in their structureD connective words such as "i@e+ a#+ #-'$ a#+ a# i7+

#ee/. =ere are some examples of similes ta$en from various sources and illustrating the variety of structural designs of this stylistic device" J=is mind was restless, %ut it wor$ed perversely and / %$)-!$%# Her@ed through his %rain "i@e %$e /i#7iri !# )7 a de7e'%i*e 'ar0-re%%)r"J The structure of this simile is interesting, for it is sustained" !et us analyse it" The word ?Cer$ed? in the microcontext, i" e", in com%ination with ?thoughts? is a metaphor, which led to the simile ?li$e the misfirings of a defective car%urettor? where the ver% %) Her@ carries its direct logical meaning" So the lin$ing notion is the movement Her@i !, which %rings to the author?s mind a resem%lance %etween the wor$ing of the man?s %rain and the %adly wor$ing, i"e .+ /i#7iri ! car%urettor" 0n other words, it is action that is descri%ed %y means of a simile" )nother exampleD J0t was that moment of the year when %$e ')- %r&#ide #ee/# %) 7ai % from its own loveliness, from the intoxication of its scents and sounds"J +:" 2alsworthy/ This is an example of a simile, which is half a metaphor" 0f not for the structural word ?seems?, we Jwould call it a metaphor" 0ndeed, if we drop the word ?seems? and say, Jthe countryside faints from""",J the clueHword ?faint? %ecomes a metaphor" ;ut the word ?seems? $eeps apart the notions of stillness and fainting" 0t is a simile where the second mem%er H the human %eing H is only suggested %y the word 7ai %" The semantic nature of the simileHforming elements, #ee/ and a# i7 is such that they only remotely suggest resem%lance" Nuite different are the connectives "i@e and as" These are more categorical and esta%lish #uite straightforwardly the analogy %etween the two o%Cects in #uestion" Sometimes the simile forming "i@e is placed at the end of the phrase almost merging with it and %ecoming half suffix, for exampleD JEmily ;artcn was very pin$, very Dre#de ('$i a(#$e6$erde##B "i@eJ 0n simple nonHfigurative language, it will assume the following formD JEmily ;arton was very pin$, and "))@ed "i@e a Dre#de ('$i a(#$e6$erde##.A Similes may suggest analogies in the character of actions performed" 0n this case the two mem%ers of the structural design of the simile will resem%le each other through the actions they perform" ThusD JThe !i%erals have 6"- !ed for entry without considering its effects, while the !a%our leaders "i@e 'a-%i)-# 0a%$er# have put a %i/)r)-# %)e i %) %$e ?a%er a d 6r)/6%"& ?i%$dra? i%.A The simile in this passage from a newspaper article ?li$e cautious %athers? is %ased on the simultaneous realiGation of the two meanings of the word ?plunged?" The primary meaning ?to throw oneself into the water?H prompted the figurative

periphrasis ?have put a timorous toe into the water and promptly withdrawn it? standing for ?have a%stained from ta$ing action"? 0n the English language there is a long list of hac$neyed similes pointing out the analogy %etween the various #ualities, states or actions of a human %eing and the animals supposed to %e the %earers of the given #uality, etc", for exampleD %rea'$er)-# a# a # a@e+ #"& a# a 7)5+ 0-#& a# a 0ee+ i d-#%ri)-# a# a a %+ 0"i d a# a 0a%+ 7ai%$7-" a# a d)!+ %) ?)r@ "i@e a $)r#e+ %) 0e "ed "i@e a #$ee6+ %) 7"& "i@e a 0ird+ %) #?i/ "i@e a d-'@+ #%-00)r a# a /-"e+ $- !r& a# a 0ear+ %$ir#%& a# a 'a/e"+ %) a'% "i@e a 6-66&+ 6"a&7-" a# a @i%%e + *ai 2B6r)-dB4 a# a 6ea')'@+ #")? a# a %)r%)i#e a d many others of the same type" These com%inations, however, have ceased to %e genuine similes and have %ecome clichis in which the second component has %ecome merely an adver%ial intensifier" 0ts logical meaning is only vaguely perceived" Peri6$ra#i# is the reHnaming of an o%Cect %y a phrase that %rings out some particular feature of the o%Cect" The essence of the device is that it is deciphera%le only in context" 0f a periphrastic locution is understanda%le outside the context, it is not a stylistic device %ut merely a synonymous expression" Such easily deciphera%le periphrases are also called traditional, dictionary or language periphrases" The others are speech periphrases" =ere are some examples of wellH $nown dictionary periphrases +periphrastic synonyms/D %$e 'a6 a d !)? +?student %ody?/I a !e %"e/a )7 %$e ") ! r)0e +?a lawyer?/I %$e 7air #e5 +?women?/I /& 0e%%er $a"7 +?my wife?/" Most periphrastic synonyms are strongly associated with the sphere of their application and the epoch they were used in" eudalism, for example, gave %irth to a cluster of periphrastic synonyms of the word @i !+ asD %$e "eader )7 $)#%#G %$e !i*er )7 ri !#G %$e 6r)%e'%)r )7 ear"#G %$e *i'%)r& ")rdG a 6"a& )7 #?)rd# meant ?a %attle?I a 0a%%"e(#ea% was ?a saddle?I a #$ie"d(0earer was ?a warrior?" Traditional, language or dictionary periphrases and the words they stand for are synonyms %y nature, the periphrasis %eing expressed %y a word com%ination" Periphrasis, as a stylistic device, is a new, genuine nomination of an o%Cect, a process which realiGes the power of language to coin new names for o%Cects %y disclosing some #uality of the o%Cect, even though it may %e transitory, and ma$ing it alone represent the o%Cect, %ut at the same time preserving in the mind the ordinary name of the concept" =ere are some such stylistic periphrasesD J0 understand you are poor, and wish to earn money %y nursing the little %oy, my son, who has %een so prematurely deprived of ?$a% 'a e*er 0e re6"a'ed"J The o%Cect clause

?what can never %e replaced? is a periphrasis for the word mother" The concept is easily understood %y the reader within the given context, the latter %eing the only code, which ma$es the deciphering of the phrase possi%le" This is sufficiently proved %y a simple transformational operation, viG" ta$ing the phrase out of its context" The meaning of ??what can never %e replaced? used independently will %ear no reference to the concept /)%$er and may %e interpreted in many ways" The periphrasis here expresses a very individual idea of the concept" =ere is another stylistic periphrasis, which the last phrase in the sentence deciphersD J)nd =arold stands upon the 6"a'e )7 #@-""#+ T$e !ra*e )7 Fra 'e+ the deadly in the followingD JT$e $)ar#e+ d-"" dr-/ would sleep, )nd Man %e happy yet"J +;yron/ the periphrasis can only %e understood from a larger context, referring to the concept war" ?The hoarse, dull drum? is a metonymical periphrasis standing for ?ar. 0n some cases periphrasis is regarded as a demerit and should have no place in good, precise writing" This $ind of periphrasis is generally called 'ir'-/")'-%i) . Thus 1ichard )ltic$ states that one of the ways of o%scuring truth J"""is the use of circumlocutions and euphemisms"J ) roundHa%out way of spea$ing a%out common things has an unnecessarily %om%astic, pompous air and conse#uently is devoid of any aesthetic value" That is why periphrasis has gained the reputation of leading to redundancy of expression" =ere is an example of the excessive use of periphrasis %y such an outstanding classic English writer as Dic$ensD JThe lampH "i!$%er /ade $i# i!$%"& 7ai"-re i a%%e/6%i ! %) 0ri!$%e -6 %$e #%ree% ?i%$ !a#B +Z ?lit the street lamps?/" 0n spite of the danger of %eing called J%lasphemer??, 0 venture to state that Dic$ens favoured redundant periphrastic expressions, seeing in them a powerful means to impose on his readers his own assessment of events and people" =ere is another of his periphrasesD J;ut a addi%i) to the little party )? /ade i%# a66eara 'eJ +Z ?another person came in?/" 0n characteriGing the individual manner of a %ad writer, (" 2" ;elins$y saysD J>ne is particularly struc$ %y the art he displays in the use of periphrasisD one and the same thought, simple and empty as, for example, ?wooden ta%les are made of wood?, drags along in a string of long sentences, periods, tropes and figures of speechI he turns it around and around, extends it pages long and sprin$les it with punctuation mar$s" Everything is so flowery, everywhere there is such an a%undance of epithets and imagery that the

inexperienced reader marvels at these ?purple patches? of Cewelled prose,H and his fascination vanishes only when he puts a #uestion to himself as to the content of the flam%oyant articleD for to his surprise in lieu of any content he finds mere woolly phrases and fluffy selfHconceit" This $ind of writing often appears in the <est, particularly since the <est %egan to rotI here in 1ussia where authorship has not yet %ecome a ha%it, such phenomena are hardly possi%le"J The means supplied to ena%le the reader to decipher stylistic periphrasis are very su%tle and have aesthetic value" 0n the following example the word of address is the $ey to the periphrasisD J Pa6a, love" 0 am a mother" 0 have a child who will soon call <alter 0& %$e a/e 0& ?$i'$ 9 'a"" &)-"J 0n some cases the author relies entirely on the erudition of the reader to decipher the periphrasis" Thus in the following exampleD J>f his four sons, only two could %e found #-77i'ie %"& ?i%$)-% %$e BeB to go on ma$ing ploughs"J The letter ?e? in some proper names is considered an indirect indication of no%le or supposed no%le descent, cf" M)re%) and M)ri) + S/&%$e and S/i%$+ Fr)? e and Fr)? + Ji"de +>scar/ and J&"d +Cecil/" The italiciGed phrase is a rounda%out way of stating that two of his sons were - ari#%)'ra%i' e )-!$ to wor$ at ma$ing ploughs" 2enuine poetical periphrasis sometimes depicts the effect without mentioning the cause, gives particulars when having in view the general, points out one trait which will represent the whole" Stylistic periphrasis, li$e almost all lexical stylistic means, must efficiently and intentionally introduce a dichotomy, in this case the dichotomy of two names for one o%Cect or idea" 0f it fails to do so, there is no stylistic device, only a hac$neyed phrase" Periphrases, once original %ut now hac$neyed, are often to %e found in newspaper language" Mr" :" Donald )dams, who has written a num%er of articles and %oo$s on the use of English words in different contexts, says in one of his articlesD J<e are all familiar with these examples of distended English, and 0 shall pause for only one, #uoted %y Theodore M" ;ernstein, who as assistant managing editor of this newspaper acts as guardian over the English employed in its news columns" 0t appears in his recent %oo$, J<atch Mour !anguageJ, and reads AI/6r)*ed 7i a 'ia" #-66)r% a d "e## ) er)-# ?)r@ ")ad#.A Translation +%y Clifton Daniel/D JHi!$ 6a& and "e## ?)r@"J =ere is another example of a wellH$nown, traditional periphrasis, which has %ecome esta%lished as a periphrastic synonymD J)fter only a short time of marriage, he wasn?t prepared to offer advice to other youngsters intending %) %ie %$e @ )%... ;ut, he said, he?s loo$ing forward to having a familyJ" =ere we have a

periphrasis meaning %) /arr& +?to tie the $not?/" 0t has long %een hac$neyed and may %e called a '"i'$e. The difference %etween a cliche and a periphrastic synonym lies in the degree to which the periphrasis has lost its vigour" 0n cliches we still sense the dichotomy of the original clash %etween the words forming a semantic unityI in periphrastic synonyms the clash is no longer felt unless the synonyms are su%Cected to etymological analysis" 0n such collocations as ?0 am seeing things?, or ?0?m hearing %ells? we hardly ever perceive the novelty of the phrases and are apt to understand them for what they stand for now in modern collo#uial English, i" e" %) $a*e $a""-'i a%i) #. Therefore, these phrases must %e recogniGed as periphrastic collo#uial synonyms of the concepts de"iri-/ )r $a""-'i a%i) #. Stylistic periphrasis can also %e divided into ")!i'a" and 7i!-ra%i*e" !ogical periphrasis is %ased on one of the inherent properties or perhaps a passing feature of the o%Cect descri%ed, as in i #%r-/e %# )7 de#%r-'%i) Z ?pistols?I %$e /)#% 6ard) a0"e )7 $-/a ?ea@ e##e# Z ?love?I %$e )0He'% )7 $i# ad/ira%i) I that proportion of the population which""" is yet a0"e %) read ?)rd# )7 /)re %$a ) e #&""a0"e+ a d %) read %$e/ ?i%$)-% 6er'e6%i0"e /)*e/e % )7 %$e "i6# ZZ ?halfHilliterate?/" igurative periphrasis is %ased either on metaphor or on metonymy, the $eyHword of the collocation %eing the word used figuratively as in ?the punctual #er*a % )7 a"" ?)r@B Z %$e #- G Bi di#!ra'e ?i%$ 7)r%- e and men?s eyes? +Sha$espeare/ Z /i#7)r%- e. There is little difference %etween metaphor or metonymy on the one hand, and figurative periphrasis on the other" 0t is the structural aspect of the periphrasis, which always presupposes a word com%ination, that is the reason for the division" Kote this example of a string of figurative periphrases reinforced %y the %alanced constructions they are moulded intoD JMany of the $ear%# that thro%%ed so gaily then have 'ea#ed %) 0ea%I many of the "))@# that shone so %rightly then have 'ea#ed %) !")?"J E-6$e/i#/. There is a variety of periphrasis, which we shall call e-6$e/i#%i'. Euphemism, as is $nown, is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression %y a conventionally more accepta%le one, for example, the word ?to die? has %red the following euphemismsD %) 6a## a?a&+ %) e56ire+ %) 0e ) /)re+ %) de6ar%+ %) H)i %$e /aH)ri%& , and the more facetious onesD %) @i'@ %$e 0-'@e%+ %) !i*e -6 %$e !$)#%+ R%) !) ?e#%. So euphemisms are synonyms, which aim at producing a deli%erately mild effect" The origin of the term euphemism discloses the aim of the device very clearly, i" e" spea$ing well +from 2ree$ H e- Z well gH 6$e/e HZ spea$ing/" 0n the voca%ulary of any language, synonyms can %e found

that soften an otherwise coarse or unpleasant idea" Euphemism is sometimes figuratively called Ja whitewashing deviceJ" The linguistic peculiarity of euphemism lies in the fact that every euphemism must call up a definite synonym in the mind of the reader or listener" This synonym, or dominant in a group of synonyms, as it is often called, must follow the euphemism li$e a shadow, a# %) 6)##e## a *i*id i/a!i a%i) + )r %) %e"" #%)rie# in the proper context will call up the unpleasant ver% %) "ie" The euphemistic synonyms given a%ove are part of the languageHasHaHsystem" They have not %een freshly invented" They are expressive means of the language and are to %e found in all good dictionaries" They cannot %e regarded as stylistic devices %ecause they do not call to mind the $ey word or dominant of the groupI in other words, they refer the mind to the concept directly, not through the medium of another word" Compare these euphemisms with the following from Dic$ens?s Pic$wic$ PapersD JThey thin$ we $a*e ')/e 0& %$i# $)r#e i #)/e di#$) e#% /a er "J The italiciGed parts call forth the word steal +have stolen it/, Euphemisms may %e divided into several groups according to their spheres of application" The most recogniGed are the followingD ,/ religious, 7/ moral, 9/ medical and E/ parliamentary" The life of euphemisms is short" They very soon %ecome closely associated with the referent +the o%Cect named/ and give way to a newly coined word or com%ination of words, which, %eing the sign of a sign, throws another veil over an unpleasant or indelicate concept" =ere is an interesting excerpt from an article on this su%Cect" JThe evolution over the years of a civiliGed mental health service has %een mar$ed %y periodic changes in terminology" The /ad$)-#e %ecame the "- a%i' a#&"-/I the asylum made way for the /e ia" $)#6i%a" H even if the %uilding remained the same" Idi)%#+ i/0e'i"e# and %$e 7ee0"e(/i ded %ecame ")?+ /edi-/ and $i!$(!rade /e %a" de7e'%i*e#. )ll are now to %e lumped together as 6a%ie %# )7 #e*ere"& #-0 )r/a" 6er#) a"i%&. T$e i #a e %ecame 6er#) # )7 - #)- d /i d+ and are now to %e /e %a""&(i"" 6a%ie %#" )s each phrase develops the stigmata of popular preCudice, it is a%andoned in favour of another, sometimes less precise than the old" Unimportant in themselves, these changes of name are the signposts of progress"J )l%ert C" ;augh gives another instance of such changesD J"""the common word for a woman?s undergarment down to the eighteenth century was ?smoc$?" 0t was then replaced %y the more delicate word ?shift?" 0n the nineteenth century the same motive lied to the su%stitution of the word ?chemiseJ and in the twentieth this has %een replaced %y ?com%inations?, ?stepins?, and other euphemisms"J

0t is interesting to remar$ that #$i7% has now %ecome a name for ?a type of girl?s or young woman?s outer garment?, and #/)'@ is ?a little girl?s dress?, or ?an overgarment worn %y artists?" Conventional euphemisms employed in conformity to social usages are %est illustrated %y the parliamentary codes of expression" 0n an article headed J0n Commons, a !ie is 0nexactitudeJ written %y :ames eron in T$e Ne? Y)r@ Ti/e#+ ?e may find a num%er of words that are not to %e used in Parliamentary de%ate" J<hen Sir <inston Churchill, some years ago,J writes eron, Jtermed a parliamentary opponent a ?purveyor of terminological inexactitudes?, every one in the cham%er $new he meant ?liar?" Sir <inston had %een ordered %y the Spea$er to withdraw a stronger epithet" So he used the euphemism, which %ecame famous and is still used in the Commons" 0t conveyed the insult without sounding offensive, and it satisfied the Spea$er"J The author further points out that certain words, for instance %rai%)r and ')?ard, are specifically %anned in the =ouse of Commons %ecause earlier Spea$ers have ruled them as disorderly or unparliamentary" Spea$ers have decided that Ha'@a## is unparliamentary %ut goose is accepta%leI d)!+ ra% and #?i e are out of order, %ut $a"7?i% and T)r& '")% are in order" <e also learn from this article that Ja word cannot %ecome the su%Cect of parliamentary ruling unless a mem%er directs the attention of the Spea$er to it"J The pro%lem of euphemism as a linguistic device is directly connected with a more general pro%lem, that of semiotics" The changes in naming o%Cects disclose the true nature of the relations %etween words and their referents" <e must admit that there is a positive magic in words and, as Prof" 1andolf Nuir$ has it, J"""we are lia%le to %e dangerously misled through %eing mesmeriGed %y a word or through mista$ing a word for its referent"J This %ecomes particularly noticea%le in connection with what are called 6)"i%i'a" euphemisms" These are really understatements, the aim of which is to mislead pu%lic opinion and to express what is unpleasant in a more delicate manner" Sometimes disagreea%le facts are even distorted with the help of a euphemistic expression" Thus the headline in one of the ;ritish newspapers JTension in *ashmirJ was to hide the fact that there was a real uprising in that areaI JUndernourishment of children in 0ndiaJ stood for starvation" 0n )" :" Cronin?s novel JThe Stars loo$ DownJ one of the mem%ers of Parliament, spea$ing of the word com%ination JUndernourishment of children in 0ndiaJ saysD J=onoura%le Mem%ers of the =ouse understand the meaning of %$i# 6)"i%e e-6$e/i#/"J ;y calling - der )-ri#$/e % a polite euphemism he discloses the

true meaning of the word" )n interesting article dealing with the #uestion of Jpolitical euphemismsJ was written %y the 0talian Cournalist EntGo 1ava and headed JThe (oca%ulary of the ;earers of the ;urden of Power"J 0n this article EntGo 1ava wittily discusses the euphemisms of the 0talian capitalist press, which seem to have %een %orrowed from the )merican and English press" Thus, for instance, he moc$ingly states that capitalists have disappeared from 0taly" <hen the adherents of capitalism find it necessary to mention 'a6i%a"i#%#+ they replace the word 'a6i%a"i#% %y the com%ination ?free enterprisers?, the word 6r)7i% is replaced %y ?savings?, %$e 0-i"di ! -6 )7 "a0)-r re#er*e# stands for ?unemployment?, di#/i##a" 2di#'$ar!e+ 7iri !4 of wor$ers is ?the reorganiGation of the enterprise?, etc" )s has already %een explained, genuine euphemism unavoida%ly calls up the word it stands for" 0t is always the result of some deli%erate clash %etween two synonyms" 0f a euphemism fails to carry along with it the word it is intended to replace, it is not a euphemism, %ut a deli%erate veiling of the truth" )ll these 0-i"di ! -6 )7 "a0)-r re#er*e#+ #a*i !#+ 7ree e %er6ri#er# and the li$e are not intended to give the referent its true name, %ut to distort the truth" The a%ove expressions serve that purpose" Compare these word com%inations with real euphemisms, li$e a 7)-r("e%%er ?)rd +HZ ?an o%scenity?/I or a ?)/a )7 a 'er%ai %&6e +Z ?a prostitute, a whore?/I B%) !")?B +Z?to sweat?/ all of which %ring to our mind the other word +words/ and only through them the referent" =ere is another good example of euphemistic phrases used %y 2alsworthy in his JSilver Spoon"J J0n private 0 should merely call him a "iar" 0n the Press you should use the wordsD BRe'@"e## di#re!ard 7)r %r-%$B and in Parliament H that you regret he B#$)-"d $a*e 0ee #) /i#i 7)r/ed.B J Periphrastic and euphemistic expressions were characteristic of certain literary trends and even produced a term 6eri6$ra#%i' #%&"e" ;ut it soon gave way to a more straightforward way of descri%ing things" JThe veiled forms of expression,J writes 2" =" Mc*night Jwhich served when one was unwilling to loo$ facts in the face have %een succeeded %y na$ed expressions exhi%iting reality"J H&6er0)"e is deli%erate overstatement or exaggeration, the aim of which is to intensify one of the features of the o%Cect in #uestion to such a degree as will show its utter a%surdity" The following is a good example of hyper%oleD JThose three words 2D)/0e& a d S) 4 conveyed the one idea of Mr" Dom%ey?s life" The earth was made for Dom%ey and Son to trade in and the sun and moon were made to

give them light" 1ivers and seas were formed to float their shipsI rain%ows gave them promise of fair weatherI winds %lew for or against their enterprisesI stars and planets circled in their or%its to preserve inviolate a system of which they were the centre"J +Dic$ens/ )nother example, which is not so a%surd if su%Cected to logical analysis is this passage from Edgar )llan Poe?s poem J)nna%el !ee"J J)nd this maiden she lived with no other thought Than to love and %e loved %y me"J !i$e many stylistic devices, hyper%ole may lose its #uality as a stylistic device through fre#uent repetition and %ecome a unit of the languageHasHaHsystem, reproduced in speech in its unaltered form" =ere are some examples of language hyper%oleD ?) %$)-#a d pardons?I ?scared to dea%$B+ Bi//e #e"& o%ligedI? 0dd !i*e %$e ?)r"d to see him"? ;yron saysD J<hen people say AIB*e %)"d &)- 7i7%& %i/e# J They mean to scold, and very often do"J =yper%ole differs from mere exaggeration in that, it is intended to %e understood as an exaggeration" 0n this connection the following #uotations deserve a passing noteD J=yper%ole is the result of a $ind of intoxication %y emotion, which prevents a person from seeing things in their true dimensions""" 0f the reader +listener/ is not carried away %y the emotion of the writer +spea$er/, hyper%ole %ecomes a mere lie"J (" (" (inogradov, developing the statement that Jgenuine art enCoys the right to exaggerate,J states that hyper%ole is the law of art, which %rings the existing phenomena of life, diffused as they are, to the point of maximum clarity and conciseness" =yper%ole is a device, which sharpens the reader?s a%ility to ma$e a logical assessment of the utterance" This is achieved, as is the case with other devices, %y awa$ening the dichotomy of thought and feeling where thought ta$es the upper hand though not to the detriment of feeling" 2I.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.9ME(9;54. PECULIAR USE OF SET E=PRESSIONS 0n language studies there are two very clearly mar$ed tendencies that the student should never lose sight of, particularly when dealing with the pro%lem of word com%ination" They are ,/ %$e a a"&%i'a" %e de '&, which see$s to dissever one component from another and 7/ %$e #& %$e%i' %e de '&+ which see$s to integrate the parts of the com%ination into a sta%le unit" These, two tendencies are

treated in different ?a&# in lexicology and stylistics" 0n lexicology the parts of a sta%le lexical unit may %e separated in order to ma$e a scientific investigation of the character of the com%ination and to analyse the components" 0n stylistics we analyse the component parts in order to get at some communicative effect sought %y the writer" 0t is this communicative effect and the means employed to achieve it that lie within the domain of stylistics" The integrating tendency also is closely studied in the realm of lexicology, especially when linguistic scholars see$ to fix what seems to %e a sta%le word com%ination and ascertain the degree of its sta%ility, its variants and so on" The integrating tendency is also within the domain of stylistics, particularly when the word com%ination has not yet formed itself as a lexical unit %ut is in the process of %eing so formed" A '"i'$e is generally defined as an expression that has %ecome hac$neyed and trite" 0t has lost its precise meaning %y constant reiterationI in other words it has %ecome stereotyped" )s J1andom =ouse DictionaryJ has it, Ja cliche"""?has lost originality, ingenuity, and impact %y long overHuse"""J This definition lac$s one point that should %e emphasiGedI that is, a cliche strives after originality, whereas it has lost the aesthetic generating power it once had" There is always a contradiction %etween what is aimed at and what is actually attained" Examples of real cliches are . r)#& drea/# )7 &)-%$+ %$e 6a%%er )7 "i%%"e 7ee%+ de'e6%i*e"& #i/6"e. Definitions ta$en from various dictionaries show that cliche is a derogatory term and it is therefore necessary to avoid anything that may %e called %y that name" ;ut the fact is that most of the widely recogniGed word com%inations, which have %een adopted %y the language are unCustly classified as cliches" The aversion for cliches has gone so far that most of the lexical units %ased on simile are %randed as cliches" 0n an interesting article entitled J2reat Cliche De%ateJ pu%lished in the Ne? Y)r@ Ti/e# Ma!a1i e we can read the pros and cons concerning cliches" This article is revealing on one main point" 0t illustrates the fact that an uncertain or vague term will lead to various and even conflicting interpretations of the idea em%odied in the term" <hat, indeed, do the words #%ere)%&6ed+ $a'@ e&ed+ %ri%e convey to the mindY irst of all they indicate that the phrase is in common use" 0s this a demeritY Kot at all" >n the contraryD something common, ha%itual, devoid of novelty is the only admissi%le expression in some type] of communications" 0n the article Cust mentioned one of the de%ators

o%Cects to the phrase J:ac$HofHallHtradesJ and suggests that it should %e Jone who can turn his hand to any +or to many $inds of/ wor$"J =is opponent naturally reCects the su%stitute on the grounds that J:ac$ of all tradesJ may, as he says, have long ceased to %e vivid or original, %ut his su%stitute never was" )nd it is fourteen words instead of four" JDetermine to avoid cliches at all costs and you are almost certain to %e led into go%%ledygoo$"J De%ates of this $ind proceed from a grossly mista$en notion that the term cliche is used to denote all sta%le word com%inations, whereas it was coined to denote word com%inations which have long lost their novelty and %ecome trite, %ut which are used as if they were fresh and original and so have %ecome irritating to people who are sensitive to the language they hear and read" <hat is familiar should not %e given a derogatory la%el" >n the contrary, if it has %ecome familiar, that means it has won general recognition and %y iteration has %een accepted as a unit of the language" ;ut the process of %eing ac$nowledged as a unit of language is slow" 0t is next to impossi%le to foretell what may %e accepted as a unit of the language and what may %e reCected and cast away as %eing unfit, inappropriate, alien to the internal laws of the language, or failing to meet the demand of the language community for sta%le word com%inations to designate new notions" =ence the two conflicting ideasD language should always %e fresh, vigorous and expressive, and on the other hand, language, as a common tool for intercommunication should ma$e use of units that are easily understood and which re#uire little or no effort to convey the idea and to grasp it" 1" D" )ltic$ in his JPreface to Critical 1eadingJ condemns every word se#uence in which what follows can easily %e predicted from what precedes" J<hen does an expression %ecome a clicheY There can %e no definite answer, %ecause what is trite to one person may still %e fresh to another" ;ut a great many expressions are universally understood to %e so thread%are as to %e useless except in the most casual discourse""" ) good practical test is thisD 0f, when you are listening to a spea$er, you can accurately anticipate what he is going to say next, he is pretty certainly using cliches, otherwise he would %e constantly surprising you"J Then he gives examples, li$e Je are !a%$ered $ere %)(da& %) /)-r +?the untimely death?/ )7 )-r 0e")*ed "eader...G J)rd# are i ade8-a%e +?to express the grief that is in our hearts?/" JSimilarly when you read,J he goes on, Jif one word almost inevita%ly invites another, if you can read half of the words and $now pretty certainly what the other half are, you are reading cliches"J )nd then again come

illustrations li$e Je ?a%'$ed %$e 7"a/e# +?lic$ing?/ a% %$e #ide )7 %$e 0-i"di !. A 6a"" +?of smo$e?/ $- ! %$i'@ )*er %$e ei!$0)-r$))d...G He $eard a d-"" +?thud?/ ?$i'$ ?a# 7)"")?ed 0& a )/i )-# +?silence?/" This passage shows that the author has %een led into the erroneous notion that everything that is predicta%le is a cliche" =e is confusing useful word com%inations circulating in speech as mem%ers of the word stoc$ of the language with what claims to %e genuine, original and vigorous" )ll word com%inations that do not surprise are la%elled as cliches" 0f we agree with such an understanding of the term, we must admit that the following sta%le and necessary word com%inations used in newspaper language must %e viewed as cliches. Be77e'%i*e guarantees?, Bi//edia%e issues?+ B%$e ?$i6 a d 'arr)% policy?, B#%a%e/e % )7 6)"i'&B+ ?to maintain some e#uili%rium %etween re"ia0"e sources?, B0-77er 1) eB+ ?he laid it down e8-a""& '"ear"& %$a%...B a d #) ) . 1" D, )ltic$ thus denounces as cliches such ver% and noun phrases as ?to live %) a ri6e )"d a!eB+ B%) ?i%$#%a d %$e %e#% )7 %i/eB+ B%) "e% 0&!) e# 0e 0&!) e#B+ B%) 0e - a0"e %) #ee %$e ?))d 7)r %$e %ree#B+ B%) -6#e% %$e a66"e'ar%B+ B%) $a*e a a'e -6 ) eB# #"ee*eB. )nd finally he reCects such word com%inations as B%$e 7-"" 7"-#$ of victory?, ?the 6a%%er of rain?, ?part and 6ar'e"B, ?a diamond i %$e r)-!$B and the li$e on the grounds that they have outlasted their freshness" 0n his protest against hac$neyed phrases, )ltic$ has gone so far as to declare that people have adopted phrases li$e B'")'@(?)r@ precision?, B%i!$%("i66ed +or stony/ silence?+ B'r-#$i ! defeat?, B0-/6er(%)(0-/6er traffic?, #@&(r)'@e%i ! costs? and the li$e J"""as a way of evading their o%ligation to ma$e their own language"J >f course, if instead of ma$ing use of the existing means of communication, i"e", the language of the community, people are to coin Jtheir own language,J then )ltic$ is right" ;ut no%ody would ever thin$ such an idea either sound or reasona%le" The set expressions of a language are ?part and parcel? of the voca%ulary of the language and cannot %e dispensed with %y merely la%elling them cliches" =owever at every period in the development of a language, there appear strange com%inations of words which arouse suspicion as to their meaning and connotation" Many of the newH%orn word com%inations in modern English, %oth in their )merican and ;ritish variants, have %een made fun of %ecause their meaning is still o%scure, and therefore they are used rather loosely" 1ecently in the Ne? Y)r@ Ti/e# such cliches as B#6ea@i ! realiGation?, B!r)?i ! awareness?, Bri#i ! expectations?, ?to thin$ - %$i @a0"e thoughts? and others were wittily criticiGed %y

a Cournalist who showed that ordinary ran$ and file )merican people do not understand these new word com%inations, Cust as they fail to understand certain neologisms as )6% + ?to ma$e a choice?/, and revived words as dee/ +Z ?to consider?, ?to %elieve to %e?/ and others and reCect them or use them wrongly" ;ut as history has proved, the protest of tooHGealous purists often fails to %ar the way to all $inds of innovations into Standard English" 0llustrative in this respect is the protest made %y ;yron in his JDon :uanJD J""" B7ree %) ') 7e##B H +whence comes this phraseY 0s?t EnglishY Ko H ?tis only parliamentary/"J and alsoD AA #%ra !e ')i 'ide 'e to use a phrase ;y which such things are settled nowadays"J or JThe /ar'$ )7 S'ie 'e +=ow delightful these cliches areL/"""J +)ldington/ ;yron, %eing very sensitive to the aesthetic aspect of his native language, could not help o%serving the triteness of the phrases he comments on, %ut at the same time he accepts them as readyHmade units" !anguage has its strength and its wea$nesses" ) linguistic scholar must %e e#uipped with methods of stylistic analysis to ascertain the writer?s aim, the situation in which the communication ta$es place and possi%ly the impact on the reader to decide whether or not a phrase is a cliche or Jthe right word in the right place"J 0f he does not ta$e into consideration all the properties of the given word or word com%ination, the intricacies of language units may %ecome a trap for him" MenHofHletters, if they are real artists, use the stoc$ of expressive phrases contained in the language naturally and easily, and well $nown phrases never produce the impression of %eing cliches" =ere are a few examples ta$en from various sourcesD JSuGanne, excited, went ) %a"@i ! i e%ee %) %$e d)1e .A +Maugham/ JShe was unreal, li$e a picture and yet had an elegance which made Vi%%& 7ee" a"" %$-/0#.J +Maugham/ J;ecause the pu%lisher declares in sooth T$r)-!$ eed"e#B e&e# i% ea#ier 7)r %$e 'a/e" i# %) 6a##+ than those two cantos into families"J +;yron/ J1edda had that #uality""" found in those women who""" 6-% a"" %$eir e!!# i ) e 0a#@e%.J +2alsworthy/ J)s %$e "a#% #%ra? 0rea@# %$e "ade 'a/e"B# 0a'@+ this piece of underground information crushed the sin$ing spirits of Mr" Dom%ey"J +Dic$ens/

Pr)*er0# a d Sa&i !#

)lmost every good writer will ma$e use of language idioms, %yHphrases and prover%s" They are the natural ways in which speech develops" Prover%s and sayings have certain purely linguistic features, which must always %e ta$en into account in order to distinguish them from ordinary sentences" Prover%s are %rief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical sym%ols for a%stract ideas" They are usually didactic and image %earing" Many of them through fre#uency of repetition have %ecame polished and wrought into verseHli$e shape, i"e", they have metre, rhyme and alliteration, as in the followingD Jto cut one?s coat according to one?s cloth"J JEarly to %ed and early to rise, Ma$es a man healthy, wealthy and wise"J ;revity in prover%s manifests itself also in the omission of connectives, as inD J irst come, first served"J J>ut of sight, out of mind"J ;ut the main feature distinguishing prover%s and sayings from ordinary utterances remains their semantic aspect" Their literal meaning is suppressed %y what may %e termed their transferred meaning" 0n other words, one meaning +literal/ is the form for another meaning +transferred/, which contains the idea" Prover%s and sayings are the concentrated wisdom of the people, and if used appropriately, will never lose their freshness and vigour" The most noticea%le thing a%out the functioning of sayings, prover%s and catch phrases is that they may %e handled not in their fixed form +the traditional model/ %ut with modifications" These modifications, however, will never %rea$ away from the invariants to such a degree that the correlation %etween , Kote that in the a%ove #uotations, except in the first, a wellH$nown saying, prover% or #uotation has %een slightly altered in form" The traditional forms are as followsD JMy fingers are all thum%s"J J0t is easier for a camel to pass through a needle?s eye, than for a rich man to enter into the $ingdom of =eaven"J +;i%le/ JDon?t put all your eggs into one %as$et"J J0t?s the last straw that %rea$s the camel?s %ac$"J The invariant model of a word com%ination and its variant ceases to %e perceived %y the reader" The predicta%ility of a variant of a word com%ination is lower in comparison with its invariant" Therefore, the use of such a unit in a modified form will always arrest our attention, causing a much closer examination of the wording of the utterance in order to get at the idea" Thus, the prover% ?all is not gold that

glitters? appears in ;yron?s Don :uan in the following form and environHmeat where at first the meaning may seem o%scureD J=ow all the needy honoura%le misters, Each outHatHel%ow peer or desperate dandy, The watchful mothers, and the careful sisters +<ho, %y the %y, when clever, are more handy )t ma$ing matches where Jtdi# !)"d %$a% !"i#%er#A Than their he relatives/, li$e flies o?er candy ;uGG round the ortune with their %usy %attery, To turn her head with waltGing and with flattery"J >ut of the wellH$nown prover% ;yron %uilds a periphrasis, the meaning of which is deciphered two lines %elowD ?the ortune?, that is, ?a marriagea%le heiress?/" 0t has already %een pointed out that ;yron is fond of playing with sta%le word com%inations, sometimes inCecting new vigour into the components, sometimes entirely disregarding the ! e # % a " %" 0n the following lines, for instance, each word of the phrase #a7e a d #)- d gets its full meaning" J0 leave Don :uan for the present, #a7e W N)% #)- d+ poor fellow, %ut severely woundedIJ The prover%D He"" i# 6a*ed ?i%$ !))d i %e %i) # and the set expressionD %) /ea ?e"" are used %y ;yron in a peculiar way, thus ma$ing the reader appraise the hac$neyed phrases" J""""""""""""" if he warr?d >r loved, it was ?i%$ ?$a% ?e 'a"" %$e 0e#% I %e %i) #+ which form all man$ind?s trump card, To %e produced when %rought up to the test" The statesman, hero, harlot, lawyer H ward >ff each attac$, when people are in #uest >f their designs, %y saying %$e& /ea % ?e"". BTi# 6i%& %$a% #-'$ /ea i ! #$)-"d 6a*e $e"".A <e shall ta$e only a few of the numerous examples of the stylistic use of prover%s and sayings to illustrate the possi%le ways of decomposing the units in order simply to suggest the idea %ehind themD JComeLJ he said, A/i"@B# #6i"%.A +2alsworthy/ from &0t is no use crying over spilt mil$L?/" J;ut to all that moving experience there had %een a shadow +a dar@ "i i ! %) %$e #i"*er '")-d4, insistent and plain, which disconcerted her"J +Maugham/ +from

?Every cloud has a silver lining?/" J<e were dashed uncomforta%le i %$e 7r&i ! 6a , %ut we should have %een a damned sight worse off i %$e 7ire.A +Maugham/ +from ?>ut of the fryingHpan into the fire?/" JMou $now ?$i'$ #ide the law?s 0-%%ered"J +2alsworthy/ +from ?=is %read is %uttered on %oth sides?/" This device is used not only in the %ellesHlettres style" =ere are some instances from newspapers and magaGines illustrating the stylistic use of prover%s, sayings and other word com%inations J"""and whether the Ministry of Economic <arfare is %eing allowed enough financial r)6e %) do its worstJ +from ?2ive a thief rope enough and he?ll hang himself/" JThe waters will remain sufficiently %r)-0"ed for some%ody?s 7i#$i ! to %e 6r)7i%a0"eA 2E') )/i#%4 +from BI% i# !))d 7i#$i ! i %r)-0"ed ?a%er#B4. >ne of the editorials had the following headlineD APr))7 )7 %$e P-ddi !A +from BT$e 6r))7 )7 %$e 6-ddi ! i# i %$e ea%i !B4 =ere is a recast of a wellH$nown prover% used %y an advertiGing agencyD AEar"& %) 0ed a d ear"& %) ri#e Ko use H unless you advertiGeJ +from BEar"& %) 0ed a d ear"& %) ri#e Ma@e# a /a $ea"%$&+ ?ea"%$& a d ?i#eB4 Uses of language set expressions such as these should not lead to the inference that stylistic effects can only %e reached %y introducing all $inds of changes into the invariant of the unit" The efficient use of the invariant of prover%s, sayings, etc" will always ma$e %oth spo$en and written language emotional, concrete, figurative, catching and lively" 0t will call forth a ready impact and the desired associations on the part of the hearer or reader" Modified forms of the unit re#uire great s$ill in handling them and only few have the power and therefore the right to violate the fixed idiom" E6i!ra/#. A e6i!ra/ is a stylistic device a$in to a prover%, the only difference %eing, that epigrams are coined %y individuals, whose names we $now, while prover%s are the coinage of the people" 0n other words, we are always aware of the parentage of an epigram and therefore, when using one, we usually ma$e a reference to its author" Epigrams are terse, witty, pointed statements, showing the ingenious turn of mind of the originator" They always have a literaryH%oo$ish air a%out them that distinguishes them from prover%s" Epigrams possess a great degree of independence and therefore, if ta$en out of the context, will retain the wholeness of the idea they express" They have a generaliGing function" The most characteristic feature of an epigram is that the sentence gets accepted as a word com%ination and

often %ecomes part of the language as a whole" !i$e prover%s, epigrams can %e expanded to apply to a%stract notions +thus em%odying different spheres of application/" ;revity is the essential #uality of the epigram" )" Che$hov once said that %revity is the sister of talentI BFre*i%& i# %$e #)-" )7 %$e ?i%L holds true of any epigram" Epigrams are often confused with aphorisms and paradoxes" 0t is difficult to draw a demarcation line %etween them, the distinction %eing very su%tle" 1eal epigrams are true to fact and that is why they win general recognition and acceptance" !et us turn to examples" Somerset Maugham in JThe 1aGor?s EdgeJ saysD J)rt is triumphant when it can use convention as an instrument of its own purpose"J This statement is interesting from more than one point of view" 0t shows the ingenious turn of mind of the writer, it gives an indirect definition of art as Maugham understands it, it is complete in itself even if ta$en out of the context" ;ut still this sentence is not a model epigram %ecause it lac$s one essential #uality, *i1. %revity" 0t is too long and therefore cannot function in speech as a readyHmade language unit" ;esides, it lac$s other features, which are inherent in epigrams and ma$e them similar to prover%s, i"e", rhythm, alliteration and often rhyme" 0t cannot %e expanded to other spheres of life, it does not generaliGe" Compare this sentence with the following used %y the same author in the same novel" J) 2od that can %e understood is no 2od"J This sentence seems to meet all the necessary re#uirements of the epigramD it is %rief, generaliGing, witty and can %e expanded in its application" The same applies to ;yron?s J"""in the days of old men made mannersI Manners now ma$e menJ +JDon :uanJ/ or *eats? J) thing of %eauty is a Coy forever"J <riters who see$ aesthetic precision use the epigram a%undantlyI others use it to characteriGe the hero of their wor$" Somerset Maugham is particularly fond of it and many of his novels and stories a%ound in epigrams" =ere are some from JThe Painted (eil"J J=e that %ends shall %e made straight"J J ailure is the foundation of success and success is the lur$ing place of failure"""J JMighty is he who con#uers himself"J There are utterances, which in form are epigrammatic H these are verses and in particular definite $inds of verses" The last two lines of a sonnet are called epigrammatic %ecause according to the semantic structure of this form of verse, they sum up and synthesiGe what has %een said %efore" The heroic couplet, a special compositional form of verse, is also a suita%le medium for epigrams, for instance

JTo o%servations which ourselves, we ma$e, <e grow more partial for th? o%server?s sa$e"J There are special dictionaries, which are called JDictionaries of Nuotations"J These in fact, are mostly dictionaries of epigrams" <hat is worth #uoting must always contain some degree of the generaliGing #uality and if it comes from a wor$ of poetry will have metre +and sometimes rhyme/" That is why the wor$s of Sha$espeare, Pope, ;yron and many other great English poets are said to %e full of epigrammatic statements" The epigram is in fact #& %a'%i'a" ?$)"e, though a syntactical whole need not necessarily %e epigrammatic" )s is $nown, poetry is epigrammatic in its essence" 0t always strives for %revity of expression, leaving to the mind of the reader the pleasure of amplifying the idea" ;yron?s JThe drying up a single tear has more >f honest fame, than shedding seas of gore,J is a strongly worded epigram, which impresses the reader with its generaliGing truth" 0t may of course %e regarded as a syntactical whole, inasmuch as it is semantically connected with the preceding lines and at the same time enCoys a considera%le degree of independence" N-)%a%i) #. A 8-)%a%i) i# a repetition of a phrase or statement from a %oo$, speech and the li$e used %y way of authority, illustration, proof or as a %asis for further speculation on the matter in hand" ;y repeating a passage in a new environment, we attach to the utterance an importance it might not have had in the context whence it was ta$en" Moreover, we give it the status, temporary though it may %e, of a sta%le language unit" <hat is #uoted must %e worth #uoting, since a #uotation will inevita%ly ac#uire some degree of generaliGation" 0f repeated fre#uently, it may %e recogniGed as an epigram, if, of course, it has at least some of the linguistic properties of the latter" Nuotations are usually mar$ed off in the text %y inverted commas +J J/, dashes +H/, italics or other graphical means" They are mostly used accompanied %y a reference to the author of the #uotation, unless he is well $nown to the reader or audience" The reference is made either in the text or in a footHnote and assumes various forms, as for instanceD Jas +so and so/ has itJI J+So and so/ once said thatJ"""I J=ere we #uote +so and so/J or in the manner the reference to Emerson has %een made in the epigraph to this chapter" ) #uotation is the exact reproduction of an actual utterance made %y a certain author" The wor$ containing the utterance

#uoted must have %een pu%lished or at least spo$en in pu%licI for #uotations are echoes of some%ody else?s words" Utterances, when #uoted, undergo a peculiar and su%tle change" They are ran$ and file mem%ers of the text they %elong to, merging with other sentences in this text in the most natural and organic way, %earing some part of the general sense the text as a whole em%odiesI yet, when they are #uoted, their significance is heightened and they %ecome different from other parts of the text" >nce #uoted, they are no longer ran$HandHfile units" 0f they are used to %ac$ up the idea expressed in the new text, they %ecome Jparent sentencesJ with the corresponding authority and respect and ac#uire a sym%oliGing functionI in short, they not infre#uently %ecome epigrams, for example, =amlet?s JTo %e or not to %eLJ ) #uotation is always set against the other sentences in the text %y its greater volume of sense and significance" This singles it out particularly if fre#uently repeated, as an utterance worth committing to memory generally is" The use of #uotations presupposes a good $nowledge of the past experience of the nation, its literature and culture" The stylistic value of a #uotation lies mainly in the fact that it comprises two meaningsD the primary meaning, the one, which it has in its original surroundings, and the applicative meaning, i"e", the one, which it ac#uires in the new context" Nuotations, unli$e epigrams, need not necessarily %e short" ) whole paragraph or a long passage may %e #uoted if it suits the purpose" 0t is to %e noted, however, that sometimes in spite of the fact that the exact wording is used, a #uotation in a new environment may assume a new shade of meaning, a shade necessary or sought %y the #uoter, %ut not intended %y the writer of the original wor$" ) #uotation from ;yron?s JEnglish ;ards and Scotch 1eviewersJ will %e" apt as a comment hereD J<ith Cust enough of learning to mis#uote"J =ere we give a few examples of the use of #uotations" JSocrates said, our only $nowledge was JTo $now that nothing could %e $nownJ a pleasant Science enough, which levels to an ass Each man of <isdom, future, past or present" Kewton +that prover% of the mind/ alasL Declared with all his grand discoveries recent That he himself felt only Jli$e a youth Pic$ing up shells %y the great ocean H Truth"J +;yron/ JEcclesiastes said, Jthat all is vanityJ H Most modern preachers say the same, or show it ;y their examples of the Christianity"""J +;yron/

Nuotations areH used as a stylistic device, as is seen from these examples, with the aim of expanding the meaning of the sentence #uoted and setting two meanings one against the other, thus modifying the original meaning" 0n this #uality they are used mostly in the %ellesHlettres style" Nuotations used in other styles of speech allow no modifications of meaning, unless actual distortion of meaning is the aim of the #uoter" Nuotations are also used in epigraphs" The #uotation in this case possesses great associative power and calls forth much connotative meaning" A""-#i) #. A a""-#i) is an indirect reference, %y word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, %i%lical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of spea$ing or writing" The use of allusion presupposes $nowledge of the fact, thing or person alluded to on the? part of the reader or listener" )s a rule no indication of the source is given" This is one of the nota%le differences %etween #uotation and allusion" )nother difference is of a structural natureD a #uotation must repeat the exact wording of the original even though the meaning may %e modified %y the new contextI an allusion is only a mention of a word or phrase, which may %e regarded as the $eyHword of the utterance" )n allusion has certain important semantic peculiarities, in that the meaning of the word +the allusion/ should %e regarded as a form for the new meaning" 0n other words, the primary meaning of the word or phrase which is assumed to %e $nown +i"e", the allusion/ serves as a vessel into which new meaning is poured" So here there is also a $ind of interplay %etween two meanings" =ere is a passage in which an allusion is made to the coachman, >ld Mr" <eller, the father of Dic$ens?s famous character, Sam <eller" 0n this case the nominal meaning is %roadened into a generaliGed conceptD J<here is the road now, and its merry incidents of lifeL"" old honest, pimpleHnosed coachmenY 0 wonder where are they, those good fellowsY 0s )"d Je""er alive or deadYJ +Thac$eray/ The volume of meaning in this allusion goes %eyond the actual $nowledge of the character?s traits" Even the phrases a%out the road and the coachmen %ear indirect reference to Dic$ens?s JPic$wic$ Papers"J =ere is another instance of allusion, which re#uires a good $nowledge of mythology, history and geography if it is to %e completely understood" JSha$espeare tal$s of the $era"d Mer'-r& N)- "i!$%ed ) a $ea*e (@i##i ! $i""G )nd some such visions cross?d her maCesty <hile her young herald $nelt %efore her still" ?Tis very true the hill seem?d rather high, or a lieutenant to clim% upI %ut s$ill S/))%$ed e*e %$e Si/6") B# #%ee6+ and %y 2od?s

%lessing <ith youth and health all $isses are heavenH$issing"J +;yron/ Mercury, :upiter?s messenger, is referred to here %ecause Don :uan %rings a dispatch to Catherine 00 of 1ussia and is therefore her maCesty?s herald" ;ut the phrase J"""s$ill smooth?d even the Simplon?s steep"""J will %e #uite incomprehensi%le to those readers who do not $now that Kapoleon %uilt a carriage road near the village of Simplon in the pass 3F-8 feet over the )lps and founded a" hospice at the summit" Then the words ?Simplon?s steep? %ecome charged with significance and implications which now need no further comment" )llusions are %ased on the accumulated experience and the $nowledge of the writer who presupposes a similar experience and $nowledge in the reader" ;ut the $nowledge stored in our minds is called forth %y an allusion in a peculiar manner" )il $inds of associations we may not yet have realiGed cluster round the facts alluded to" 0llustrative in this respect is the #uotationHallusion made in Somerset Maugham?s novel JThe Painted (eilJ" The last words uttered %y the dying man are JThe dog it was that died"J These are the concluding lines of 2oldsmith?s JElegy on the Death of a Mad Dog"J Unless the reader $nows the Elegy, he will not understand the implication em%odied in this #uotation" Conse#uently the #uotation here %ecomes an allusion, which runs through the whole plot of the novel" Moreover the psychological tuning of the novel can %e deciphered only %y drawing a parallel %etween the poem and the plot of the novel" The main character is dying, having failed to revenge himself upon his unfaithful wife" =e was punished %y death for having plotted evil" This is the inference to %e drawn from the allusion" The following passage from Dic$ens?s J=ard TimesJ will serve to prove how remote may %e the associations called up %y an allusion" JKo little 2randgrind had ever associated a cow in a field with that famous ')? ?i%$ %$e 'r-/6"ed $)r %$a% %)##ed %$e d)! %$a% ?)rried %$e 'a% %$a% @i""ed %$e ra% %$a% a%e %$e /a"% , or with that yet more famous ')? %$a% #?a"")?ed T)/ T$-/0I it had never heard of those cele%rities"J The meaning that can %e derived from the two allusions, one to the nursery rhyme JThe =ouse that :ac$ %uiltJ and the other to the old tale JThe =istory of Tom Thum%J is the followingD Ko one was permitted to teach the little 2randgrind children the lively, vivid nursery rhymes and tales that every English child $nows %y heart" They were su%Cected to nothing %ut dry a%stract drilling" The word cow in the two allusions %ecomes impregnated with concrete meaning set against the a%stract meaning of ')?(i (a( 7ie"d, or ')?(i (!e era"" To put it into the terms of theoretical

linguistics, ')?(i (a(7ie"d refers to the nominating rather than to the signifying aspect of the word" )llusions and #uotations may %e termed ) 'e(#e%(e56re##i) # %ecause they are used only for the occasion" )llusion, as has %een pointed out, needs no indication of the source" 0t is assumed to %e $nown" Therefore most allusions are made to factIHwith which the general reader should %e familiar" =owever allusionsH are sometimes made to things and facts, which need commentary %efore they are understood" To these %elongs the a""-#i) (6arad)5+ for exampleD AA e6$e? 'a""ed C$ar"ie is something 0 can?t Put up with at all since it ma$es me $i# a- %.A The allusion here is made to a wellH$nown play and later film called JCharlie?s )untJ in which a man is disguised as a woman" )llusions are used in different styles, %ut their function is everywhere the same" The deciphering of an allusion, however, is not always easy" 0n newspaper headlines allusions may %e decoded at first glance as, for instanceD J ?Pie in the s$y? for 1ailmenJ Most people in the US) and ;ritain $now the refrain of the wor$ers? songD JMou?ll get pie in the s$y when you die"J The use of part of the sentenceHrefrain implies that the railmen had %een given many promises %ut nothing at the present moment" !inguistically the allusion ?pie in the s$y? assumes a new meaning, viG", nothing %ut promises" Through fre#uency of repetition it may enter into the word stoc$ of the English language as a figurative synonym" De')/6)#i%i) )7 Se% P$ra#e# 2De7)r/a%i) )7 Idi)/#4 !inguistic fusions are set phrases, the meaning of which is understood only from the com%ination as a whole, as %) 6-"" a 6er#) L# "e! )r %) $a*e #)/e%$i ! a% ) eB# 7i !er %i6#. The meaning of the whole cannot %e derived from the meanings of the component parts" The stylistic device of decomposition of fused set phrases consists in reviving the independent meanings, which ma$e up the component parts of the fusion" 0n other words it ma$es each word of the com%ination ac#uire its literal meaning, which, of course, in many cases leads to the realiGation of an a%surdity" =ere is an example of this device as employed %y Dic$ensD JMindL 0 don?t mean to say that 0 $now of my own $nowledge, what there is particularly dead+ a0)-% a d))r( ai". 0 might have %een inclined, myself, to regard a coffin nail as the deadest piece of ironmongery in the trade" ;ut the wisdom of our ancestors is in the simileI and my unhallowed hands shall not distur% it or the Country?s done for" Mou will, therefore, permit me to repeat emphatically that Marley was as dead a# a d))r( ai".A +Dic$ens/

)s is seen in this excerpt, the fusion ?as dead as a doorHnail?, which simply means ')/6"e%e"& dead is decomposed %y %eing used in a different structural pattern" This causes the violation of the generally recogniGed meaning of the com%ination, which has grown into a mere emotional intensifier" The reader, %eing presented with the parts of the unit, %ecomes aware of the meaning of the parts, which, %e it repeated, have little in common with the meanings of the whole" <hen as Dic$ens does, the unit is reHesta%lished in its original form, the phrase ac#uires a refreshed vigour and effect, #ualities important in this utterance %ecause the unit itself was meant to carry the strongest possi%le proof that the man was actually dead" )nother example from the same storyD JScrooge had often heard it said that /) e& $ad ) 0)?e"#+ %ut he had never %elieved it until now"J The %owels 2!-%#+ i %e#%i e#4 were supposed to %e the seat of the emotions of pity and compassion" ;ut here Dic$ens uses the phrase ?to have no %owels? in its literal meaningD Scrooge is loo$ing at Marley?s ghost and does not see any intestines" 0n the sentence J0t was raining cats and dogs, and two $ittens and a puppy landed on my windowHsillJ +Chesterton/ the fusion ?to rain cats and dogs? is refreshed %y the introduction of J$ittens and a puppy,J which changes the unmotivated com%ination into a metaphor, which in its turn is sustained" The expression ?to save one?s %acon? means to e#'a6e 7r)/ i H-r& )r ")##" ;yron in his JDon :uanJ decomposes this unit %y setting it against the word $)! in its logical meaningD J;ut here 0 say the Tur$s were much mista$en, <ho hating $)!#+ yet wish?d to #a*e %$eir 0a') .A ;yron particularly favoured the device of simultaneous materialiGation of %?) meaningsD the meaning of the whole set phrase and the independent meanings of its components, with the result that the independent meanings unite anew and give the whole a fresh significance" =ere is a good example of the effective use of this device" The poet moc$s at the a%surd notion of idealists who deny the existence of every $ind of matter whatsoeverD J<hen ;ishop ;er$ley saidD Jthere ?a# ) /a%%erA )nd proved it H ?twas ) /a%%er what he said"J +;yron/ +0"1"2alperin" Stylistics" M",,-.,, pp",.FH,4-/" PRACTICAL E=ERCISES A. S%&"i#%i' De*i'e# Fa#ed ) %$e I %era'%i) Fe%?ee %$e L)!i'a" a d N)/i a" Mea i !# )7 a J)rd. A %) )/a#ia

E5er'i#e 9. Discuss the interaction %etween the nominal and the contextual logical meanings and the associations caused %y the latter in the following examples of antonomasia" ," *ate $ept him %ecause she $new he would do anything in the world if he were paid to do it or was afraid not to do it" She had no illusions a%out him" 0n her, %usiness :oes were necessary" 7" 0n the diningHroom stood a side%oard laden with glistening decanters and other utilities and ornaments in glass, the arrangement of which could not %e #uestioned" =ere was something =urstwood $new a%out """ =e too$ no little satisfaction in telling each Mary, shortly after she arrived, something of what the art of the thing re#uired" 9" +The actress is all in tears/" =er managerD JKow what?s all this Tosca stuff a%outYJ E" JChrist, it?s so funny 0 could cut my throat" Madame ;ovary at Colum%ia Extension SchoolLJ F" JMou?ll %e helping the police, 0 expect,J said Miss Cochran" J0 was forgetting that you had such a reputation as Sherloc$"J 3" Duncan was a rather short, %road, dar$Hs$inned tacij turn =amlet of a fellow with straight %lac$ hair" ." Every Caesar has his ;rutus" E5er'i#e II. State the role of the context in the realiGation of theHu logical meaning of a word +or a word com%ination/ inf the following examples of antonomasia, commenting] also on their structure" ," !ady TeaGleD >hL 0 am #uite undoneL <hat will %ecome of meY Kow, Mr" !ogicH>hY mercy, sir, he?s on the stairs" 7" =er mother said angrily, JStop ma$ing Co$es" 0 don?t $now what you?re thin$ing of" <hat does Miss ancy thin$ she?s going to doYJ J0 don?t $now yet"J said Cathy" 9" !ucyD So, my[dear Simplicity, let me give you a little respite" s " +Sh"/ E" " " we sat down at a ta%le with two girls in yellow and three men, each one introduced to us as Mr" Mum%le" F" The next spea$er was a tall gloomy man, Sir Something Some%ody" 3" " " "she?d %een in a %edroom with one of the young 0talians, Count Something" " " ." Then there?s that appointment with Mrs" <hat?sHherHname for her %loody awful wardro%e" 4" That <hat?sHhisH nameHthe rodeo rider was wor$ing the Stinson rodeo with you last year" -" =ey, pac$ it in, ole Son, Mister <hat?sHhisH name?ll %e here soon to have a loo$ at this s#uatting chair of his" ,8" J) %it of village gossip" Mrs" Some%ody or other?s Ernie " " " had to go with his mother toJ the police station, ,," "" "=e?s a %ig chap" <ell, you?ve never heard so many wellH %red commonplaces come from %eneath the same %owler hat" The Platitude from >uter SpaceHthat?s %rother Kigel" =ell end up in the Ca%inet one day ma$e no mista$e" ,7" The average man, Mr" )verage Man, Mr" Taxpayer, as drawn %y 1ollin *ir%y loo$s the average Kew Mor$ man ma$ing more than F888 dollars a

year, ,9" This was <ashingmachine Charley, or !ouie the !ouse as he was also called with less wit" )ll of them had heard a%out him of courseD the single plane who nightly made his single nuisance raid, and who had %een nic$named %y the stouthearted )merican troops" This information was in all news communi#ues" )nd in fact, %ecause of the great height, the sound did resem%le the noise made %y an anti#uated, onelung Maytag washer" ;ut the nic$name proved to %e generic" ,E" J1est, my dear,Hrest" That?s one of the most important things" There are three doctors in H an illness li$e yours,J he laughed in anticipation of his own Co$e" J0 don?t mean only myself, my partner and the radiologist who does your bHrays, the three 0?m referring to are Dr" 1est, Dr" Diet and Dr" resh )ir"J E5er'i#e III. 0ndicate the leading feature of the personages characteriGed %y the following Jspea$ing namesJ" Mr" 2radgrind +D"/I Mr" Noldfinger + l"/I ;ec$y Sharp +Th"/I ;osinney the ;ucanneer +2"/I !ady TeaGle, :oseph Surface, Mr" Carefree, Miss !anguish, Mr" ;ac$%ite, Mr" Sna$e, Mr" Credulous +Sh"/I =oliday 2olightly +T"C"/I Mr" ;utt, Mrs" Kewrich, Mr" ;eanhead +!"/ S%&"i#%i' De*i'e# Fa#ed ) %$e I %era'%i) Fe%?ee T?) L)!i'a" Mea i !# )7 a J)rd 294 Me%a6$)r E5er'i#e I. Discuss the structure, grammatical category and syntactical functions of metaphors in the following examples" ," The cloc$ had struc$, time was %leeding away" 7" Dance music was %ellowing from the open door of the Cadogan?s cottage" 9" There had %een rain in the night, and now all the trees were curtseying to a fresh wind " " " E" She too$ a ;i%le from the shelf, and readI then, laying it down, thought of the summer days and the %right springHtime that would come, of the sweet air that would steal in """ F" J<ill he ever come down those stairs againYJ ThisJL thought lanced Constance?s heart" 3" )nother night, deep in the summer, the heat of my room sent me out into the streets" ." " " "every hour in every day she could wound his pride" 4" Money %urns a hole in my poc$et" -" " " The world was tipsy with its own perfections" E5er'i#e II. Differentiate %etween genuine and trite metaphors" j," 0n the spaces %etween houses the wind caught her"? 0t stung, it gnawed at nose and ears and aching chee$s, and she hastened from shelter to shelter " " " 7" Swan had taught him much" The great $indly Swede had ta$en him under his wing" 9" 0t %eing his ha%it not to Cump or leap, or ma$e an upward spring, at anything in life, %ut to crawl at

everything" E" Then would come six or seven good years when there might %e 78 to 7F inches of rain, and the land would shout with grass" F"The laugh in her eyes died out and was replaced %y something else" 3" Death is at the end of that devious, winding maGe of paths " " " ." Keither Mr" Povey nor Constance introduced the delicate su%Cect to her again, and she had determinedI not to %e the first to spea$ of it" " So the matter hung, as it were, suspended in the ether %etween the opposing forces of pride and passion" 4" " " "her expression, an unrealiGed yawn, put, %y example, a damper on the excitement 0 felt over dining at so swan$y a place" -" ;attle found his way to the ;lue morningHroom without difficulty" =e was already familiar with the geography of the house" ,8" 0t was a ladyli$e yawn, a closedH mouth yawn, %ut you couldn?t miss itI her nostrilHwings gave her away" E5er'i#e III. State the num%er and #uality of simple metaphors compriGing the following sustained metaphors" ," The stethoscope crept over her %ac$" JCough """ ;reathe " " "J Tap, tap" <hat was he hearingY <hat changes were going on in her %odyY <hat was her lung telling him through the thic$ envelope of her flesh, througli the wall of her ri%s and her shouldersY 7" The artistic centre of 2alloway is *ir$cud%right, where the painters form a scattered constellation, whose nucleus is in the =igh Street, and whose outer stars twin$le in remote hillside cottages, radiating %rightness as far as gatehouse of leet" 9" The slash of sun on the wall a%ove him slowly $nifes down, cuts across his chest, %ecomes a coin on the floor and vanishes" E" =is countenance %eamed with the most sunny smilesI laughter played around his lips, and goodHhumoured merriment twin$led in his eye" F" The music came to him across the now %right, now dull, slowly %urning cigarette of each man?s life, telling him its ancient secret of all men, intangi%le, unfathoma%le defying longHwinded description " " " 3" She had tripped into the meadow to teach the lam%s a pretty educational dance and found that the lam%s were wolves" There was no way out %etween their pressing gray shoulders" She was surrounded %y fangs and sneering eyes" She could not go on enduring the hidden derision" She wanted to flee" She wanted to hide in the generous indifference of cities" ." )s he wal$s along Potter )venue the wires at their silent height stri$e into and through the crowns of the %reathing maples" )t the next corner, where the water from the iceHplant used to come down, so% into a drain, and reappear on the other side of the street" 1a%%itt crosses over and wal$s %eside the gutter where the water used to run coating the shallow side of its course with ri%%ons of green slime waving and waiting to slip under your feet and dun$ you if you dared wal$ on them" 4" 0 have

%een waiting to tal$ to youHto have you to myself, no lessHuntil 0 could chase my new %oo$ out of the house" 0 thought it never would go" 0ts last moments lingered on and on" 0t got up, turned again, too$ off its gloves, again sat down, reached the door, came %ac$ until finally M" mar$ed it down, lassoed it with a stout string and hurled it at Pin$er" Since then there?s %een an ominous silence" -" =is dinner arrived, a plenteous platter of food H %ut no plate" =e glanced at his neigh%ors" Evidently plates were an affectation frowned upon in the >asis" Ta$ing up a tarnished $nife and for$, he pushed aside the under%rush of onions and came face to face with his stea$" irst impressions are important, and ;o% Eden $new at once that this was no mee$, complacent opponent that confronted him" The stea$ loo$ed %ac$ at him with an air of defiance that was amply Custified %y what followed" )fter a few moments of unsuccessful %attling, he summoned the shei$" J=ow a%out a steel $nifeYJ he in#uired" J>nly got three and they?re all in use,J the waiter replied" ;o% Eden resumed the %attle, his el%ows held close, his muscles swelling" <ith set teeth and grim face he %ore down and cut deep" There was a terrific screech as his $nife s$idded along the platter, and to his horror he saw the stea$ rise from its %ed of gravy and onions and fly from him" 0t traveled the grimy counter for a second, then dropped on to the $nees of the girl and thence to the floor" Eden turned to meet her %lue eyes filled with laughter" J>h, 0?m sorry,J he said" J0 thought it was a stea$, and it seems to %e a lap dog"J ,8" Directly he saw those rolling chal$ hills he was conscious of a difference in himself and in them" The steaming stewHpan that was !ondon was left to simmer under its smo$y s$y, while these great rolling spaces sunned themselves as they had sunned themselves in the days of the ;arrow men" E5er'i#e IV. Spea$ a%out the role of the context in the creation of the image through a metaphor" ,"There, at the very core of !ondon, in the heart of ,?ts %usiness and animation, in the midst of a whirl of noise and notion " " " stands Kewgate" 7" England has two eyes, >xford and Cam%ridge" They are the two eyes of England, and two intellectual eyes, 9" ;eauty is %ut a flower <hich wrin$les will devour" E" 0t appears to her that 0 am for the passing time the cat of the house, the friend of the family" F" Sunshine, the old clown, rims the door" 3" The waters have closed a%ove your head, and the world has closed upon your miseries and misfortunes for ever"

E5er'i#e V. )nalyse the following cases of personification" 9. O this dawn of >cto%er, ,44F, she stood %y her $itchen window " " " watching another dismal and rainy day emerge from the wom% of the expiring night" )nd such an ugly, sic$lyHloo$ing %a%y she thought it was that, so far as she was concerned, it could go straight %ac$ where it came from" 7" =e was fainting from seaHsic$ness, and a roll of the ship tilted him over the rail on to the smooth lip of the dec$" Then a low, gray motherHwave swung out of the fog, tuc$ed =arvey under one arm, solo spea$, and pulled him off and away to leeHwardI the great green closed over him, and he went #uietly ?to sleep" 9" ) dead leaf fell in Soapy?s lap" That was :ac$ rost?s card" :ac$ is $ind to the regular deniGens of Madison S#uare, and gives fair warning of his annual call" )t the corners of four streets he hands his paste%oard to the Korth <ind, footman of the mansion of )ll >utdoors, so that the inha%itants thereof may ma$e ready" E" Dexter watched from the veranda of the 2olf Clu%, watched the even overlap of the waters in the little wind, silver molasses under the harvest moon" Then the moon held a finger to her lips and the la$e %ecame a clear pool, pale and #uiet" F" =ere and" there a :oshua tree stretched out hungry %lac$ arms as though to seiGe these travelers %y night, and over that gray waste a dismal wind moaned constantly, chill and $een and %iting" 3" The ace of !ondon was now strangely altered " " " the voice of Mourning was heard in every street" ." Mother Kature always %lushes %efore disro%ing" 4" The rainy night had ushered in a misty morning, half frost, half driGGle, and temporary %roo$s crossed our path, gurgling from the uplands" -" Chan shrugged" J)ll the time the %ig Pacific >cean suffered sharp pains down %elow, and tossed a%out to prove it" May %e from sympathy 0 was in the same fix"J ,8";rea$, %rea$, %rea$ >n the cold gray stones, > SeaL ;rea$,%rea$, %rea$ )t the foot of thy chags, O.SeaD 2T.4 224 Me%) &/& E5er'i#e I. State the type of relationsHexisting %etween the o%CectI named and the o%Cect implied in the following examplesL of metonymy" ," She saw around her, clustered a%out the white ta%les, multitudes of violently red lips, powdered chee$s, cold, hard eyes, selfHpossessed arrogant faces, and insolentH%osoms" 7" The trenchful of dead :apanese made him feel even worse %ut he felt he must not show this, so he had Coined in with the othersI %ut his heart wasn?t in it" 9" 0t must not %e supposed that stout women of a certain age never see$ to seduce the eye and

trou%le the meditations of man %y other than moral charms" E" Daniel was a good fellow, honora%le, %rilliant, a figure in the world" ;ut what of his licentious tongueY <hat of his fre#uenting of %arsY F" 0f you $new how to dispose of the information you could do the )xis #uite a %it of good %y $eeping your eyes and ears open in 2retley" 3" JMou?ve got no%ody to %lame %ut yourself"J JThe saddest words of tongue or pen"J ." The syntax and idiom of the voice, in common conversation, are not the syntax and idiom of the pen" 4" or several days he too$ an hour after his wor$ to ma$e in#uiry ta$ing with him some example of his pen and in$s" -" The praise " " " was enthusiastic enough to have delighted any common writer who earns his living %y his pen"" " ,8" " " "there would follow splendid years of great wor$s carried out together, the old head %ac$ing the young? fire" ,," Sceptre and crown must tum%le down" )nd in the dust %e e#ual made" <ith the poor croo$ed scythe and spade" ,7" =e was interested in every%ody" =is mind was alert, and people as$ed him to dinner not for old times? sa$e, %ut %ecause he was worth his salt" ,9" 0t was in those placid latitudes """ in the Pacific, where wee$s, aye months, often pass without the marginHless %lue level %eing ruffled %y any wandering $eel" E5er'i#e II. Differentiate %etween trite and original metonymies" ," " " "for every loo$ that passed %etween them, and word they spo$e, and every card they played, the dwarf had eyes and ears" 7" J" " "he had a stin$ing childhood"J J0f it was so stin$ing why does he cling to itYJ JUse your head" Can?t you see it?s Cust that 1usty feels safer in diapers than he would in s$irtsYJ 9" JSome remar$a%le pictures in this room, gentlemen" ) =ol%ein, two (an Dyc$s, and, if 0 am not mista$en, a (elas#ueG" 0 am interested in picturesLJ E" Mrs" )melia ;loomer invented %loomers in ,4E- for the very daring sport of cycling" F" J0 shall enCoy a %it of a wal$"J J0t?s raining, you $now"J J0 $now" 0?v got a ;ur%erry"J 3" Two men in uniforms were running heavily to the )dministration %uilding" )s they ran, Christian saw them throw away their rifles" They were portly men who loo$ed li$e advertisements for Munich %eer, and running came hard to them " " " The first prisoner stopped and pic$ed up one of the discarded rifles" =e did not" fire it, %ut carried it, as he chased the guards """ =e swung the rifle li$e a clu%, and one of the %eer advertisements went down" ." 0 get my living %y the sweat of my %row" 4" 0 crossed a high toll %ridge and negotiated a no man?s land and came to the place where the Stars and Stripes stood shoulder to shoulder with the Union :ac$" +St"/ Tom and 1oger came %ac$ to eat an enormous tea and then played tennis till light

failed" ,8" 0 hope you will %e a%le to send your mother something from time to time, as we can give her a roof over her head, a place to sleep and eat %ut nothing else" >?="/ I ,," ;eing tired and dirty for days at a time and then having to give up %ecause flesh and %lood Cust couldn?t stand it" ,7" " " "the watchful Mrs" Snags%y is ?there tooH%ones of his %one, flesh of his flesh, shadow of his shadow" ,9" :oe ;ell?s is a #uiet place compared to most !exington )venue %ars" 0t %oasts neither neon nor television"L ,E" She was a sunny, happy sort of creature" Too fond of the %ottle" ,F" To hell with ScienceL 0 have to laugh when 0 read some tripe these Cournalists write a%out it " " " <hat has Science done for Modern ManY ,3" 0t?s the inside of the man, the warm heart of the man, the passion of the man, the fresh %lood of the man " " " that 0 spea$ of" ,." The streets were %edded with """ six inches of cold, soft carpet, churned to a dirty %rown %y the crush of teams and the feet of men" )long ;roadway men pic$ed their way in ulsters and um%rellas" ,4" Up the S#uare, from the corner of *ing Street, passed a woman in a new %onnet with pin$ strings, and a new %lue dress that sloped at the shoulders and grew to a vast circumference at the hem" Through the silent sunlit solitude of the S#uare " " " this %onnet and this dress floated northwards in search of romance" ,-" J0 never saw a Phi ;eta *appa wear a wrist watch"J E5er'i#e III. 2ive the morphological and syntactical characteristics of metonymies" ,"Many of the hearts that thro%%ed so gaily then, have ceased to %eatI many of the loo$s that shone so %rightly then, have ceased to glow" 7" There had to %e aJ survey" 0t cost me a few hundred pounds for the right poc$ets" 9" =e """ too$ a taxi, one of those small, low PhiladelphiaHmade unH)mericanHloo$ing Mellows of that period"" E" She goes on fainter and fainter %efore my eyes" F" 0 have only one good #ualityHoverwhelming %elief in the %rains and hearts of our nation, our state, our town" 3" Dinah, a slim, fresh, pale eighteen, was pliant and vet fragile" ." The man loo$ed a rather old fortyHfive, for he was already going grey" 4" The delicatessen owner was a spry and Colly fifty" -" =e made his way through the perfume and conversation" ,8" The man carrying the %lac$ 2ladstone refused the help of the red Caps" " Didn?t he loo$ strong enough to carry a little %ag, a little 2ladstone li$e thisY " " They were young and loo$ed pretty strong, most of these 1ed Caps """ 2<4 Ir) &. E'er'i#e I+ )nalyse the following cases of irony, paying attention to the length of the context necessary to realiGe itD ," Contentedly Sam dar$ drove off, in the heavy traffic of three ords and the Minniemashie =ouse ree ;us" 7"

Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator" 9" =enry could get gloriously tipsy on tea and conversation" E" She had so painfully reared three sons to %e Christian gentlemen that one of them had %ecome an >maha %artender, one a professor of 2ree$, and one, Cyrus K" ;ogart, ?a %oy of fourteen who was still at home, Jthe most %raGen mem%er of the toughest gang in ;oytown" F" Even at this affair, which %rought out the young smart set, the hunting s#uire set, the respecta%le intellectual set, they sat up with gaiety as with a corpse" 3" J0f there?s a war, what are you going to %e inYJ !ipHhoo$ as$ed" JThe 2overnment, 0 hope,J Tom said, JTouring the lines in an armored car, my great %elly sha$ing li$e a Celly" =ey did you hear thatY That?s poetryJ ." =e could wal$ and run, was full of exact $nowledge a%out 2od, and entertained no dou%t concerning the special partiality of a minor deity called :esus towards himself" 4" """ Try this one, JThe Eye of >siris"J 2reat stuff )ll a%out a mummy" >r *ennedy?s JCorpse on the MatJ H that?s nice and light and cheerful, li$e its title" -" ;lodgett College is on the edge of Minneapolis" 0t is a %ulwar$ of sound religion" 0t is still com%ating the recent heresies of (oltaire, Darwin and 1o%ert 0ngersoll" Pious families in Minnesota, 0owa, <isconsin, the Da$otas send their children thither, and ;lodgett protects Jthem from the wic$edness of the universities" ,8" """ the old lady """ ventured to approach Mr" ;enCamin )lien with a few comforting reflections of which the chief were, that after all, it was well it was no worseI the least said the soonest mended, and upon her word she did not $now that it was so very %ad after allI that what was over couldn?t %e %egun and what couldn?t %e cured mustD %e endured, with various other assurances of the li$e novel and strengthening description" ,," Poetry deals with primal and conventional thingsH the hunger for %read, the love of woman, the love of children, the desire for immortal life" 0f men really had new sentiments, poetry could not deal with them" 0f, let us say, a man did not feel a %itter craving to eat %readI %ut did, %y way of su%stitute, feel a fresh, original craving to eat fenders or mahogany ta%les, poetry could not express him" 0f a man, instead of falling in love with a woman, fell in love with a fossil or a sea anemone poetry could not express him" Poetry can only express what is original in one senseHthe sense in which we spea$ of original sin" 0t is original not in the paltry sense of %eing new, %ut in the deeper sense of %eing oldI it is original in the sense that it deals with origins" ,7" ;ut every Englishman is %orn with a certain miraculous power that ma$es him master of the world" )s the great champion of freedom and national independence he con#uers and annexes half the world and

calls it ColoniGation" ,9" )ll this %lood and fire %usiness tonight was pro%a%ly part of the graft to get the Socialists chuc$ed out and leave honest %usinessmen safe to ma$e their fortunes out of murder" ,E" England has %een in a dreadful state for some wee$s" !ord Coodle would go out, Sir Thomas Doodle wouldn?t come in, and there %eing no%ody in 2reat ;ritain +to spea$ of/ except Coodle and Doodle, there has %een no 2overnment" ,F" 0t was at their %eautiful country place in <" that we had the pleasure of interviewing the )fterthought" )t their own cordial invitation, we had wal$ed over from the nearest railway station, a distance of some fourteen miles" 0ndeed, as soon as they heard of our intention they invited us to wal$" J<e are so sorry not to %ring you in the motor,J they wrote, J%ut the roads are so frightfully dusty that we might get dust on our chauffeur"J That little touch of thoughtfulness is the $eynote of their character" ,3" ;ut 2eorge only lasted his mother as a source of posthumous excitement for a%out two months" :ust as the #uarrel with EliGa%eth reached stupendous heights of vulgar invective +on her side/, old <inter%ourne got himself run over" So there was the excitement of the in#uest and a real funeral, and widow?s weeds and more tearH%lotched letters" She even sent a tearH%lotched letter to EliGa%eth, which 0 saw, saying that ?twenty years?Hit was really almost thirty H ?of happy married life were over, %oth father and son were now happily united, and, whatever Mr" <inter%ourne?s faults, he was a !e %"e/a . +=eavily underlined and followed %y several exclamation mar$s, the insinuation %eing apparently that EliGa%eth was no lady"/ ) month later Mrs" <inter%ourne married the shei$H alasL no shei$ nowHat a !ondon registry office, whence they departed to )ustralia to live a clean sportin? life" Peace %e with them %othHthey were too clean and sportin? for a corrupt and unclean Europe" S%&"i#%i' De*i'e# Fa#ed ) %$e I %era'%i) Fe%?ee %$e L)!i'a" a d E/)%i*e Mea i !# )7 a J)rd 294 H&6er0)"e" E5er'i#e I. Differentiate %etween the traditional and the genuine hyper%oles in the following examples" ," 2od, 0 cried %uc$ets" 0 saw it ten times" 7" J=er family is one aunt a%out a thousand years old"J 9" There were a%out twenty people at the party, most of whom 0 hadn?t met %efore" The girls were dressed to $ill" E" She was very much upset %y the catastrophe that had %efallen the ;ishops, %ut it was exciting, and she was tic$led to death to have someone fresh to whom she could tell all a%out it" F" <hen she dropped her pose and smiled down she discovered *ennicott apoplectic with domestic pridek 3" Tom was conducted

through a maGe of rooms and la%yrinths of passages" ." ) worn tweed coat on her loo$ed, he always thought worth ten times the painful finery of the village girls" 4" >ne night some twenty years ago, during a siege of mumps in our enormous family my younger sister ranny was, moved, cri% and all, into the ostensi%ly germHfree room 0 shared with my eldest %rother Seymour" -" 0 hope, Cecily, 0 shall not offend you if 0 state #uite fran$ly and openly that you seem to me to %e in every way the visi%le personification of a%solute perfection" ,8" )cross my every path, at every turn, go where 0 will, do what 0 may, he comes" ,," """he assured me that they had some +asparagus/ so large, so splendid, so tender, that it was a wonder" E5er'i#e II. State the nature of the exaggerated phenomenon +siGe, #uantity, emotion, etc"/" ," "" "he?ll go to sleep, my 2od he should, eight martinis %efore dinner and enough wine to wash an elephant" 7" Mou $now how it isD you?re 7, or 77 and you ma$e some decisionsD then whishI you?re seventyD you?ve %een a lawyer for fifty years, and that whiteHhaired lady at your side has eaten over fifty thousand meals with you" 9" )ll the other attractions, with organs out of num%er and %ands innumera%le, emerged from the holes and corners in which they had passed the night" E" 2eorge !omax, his eyes always protu%erant, %ut now goggling almost out of his head, stared at the closed door" F" The afternoonH%ridge """ " was held at :uanita =aydoc$?s new concrete %ungalow" Carol stepped into a sirocco of furnace heat" They were already playing" 3" )D Try and %e a lady" 2D )iCahL That?s %een said a hundred %illion times" ." "" "it is and will %e for several hours the topic of the age, the feature of the century" 4" This is 1ome" Ko%ody has $ept a secret in 1ome for three thousand years" -" "" "said ;undle, after executing a fanfare upon the $laxon which must temporarily have deafened the neigh%ourhood" ,8" 0t?s not a Co$e, darling" 0 want you to call him up and tell him what a genius red is" =e?s written %arrels of the most marvellous stories" ,," ) team of horses couldn?t draw her %ac$ nowI the %olts and %ars of the old ;astille couldn?t $eep her" ,7" )nd as he was capa%le of giant Coy, so did he har%or huge sorrow, so that when his dog died, the world ended" ,9" "" "she has a nose that?s at least three inches too long" E5er'i#e III. Compare hyper%ole and understatement" ," +:ohn ;idla$e feels an oppression in the stomach after supper/D J0t must have %een that caviar,J he was thin$ing" JThat %eastly caviar"J =e violently hated caviar" Every sturgeon in the ;lac$ Sea was his personal enemy" 7" "" "he was all spar$le and glitter in the %ox at the >pera" 9" JMou remem%er that awful dinner dress we

saw in ;onwit?s window " " " She had it on" )nd all hips" She $ept as$ing me" " "J E" Calpurnia was all angles and %onesI her hand was as wide as a %ed slat and twice as hard" F" This %oy, headstrong, wilful, and disorderly as he is, should riot have one penny of my money, or one crust of my %read, or one grasp of my hand, to save him from the loftiest gallows in all Europe" 3" They were under a great shadowy train shed " " " with passenger cars all a%out and the train moving at a snail pace" ." She would recollect and for a fraction of a fraction of a second she would thin$ J>h, yes, 0 remem%er,J and %uild up an explanation on the recollection " " " 4" =er eyes were open, %ut only Cust" JDon?t move theI tiniest part of an inch"J -" The little woman, for she was of poc$et siGe, crossed her hands solemnly on her middle" 224 E6i%$e% E5er'i#e I. Discuss the structure of epithets" ," JCan you tell me what time that game starts todayYJ The girl gave him a lipstic$y smile" 7" The day was windless, unnaturally mildI since morning the sun had tried to penetrate the cloud, and now a%ove the Mall, the s$y was still faintly luminous, coloured li$e water over sand" 9" Silent early morning dogs parade maCestically pec$ing and choosing Cudiciously whereon to pee" E" The hard chairs were the newlywedHsuit $ind often on show in the windows of shops" F" """ whispered the spinster aunt with true spinsterHauntHli$e envy """ 3" 0 closed my eyes, smelling the goodness of her sweat and the sunshineH inHtheH%rea$fastHroom smell of her lavenderHwater" ." Star$ stared at him reflectively, that peculiar a%out to laugh, a%out to cry, a%out to sneer expression on his face" 4" Eden was an adept at %argaining, %ut somehow all his cunning left him as he faced this 2i%raltar of a man" -" )t his full height he was only up to her shoulder a little driedHup pippin of a man" ,8" JThief,J Pilon shouted" JDirty pig of an untrue friend"J ,," )n ugly ginger%read %rute of a %oy with a revolting grin and as far as 0 was a%le to ascertain, no redeeming #ualities of any sort" ,7" ) %reeGe " " " %lew curtains in and out li$e pale flags, twisting them up toward the frosted weddingHca$e of the ceiling" ,9" =e wore proud %oxing gloves of %andages for wee$s after that" ,E" J0?d rather not $now who did it" 0?d rather not e ven thin$ a%out it"J J>strich,J said her hus%and" ,F" J oolL 0diotL !unaticLJ she protested vehemently" ,3" Mou shall pay me for the plague of having you eternally in my sight" Do you hear, damna%le CadeY ,." J<hy, goddam you,J ;loom screamed" JMou dirty yellow, snea$ing, twofaced, lying, rotten <op you,J have said, Jyellow little <op"J

E5er'i#e II. Classify the following into phraseHepithets and phraseHlogical attri%utes" ," """a loc$ of hair fell over her eye and she pushed it %ac$ with a tired, endHofHtheHday gesture" 7" "" "he was harmless, only Cust twenty, with a snu% nose and curly hair and an air of morning %aths and early to %ed and plenty of exercise" 9" Mou don?t seem to have any trou%le controlling yourself, do youY"" Kot li$e poor old slo%%ery, heartHonHhisHtongue ;uster here, at all" E" =e was an old resident of Sea%ourne, who loo$ed after the pennyHinHtheHslot machines on the pier" F" The shot sent the herd off %ounding wildly and leaping over one another?s %ac$s in long, legHdrawnHup leaps " " " 3" She stopped at the door as if she?d %een hit or as if a hundredHmileHanHhour gale had sprung up and she were %racing herself against it" ." =is view is that a sermon nowadays should %e a %right, %ris$, straightHfromHtheH shoulder address, never lasting more than ten or twelve minutes" 4" "" "the extravagant devilHmayHcare creatures he portrayed on the stage" -" JUncle <ills loo$s at me all the time with a resigned ?0 told you so? expression in his eyes, Jhe said impatiently" ,8" So thin$ first of her, %ut not in the ??0 love you so that nothing will induce me to marry youJ fashion" ,," Dave does a thereH0HtoldHyouHso loo$" ,7" She gave Mrs" Sils%urn a youH$nowHhowHmenHare loo$" ,9" )nd one on either side of me the dogs crouched down with a moveHifHyouHdare expression in their eyes" ,E" "" They +wives/ really got only a sense of selfHpreservation """ everything else will %e a foreign language to her" Mou $now" Those innocent 0Hdon?tH$nowHwhatH you?reHtal$ingHa%out eyesY E5er'i#e III. )nalyse the following stringHepithets as to the length of the string and the #uality of its components" ," She was hopefully, sadly, vaguely, madly longing for something %etter" 7" The money she had accepted was two soft, green, handsome tenHdollar %ills" 9" JMou?re a scolding, unCust, a%usive, aggravating, %ad old creatureLJ cried ;ella" E" :ac$ would have li$ed to go over and $iss her pure, polite, earnest, %eautiful )merican forehead" F" JKow my soul, my ?gentle, captivating, %ewitching, and most damna%ly enslaving chic$HaH%iddy, %e calm, said Mr" Mantalini" 3" 0t was an old, musty, fusty, narrowHminded, clean and %itter room" ." JMou nasty, idle, vicious, goodHforHnothing %rute,J cried the woman, stamping on the ground, Jwhy don?t you turn the mangleYJ 4" )nd he watched her eagerly, sadly, %itterly, ecstatically, as she wal$ed lightly from him " " " -" """ There was no intellectual pose in the laugh that followed, ri%ald, riotous, coc$ney, straight from the %elly" ,8" Mrs" ;ogart was not the acid type of 2ood 0nfluence" She was the soft, damp, fat, sighing, indigestive, clinging, melancholy,

depressingly hopeful $ind" ,," J) nasty, ungrateful, pigHheaded, %rutish, o%stinate, snea$ing dog,J exclaimed Mrs" S#ueers" ,7" "" "they thought themselves superior" )nd so did EugeneHthe wretched creatureL The cheap, mean, nasty, selfish upstartsL <hy, the maCority of them had nothing" E5er'i#e IV. Pic$ out metaphorical epithets" ," The iron hate in Saul pushed him on again" =e heard the man crashing off to his right through some %ushes" The stems and twigs waved frantically with the frightened movement of the wind" 7" She had received from her aunt a neat, precise, and circumstantial letter" 9" There was an adenoidal giggle from )udrey" E" !iGa =amilton was a very different $ettle of 0rish" =er head was small and round and it held small and round convictions" F" =e would sit on the railless porch with the men when the long, tired, dirtyHfaced evening rolled down the narrow valley, than$fully %lotting out the streets of shac$s, and listen to the tal$" 3" There was his little scanty travelling clothes upon him" There was his little scanty %ox outside in the shivering wind" ." =is dry tailored voice was capa%le of more light and shade than Catherine had supposed" 4" )ll at once there is a goal, a path through the shapeless day" -" <ith his hand he shielded his eye against the harsh watty glare from the na$ed %ul% over the ta%le" E5er'i#e V." Spea$ a%out morphological, syntactical and semantic characteristics of epithets" ," J0t ai B% o? no use, Sir,J said Sam, again and again" J=e?s a malicious, %adHdisposed, vordlyHminded, spiteful, windictive creetur, with a hard heart as there ain?t no soft? nin?"J 7" 0 pressed half a crown into his ready palm and left" 9" Maycom% was an old town, %ut it was a tired old town when 0 first $new it" E" =e viewed with swift horror the pit into which he had tum%led, the degraded, days, unworthy desires, wrec$ed faculties and %ase motives that made up his existence" F" Cecily, ever since 0 first loo$ed at your wonderful and incompara%le %eauty, 0 have dared to love you wildly, passionately, devotedly, hopelessly" 3" The noon sun is lighting up red woundli$e stains on their surfaces """ ." =e was young and small and almost as dar$ as a Kegro, and there was a #uic$ mon$eyH li$e roguishness to his face as he gra%%ed the letter, win$ed at ;i%i and shut the d))r. 4" """ the openHwindowed, warm spring nights were lurid with the party sounds, the loudHplaying phonograph and martini laughter that emanated irom )partment 7" -" ) spasm of highHvoltage nervousness ran through, him" ,8" J ool,J said the old man %itingly" ,," =e had %een called many thingsHloanHshar$, s$inflint, tightwad pussyfootH%ut he had never %efore %een called a flirt"

E5er'i#e VI. Suggest the o%Cect the #uality of which was used in the following transferred epithets" ," =e was a thin wiry man with a to%accoHstained smile" 7" =e sat with Daisy in his arms for a long silent time" 9" There was a waiting silence as the minutes of the previous hearing were read" E" =e dran$ his orangeHCuice in long cold gulps" F" The only place left was the dec$ strewn with nervous cigarette %utts and sprawled legs" 3" !eaving indignant su%ur%s %ehind them they finally emerged into >xford Street" Kic$ smiled sweatily" 4" She watched his tall #uic$ step through the radiance of the corner streetlight" -" !ottie " " " retreated at once with her fat little steps to the safety of her own room" ,8" " " "%oys and young men " " " tal$ing loudly in the concrete accents of the K" M" streets" ,," 0n imagination he heard his father?s rich and fleshy laugh" 2<4 O5&/)r) . E5er'i#e I" Discuss the structure of the following oxymorons" ," They loo$ed courteous curses at me" 7" =e """ caught a ride home to the crowded loneliness of the %arrac$s"? 9" " " "he was certain the whites could easily detect his adoring hatred of them" E" 0t was an unanswera%le reply and silence prevailedJ again" F" =er lips " " " were " " " livid scarlet" 3" The %oy was short and s#uat with the %road ugly pleasant face of a Temne" ." ) very li$ea%le young man, ;ill Eversleigh" )ge at a guess, twentyH five, %ig and rather ungainly in his movements, a pleasantly ugly face,H a splendid set of white teeth and a pair of honest %lue eyes" 4" rom the %edroom %eside the sleepingHporch, his wife?s detesta%ly cheerful JTime to get up, 2eorgie %oy,J " " " -" The little girl who had done this was elevenH%eautifully ugly as little girls are apt to %e who are destined after a few years to %e inexpressi%ly lovely " " ",8" =uc$ inn and =olden Caulfield are 2ood ;ad ;oys of )merican literature" ,," " " "a neon sign which reads, J<elcome to 1eno, the %iggest little town in the world"J ,7" JTastes li$e rotten apples,J said )dam" JMes, %ut remem%er, :am =amilton said li$e good rotten apples"J ,9" J0t was you who made me a liar,J she cried silently" ,E" The silence as the two men stared at one another was louder than thunder" ,F" 0 got down off that stool and wal$ed to the door in a silence that was as loud as a ton of coal going down a chute" ,3" 0?ve made up my mind" 0f you?re wrong, you?re wrong in the right way" ,." =eaven must %e the hell of a place" Kothing %ut repentant sinners up there, isn?t itY ,4" Soapy wal$ed eastward through a street damaged %y improvements """ =e seemed doomed to li%ertyL E5er'i#e II. ind original and trite oxymorons among the following" or an eternity of seconds, it seemed, the din was all %ut incredi%le" 7" >f course, it was

pro%a%ly an open secret locally" 9" She was a damned nice woman, too" E" =e?d %ehaved pretty lousily to :an" F" " " ,,?t?s very tender, it?s sweet as hell, the way the women wear their prettiest every thing" 3" Doc has the hands of a %rain surgeon and a cool warm mind " " " =e was concupiscent as a ra%%it and gentle as hell" S%&"i#%i' De*i'e# Fa#ed ) %$e I %era'%i) Fe%?ee %$e Free a d P$ra#e)")!i'a" Mea i !# )7 a J)rd. 2Or Fe%?ee %$e Mea i !# )7 T?) H)/) &/#4 294 Te-!/a. E5er'i#e I. State in which cases Geugma is created through if he simultaneous realiGation of different meanings of a polysemantic word and in which through homonyms" ," =is loo$s were starched, %ut his white nec$erchief was notI and its long limp ends struggled over his closelyH%uttoned waistcoat in a very uncouth and unpictures#ue manner" 7" 2ertrude found her aunt in a syncope from which she passed into an apostrophe and never recovered" 9" There comes a period in every man?s life, %ut she?s Cust a semicolon in his" E" J=ave you %een seeing any spiritsYJ in#uired the old gentleman" J>r ta$ing anyYJ added ;o% )lien" F" JSally,J said Mr" ;entley in a voice almost as low as his intentions, Jlet?s go out to the $itchen"J 3" J<here did you pic$ up Dinny, !awrenceYJ J0n the street"J JThat sounds improper"J ." :oD 0?m going to unpac$ my %ul%s" 0 wonder where 0 can put them" =elenD 0 could tell you, :oD They?re supposed to %e left in a cool, dar$ place" =elenD That?s where we all end up sooner or later" Still it?s no use worrying, is itY E5er'i#e II. Classify the following into Geugmas and semantically false chains" ," Mr" Stiggins " " " too$ his hat and his leave" 7" Disco was wor$ing in all his shore dignity and j pair of %eautiful carpet slippers" 9" Mr" Trundle was in high feather and spirits " " " ) the girls were in tears and white muslinI +D"/ E" She put on a white froc$ that suited the sunny riverside and her" F" The fat %oy went into the next roomI and having %een a%sent a%out a minute, returned with the snuffH%ox and the palest face that ever a fat %oy wore" 3" She had her %rea$fast and her %ath" ." Miss ;olo rose from the ta%le considera%ly agitated, and went straight home in a flood of tears and a sedan chair" 4" ) young girl who had a yellow smoc$ and a cold in the head that did not go on too welt together, was helping an old lady " " " +P"/ -" " " "the outside passengers " " " remain where they? are" and stamp their feet against the coach to warm them loo$ing with longing eyes and red noses at the %right fire in the inn %ar" ,8" Cyrus Tras$ mourned for his wife with a $eg of

whis$y and three old army friends" ,," 0ts atmosphere and croc$ery were thic$, its napery and soup were thin" ,7" Mr" Smangle was still engaged in relating a long story, the chief point of which appeared to %e that, on some occasion particularly stated and set forth, he had JdoneJ a hill and a gentleman at the same time" ,9" =e struc$ off his pension and his head together" ,E" Sophia lay %etween %lan$ets in the room overhead with a feverish cold" This cold and her new dress were Mrs" ;aine?s sole consolation at the moment" ,F" rom her earliest infancy 2ertrude had %een %rought up %y her aunt" =er aunt had carefully instructed her to Christian principles" She had also taught her Mohammedanism to ma$e sure" ,3" " " "he?s a hard man to tal$ to" 0mpossi%le if you don?t share his fixations, of which =olly is one" Some others areD ice hoc$ey, <eimaraner dogs, ?>ur 2al Sunday? +a soap serial he has listened to for fifteen years/, and 2il%ert and SullivanHhe claims to %e related to one or the other, 0 can?t remem%er which" ,." ;ut she heard and remem%ered discussions of reud, 1omain 1olland, syndicalism, the Confederation 2enerale du Travail, feminism vs" haremism, Chinese lyrics, naturaliGation of mines, Christian Science, and fishing in >ntario" ,4" >nly at the annual %alls of the iremen " " " was there such prodigality of chiffon scarfs and tangoing and heartH%urnings " " ",-" Mrs" Dave Dyer, a sallow woman with a thin prettiness, devoted to experiments in religious cults, illnesses, and scandal%earing, shoo$ her finger at Carol " " " 224 P- . E5er'i#e I. 0ndicate cases when a pun is created through homonyms and when through different meanings of a polysemantic word" ," !ord 2"D0 am going to give you some good advice" Mrs" Ch"D >hL Pray don?t" >ne should never give a woman anything that she can?t wear in the evening" +>" <"/ 7" or a time she put a 1ed Cross uniform and met other ladies similarly dressed in the armory, where %andages were rolled and reputations unrolled" 9" J)re you going to give me awayYJ she whispered" 0 loo$ed surprised, though 0 didn?t feel surprised" J<hat is there to give awayYJ JThere?s plenty, and you $now it""" 0t worried me all last night"J J0 can?t see that it matters,J 0 said" J)nd as for giving you away, 0 wouldn?t $now what to give away or who ought to have it when it?s given away" So let?s drop the su%Cect"J E":,D " " "0?m starting wor$ on Saturday" ="D >h, yes, she?s %een called to "the %ar" P"D <hat sort of a %arY :"D The sort you?re always propping up" 0?m carrying on the family traditions" F" Did you hit a woman with a childY Ko, Sir, 0 hit her with a %ric$" 3" 0t rained during the match at summit level in Moscow" ;ut it not only rained rain, it rained records" ." J0 was such a lonesome girl until

you came,J she said" JThere?s not a single man in all this hotel that?s half alive"J J;ut 0?m not a single man,J Mr" Topper replied cautiously" J>h, 0 don?t mean that,J she laughed" J)nd anyway 0 hate single men" They always propose marriage"J 4" She always glances up, and glances down, and doesn?t $now where to loo$, %ut loo$s all the prettier" -" )lg"D " " ";esides, your name isn?t :ac$ at allI it is Ernest" :ac$"D 0t isn?t ErnestI it?s :ac$" )lg"D Mou have always told me it was Ernest" 0 have introduced you to every one as Ernest" Mou loo$ as if your name was Ernest" Mou are the most earnestHloo$ing person 0 ever saw in my life" 0t is perfectly a%surd your say ing that your name isn?t Ernest" 2<4 Vi)"a%i) )7 P$ra#e)")!i'a" U i%#. E5er'i#e I. " Discuss the manner in which a phraseological unit +or a compound word/ is violated +prolongation, change of one of the components, etc"/" ," JThey?re comingHHthe )ntro%uses" Mour hope" Mour despair" Mour selves"J 7" urthermore, the white man $nows his history, $nows himself to %e a devil, and $nows that his time is running out, and all his technology, psychology, science and Jtric$nologyJ are %eing expended in the effort to prevent %lac$Hmen from hearing the truth" 9" They got television, telephone, telegram, tellHaHwoman, and tellHaHfriend" E" " " "Mou?re incura%le, :immy" ) thousand pounds in the hand is worth a lot of mythical gold" F" " " "gorgeous =olly 2olightly, twentyHyearHold =ollywood starlet and highly pu%liciGed girlHa%outH Kew Mor$" 3"?=e finds time to have a finger or a foot in most things that happen round here" ." =e remained sound to his monarchial principles, though he was reported to have his finger in all the %ac$stairs pies that went on in the ;al$ans" 4" !ittle :on was %orn with a silver spoon in his mouth, which was rather curly and large" -" JDear )damD orget not thy servants in the days of thy prosperity, Charles never spent a dime" =e pinched a dollar until the eagle screamed"J ,8" 0t was toward evening, and 0 saw him on my way out to dinner" =e was arriving in a taxiI the driver helped him totter into the house with a load of suitcases" That gave me something to chew onD %y Sunday my Caws were #uite tired" ,," )nother person who ma$es %oth ends meet is the infant who suc$s his toes" ,7" The young lady who %urst into tears has %een put together again" 2V.A.V-@$are @). Se/i ar# i S%&"e. M.+ 9:;9+ 66. 2;(5<4.

SYNTACTICAL E=PRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

0t is well $nown that the study of the sentence and its types and especially the study of the relations %etween different parts of the sentence have had a long history" 1hetoric was mainly engaged in the o%servation of the Cuxtaposition of the mem%ers of the sentence and in finding ways and means of %uilding larger and more ela%orate spans of utterance, as for example, the period or periodical sentence" Modern grammars have greatly extended the scope of structural analysis and have ta$en under o%servation the peculiarities of the relations %etween the mem%ers of the sentence, which somehow has overshadowed pro%lems connected with structural and semantic patterns of larger syntactical units" 0t would not %e an exaggeration to state that the study of units of speech larger than the sentence is still %eing neglected %y many linguists" Some of them even consider such units to %e extraHlinguistic, thus excluding them entirely from the domain of !inguistics" Stylistics ta$es as the o%Cect of its analysis the expressive means and stylistic devices of the language, which are %ased on some significant structural point in an utterance, whether it consists of one sentence or a string of sentences" 0n grammar certain types of utterances have already %een patterned, thus for example, we have all $inds of simple, compound or complex sentences, even a paragraph long, that may %e regarded as neutral or nonHstylistic patterns" )t the same time, the peculiarities of the structural design of utterances, which %ear some particular emotional colouring, that is, which are stylistic and therefore nonHneutral, may also %e patterned and presented as a special system, which we shall call Jstylistic patternsJ" Stylistic patterns should not %e regarded as violations of the literary norms of Standard English" >n the contrary, these patterns help us to esta%lish the norm of syntactical usage, inasmuch as their study reveals the invariant of the form together with the variants and what is more, reveals the %orders %eyond which the variants must not %e extended" Stylistic syntactical patterns may %e viewed as variants of the general syntactical models of the language and are the more o%vious and conspicuous if presented, not as isolated elements or accidental usages, %ut as groups easily o%serva%le and lending themselves to generaliGation" Prof" 2" (ino$ur maintains that in syntax it is no new material that is coined, %ut new relations, %ecause the syntactical aspect of speech is nothing more than a definite

com%ination of grammatical forms, and in this sense the actual words used are essentially immaterial" Therefore syntactical relations, particularly in poetic language, are that aspect of speech in which everything presents itself as actualiGation of the potential and not merely the repetition of the readyHmade" ;y Jthe potentialJ 2" (ino$ur apparently means variations of syntactical patterns" 0t follows therefore, that in order to esta%lish the permissi%le fluctuations of the syntactical norm, it is necessary to ascertain what is meant %y the syntactical norm itself" <e have already pointed out what the word norm means as a generic term" 0n English syntax the concept of norm is rather loose" 0n fact any change in the relative positions of the mem%ers of the sentence may %e regarded as a variant of the received standard, provided that the relation %etween them will not hinder the understanding of the utterance" ;ut here we are faced with the indisputa%le interdependence %etween form and contentI in other words, %etween the syntactical design of the utterance and its concrete lexical materialiGation" Syntactical relations can %e studied in isolation from semantic content" 0n this case they are viewed as constituents of the whole and assume their independent grammatical meaning" This is most apparent in forms em%odying nonsense lexical units, as in !ewis Carroll?s famous lines, so often #uoted %y linguists" JTwas %rilling, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gim%ol in the wa%eD )ll mimsy were the %orogroves, )nd the mome raths outra%e"J The structural elements of these lines stand out conspicuously and ma$e sense even though they are materialiGed %y nonsense elements" Moreover they impose on the morphemes they are attached to a definite grammatical meaning, ma$ing it possi%le to class the units" So it is due to these elements that we can state what the nonsense words are supposed to mean" Thus we $now that the se#uence of the forms forci%ly suggests that after %?a# we should have an adCectiveI the & in #"i%$& ma$es the word an adCectiveI !&re after the emphatic did can only %e a ver%" <e $now that this is a poem %ecause it has rhythm +iam%ic tetrameter/ and rhyme +a%a% in ?toves H %orogrovesI? ?wa%e H outgra%e?/" ) closer examination of the structural elements will show that they outnum%er the semantic unitsD nineteen structural elements and eleven, which are meant to %e semantic" The following inferences may %e drawn from this factD ,/ it is the structural element of the utterance that predetermines the possi%le semantic aspectI 7/ the structural

elements have their own independent meaning which may %e called structural or, more widely, grammaticalI 9/ the structural meaning may affect the lexical, giving contextual meaning to some of the lexical units" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66. 9:0(9:<4. PROFLEMS CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF SPANS OF UTTERANCE JIDER THAN THE SENTENCE T$e S& %a'%i'a" J$)"e The term #& %a'%i'a" ?$)"e is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence" 0t generally comprises a num%er of sentences interdependent structurally +usually %y means of pronouns, connectives, tenseHforms/ and semantically +one definite thought is dealt with/" Such a span of utterance is also characteriGed %y the fact that it can %e extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence" This cannot %e said of the sentence, which, while representing a complete syntactical unit may, however, lac$ the #uality of independence" ) sentence from the stylistic point of view does not necessarily express one idea, as it is defined in most manuals of grammar" 0t may express only part of one idea" Thus the sentenceD J2uy glanced at his wife?s untouched plateJ if ta$en out of the context will %e perceived as a part of a larger span of utterance where the situation will %e made clear and the purport of ver%al expression more complete" =ere is the complete syntactical wholeD 2uy glanced at his wife?s untouched plate" J0f you?ve finished we might stroll down" 0 thin$ you ought to %e starting"J She did not answer" She rose from the ta%le" She went into her room to see that nothing had %een forgotten and then side %y side with him wal$ed down the steps" The next sentence of the paragraph %egins J) little winding path"""J This is o%viously the %eginning of the next syntactical whole" So the syntactical whole may %e defined as a com%ination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity %ac$ed up %y rhythmic and melodic unity" )ny syntactical whole will lose its unity if it suffers %rea$ing" ;ut what are the principles on which the singling out of a syntactical whole can %e maintainedY 0n order to give an answer to this #uestion, it is first of all necessary to deepen our understanding of the term -%%era 'e. )s a stylistic term the word utterance must %e expanded" )ny utterance from a stylistic point of view will serve to denote a certain span of speech +languageHinHaction/ in which we may o%serve coherence, interdependence of the elements, one definite idea, and last %ut not least, the purport of the writer" The purport is the aim that the

writer sets %efore himself, which is to ma$e the desired impact on the reader" So, the aim of any utterance is a carefully thoughtHout impact" Syntactical units are connected to achieve the desired effect" !et us la$e the following paragraph for analysisD J," ;ut a day or two later the doctor was not feeling well" 7" =e had an internal malady that trou%led him now and then, %ut he was used to it and disinclined to tal$ a%out it" 9" <hen he had one of his attac$s, he only wanted to %e left alone" E" =is ca%in was small and stuffy, so he settled himself on a long chair on dec$ and lay with his eyes closed" F" Miss 1eid was wal$ing up and down to get the half hour?s exercise she too$ morning and evening" 3" =e thought that if he pretended to %e asleep she would not distur% him" ." ;ut when she had passed him half a doGen times she stopped in front of him and stood #uite still" 4" Though he $ept his eyes closed he $new that she was loo$ing at him"J This paragraph consists of eight sentences, all more or less independent" The first three sentences however show a considera%le degree of semantic interdependence" This can %e inferred from the use of the following cluster of concepts associated with each otherD ?not feeling well?, ?internal malady?, ?one of his attac$s?" Each phrase is the $ey to the sentence in which it occurs" 0n spite of the fact that there are no formal connectives, the connection is made apparent %y purely semantic means" These three sentences constitute a syntactical whole %uilt within the larger framewor$ of the paragraph" The fourth sentence is semantically independent of the preceding three" 0t seems at first glance not to %elong to the paragraph at all" The fact that the doctor?s ?ca%in was small and stuffy? and that ?he settled himself""" on dec$? does not seem to %e necessarily connected with the thought expressed in the preceding syntactical whole" ;ut on a more careful analysis one can clearly see how all four sentences are actually interconnected" The lin$ing sentence is ?he only wanted to %e left alone?" So the words ?lay with his eyes closed? with which the fourth sentence ends, are semantically connected %oth with the idea of %eing left alone and with the idea expressed in the sentenceD ?=e thought that if he pretended to %e asleep she would not distur% him"? ;ut %etween this sentence and its semantic lin$s ?lay with his eyes closed? and ?wanted to %e left alone?, the sentence a%out Miss 1eid thrusts itself in" This is not irrelevant to the whole situation and to the purport of the writer, who leads us to understand that the doctor was disinclined to tal$ to any%ody and pro%a%ly to Miss 1eid in particular" So the whole of the paragraph has therefore what we have called !e#%a"%+ i"e" semantic and structural wholeness" 0t can, however %e split into two syntactical wholes with a lin$ing sentence %etween them"

Sentence F can %e regarded as a syntactical whole, inasmuch as it enCoys considera%le independence %oth semantically and structurally" Sentences 3, . and 4 are structurally and therefore semantically interwoven" F-% ?$e and %$)-!$ in the seventh and eighth sentences are the structural elements, which lin$ all three sentences into one syntactical whole" 0t follows then that a syntactical whole can %e em%odied in a sentence if the sentence meets the re#uirements of this compositional unit" Most epigrams are syntactical wholes from the point of view of their semantic unity, though they fail to meet the general structural re#uirement, *i1. to %e represented in a num%er of sentences" >n the other hand, a syntactical whole, though usually a component part of the paragraph, may occupy the whole of the paragraph" 0n this case we say that the syntactical whole coincides with the paragraph" 0t is important to point out that this structural unit, in its particular way of arranging ideas, %elongs almost exclusively to the %ellesHlettres style, though it may %e met with to some extent in the pu%licistic style" >ther styles, Cudging %y their recogniGed leading features, do not re#uire this mode of arranging the parts of an utterance except in rare cases which may %e neglected" !et us ta$e a passage from another piece of %ellesHlettres style, a paragraph from )ldington?s JDeath of a =ero"J 0t is a paragraph easy to su%mit to stylistic and semantic analysisD it falls naturally into several syntactical wholes" J," )fter dinner they sat a%out and smo$ed" 7" 2eorge too$ his chair over to the open window and loo$ed down on the lights and movement of Piccadilly" 9" The noise of the traffic was lulled %y the height to a long continuous rum%le" E" The placards of the evening papers along the railings %eside the 1itG were sensational and %ellicose" F" The party dropped the su%Cect of a possi%le great warI after deciding that there wouldn?t %e one, there couldn?t" 3" 2eorge, who had great faith in Mr" ;o%%e?s political acumen, glanced through his last article, and too$ great comfort from the fact that ;o%%esaid there wasn?t going to %e a war" ." 0t was all a scare, a stoc$ mar$et ramp""" 4" )t that moment three or four people came in, more or less together, though they were in separate parties" -" >ne of them was a youngish man in immaculate evening dress" ,8" )s he shoo$ hands with his host, 2eorge heard him say rather excitedly, J0?ve Cust %een dining with"""J )nalysis of this paragraph will show how complicated the composition of %ellesHlettres syntactical units is" There is no dou%t that there is a definite semantic unity in the paragraph" The main idea is the anxiety and uncertainty of English

society %efore <orld <ar 0 as to whether there would %e, or would not %e, a war" ;ut around this main senseHaxis there centre a num%er of utterances, which present more Hor less independent spans of thought" Thus, we can easily single out the group of sentences which %egins with the words J)fter dinnerJ and ends with J"""and %ellicoseJ" This part of the text presents, as it were, the %ac$ground against which the purport of the author stands out more clearly, the last sentence of this syntactical whole preparing the reader for the main idea of the paragraph H the possi%ility of warHwhich is em%odied in the next syntactical whole" This second syntactical whole %egins with the words JThe party dropped the su%Cect of a possi%le great warJ and ends with J"""a stoc$ mar$et ramp"""J0t is made structurally independent %y the introduction of elements of uttered represented speech the contractions ?)-"d B%+ ')-"d B%+ ?a# B%+ the purely collo#uial syntactical design %$ere ?)-"d B% 0e ) e+ %$ere ')-"d B%G the collo#uial word #'are" The shift to the third syntactical whole is indicated %y the dots after the word ra/6 +"""/" =ere again it is the author who spea$s, there are no further elements of represented speech, the shift %eing rather a%rupt, %ecause 2eorge?s thoughts were interrupted %y the entrance of the newcomers" The connecting J)t that momentJ softens the a%ruptness" The author?s purport grows apparent through the interrelationH an interrelation which seems to %e organic H %etween the three syntactical wholesD sensational and %ellicose placards in the streets of !ondon, the anxiety of the people at the party, the conviction %ac$ed up %y such a reassuring argument as Mr" ;o%%e?s article that there was not going to %e a war, and the new guests %ringing unexpected news" Syntactical wholes are not always so easily discerni%le as they are in this paragraph from JThe Death of a =ero"J Due to individual peculiarities in com%ining ideas into a graphical +and that means %oth syntactical and semantic/ unity, there may %e considera%le variety in the arrangement of syntactical wholes and of paragraphs, ranging from what might %e called clearly mar$ed %orderlines %etween the syntactical wholes to almost impercepti%le semantic shifts" 0ndeed, it is often from ma$ing a comparison %etween the %eginning and the end of a paragraph that one can infer that it contains separate syntactical wholes" 0t follows then that the paragraphs in the %ellesHlettres prose style do not necessarily possess the #ualities of unity and coherence as is the case with paragraphs in other styles of speech and particularly in the scientific prose style"

Syntactical wholes are to %e found in particular in poetical style" =ere the syntactical wholes, as well as the paragraphs, are em%odied in stanGas" Due to the most typical semantic property of any poetical wor$, *i1.+ %revity of expression, H there arises the need to com%ine ideas so that seemingly independent utterances may %e integrated into one poetical unity, *i1.+ a stanGa" !et us ta$e for analysis the following stanGa from Shelley?s poem JThe CloudJD J0 %ring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers rom the seas and the streamsI 0 %ear light shade for the leaves when laid 0n their noonday dreams" rom my wings are sha$en the dews that wa$en The sweet %uds every one, <hen roc$ed to rest on their mother?s %reast, )s she dances a%out the sun" 0 wield the flail of the lashing hail, )nd whiten the green plains underI )nd then again 0 dissolve it in rain, )nd laugh as 0 pass in thunder"J =ere there are three syntactical wholes separated %y full stops" <ithin the first, which comprises four lines, there are two more or less independent units divided %y a semicolon and integrated %y parallel constructions 2R 0ri ! 7re#$ #$)?er#G I 0ear "i!$% #$ad4O. <ithin the second syntactical whole H also four lines H there are also two interdependent ideas H the %uds awa$ened %y the dews and the earth moving around the sun" These are strongly %ound together %y the formal elements ?$e and a# forming one complex sentence and a syntactical whole" The formal means used to connect different spans of utterance affect their semantic integrity" The three syntactical wholes of the stanGa are united %y one idea H the usefulness of the cloud giving all $ind of comfort, here moisture and shade, to what is growing""" showers, shade, dews, hail, rain" The syntactical wholes in sonnets are especially manifest" This is due to their strict structural and semantic rules of composition" T$e Para!ra6$ A 6ara!ra6$ is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences mar$ed off %y indentation at the %eginning and a %rea$ in the line at the end" ;ut this graphical term has come to mean a distinct portion of a written discourse showing an internal unity, logical in character" 0n fact the paragraph as a category is half linguistic, half

logical" )s a logical category it is characteriGed %y coherence and relative unity of the ideas expressed, as a linguistic category it is a unit of utterance mar$ed off %y purely linguistic meansD intonation, pauses of various lengths, semantic ties which can %e disclosed %y scrupulous analysis of the morphological aspect and meaning of the component parts, etc" 0t has already %een stated elsewhere that the logical aspect of an utterance will always %e %ac$ed up %y purely linguistic means causing, as it were, an indivisi%le unity of extraHlinguistic and infraHlinguistic approach" ;earing this in mind, we shall not draw a mar$ of demarcation %etween the logical and the linguistic analysis of an utterance, %ecause the paragraph is a linguistic expression of a logical arrangement of thought" Paragraph structure is not always %uilt on logical principles alone, as is generally the case in the style of scientific prose" 0n the %uilding of paragraphs in newspaper style, other re#uirements are ta$en into consideration, for instance, psychological principles, in particular the sensational effect of the communication and the grasping capacity of the reader for #uic$ reading" Considerations of space also play an important part" This latter consideration sometimes overHrules the necessity for logical arrangement and results in %rea$ing the main rule of paragraph %uilding, i"e" the unity of idea" Thus a %rief note containing information a%out an oil treaty is crammed into one sentence, it %eing in its turn a paragraphD JThe revised version of an international oil treaty is toHday %efore the Senate 1elation Committee, which recently made it clear that the )ngloH)merican oil treaty negotiated last )ugust would not reach the Senate floor for ratification, %ecause of o%Cections %y the )merican oil industry to it"J Paragraph %uilding in the style of official documents is mainly governed %y the particular conventional forms of documents +charters, pacts, diplomatic documents, %usiness letters, legal documents and the li$e/" =ere paragraphs may sometimes em%ody what are grammatically called a num%er of parallel clauses, which for the sa$e of the wholeness of the entire document are made formally su%ordinate, whereas in reality they are independent items" Paragraph structure in the %ellesHlettres and pu%licistic styles is strongly affected %y the purport of the author" To secure the desired impact, a writer finds it necessary to give details and illustrations, to introduce comparisons and contrasts, to give additional reasons and, finally, to expand the topic %y loo$ing at it from different angles and paraphrasing it" =e may, especially in the pu%licistic style, introduce the testimony of some authority on the su%Cect and even deviate from the main topic %y recounting an anecdote or even a short story to ease mental

effort and facilitate understanding of the communication" The length of a paragraph normally varies from eight to twelve sentences" The longer the paragraph is, the more difficult it is to follow the purport of the writer" 0n newspaper style, however, most paragraphs consist of one or perhaps two or three sentences" Paragraphs of a purely logical type may %e analysed from the way the thought of the writer develops" )ttempts have %een made to classify paragraphs from the point of view of the logical se#uence of the sentences" Thus in manuals on the art of composition there are models of paragraphs %uilt on different principlesD ," from the general to the particular, or from the particular to the generalI 7" on the inductive or deductive principleI ,9" from cause to effect, or from effect to causeI E" on contrast, or comparison" So the paragraph is a compositional device aimed either at facilitating the process of apprehending what is written, or inducing a certain reaction on the part of the reader" This reaction is generally achieved %y intentionally grouping the ideas so as to show their interdependence or interrelation" That is why the paragraph, from a mere compositional device, turns into a stylistic one" 0t discloses the writer?s manner of depicting the features of the o%Cect or phenomenon descri%ed" 0t is in the paragraph that the main function of the %ellesHlettres style %ecomes most apparent, the main function, as will %e shown %elow, %eing emotive" 0n the paragraph from the JDeath of a =eroJ, as we saw, there are three syntactical wholes which together constitute one paragraph" 0f we were to convert the passage into one of the matterHofHfact styles it would %e necessary to split it into three paragraphs" ;ut )ldington found it necessary to com%ine all the sentences into one paragraph, evidently seeing closer connections %etween the parts than there would %e in a mere impersonal, less emotional account of the events descri%ed" The paragraph in some styles, such as scientific, pu%licistic and some others generally has a %)6i' #e %e 'e+ i"e", a sentence which em%odies the main idea of the paragraph or which may %e interpreted as a $eyHsentence disclosing the chief thought of the writer" 0n logical prose the topic sentence is as a rule placed either at the %eginning or at the end of the paragraph depending on the logical pattern on which the paragraph is %uilt" 0n the %ellesHlettres style the topic sentence may %e placed in any part of the paragraph" 0t will depend on how the writer see$s to achieve his effect" Thus in the paragraph we have %een referring to, the topic sentence +?The party dropped the su%Cect of a possi%le great war, after deciding that there wouldn?t %e one, there couldn?t?/ is placed in the middle of the paragraph" The parts that precede and

follow the topic sentence correspondingly lead to it +?the placards"""?/ and develop it +?2eorge, who"""?/" The topic sentence itself, %eing %ased on uttered represented speech, is stylistically a very effective device to show that the conclusion +no war/ was not %ased on sound logical argument, %ut merely on the small tal$ of the party +?there wouldn?t?, ?there couldn?t?/" =owever, paragraph %uilding in %ellesHlettres prose generally lac$s unity, inasmuch as it is governed %y other than logical principles, two of the re#uirements %eing emotiveness and a natural representation of the situation depicted" =ence, it is sometimes impossi%le to decide which sentence should %e regarded as the topic one" Each syntactical whole of several com%ined into one paragraph, may have its own topic sentence or %e a topic sentence" 0n other words, there are no topic sentences in emotive prose as a rule, though there may %e some paragraphs with one due to the prevalence of the logical element over the emotional or the aesthetic" 0n pu%licistic style paragraphs are %uilt on more apparent logical principles, this style %eing intermediate %etween the %ellesHlettres and the scientific style" !et us su%Cect to stylistic analysis the following paragraph from Macaulay?s essay on >liver 2oldsmithD <hile 2oldsmith was writing JThe Deserted (illageJ and JShe Stoops to Con#uer,J he was employed in wor$s of a very different $ind, wor$s from which he derived little reputation %ut much profit" =e compiled for the use of schools a J=istory of 1ome,J %y which he made l 988I a J=istory of England,J %y which he made l 388I a J=istory of 2reece,J for which he received l 7F8I a JKatural =istory,J for which the %oo$Hsellers covenanted to pay him 488 guineas" These wor$s he produced without any ela%orate research, %y merely selecting, a%ridging and translating into his own clear, pure, and flowing language what he found in %oo$s well $nown to the world, %ut too %ul$y or too dry for %oys and girls" =e committed some strange %lundersI for he $new nothing with accuracy" Thus in his J=istory of EnglandJ he tells us that Kase%y is in Mor$shireI nor did he correct this mista$e when the %oo$ was reprinted" =e was nearly hoaxed into putting into the J=istory of 2reeceJ an account of a %attle %etween )lexander the 2reat and MonteGuma" 0n his J)nimated KatureJ he relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most a%surd lies, which he could find in %oo$s of travels a%out gigantic Patagonians, mon$eys that preach sermons, nightingales that repeat long conversations" J0f he can tell a horse from a cow,J said :ohnson, Jthat is the extent of his $nowledge of Goology"J =ow little 2oldsmith was #ualified to write a%out the physical sciences is sufficiently proved %y two anecdotes" =e on one

occasion denied that the sun is longer in the northern than in the southern signs" 0t was vain to cite the authority of Maupertuis" JMaupertuisLJ he criedI J0 understand those matters %etter than Maupertuis"J >n another occasion he, in defiance of the evidence of his own senses maintained o%stinately, and even angrily, that he chewed his dinner %y moving his upper Caw" Met, ignorant as 2oldsmith was, few writers have done more to ma$e the first steps in the la%orious road to $nowledge easy and pleasant""""J The topic sentence of this paragraph is placed at the %eginning" 0t consists of two ideas presented in a complex sentence with a su%ordinate clause of time" The idea of the topic sentence is em%odied in the main clause, which states that 2oldsmith derived Jlittle reputation %ut much profitJ out of some of his wor$s" The su%ordinate clause of time is used here as a lin$ing sentence %etween the preceding paragraph which deals with JThe Deserted (illageJ and JShe Stoaps to Con#uerJ and the one under scrutiny" The next paragraph of the passage, as the reader has undou%tedly o%served, %egins with a new topic sentence and is %uilt on the same structural modelD the su%ordinate clause sums up the idea of the preceding paragraph +JMet, ignorant as 2oldsmith wasJ/, and the main clause introduces a new idea" This pattern is maintained throughout the essay and, %y the way, in most of Macaulay?s essays" This easy, flowing manner of exposition has a high degree of predicta%ility" The reader, having read the first sentence and %eing conscious of the author?s manner of %uilding paragraphs, will not fail to grasp the gist of the passage at once" 0t is interesting to point out how Macaulay develops the idea expressed in the topic sentence" =e wished to show why 2oldsmith derived ,/ Jlittle reputationJ and 7/ Jmuch profitJ from certain of his wor$s" >f the two, Macaulay considers the former to %e undou%tedly more significant than the latter" That is why he %egins with insignificant details H enumerating 2oldsmith?s profits and then devotes all the rest of the paragraph to instances of 2oldsmith?s ignorance" ) paragraph in certain styles is, as has %een said, a dialogue +with the reader/ in the form of a monologue" The %rea$ingHup of a piece of writing into paragraphs can %e regarded as an expression of consideration for the reader on the part of the author" 0t manifests itself in the author?s %eing aware of limits in the reader?s capacity for perceiving and a%sor%ing information" Therefore paragraphs in matterHofHfact styles, as in scientific prose, official documents and so on, are clear, precise, logically coherent, and possess unity, i"e", express one main thought" Paragraphs in emotive prose are com%inations of the logical and the emotional"

The aim of the author in %rea$ing up the narrative into paragraphs is not only to facilitate understanding %ut also for emphasis" That is why paragraphs in the %ellesHlettres prose are sometimes %uilt on contrast or on climax" The paragraph as a unit of utterance, is so far entirely the domain of stylistics" Met these are o%vious features of a purely syntactical character in the paragraph, which must not %e overloo$ed" That is why there is every reason to study the paragraph in syntax of the language where not only the sentence %ut also larger units of communication should %e under o%servation" This would come under what we may call the JmacroHsyntaxJ of the language" The structural syntactical aspect is sometimes regarded as the crucial issue in stylistic analysis, although the peculiarities of syntactical arrangement are not so conspicuous as the lexical and phraseological properties of the utterance" Syntax is figuratively called the Jsinews of styleJ" S%r-'%-ra" #& %a'%i'a" #%&"i#%i' de*i'e# are in special relations with the intonation involved" Prof" Pesh$ovs$y points out that there is an interdependence %etween the intonation and other syntactical properties of the sentence, which may %e worded in the following mannerD the more explicitly the structural syntactical relations are expressed, the wea$er will %e the intonationHpattern of the utterance +up to complete disappearance/ and viceHversa, the stronger the intonation, the wea$er grow the evident syntactical relations +also up to complete disappearance/" This can %e illustrated %y means of the following two pairs of sentencesD AO "& a7%er di er did I /a@e up my mind to go thereJ and AI /ade up my mind to go there ) "& a7%er di er.A AI% ?a# i F-'$are#% that the bth 0nternational Congress of !inguists too$ placeJ and JThe bth 0nternational Congress of !inguists too$ place in ;ucharest"J The second sentences in these pairs can %e made emphatic only %y intonationI the first sentences are made emphatic %y means of the syntactical patternsD J>nly after dinner did 0""J and J0t was""" that"J The pro%lem of syntactical stylistic devices appears to %e closely lin$ed not only with what ma$es an utterance more emphatic %ut also with the more general pro%lem of predication" )s is $nown, the English affirmative sentence is regarded as neutral if it maintains the regular word order, i"e", su%Cect H predicate H o%Cect +or other secondary mem%ers of the sentence, as they are called/" )ny other order of the parts of the sentence may also carry the necessary information, %ut the impact on the reader will %e different" Even a slight change in the word order of a sentence or in the order of the sentences in a more complicated syntactical unit will inevita%ly

cause a definite modification of the meaning of the whole" )n almost impercepti%le rhythmical design introduced into a prose sentence, or a sudden %rea$ in the se#uence of the parts of the sentence, or any other change will add something to the volume of information contained in the original sentence" 0t follows that the very concept of inversion has appeared as a counterpart to the regular word order, the latter %eing a relatively unemotional, unemphatic, neutral mode of expression" Unli$e the syntactical expressive means of the language, which are naturally used in discourse in a straightforward natural manner, syntactical stylistic devices are perceived as ela%orate designs aimed at having a definite impact on the reader" 0t will %e %orne in mind that any SD is meant to %e understood as a device and is calculated to produce a desired stylistic effect" <hen viewing the stylistic functions of different syntactical designs we must first of all ta$e into consideration two aspectsD ," The Cuxtaposition of different parts of the utterance" 7" The way the parts are connected with each other" 0n addition to these two large groups of EMs and SDs two other groups may %e distinguishedD ," Those %ased on the peculiar use of collo#uial constructions" 7" Those %ased on the transferred use of structural meaning" S%&"i#%i' I *er#i) J)rd )rder is a crucial syntactical pro%lem in many languages" 0n English it has peculiarities, which have %een caused %y the concrete and specific way the language has developed" >":espersen states that the English language J"""has developed a tolera%ly fixed word order which in the great maCority of cases shows without fail what is the Su%Cect of the sentence"J, This Jtolera%ly fixed word orderJ is Su%CectH(er% +Predicate/ H >%Cect +S H P H >/" urther, :espersen mentions a statistical investigation of word order made on the %asis of a series of representative ,-th century writers" 0t was found that the order S H p H o was used in from 47 to -. per cent of all sentences containing all three mem%ers, while the percentage for ;eowulf was ,3 and for *ing )lfred?s prose E8" This predominance of S H P H > word order ma$es conspicuous any change in the structure of the sentence and inevita%ly calls forth a modification in the intonation design" The most conspicuous places in the sentence are considered to %e the first and the lastD the first place %ecause the full force of the stress can %e felt at the %eginning of an utterance and the last place %ecause there is a pause after it" This traditional word order has developed a definite intonation design" Through fre#uency of repetition this design has imposed itself on any sentence even though

there are changes introduced in the se#uence of the component parts" =ence, the clash %etween semantically insignificant elements of the sentence, when they are placed in structurally significant position, and the intonation, which follows the recogniGed pattern" Thus in Dic$ens? much #uoted sentenceD ATa"e % Mr" Micaw%er hasI 'a6i%a" Mr" Micaw%er has not"J The first and the last positions %eing prominent, the ver% $a# and the negative )t get a fuller volume of stress than they would in ordinary +uninverted/ word order" 0n the traditional word order the predicates $a# and $a# )% are closely attached to their o%Cects %a"e % and 'a6i%a". English predicateH o%Cect groups are so %ound together that when we tear the o%Cect away from its predicate, the latter remains dangling in the sentence and in this position sometimes calls forth a change in meaning of the predicate word" 0n the inverted word order not only the o%Cects %a"e % and 'a6i%a" %ecome conspicuous %ut also the predicates $a# and $a# )%. 0n this example the effect of the inverted word order is %ac$ed up %y two other stylistic devicesD antithesis and parallel construction" Unli$e grammatical inversion stylistic inversion does not change the structural meaning of the sentence, that is, the change in the Cuxtaposition of the mem%ers of the sentence does not indicate structural meaning %ut has some superstructural function" S%&"i#%i' i *er#i) aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance" Therefore a specific intonation pattern is the inevita%le satellite of inversion" ??Stylistic inversion in Modern English should not %e regarded as a violation of the norms of Standard English" 0t is only the practical realiGation of what is potential in the language itself" The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most fre#uently met in %oth English prose and English poetry" ," The o%Cect is placed at the %eginning of the sentence +see the example a%ove/" 7" The attri%ute is placed after the word it modifies +postposition of the attri%ute/" This model is often used when there is more than one attri%ute, for exampleD J<ith fingers ?ear& a d ?)r ...A +Thomas =ood/ J>nce upon a midnight drear&...A 9" a/ The predicative is placed %efore the su%Cect as in JA !))d !e er)-# 6ra&er it was"J +Mar$ Twain/ or %/ the predicative stands %efore the lin$ ver% and %oth are placed %efore the su%Cect as in J R-de a/ I in my speech"""J E" The adver%ial modifier is placed at the %eginning of the sentence, as in AEa!er"& I wished the morrow"J +Poe/ JMy dearest daughter, a% &)-r 7ee% 0 fall"J +Dry den/ AA %) e )7 /)#% e5%ra)rdi ar& ')/6ari#) Miss Tox

said it inJ" F" ;oth modifier and predicate stand %efore the su%Cect, as in AI ?e % Mr" Pic$wic$"J AD)? dr)66ed the %reeGe"""J These five models comprise the most common and recogniGed models of inversion" Ko other form of inversion can %e a %asis for a model, though occasionally a word order appears which is in violation of the recogniGed norms of the English sentence" 0n this respect =enry Sweet is wrong when in his JKew English 2rammarJ he maintains that in order to ma$e a word emphatic it must %e placed in any a%normal position" The position of a word in the sentence may %e changed within the recogniGed variants and the a%ove models are the materialiGation of these variants" 0nversion as a stylistic device is always senseHmotivated" There is a tendency to account for inversion in poetry %y rhythmical considerations" This may sometimes %e true, %ut really talented poets will never sacrifice sense for form and in the maCority of cases inversion in poetry is called forth %y considerations of content rather than rhythm" 0nverted word order, or inversion, is one of the forms of what are $nown as emphatic constructions" <hat is generally called traditional word order is nothing more than unemphatic construction" Emphatic constructions have, so far, %een regarded as nonHtypical structures and therefore are considered as violations of the regular word order in the sentence" ;ut in practice these structures are as common as the 7i5ed )r %radi%i) a" word order structures" Therefore, inversion must %e regarded as an expressive means of the language having typical structural models" De%a'$ed C) #%r-'%i) # Sometimes one of the secondary parts of the sentence %y some specific consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to" Such parts of structures are called de%a'$ed. They seem to dangle in the sentence as isolated parts" The detached part, %eing torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence %y intonationJ The structural patterns of detached constructions have not yet %een classified, %ut the most noticea%le cases are those in which an attri%ute or an adver%ial modifier is placed not in immediate proximity to its referent, %ut in some other position, as in the following examplesD ,/ JSteyne rose up, grinding his teeth, 6a"e+ and ?i%$ 7-r& i $i# e&e#.A 7/ JSir Pitt came in first, *er& /-'$ 7"-#$ed+ and ra%$er - #%ead& i $i# !ai%.J Sometimes a nominal phrase is thrown into the sentence forming a syntactical unit with the rest of the sentence, as in J)nd he wal$ed slowly past again, along the river H a e*e i ! )7 '"ear+ 8-ie% 0ea-%&+ a""

$ar/) & a d ')/7)r%+ except within his heart"J The essential #uality of detached construction lies in the fact that the isolated parts represent a $ind of independent whole thrust into the sentence or placed in a position which will ma$e the phrase +or word/ seem independent" ;ut a detached phrase cannot rise to the ran$ of a primary mem%er of the sentence H it always remains secondary from the semantic point of view, although structurally it possesses all the features of a primary mem%er" This clash of the structural and semantic aspects of detached constructions produces the desired effect H forcing the reader to interpret the logical connections %etween the component parts of the sentence" !ogical ties %etween them always exist in spite of the a%sence of syntactical indicators" Detached constructions in their common forms ma$e the written variety of language a$in to the spo$en variety where the relation %etween the component parts is effectively materialiGed %y means of intonation" Detached construction, as it were, %ecomes a peculiar device %ridging the norms of written and spo$en language" This stylistic device is a$in to inversion" The functions are almost the same" ;ut detached construction produces a much stronger effect, inasmuch as it presents parts of the utterance significant from the author?s point of view in a more or less independent manner" =ere are some more examples of detached constructionsD JDaylight was dying, the moon rising+ !)"d 0e$i d %$e 6)6"ar#.A J?0 want to go,? he said, /i#era0"e.A JShe was lovelyD a"" )7 $er(de"i!$%7-".A The italiciGed phrases and words in these sentences seem to %e isolated, %ut still the connection with the primary mem%ers of the corresponding sentences is clearly implied" Thus, !)"d 0e$i d %$e 6)6"ar# may %e interpreted as a simile or a metaphorD %$e /)) "i@e !)"d ?a# ri#i ! 0e$i d %$e 6)6"ar#+ )r %$e /)) ri#i !+ i% ?a# !)"d... Detached construction sometimes causes the simultaneous realiGation of two grammatical meanings of a word" 0n the sentence J?0 want to go,? he said, /i#era0"eA the last word might possi%ly have %een understood as an adver%ial modifier to the word said if not for the comma, though grammatically /i#era0"& would %e expected" The pause indicated %y the comma implies that /i#era0"e is an adCective used a%solutely and referring to the pronoun $e. The same can %e said a%out Dreiser?s sentence with the word de"i!$%7-". =ere again the mar$ of punctuation plays an important role" The dash, standing %efore the word, ma$es the word conspicuous and %eing isolated, it %ecomes the culminating point of the climaxH lovely""" H de"i!$%7-"+ i"e" the pea$ of the whole

utterance" The 6$ra#e a"" )7 $er is also somehow isolated" The general impression suggested %y the implied intonation, is a strong feeling of admirationI and as is usually the case, strong feelings reCect coherent and logical syntax" 0n the English language detached constructions are generally used in the %ellesHlettres prose style and mainly with words that have some explanatory function, for exampleD J:une stood in front, fending off this idle curiosity H a "i%%"e 0i% )7 a %$i !, as some%ody said, ?all hair and spirit?"""J Detached construction as a stylistic device is a typification of the syntactical peculiarities of collo#uial language" Detached construction is a stylistic phenomenon, which has so far %een little investigated" The device itself is closely connected with the intonation pattern of the utterance" 0n conversation any word or phrase or even sentence may %e made more conspicuous %y means of intonation" Therefore precision in the syntactical structure of the sentence is not so necessary from the communicative point of view" ;ut it %ecomes vitally important in writing", =ere precision of syntactical relations is the only way to ma$e the utterance fully communicative" Therefore when the syntactical relations %ecome o%scure, each mem%er of the sentence that seems to %e dangling %ecomes logically significant" ) variant of detached construction is 6are %$e#i#. JParenthesis is a #ualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other se#uence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing %y commas, %rac$ets or dashes"J 0n fact parenthesis sometimes em%odies a considera%le volume of predicativeness, thus giving the utterance an additional nuance of meaning or a tinge of emotional colouring" Para""e" ') #%r-'%i) is a device, which may %e encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macroHstructures dealt with earlier + *i1" the syntactical whole and the paragraph" The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical or, similar, syntactical structure in two or more, sentences or parts of a sentence, as inD JThere were, """, rea" #i"*er #6)) # %) #%ir %$e %ea ?i%$+ a d rea" '$i a '-6# %) dri @ i% )-% )7+ a d 6"a%e# )7 %$e #a/e %) $)"d %$e 'a@e# a d %)a#% i . J +Dic$ens/ Parallel constructions are often %ac$ed up %y repetition of words +lexical repetition/ and conCunctions and prepositions +polysyndeton/" Pure parallel construction, however, does not depend on any other $ind of repetition %ut the repetition of the syntactical design of the sentence"

Parallel constructions may %e partial or complete" Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses as inD J0t is the mo% that la%our in your fields and serve in your houses H that man your navy and recruit your army,H that have ena%led you to defy all the world, and can also defy you when neglect and calamity have driven them to despair"J +;yron/ The attri%utive clauses here all %egin with the su%ordinate conCunction %$a% which is followed %y a ver% in the same tense form, except the last 2$a*e e a0"ed4. The ver%s however are followed either %y adver%ial modifiers of place 2i &)-r 7ie"d#+ i &)-r $)-#e#4 or %y direct o%Cects 2&)-r a*&+ &)-r ar/&4. The third attri%utive clause is not %uilt on the pattern of the first two, although it preserves the parallel structure in general +thatgver% predicatego%Cect/, while the fourth has %ro$en away entirely" Complete parallel arrangement, also called 0a"a 'e+ maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences, as in JThe seeds ye sow ^ another reaps, The ro%es ye weave H another wears, The arms ye forgetH another %ears"J +P" ;" Shelley/ Parallel construction is most fre#uently used in enumeration, antithesis and in climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved %y these stylistic devices" There are two main functions of parallel constructionD #e/a %i' and #%r-'%-ra". >n the one hand a parallel arrangement suggests e#ual semantic significance of the component parts, on the other hand, it gives a rhythmical design to these component parts, which ma$es itself most $eenly felt in %alancedJ constructions" Parallel construction is used in different styles of writing with slightly different functions" <hen used in the matterHofHfact styles it carries, in the main, the idea of semantic e#uality of the parts, as in scientific prose, where the logical principle of arranging ideas predominates" 0n the %ellesHlettres style parallel construction carries an emotive function" That is why it is mainly used as a technical means in %uilding up other stylistic devices, in particular a %i%$e#i# and '"i/a5. 0t is natural that parallel construction should very fre#uently %e used in poetical structures" )lternation of similar units %eing the %asic principle of verse, similarity in longer units H i"e" in the stanGa, is to %e expected" C$ia#/-# 2Re*er#ed Para""e" C) #%r-'%i) 4 C$ia#/-# %elongs to the group of stylistic devices %ased on the repetition of a syntactical patternI %ut it has a cross order of words and phrases"" The structure of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence? may %e descri%ed as reversed

parallel construction, the word order of one of the sentences %eing inverted as compared to that of the other as inD AA# $i!$ as we have mounted i de"i!$% I )-r deHe'%i) do we sin$ as ")?.A +<ordsworth/ AD)? dr)66ed+ the %reeGe, The sails dr)66ed down"J +Coleridge/ Chiasmus is sometimes achieved %y a sudden change from active voice to passive or vice versa, for exampleD JThe register of his %urial ?a# #i! ed %y the clergyman, the cler$, the underta$er and the chief mourner, Scrooge #i! ed it" This device is effective in that it helps to lay stress on the second part of the utterance, which is opposite in structure, as i )-r deHe'%i) G S'r))!e #i! ed i%. This is due to the sudden change in the structure, which %y its very unexpectedness linguistically re#uires a slight pause %efore it" )s is seen from the examples a%ove, chiasmus can appear only when there are two successive sentences or coordinate parts of a sentence" So distri%ution, here close succession, is the factor, which predetermines the %irth of the device" There are different variants of the structural design of chiasmus" The first example shows chiasmus appearing in a complex sentence, where the second part has an opposite arrangement" The second example demonstrates chiasmus in a sentence expressing semantically the relation of cause and effect" Structurally, however, the two parts are presented as independent sentences, and it is the chiasmatic structure, which supports the idea of su%ordination" The third example is composed of two independent sentences and the chiasmus serves to increase the effect of climax" =ere is another example of chiasmus where two parallel constructions are followed %y a reversed parallel construction lin$ed to the former %y the conCunction a d. JThe night winds #i!$+ the %rea$ers r)ar+ )nd #$rie@# the wild seaHmew"J +;yron/ 0t must %e remem%ered that chiasmus is a syntactical, not a lexical device, i"e" it is only the arrangement of the parts of the utterance which constitutes this stylistic device" 0n the famous epigram %y ;yron J0n the days of old /e made the /a er#G Ma er# now ma$e men,J there is no inversion, %ut a lexical device" ;oth parts of the parallel construction have the same, the normal word order" =owever the witty arrangement of the words has given the utterance an epigrammatic character" This device may %e classed as lexical '$ia#/-# or

chiasmatic repetition" ;yron particularly favoured it" =ere are some other examplesD J=is H)@e# were #er/) #, and his #er/) # H)@e#"J ?JT is #%ra !e, H %ut %r-eI for %r-%$ is always #%ra !e.A J;ut T)/B# no /)re H and so ) /)re of T)/.A ATr-e, ?tis a 6i%&(6i%& ?tis, ?tis %r-e"J AMe are the sport of 'ir'-/#%a 'e#+ when The 'ir'-/#%a 'e# seem the sport of /e .A J?Tis a pity though, in this su%lime world that P"ea#-reB# a #i , and sometimes #i B# a 6"ea#-re.A Kote the difference in meaning of the repeated words on which the epigrammatic effect restsD B#%ra !e(#%ra !eGB B ) /)re( ) /)reB+ BH)@e#(H)@e#.B Syntactical chiasmus is sometimes used to %rea$ the monotony of parallel constructions" ;ut whatever the purpose of chiasmus, it will always %ring in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis on some portion of the second part" The stylistic effect of this construction has %een so far little investigated" ;ut even casual o%servation will show that chiasmus should %e perceived as a complete unit" >ne cannot help noticing that the first part in chiasmus is somewhat incomplete, it calls for continuation, and the anticipation is rewarded %y the second part of the construction, which is, as it were, the completion of the idea" !i$e parallel construction, chiasmus contri%utes to the rhythmical #uality of the utterance, and the pause caused %y the change in the syntactical pattern may %e li$ened to a caesura in prosody" )s can %e seen from this short analysis of chiasmus, it has developed, li$e all stylistic devices, within the framewor$ of the literary form of the language" =owever its prototype may %e found in the norms of expressions of the spo$en language, as in the emphaticD ?=e was a %rave man, was :ohn"? Re6e%i%i) 0t has already %een pointed out that re6e%i%i) is an expressive means of language used, when the spea$er is under the stress of strong emotion" 0t shows the Jstate of mind of the spea$er, as in the following passage from 2alsworthyD JStopLJ H she cried, JDon?t tell meL 0 d) B% ?a % %) $earG 0 d) B% ?a % %) $ear what you?ve come for 0 d) B% ?a % %) $earX. The repetition of 0 d) B% ?a % %) $ear is not a stylistic deviceI it is a means %y which the excited state of mind of the spea$er is shown" This state of mind always

manifests itself through intonation, which is suggested here %y the words, #$e 'ried" 0n the written language %efore direct speech is introduced one can always find words indicating the intonation as #)00ed+ #$rie@ed+ 6a##i) a%e"&, etc" :" (andryes writesD J1epetition is also one of the devices having its origin in the emotive language" 1epetition when applied to the logical language %ecomes simply an instrument of grammar" 0ts origin is to %e seen in the excitement accompanying the expression of a feeling %eing %rought to its highest tension"J <hen used as a stylistic device, repetition ac#uires #uite different functions" 0t does not aim at ma$ing a direct emotional impact" >n the contrary, the stylistic device of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the $eyword of the utterance" or exampleD J or that was itL I! )ra % of the long and stealthy march of passion, and of the state to which it had reduced leurI i! )ra t of how Soames had watched her, i! )ra % of leur?s rec$less desperation"""Hi! )ra % )7 all this, every%ody felt aggrieved"J +2alsworthy/ 1epetition is classified according to compositional design" 0f the repeated word or phrase comes at the %eginning of two or more consecutive sentences clauses or phrases, we have a a6$)ra+ as in the example a%ove" 0f the repeated unit is placed at tne end of consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases we have the type of repetition called e6i6$)ra+ as inD J0 am exactly the man to %e placed in a superior position i #-'$ a 'a#e a# %$a%. 0 am a%ove the rest of man$ind, i #-'$ a 'a#e a# %$a%. 0 can act with philosophy i #-'$ a 'a#e a# %$a%. +Dic$ens/ =ere the repetition has a slightly different functionD it %ecomes a %ac$ground against which the statements preceding the repeated unit are made to stand out more conspicuously" This may %e called %$e 0a'@!r)- d function" 0t must %e o%served, however, that the logical function of the repetition, to give emphasis, does not fade when it assumes the %ac$ground function" This is an additional function" 1epetition may also %e arranged in the form of a frameD the initial parts of a syntactical unit, inmost cases of a paragraph, are repeated at the end of it as inD YP))r d)""B# dre##/a@er. =ow often so dragged down %y hands that should have raised her upI how often so misdirected losing her way on the eternal road and as$ing guidance, "i%%"e d)""B# dre##/a@er"J +Dic$ens/ This compositional design of repetition is called 7ra/i !" The semantic nuances of different compositional structures of repetition have %een little loo$ed into" ;ut even a superficial examination will show that framing, for example, ma$es the whole utterance more compact and more complete" raming is most

effective in singling out paragraphs" )mong other compositional models of repetition is "i @i ! or red-6"i'a%i) +also $nown as anadiplosis/" The structure of this device is the followingD the last word or phrase of one part of an utterance is repeated at the %eginning of the next part, thus hoo$ing the two parts together" The writer, instead of moving on, seems to dou%le %ac$ on his trac$s and pic$ up his last word" J reeman and slave""" carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open 7i!$%+ a 7i!$% %$a% each time ended, either in a reconstitution of society at large'" )ny repetition of a unit of language will inevita%ly cause some slight modification of meaning, a modification suggested %y a noticea%le change in the intonation with which the repeated word is pronounced" Sometimes a writer may use the lin$ing device several times in one utterance, for exampleD J A #/i"e would come into Mr" Pic$wic$?s faceD the smile extended into a "a-!$. %$e "a-!$ into a r)ar, and %$e r)ar %ecame general"J +Dic$ens/ orD J or glances %eget )!"e#+ )!"e# #i!$#+ #i!$# ?i#$e#+ ?i#$e# ?)rd#+ and ?)rd# a letter"J +;yron/ This compositional form of repetition is also called '$ai (re6e%i%i) . <hat are the most o%vious stylistic functions of repetitionY The first, the primary one, is to intensify the utterance" 0ntensification is the direct outcome of the use of the expressive means employed in ordinary intercourseI %ut when used in other compositional designs, the immediate emotional charge is greatly suppressed and is replaced %y a purely aesthetic aim as in the following exampleD T=E 1>(E1 A ?ear& ")% i# %$i e+ fair maid, A ?ear& ")% i# %$i eD To pull the thorn thy %row to %raid, )nd press the rue for wine" ) lightsome eye, a soldier?s mien ) feather of the %lue, ) dou%let of the !incoln green H N) /)re )7 /e &)- @ e? My !oveL N) /)re )7 /e &)- @ e?. +<alter Scott/ The repetition of the whole line in its full form re#uires interpretation" Superlinear analysis %ased on associations aroused %y the sense of the whole poem suggests that this repetition expresses the regret of the 1over for his !ove?s unhappy lot" Compare also the repetition in the line of Thomas Moore?sD AT$)#e e*e i ! 0e""#D T$)#e e*e i ! 0e""#. Meditation, sadness, reminiscence and other psychological and emotional states of mind are suggested %y the repetition"

The distri%utional model of repetition, the aim of which is intensification, is simpleD it is immediate succession of the parts repeated" 1epetition may also stress monotony of action, it may suggest fatigue or despair, or hopelessness, or doom, as inD J<hat has my life %eenY Fa! a d !ri d+ 7a! a d !ri d. T-r %$e ?$ee"+ %-r %$e ?$ee".A +Dic$ens/ =ere the rhythm of the repeated parts ma$es the monotony and hopelessness of the spea$er?s life still more $eenly felt" This function of repetition is to %e o%served in Thomas =ood?s poem JThe Song of the ShirtJ where different forms of repetition are employed" J<or$ H wor$ H wor$L Till the %rain %egins to swimL <or$ H wor$ H wor$ Till the eyes are heavy and dimL Seam, and gusset, and %and, ;and, and gusset and seam,H Till over the %uttons 0 fall asleep, )nd sew them on in a dream"J >f course the main idea, that of long and exhausting wor$, is expressed %y lexical meansD wor$ ?till the %rain %egins to swim? and ?the eyes are heavy and dim?, till, finally, ?0 fall asleep"? ;ut the repetition here strongly enforces this idea and, moreover, %rings in additional nuances of meaning" 0n grammars it is pointed out that the repetition of words connected %y the conCunction a d will express reiteration or fre#uentative action" or exampleD J ledge%y @ )'@ed a d ra !+ and ledge%y ra ! a d @ )'@ed+ %ut no one came"J There are phrases containing repetition, which have %ecome lexical units of the English language, as ) a d ) + )*er a d )*er+ a!ai a d a!ai and others" They all express repetition or continuity of the action, as inD J=e played the tune )*er a d )*er again"J Sometimes this shade of meaning is %ac$ed up %y meaningful words, as inD J0 sat desperately, ?)r@i ! a d ?)r@i !.A JThey %a"@ed a d %a"@ed all night"J JThe telephone ra ! a d ra ! %ut no one answered"J The idea of continuity is expressed here not only %y the repetition %ut also %y modifiers such as a"" i!$%. ;ac$ground repetition, which we have already pointed out, is sometimes used to stress the ordinarily unstressed elements of the utterance" =ere is a good exampleD J0 am attached to you" ;ut I 'a B% consent and ?) B% consent and 0 e*er did consent and I e*er ?i"" consent to %e lost in you"J +Dic$ens/ The emphatic

element in this utterance is not the repeated word ?consent? %ut the modal words ?can?t?, ?won?t?,??will?, and also the emphatic ?did?" Thus the repetition here loses its main function and only serves as a means %y which other elements are made to stand out clearly" 0t is worthy of note that in this sentence very strong stress falls on the modal ver%s and ?did? %ut not on the repeated ?consent? as is usually the case with the stylistic device" !i$e many stylistic devices, repetition is polyfunctional" The functions enumerated do not cover all its varieties" >ne of those already mentioned, the rhythmical function, must not %e underestimated when studying the effects produced %y repetition" Most of the examples given a%ove give rhythm to the utterance" 0n fact any repetition enhances the rhythmical aspect of the utterance" )nd to conclude, there is a variety of repetition, which we shall call JrootH repetitionJ, as inD JTo live again in the &)-%$ of the &)- !"J +2alsworthy/ or, J=e loves a d)d!e for its own sa$eI %eing""" H the d)d!ere#% of all the d)d!er#.A +Dic$ens/ or, JSchemmer, *arl Schemmer, was a0r-%e+ a 0r-%i#$ 0r-%e.A +!ondon/ 0n rootHrepetition it is not the same words that are repeated %ut the same root" Conse#uently we are faced with different words having different meanings 2Y)-%$ . &)- !G 0r-%i#$. 0r-%e4+ %ut the shades of meaning are perfectly clear" )nother variety of repetition may %e called #& ) &/ re6e%i%i) . This is the repetition of the same idea %y using synonymous words and phrases which %y adding a slightly different nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance, as in J"""are there not 'a6i%a" 6- i#$/e %# sufficient in your #%a%-%e#I 0s there not 0"))d e )-!$ upon your 6e a" codeYJ +;yron/ =ere the meaning of the words 'a6i%a" 6- i#$/e %# and #%a%-%e# is repeated in the next sentence %y the contextual synonyms 0"))d and 6e a" ')de. =ere is another example from *eats? sonnet JThe 2rasshopper and the Cric$et"J JThe poetry of earth is e*er dead... The poetry of earth is 'ea#i ! e*er...A There are two terms fre#uently used to show the negative attitude of the critic to all $inds of synonym repetitions" These are 6"e) a#/ a d %a-%)")!&" The JShorter >xford DictionaryJ defines 6"e) a#/ as Jthe use of more words in a sentence than are necessary to express the meaningI redundancy of expression"J Ta-%)")!& is defined as Jthe repetition of the same statementI the repetition +especially in the immediate context/ of the same word or phrase or of the same idea or statement in other wordsI usually as a fault of style"J =ere are two examples generally given as illustrationsD J0t was a clear starry night, and )% a '")-d ?a# %) 0e #ee .A J=e was the only survivorI ) ) e e"#e ?a# #a*ed.A

0t is not necessary to distinguish %etween these two terms, the distinction %eing very fine" )ny repetition may %e found faulty if it is not motivated %y the aesthetic purport of the writer" >n the other hand, any seemingly unnecessary repetition of words or of ideas expressed in different words may %e Custified %y the aim of the communication" or example, JThe daylight is fading, the sun is setting, and night is coming onJ as given in a text%oo$ of English composition is regarded as tautological, whereas the same sentence may serve as an artistic example depicting the approach of night" ) certain 1ussian literary critic has wittily called pleonasm Jstylistic elephantiasis,J a disease in which the expression of the idea swells up and loses its force" Pleonasm may also %e called Jthe art of wordy silence"J ;oth pleonasm and tautology may %e accepta%le in oratory inasmuch as they help the audience to grasp the meaning of the utterance" 0n this case, however, the repetition of ideas is not considered a fault although it may have no aesthetic function" E -/era%i) is a stylistic device %y means of which homogeneous parts of an utterance are made heterogeneous from the semantic point of view" Le% us examine the following cases of enumerationD AFa/i e+ de#6air+ ')"d+ %$ir#% and $ea% had done Their wor$ on them %y turns, and thinn?d them too"""J +;yron/ There is hardly anything in this enumeration that could %e regarded as ma$ing some extra impact on the reader" Each word is closely associated semantically with the following and preceding words in the enumeration, and the effect is what the reader associates with all $inds of consecutive disasters" The utterance is perfectly coherent and there is no halt in the natural flow of the communication" 0n other words, there is nothing specially to arrest the reader?s attentionI no effort is re#uired to decipher the messageD it yields itself easily to immediate perception" That is not the case in the following passageD JScrooge was his #)"e e5e'-%)r+ his #)"e ad/i i#%ra%)r+ his #)"e a##i! + his #)"e re#id-ar& "e!a%ee+ his #)"e 7rie d and his #)"e /)-r er.A +Dic$ens/ The enumeration here is heterogeneousI the legal terms placed in a string with such words as ?friend? and ?mourner? result in a $ind of clash, a thing typical of any stylistic device" =ere there is a ?dash %etween terminological voca%ulary and common neutral words" 0n addition there is a clash of conceptsD ?friend? and ?mourner? %y force of enumeration are e#ual in significance to the %usiness office of ?executor?, ?administrator?, etc" and also to that of ?legatee?, Enumeration is fre#uently used as a device to depict scenery through a

tourist?s eyes as in 2alsworthy?s JTo !etJD J leur?s wisdom in refusing to write to him was profound, for he reached each new place entirely without hope or fever, and could concentrate immediate attention on the d) @e&# and %-/0"i ! 0e""#+ %$e 6rie#%#+ 6a%i)#+ 0e!!ar#+ '$i"dre + 'r)?i ! ')'@#+ #)/0rer)#+ 'a'%-#( $ed!e#+ old high white *i""a!e#+ !)a%#+ )"i*e(%ree#+ !ree i ! 6"ai #+ #i !i ! 0ird# in tiny cages+ ?a%er(#e""er#+ #- #e%#+ /e") #+ /-"e#+ !rea% '$-r'$e#+ 6i'%-re#+ a d #?i//i ! !re&(0r)? /)- %ai s of a fascinating land"J The enumeration here is worth analysing" The various elements of this enumeration can %e approximately grouped in semantic clustersD ,/ don$eys, mules, crowing coc$s, goats, singing %irdsI 7/ priests, %eggars, children, watersellersI 9/ villages, patios, cactus hedges, churches, tum%ling %ells, som%reros, picturesI E/ sunsets, swimming greyH%rown mountains, greening plains, oliveHtrees, melons" 2alsworthy found it necessary to arrange them not according to logical semantic centres, %ut in some other orderI in one, which, apparently, would suggest the rapidly changing impressions of a tourist" Enumeration of this $ind assumes a stylistic function and may therefore %e regarded as a stylistic device, inasmuch as the o%Cects in the enumeration are not distri%uted in logical order and therefore %ecome stri$ing" This $e%er)!e e)-# e -/era%i) gives one an insight into the mind of the o%server, into his love of the exotic, into the great variety of miscellaneous o%Cects which caught his eye, it gives an idea of the progress of his travels and the most stri$ing features of the land of Spain as seen %y one who is in love with the country" The parts of the enumeration may %e li$ened to the stro$es of a painter?s %rush, which %y an inimita%le choice of colours presents to our eyes an unforgetta%le image of the life and scenery of Spain" The passage itself can %e li$ened to a picture drawn for you while you wait" =ere is another example of heterogeneous enumerationD JThe principle production of these towns""" appear to %e #)"dier#+ #ai")r#+ Ce?#+ '$a"@+ #$ri/6#+ )77i'er# and d)'@(&ard /e .A +Dic$ens" JPic$wic$ PapersJ/ S-#6e #e is a compositional device, which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important, descriptive, su%ordinate parts are amassed at the %eginning, the main idea %eing withheld till the end of the sentence" Thus the reader?s attention is held and his interest $ept up, for exampleD J Ma @i d+ says a Chinese manuscript, which my friendHM" was o%liging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages a%e %$eir /ea% ra?.A +Charles !am%/ Sentences of this type are

called 6eri)di' #e %e 'e#+ )r 6eri)d #. Their function is to create #-#6e #e+ to $eep the reader in a state of uncertainty and expectation" =ere is a good example of the piling up of details so as to create a state of suspense in the listenersD J;ut suppose it passedI #-66)#e ) e )7 %$e#e /e + as 0 have seen them, H meagre with famine, sullen with despair, careless of a life which your !ordships are perhaps a%out to value at something less than the price of a stoc$ingHframeD H #-66)#e %$i# /a surrounded %y the children for whom he is una%le to procure %read at the haGard of his existence, a%out to %e torn for ever from a family which he lately supported in peaceful industry, and which it is not his fault that he can no longer so supportI H #-66)#e %$i# /a , and there are ten thousand such from whom you may select your victims, dra!!ed i %) ')-r%+ to %e tried for this new offence, %y this e? lawI still %$ere are %?) %$i !# ?a %i ! to convict and condemn himI a d %$e#e are, in my opinion, ( %?e"*e 0-%'$er# 7)r a H-r&+ a d a Ce77re&# 7)r a H-d!ed +;yron/ =ere the su%Cect of the su%ordinate clause of concession +?one of these men?/ is repeated twice +?this man?, ?this man?/, each time followed %y a num%er of su%ordinate parts, %efore the predicate ?dragged? is reached" )ll this is drawn together in the principal clause H there are two things wanting""", which was expected and prepared for %y the logically incomplete preceding statements" ;ut the suspense is not yet %ro$enD what these two things are, is still withheld until the orator comes to the words ?and these are, in my opinion"? S-#6e #e a d '"i/a5 sometimes go together" 0n this case all the information contained in the series of statementHclauses preceding the solutionHstatement are arranged in the order of gradation, as in the example a%ove from ;yron?s maiden speech in the =ouse of !ords" The device of suspense is especially favoured %y orators" This is apparently due to the strong influence of intonation, which helps to create the desired atmosphere of expectation and emotional tension, which goes with it" Suspense always re#uires long stretches of speech or writing" Sometimes the whole of a poem is %uilt on this stylistic device, as is the case with *ipling?s poem J0fJ where all the eight stanGas consist of ifHclauses and only the last two lines constitute the principal clause" JI7 you can $eep your head when all a%out you )re losing theirs and %laming it on you, I7 you can trust yourself when all men dou%t you )nd ma$e allowance for their dou%ting too,

i7 you can dream and not ma$e dreams your master, i7 you can thin$ and not ma$e thoughts your aim, Y)-r# i# %$e ear%$ a d. e*er&%$i !+ %$a%B# i i%++.. A d ?$i'$ i# /)re+ &)-B"" 0e a Ma + /& #) .A This device is effective in more than one way, %ut the main purpose is to prepare the reader for the only logical conclusion of the utterance" 0t is a psychological effect, that is aimed at in particular" ) series of parallel #uestionH sentences containing su%ordinate parts is another structural pattern %ased on the principle of suspense, for the answer is withheld for a time, as in ;yron?s JThe ;ride of )%ydosJD J*now ye the land where the cypress and myrtle""" *now ye the land of the cedar and vine""" JTis %$e '"i/e )7 %$e Ea#% ( B%i# %$e "a d )7 %$e S- .A The end of an utterance is a specially emphatic part of it" Therefore, if we $eep the secret of a communication until we reach the end, it will lead to concentration of the reader?s or listener?s attention, and this is the effect sought" >ne more example to show how suspense can %e maintainedD JProud of his J=ear himLJ proud, too of his vote, )nd lost virginity of oratory, Proud of his learning +Cust enough to #uote/ =e revell?d in his Ciceronian glory"J +;yron/ 0t must %e noted that suspense, due to its partly psychological nature +it arouses a feeling of expectation/, is framed in one sentence, for there must not %e any %rea$ in the intonation pattern" Separate sentences would violate the principle of constant emotional tension, which is characteristic of this device" C"i/a5 2Grada%i) 4. C"i/a5 is an arrangement of sentences +or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence/ which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance as inD 0t was a lovely city, a %eautiful city, a fair city, a *eri%a0"e !e/ )7 a 'i%&.A or in JKe %arrier wall, ne river deep and wide, Ne $)rrid 'ra!#+ )r /)- %ai # dar@ a d %a"" Ri#e "i@e %$e r)'@# %$a% 6ar% Hi#6a iaB# "a d 7r)/ Ga-".A 2radual increase in emotional evaluation in the first illustration, and in significance in the second, are realiGed %y the distri%ution of the corresponding lexical items" Each successive unit is perceived as stronger than the preceding one" >f course, there are no o%Cective linguistic criteria to estimate the degree of importance or significance of each constituent" 0t is only the formal homogeneity of

these component parts and the test of synonymy in the words ?lovely?, ?%eautiful,? ?fair,? verita%le ?gem? in the first example and the relative inaccessi%ility of the %arriers ?wall?, ?river?, ?crags?, ?mountains? together with the epithets ?deep and wide?, ?horrid?, ?dar$ and tall? that ma$e us feel the increase in importance of each" ) gradual increase in significance may %e maintained in three waysD logical, emotional and #uantitative" L)!i'a" '"i/a5 is %ased on the relative importance of the component parts loo$ed at from the point of view of the concepts em%odied in them" This relative importance may %e evaluated %oth o%Cectively and su%Cectively, the author?s attitude towards the o%Cects or phenomena in #uestion %eing disclosed" Thus the following paragraph from Dic$ens? JChristmas CarolJ shows the relative importance in the author?s mind of the things and phenomena descri%edD JKo%ody ever stopped him in the street to say, with gladsome loo$s, ?My dear Scrooge, how are youY <hen will you come to see meY? Ko %eggars implored him to %estow a trifle, no children as$ed him what it was o?cloc$, no man or woman ever once in all his life in#uired the way to such and such a place, of Scrooge" Even the %lind men?s dogs appeared to $now him, and when they saw him coming on, would tug their owners into doorways and up courtsI and then would wag their tails, as though they said, ?Ko eye at all is %etter than an evil eye, dar$ masterL' The order of the statements shows what the author considers the culmination of the climax" The passage %y Dic$ens should %e considered #-0He'%i*e+ %ecause there is no general recognition of the relative significance of the statements in the paragraph" The climax in the lines from ;yron?s Jne %arrier"""J may %e considered )0He'%i*e %ecause such things as ?wall?, ?river?, ?crags?, ?mountains? are o%Cectively ran$ed according to their accessi%ility" E/)%i) a" '"i/a5 is %ased on the relative emotional tension produced %y words with emotive meaning, as in the first example, with the words ?lovely?, ?%eautiful?, ?fair?" >f course, emotional climax, %ased on synonymous strings of words with emotional meaning will inevita%ly cause certain semantic differences in these words H such is the linguistic nature of stylistic synonyms, %ut emotional meaning will %e the prevailing one" Emotional climax is mainly found in sentences, more rarely in longer syntactical units" This is natural" Emotional charge cannot hold long" )s %ecomes o%vious from the analysis of the a%ove examples of climatic order, the arrangement of the component parts calls for parallel construction which, %eing a $ind of syntactical repetition, is fre#uently

accompanied %y lexical repetition" =ere is another example of emotional climax %uilt on this patternD J=e was 6"ea#ed when the child %egan to adventure across floors on hand and $neesI he was !ra%i7ied+ when she managed the tric$ of %alancing herself on two legsI he was de"i!$%ed when she first said ?taHta?I and he was reH)i'ed when she recogniGed him and smiled at him"J +)lan Paton/ inally we come to 8-a %i%a%i*e '"i/a5. This is an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts, as inD JThey loo$ed at $- dred# of housesI they clim%ed %$)-#a d# of stairsI they inspected i -/era0"e $itchens"J +Somerset Maugham/ =ere the climax is achieved %y simple numerical increase" 0n the following example climax is materialiGed %y setting side %y side concepts of measure and timeD ALi%%"e 0& "i%%"e+ 0i% 0& 0i%+ and da& 0& da&+ a d &ear 0& &ear the %aron got the worst of some disputed #uestion"J +Dic$ens/ <hat then are the indispensa%le constituents of climaxY They areD a/ the distri%utional constituentD close proximity of the component parts arranged in increasing order of importance or significanceI %/ the syntactical patternD structure of each of the clauses or sentences with possi%le lexical repetitionI c/ the connotative constituentD the explanatory context which helps the reader to grasp the gradation, as )... e*er ) 'e i a"" $i# "i7e+ )0)d& e*er+ )0)d&. N) 0e!!ars +Dic$ens/I dee6 a d ?ide+ $)rrid+ dar@ a d %a"" +;yron/I *eri%a0"e 2!e/ )7 a 'i%&4. Climax, li$e many other stylistic devices, is a means %y which the author discloses his world outloo$, his evaluation of o%Cective facts and phenomena" The concrete stylistic function of this device is to show the relative importance of things as seen %y the author +especially in emotional climax/, or to impress upon the reader the significance of the things descri%ed %y suggested comparison, or to depict phenomena dynamically" A %i%$e#i#. 0n order to characteriGe a, thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view, it may %e necessary not to find points of resem%lance or association %etween it and some other thing or phenomenon, %ut to find points of sharp contrast, that is, to set one against the other, for exampleD AA #ai % a0r)ad+ and a de*i" a% $)/e.A +;unyan/ J;etter to rei! i $e"" than #er*e i $ea*e .A +Milton/ ) line of demarcation must %e drawn %etween logical opposition and stylistic opposition" )ny opposition will %e %ased on the contrasting features of two o%Cects" These contrasting features are represented in pairs of words, which we call antonyms, provided that all the properties of the two o%Cects in #uestion may %e set

one against another as ?saint? H ?devil?, ?reign? H ?serve?, ?hell? H ?heaven?" Many word com%inations are %uilt up %y means of contrasting pairs, as ?up and down?, ?inside and out?, ?from top to %ottom? and the li$e" Stylistic opposition, which is given a special name, the term a %i%$e#i#, is of a different linguistic natureD it is %ased on relative opposition, which arises out of the context through the expansion of o%Cectively contrasting pairs, as inD Y)-%$ i# ")*e"&+ a!e i# ") e"&+ Y)-%$ i# 7ier&+ a!e i# 7r)#%&G +!ongfellow/ , There is a device +not linguistic %ut literary/, which is called a %i'"i/a5. The ideas expressed may %e arranged in ascending order of significance, or they may %e poetical or elevated, %ut the final one, which the reader expects to %e the culminating one, as in climax, is trifling or farcical" There is a sudden drop from the lofty or serious to the ridiculous" ) typical example is )esop?s fa%le JThe Mountain in !a%our"J J0n days of yore, a mighty rum%ling was heard in a Mountain" 0t was said to %e in la%our, and multitudes floc$ed together, from far and near, to see what it would produce" )fter long expectation and many wise conCectures from the %yHstandersHout popped, a MouseLJ =ere we have deli%erate anticlimax, which is a recogniGed form of humour" )nticlimax is fre#uently used %y humorists li$e Mar$ Twain and :erome *" :erome" 0n JThree Men in a ;oatJ, for example, a poetical passage is invaria%ly followed %y a ludicrous scene" or example, the author expands on the %eauties of the sunset on the river and concludesD AF-% ?e did B% #ai" i %) %$e ?)r"d )7 !)"de #- #e%. we went #"a6 i %) %$a% )"d 6- % ?$ere %$e !e %"e/e ?ere 7i#$i !.A )nother example isD JThis warHli$e speech, received with many a cheer, =ad 7i""ed them with de#ire )7 7a/e, and 0eer. A=ere the o%Cectively contrasted pair is ?youth? and ?age?" ?!ovely? and ?lonely? cannot %e regarded as o%Cectively opposite concepts, %ut %eing drawn into the scheme contrasting ?youth? and ?age?, they display certain features, which may %e counted as antonymical" This is strengthened also %y the next line where not only ?youth? and ?age? %ut also ?fiery? and ?frosty? are o%Cective antonyms" 0t is not only the semantic aspect, which explains the linguistic nature of antithesis, the structural pattern also plays an important role" )ntithesis is generally moulded in parallel construction" The antagonistic features of the two o%Cects or phenomena are more easily perceived when they stand out in similar structures" This is particularly advantageous when the antagonistic features are not inherent in the o%Cects in #uestion %ut imposed on them" The structural design of antithesis is so important that unless it is

conspicuously mar$ed in the utterance, the effect might %e lost" 0t must %e remem%ered however that so strong is the impact of the various stylistic devices, that they draw into their or%it stylistic elements not specified as integral parts of the device" )s we have pointed out, this is often the case with the epithet" The same concerns antithesis" Sometimes it is difficult to single out the elements, which distinguish it from logical opposition" Thus in Dic$ens?s J) Tale of Two Cities?J the first paragraph is practically %uilt on opposing pairs" J0t was the 0e#% of times, it was the ?)r#% of times, it was the age of ?i#d)/+ it was the age of 7))"i#$ e##+ it was the epoch of 0e"ie7, it was the epoch of i 'red-"i%&, it was the season of Li!$%, it was the season of Dar@ e##+ it was the #6ri ! of $)6e+ it was the ?i %er of de#6air+ we had e*er&%$i ! %efore us, we had )%$i ! %efore us, we were all going dire'% %) Hea*e + we are all going dire'% %$e )%$er ?a&...J +Dic$ens/ The structural pattern of the utterance, the pairs of o%Cective antonyms as well as of those on which antonymycal meanings are imposed %y the force of analogy ma$es the whole paragraph stylistically significant, and the general device, which ma$es it so is antithesis" This device is often signalled %y the introductory connective 0-% as in AT$e ')"d i '"i/e are ')"d i 0"))d Their love can scarce deserve the nameI F-% mine was li$e a lava flood" That %oils in Etna?s %reast of flame"J +;yron/ <hen 0-% is used as a signal of antithesis, the other structural signal, the parallel arrangement, may not %e evident" 0t may %e unnecessary, as in the example a%ove" )ntithesis is a device %ordering %etween stylistics and logic" The extremes are easily discerni%le %ut most of the cases are intermediate" =owever it is essential to distinguish %etween antithesis and what is termed ') %ra#%" Contrast is a literary +not a linguistic/ device, %ased on logical opposition %etween the phenomena set one against another" =ere is a good example of contrast" T=E 10(E1 JThe river H with the sunlight flashing from its dancing wavelets, gilding gold the greyHgreen %eechHtrun$s, glinting through the dar$, cool wood paths, chasing shadows o?er the shallows, flinging diamonds from the millHwheels, throwing $isses to the lilies, wantoning with the weir?s white waters, silvering mossHgrown walls and %ridges, %rightening every tiny townlet, ma$ing sweet each lane and

meadow, lying tangled in the rushes, peeping, laughing, from each inlet, gleaming gay on many a far sail, ma$ing soft the air with glory H is a golden fairy stream" F-% the river H chill and weary, with the ceaseless rain drops falling on its %rown and sluggish waters, with the sound as of a woman, weeping low in some dar$ cham%er, while the woods all dar$ and silent, shrouded in their mists of vapour, stand li$e ghosts upon the margin, silent ghosts with eyes reproachful li$e the ghosts of evil actions, li$e the ghosts of friends neglected H is a spiritHhaunted water through the land of vain regrets"J +:erome *" :erome/ The two paragraphs are made into one long span of thought %y the signal F-% and the repetition of the word ri*er after which in %oth cases a pause is indicated %y a dash which suggests a different intonation pattern of the word ri*er. The opposing mem%ers of the contrast are the ?sunlight flashing? H ?ceaseless rain drops falling?I ?gilding gold the greyHgreen %eechHtrun$s, glinting through the dar$, cool woodHpaths? H ?the woods, all dar$ and silent, shrouded in their mists of vapour, stand li$e ghosts"""?I ?golden fairy stream? H ?spiritHhaunted water?" Still there are several things lac$ing to show a clear case of a stylistic device, viG" the words involved in the opposition do not display any additional nuance of meaning caused %y %eing opposed one to anotherI there are no true parallel constructions except perhaps the general pattern of the two paragraphs, with all the descriptive parts placed %etween the grammatical su%Cect and predicate, the two predicates serving as a $ind of summing up, thus completing the contrast" ?The river""" is a golden fairy stream"? ( BF-% the river """ is a spiritHhaunted water through the land of vain regrets"? The contrast em%odied in these two paragraphs is, however, a$in to the stylistic device of antithesis" )ntithesis has the following %asic functionsD rhythmHforming cause of the parallel arrangement on which it is founded/ copulativeI dissevering comparative" These functions often go together and intermingle in their own peculiar manner" ;ut as a rule antithesis displays one of the functions more clearly than the others" This particular function will then %e the leading one in the given utterance" )n interesting example of antithesis where the predominant comparative function is the madrigal ascri%ed to Sha$espeareD ) M)D102)! JCra%%ed age and youth Cannot live togetherD Mouth is full of pleasance, )ge is full of careI

Mouth li$e summer morn, )ge li$e winter weather, Mouth li$e summer %rave, )ge li$e winter %areD Mouth is full of sport, )ge?s %reath is short, Mouth is nim%le, )ge is lameD Mouth is hot and %old, )ge is wea$ and cold, Mouth is wild, and )ge is tameD H )ge, 0 do a%hore thee, Mouth, 0 do adore theeI > my !ove, my !ove is youngL )ge, 0 do defy thee H > sweet shepherd, hie thee, or methin$s thou stay?st too long" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.202(22M4. PARTICULAR JAYS OF COMFINING PARTS OF THE UTTERANCE The analysis of syntactical structures, their variety, their superHlinear meaning, their stylistic functions cannot %e effectively maintained without a thorough investigation of the linguistic features of the means and types of connection %etween parts of the sentence, %etween sentences themselves, %etween syntactical wholes and within the paragraph" or a long time only two types of connection have %een under the o%servation of linguistsD H '))rdi a%i) a d #-0)rdi a%i) 26ara%a5i# a d $&6)%a5i#4. The language means of expressing these two types of logical connection of ideas are correspondingly divided into coordinating and su%ordinating conCunctions" Thus a d+ 0-% are coordinating, ?$e + 0e'a-#e+ #i 'e and the li$e are su%ordinating" Kow linguists, getting deeper into the essence of interconnections %etween parts of the utterance, have come to the conclusion that there are more than these two manners of com%ining ideas" The interdependence %etween different parts of the utterance presents a far greater diversity of relations than coordination and

su%ordination alone" Conse#uently the means of connection H conCunctions and adver%ial connectives H have %een discovered to possess a more varied range of grammatical meanings" 0t now %ecomes o%vious that the division of connectives into two categories is no longer accepta%le, especially in stylistics" Moreover the division itself does not reflect the real functions of the connectives" !et us ta$e the following exampleD J=e was sitting #uietly at the door of his cottage when suddenly he heard a terri%le explosion"J Su%ordinating conCunction ?$e does not introduce a su%ordinate idea, although from the point of view of traditional grammar the clause which follows the conCunction when will introduce a su%ordinate clause of time" )nd it is assumed that what is su%ordinate in form must also %e su%ordinate in matter" =ere again we are faced with the discrepancy %etween the logical and linguistic approaches to language facts" rom a purely grammatical point of view the clause ??$e he suddenly"""? is su%ordinateI while from the logical point of view the main idea is em%odied in what is formally a su%ordinate clause" )ll this goes to show that the means of connection have %ecome polysemantic" They may express different types of interrelation and their meanings will, as is the case with meaningful words, %e realiGed in the given context" >n the other hand, the necessity of expressing the exact relation %etween the parts of the utterance in the written language, and especially in the case of larger utterances, demands new connectives" !anguage provides these means to meet this re#uirement" Some adver%s and adver%ial phrases have %egun to function as connectives and are recogniGed as such from the morphological point of view" There is a tendency to consider the parts of a twoHmem%er coordinate sentence as e#ual in ran$" Therefore whenever we see the coordinating conCunctions a d+ 0-%+ we expect to find e#uality in the semantic weights of the two parts" ;ut it is not so" Even a superfluous semantic analysis of a few coordinate sentences will prove the contrary" !et us ta$e the following sentenceD JThe soldier?s wound was carefully %andaged and in a few days he was again a%le to fight"J The second clause is clearly semantically dependent on the first" The relation %etween them is that of cause and effect, and this type of relation implies ine#uality of ran$, which in grammatical terms would %e specified as su%ordination" Conse#uently the copulative conCunction a d here indicates a relation, which it is ta$en for granted that this conCunction does not express" 0n other words a d may also %e used to express su%ordination of ideas" Thus it follows that the terms

coordination and su%ordination are inade#uate to convey the various forms of interrelation %etween the component parts of an utterance" !i$ewise the terms compound and complex sentences do not cover all varieties of utterances that com%ine two or more ideas" )nyway for stylistic purposes, the division of types of sentences into compound and complex is inapplica%le" )nother classification is re#uired, and this classification must %e %ased on the relative importance of the utterance or its parts in a larger semantic unit" This relative importance is revealed %y different meansI for example, %y means of mood, tense, word order, use of pronouns and other formal language means" ConCunctions are used not only in their direct syntactical function, %ut in other functions as well" Thus a d in the Sha$espeare Sonnet Ko 33 is used to ma$e each following statement stand out more clearly, >n the other hand, su%ordination and coordination may %e effectively expressed %y means of participial phrases as, for instance, inD J=e stood at the door, "i#%e i ! to the hum of voices from inside, and %$i @i ! comforta%ly of the cold %ath that would come later in the day"J The participles ?listening? and ?thin$ing? may also %e regarded as means of su%ordination of ideas, although, %e it repeated, this is a formal grammatical approach" )ccording to the semantic criterion, the ideas em%odied in the participial phrases in the example a%ove are the main ideas of the utterance" )fter all, su%ordination of ideas cannot %e discovered %y a purely grammatical analysis of the component parts of the sentenceI it is the difference in the character of the actions performed that counts here +?stood?, ?listening?, ?thin$ing?/" There are many grammatical forms and structures, which express the interrelations of the parts of an utterance without the help of conCunctions +signals though they are pointing out these interrelations/" Thus, nominative a%solute is a grammatical model capa%le of expressing a su%ordinate or other relation" The semantic approach however will always outweigh the formal one when a stylistic interpretation of the utterance is necessary" 0ndeed, in the sentenceD J)nd the first ca% having %een fetched from the pu%lic house, """Mr" Pic$wic$ and his portmanteau were thrown into the vehicleJ, the relation %etween the parts is o%viousI it is one of se#uence of events" ;ut why should se#uence %e regarded as a form of su%ordinationY 0t would %e more appropriate to consider %oth parts semantically e#ual in ran$" !et us compare this sentence with its possi%le transformsD ," ?The first ca% was fetched from the pu%lic house and Mr" Pic$wic$ and his portmanteau were thrown into the vehicle"? )r+ 7" ?<hen the first ca% was

fetched from the pu%lic house, Mr" Pic$wic$ and his portmanteau were thrown into the vehicle"? or, 9" ?)fter the first ca% had %een fetched from the pu%lic house, Mr" Pic$wic$ and his portmanteau were thrown into the vehicle"? Each of these variants gives a slightly different shade of meaning in regard to the interrelation %etween the two component parts" The first transform lays e#ual stress on %oth parts" The se#uence of events is not clearly expressed" 0t is merely implied" The pause %efore a d is somewhat longer than in the following transforms, thus contri%uting to the inner rhythm of the utterance" The second transform stresses the more rapid se#uence, almost simultaneous, of the two actions" The ?$e here reduces the pause %etween the two parts and ma$es the whole utterance more integrated than in the first transform" The third transform lays strong emphasis on the se#uence of events as if this se#uence were of great significance to the issue in #uestion" The adver% after and the tense form $ad 0ee 7e%'$ed stress completion of the first action %efore the commencement of the second" Kow it %ecomes clear that the third transform could not have %een chosen %y the author %ecause too much emphasis is laid on the se#uence relation" This would have shown a pedantic approach H alien to the principles of emotive prose" The second transform seems li$ewise to %e inappropriate to the purport of the author for the same reason" Keither the simultaneousness nor the se#uence of actions concern the writer" So there remain only two variantsD the one given %y the author and our first transform" The choice in favour of the participial construction is apparently due to two reasonsD ,/ the humorous character of the whole of the JPapersJ, this utterance included, and 7/ the aesthetic principle H to avoid the repetition of a d in close succession" The first principle manifests itself in the mixture of two stylistic aspects, *i1" the official atmosphere of the nominative a%solute construction on the one hand and the information itself, which is far from %eing official, *i1" the ?first ca%?, ?Mr" Pic$wic$ and his portmanteau,? ?were thrown?" ) comparatively wide range of relations is expressed through the nominative a%solute and other participial constructions" 0nfinitive constructions, %eing formally dependent on a part of the sentence containing a finite ver% may also %e regarded as a means of su%ordination" 0n the sentenceD J=e was too ill to attend the lecture,J the infinitive construction performs the function of a su%ordinate clause expressing result" or stylistic purposes it is important to distinguish degrees of su%ordination %etween the parts of a sentence as well as the closeness of the connection %etween

relatively independent statements" )n estimation of the degree of independence will contri%ute to the correct interpretation of the intonation pattern of the utterance and thus help to get at the purport of the author" A#& de%) + that is connection %etween parts of a sentence or %etween sentences without any formal sign, %ecomes a stylistic device if there is a deli%erate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to %e according to the norms of the literary language" =ere is an exampleD JSoames turned awayI he had an utter disinclination for tal$, li$e one standing %efore an open grave, watching a coffin slowly lowered"J +2alsworthy/ The deli%erate omission of the su%ordinate conCunction 0e'a-#e or 7)r ma$es the sentence ?he had an utter"""? almost entirely independent" 0t might %e perceived as a characteristic feature of Soames in general, %ut for the comparison, %eginning with "i@e+ which shows that Soames?s mood was temporary" =ere a reminder is necessary that there is an essential difference %etween the ordinary norms of language, %oth literary and collo#uial, and stylistic devices, which are s$ilfully wrought for special informative and aesthetic purposes" 0n the sentenceD J;ic$et did not answer his throat felt too dry"J +2alsworthy/ the a%sence of the conCunction and a punctuation mar$ may %e regarded as a deli%erate introduction of the norms of collo#uial speech into the literary language" Such structures ma$e the utterance sound li$e one syntactical unit to %e pronounced in one %reath group" This determines the intonation pattern" 0t is interesting to compare the preceding two utterances from the point of view of the length of the pause %etween the constituent parts" 0n the first utterance +Soames"""/, there is a semicolon which, %eing the indication of a longish pause, %rea$s the utterance into two parts" 0n the second utterance +;ic$et"""/, no pause should %e made and the whole of the utterance pronounced as one syntagm" The crucial pro%lem in ascertaining the true intonation pattern of a sentence composed of two or more parts lies in a deeper analysis of the functions of the connectives on the one hand, and a more detailed investigation of graphical means H the signals indicating the correct interpretation of the utterance H on the other" P)"&#& de%) is the stylistic device of connecting sentences or phrases or syntagms or words %y using connectives +mostly conCunctions and prepositions/ %efore each component part as inD JThe heaviest rain, a d snow, a d hail+ a d sleet, could %oast of the advantage over him in only one respect"J +Dic$ens/

0n this passage from !ongfellow?s JThe Song of =iawathaJ, there is repetition %oth of conCunctions and prepositions" JShould you as$ me, ?$e 'e these storiesY J$e 'e these legends and traditions, Ji%$ the odours of the forest, Ji%$ the dew, and damp of meadows, Ji%$ the curling smo$e of wigwams, Ji%$ the rushing of great rivers, Ji%$ their fre#uent repetitions,"""J The repetition of conCunctions and other means of connection ma$es an utterance more rhythmicalI so much so that prose may even seem li$e verse" The conCunctions and other connectives, %eing generally unstressed elements, when placed %efore each meaningful mem%er will cause the alternation of stressed and unstressed sylla%les H the essential re#uirement of rhythm in verse" =ence one of the functions of polysyndeton is a rhythmical one" 0n addition to this, polysyndeton has a disintegrating function" 0t generally com%ines homogeneous elements of thought into one whole resem%ling enumeration" ;ut unli$e enumeration, which integrates %oth homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one whole, polysyndeton causes each mem%er of a string of facts to stand out conspicuously" That is why we say that polysyndeton has a disintegrating function" Enumeration shows things unitedI polysyndeton shows them isolated" Polysyndeton has also the function of expressing se#uence, as inD JThen Mr" ;offin""" sat #%ari ! a% a little %oo$case of !aw Practice and !aw 1eports, a d a% a window, a d a% an empty %lue %ag, a d a stic$ of sealingHwax, a d a% a pen, a d a %ox of wafers, a d an apple, a d a writingHpad H all very dusty H a d a% a num%er of in$y smears and %lots, a d a% an imperfectly disguised gunHcase pretending to %e something legal, a d a% an iron %ox la%elled J=armon EstateJ, until Mr" !ightwood appeared"J +Dic$ens/ )ll these a d# may easily %e replaced %y %$e #. ;ut in this case too much stress would %e laid on the logical aspects of the utterance, whereas a d expresses %oth se#uence and disintegration" Kote also that Dic$ens %egins %y repeating not only a d+ %ut also a%. ;ut in the middle of the utterance he drops the a%+ pic$s it up again, drops it once more and then finally pic$s it up and uses it with the last three items" T$e Ga6(Se %e 'e Li @. There is a peculiar type of connection of sentences, which for want of another term we shall call the Ga6(Se %e 'e Li @ +2" S"!"/"

The connection therefore is not immediately apparent and it re#uires a certain mental effort to grasp the interrelation %etween the parts of the utterance, in other words, to %ridge the semantic gap" =ere is an example" JShe and that fellow ought to %e the sufferers, a d (%$e& ?ere i I%a"&.A +2alsworthy/ 0n this sentence the second part, which is hoo$ed on to the first %y the conCunction a d+ seems to %e unmotivated or, in other words, the whole sentence seems to %e logically incoherent" ;ut this is only the first impression" )fter a more careful superlinear semantic analysis it %ecomes clear that the exact logical variant of the utterance would %eD ?Those who ought to suffer were enCoying themselves in 0taly +where wellHtoHdo English people go for holidays/"? Conse#uently 2"S"!" is a way of connecting two sentences seemingly unconnected and leaving it to the reader?s perspicacity to grasp the idea implied, %ut not worded" 2enerally spea$ing, every detail of the situation need not %e stated" Some must remain for the reader to divine" )s in many other cases, the device of 2"S"!" is deeply rooted in the norms of the spo$en language" The omissions are Custified %ecause the situation easily prompts what has not %een said" The proper intonation, also helps in deciphering the communication" 0t is also natural in conversation to add a phrase to a statement made, a phrase which will point to uncertainty or lac$ of $nowledge or to the unpredicta%ility of the possi%le issue, etc", as inD JShe says nothing, %ut it is clear that she is harping on this engagement, a d ( !))d e## @ )?# ?$a%.A +2alsworthy/ 0n writing, where the situation is explained %y the writer and the intonation is only guessed at, such %rea$s in the utterance are regarded as stylistic devices" The gapHsentence lin$ re#uires a certain mental effort to em%race the unexpressed additional information" The gapHsentence lin$ is generally indicated %y a d or 0-%" There is no asyndetic 2"S"!", inasmuch as connection %y asyndeton can %e carried out only %y semantic ties easily and immediately perceived" These ties are, as it were, su%stitutes for the formal grammatical means of connection" The gapH sentence lin$ has no immediate semantic connections, therefore it re#uires formal indications of connection" 0t demands an o%vious %rea$ in the semantic texture of the utterance and forms an Junexpected semantic leap"J The possi%ility of filling in the semantic gap depends largely on associations awa$ened %y the two sentences lin$ed cumulatively" 0n the following utterance the connection %etween the two sentences needs no comment" J0t was an afternoon to dream" A d #$e %))@ )-% C) B# "e%%er#.A

<hile maintaining the unity of the utterance syntactically the author leaves the interpretation of the lin$ %etween the two sentences to the mind of the reader" 0t is the imaginative mind only that can decode a message expressed %y a stylistic device" Kowhere do the conCunctions a d and 0-% ac#uire such varied expressive shades of meaning as in 2" S" !" constructions" 0t is these nuances that cause the Hpeculiar intonation with which a d or 0-t are pronounced" Thus in the following sentence the conCunction a d is made very conspicuous %y the intonation signalled %y the dashD JThe orsytes were resentful of something, not individually, %ut as a family, this resentment expressed itself in an added perfection of raiment, an exu%erance of family cordiality, an exaggeration of family importance, a d ( %$e # i77.A +2alsworthy/ The 2" S" !" a d ( %$e # i77 is motivated" 0ts association with a e5a!!era%i) )7 7a/i"& i/6)r%a 'e is apparent" =owever, so strong is the emotive meaning of the word # i77 that it overshadows the preceding words, which are used in their primary, exact, logical meanings" =ence the dash after a d to add special significance to the cumulative effect" This example shows that 2" S" !" can %e accompanied %y semantic gaps wider or narrower as the case may %e" 0n this example the gap is very narrow and therefore the missing lin$ is easily restored" ;ut sometimes the gap is so wide that it re#uires a deep superlinear semantic analysis to get at the implied meaning" Thus in the following example from ;yron?s maiden speechD J)nd here 0 must remar$ with what alacrity you are accustomed to fly to the succour of your distressed allies, leaving the distressed of your own country to the care of Providence )r ( %$e 6ari#$.A =ere the G. S" L.+ maintained %y or and followed %y the dash, which indicates a rather long pause, implies that the parish, which was supposed to care for impoverished wor$ers, was una%le to do so" ;y its intrinsic nature the conCunction 0-% can Custify the apparently unmotivated coupling of two unconnected statements" Thus in the following passage 2" S" !" maintained %y and is %ac$ed up %y 0-%. J0t was not Capetown, where people only frowned when they saw a %lac$ %oy and a white girl" F-% $ere... A d $e ")*ed $er.A The gapHsentence lin$ as a stylistic device is %ased on the peculiarities of the spo$en language and is therefore most fre#uently used in represented speech" 0t is 2" S" !" alongside other characteristics that moulds the device of unuttered represented speech" The gapHsentence lin$ has various functions" 0t may serve to signal the introduction of inner represented speechI it may %e used to indicate a

su%Cective evaluation of the factsI it may introduce an effect resulting from a cause, which has already had ver%al expression" 0n all these functions 2" S" !, displays an unexpected coupling of ideas" Even the cause and effect relations, logical as they are, when em%odied in 2" S" !" structures are not so o%vious" 0n contraHdistinction to the logical segmentation of the utterance, which leaves no room for personal interpretation of the interdependence of the component parts, 2" S" !" aims at stirring up in the reader?s mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence uttered can really exist" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.22M(2<E4. PECULIAR USE OF COLLONUIAL CONSTRUCTIONS Emotional syntactical structures typical of the spo$en language are those used in informal and intimate conversation where personal feelings are introduced into the utterance" They are common in dialogue and in dialogue are hardly perceived as special devices, %ut they stand out in the written language" E""i6#i# E""i6#i# is a typical phenomenon in conversation, arising out of the situation" <e mentioned this peculiar feature of the spo$en language when we characteriGed its essential #ualities and properties" ;ut this typical feature of the spo$en language assumes a new #uality when used in the written language" 0t %ecomes a stylistic device, inasmuch as it supplies supersegmental information" )n elliptical sentence in direct intercourse is not a stylistic device" 0t is simply a norm of the spo$en language" !et us ta$e a few examples" JSo :ustice >%erwallGer H solemnly and didactically from his high seat to the Cury"J +Dreiser/ >ne feels very acutely the a%sence of the predicate in this sentence" <hy was it omittedY Did the author pursue any special purpose in leaving out a primary mem%er of the sentenceY >r is it Cust due to carelessnessY The answer is o%viousD it is a deli%erate device" This particular model of sentence suggests the author?s personal state of mind, *i1. his indignation at the shameless speech of the :ustice" 0t is a common fact that any excited state of mind will manifest itself in some $ind of violation of the recogniGed literary sentence structure" Ellipsis, when used as a stylistic device, always imitates the common features of collo#uial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain mem%ers of the sentence, %ut their a%sence" 0t would perhaps %e ade#uate to call sentences ,ac$ing certain mem%ers Jincomplete sentencesJ, leaving the term e""i6#i# to specify structures where we

recogniGe a digression from the traditional literary sentence structure" Thus the sentences ?See you toHmorrow"?, ?=ad a good time"?, ?<on?t do"?, ?Mou say thatY? are typical of the collo#uial language" Kothing is omitted here" These are normal syntactical structures in the spo$en language and to call them elliptical, means to Cudge every sentence structure according to the structural models of the written language" !i$ewise such sentences as the following can hardly %e called elliptical" AT$ereB# #)/e0)d& ?a %# to spea$ to you"J AT$ere ?a# ) 0ree1e 'a/e through the open window"J +=emingway/ AT$ereB# /a & a /a i %$i# F)r)-!$ ?)-"d 0e !"ad to have the %lood that runs in my veins"J +Cronin/ The relative pronouns ?$)+ ?$i'$+ ?$) after ?some%ody?, ?%reeGe?, ?a man in this ;orough? could not %e regarded as JomittedJ H this is the norm of collo#uial language, though now not in fre#uent use except perhaps with the %$ere i# 2are4 constructions as a%ove" This is due, perhaps, to the standardiGing power of the literary language" >" :espersen, in his analysis of such structures, writesD J0f we spea$ here of ?omission? or ?su%audition? or ?ellipsis,? the reader is apt to get the false impression that the fuller expression is the %etter one as %eing complete, and that the shorter expression is to some extent faulty or defective, or something that has come into existence in recent times out of slovenliness" This is wrongD the constructions are very old in the language and have not come into existence through the dropping of a previously necessary relative pronoun"J, =ere are some examples #uoted %y :espersenD AI 0ri ! $i/ e?# ?i"" raise his drooping spirits"J J"""or "i@e %$e # )? 7a""# in the river"J J"""when at her door ar)#e a '"a%%er /i!$% awa$e the dead"J =owever when the reader encounters such structures in literary texts, even though they aim at representing the lively norms of the spo$en language, he is apt to regard them as %earing some definite stylistic function" This is due to a psychological effect produced %y the relative rarity of the construction, on the one hand, and the nonH expectancy of any stri$ingly collo#uial expression in literary narrative" 0t must %e repeated here that the most characteristic feature of the written variety of language is amplification, which %y its very nature is opposite to ellipsis" )mplification generally demands expansion of the ideas with as full and as exact relations %etween the parts of the utterance as possi%le" Ellipsis %eing the property of collo#uial language, on the contrary, does not express what can easily %e supplied %y the situation" This is perhaps the reason that elliptical sentences are rarely used as stylistic devices" Sometimes the omission of a lin$ ver% adds emotional colouring and ma$es the sentence sound more emphatic, as in these lines from

;yronD AT$ri'e $a66& $e who, after survey of the good company, can win a corner"J AN)%$i ! #) di77i'-"% as a %eginning"J JDenotes $)? #)7% %$e '$i which %ears his touch"J 0t is wrong to suppose that the omission of the lin$ ver%s in these sentences is due to the re#uirements of the rhythm" Frea@(i (%$e(Narra%i*e 2A6)#i)6e#i#4. A6)#i)6e#i# is a device, which dictionaries define as J) stopping short for rhetorical effect"J This is true" ;ut this definition is too general to disclose the stylistic functions of the device" 0n theH spo$en variety of the language a %rea$ in the narrative is usually caused %y unwillingness to proceedI or %y the supposition that what remains to %e said can %e understood %y the implication em%odied in what was saidI or %y uncertainty as to what should %e said" 0n the written variety a %rea$ in the narrative is always a stylistic device used for some stylistic effect" 0t is difficult, however, to draw a hard and fast distinction %etween %rea$HinHtheHnarrative as a typical feature of lively collo#uial language and as a specific stylistic device" The only criterion which may serve as a guide is that in conversation the implication can %e conveyed %y an ade#uate gesture" 0n writing it is the context, which suggests the ade#uate intonation, that is the only $ey to decoding the aposiopesis" 0n the following example the implication of the aposiopesis is a warningD J0f you continue your intemperate way of living, in six months? time """J 0n the sentenceD JMou Cust come home or 0?ll """J the implication is a threat" The second example shows that without a context the implication can only %e vague" ;ut when one $nows, that the words were said %y an angry father to his son over the telephone the implication %ecomes apparent" )posiopesis is a stylistic syntactical device to convey to the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions" The idea of this stylistic device is that the spea$er cannot proceed, his feelings depriving him of the a%ility to express himself in terms of language" Thus in Don :uan?s address to :ulia, who is left %ehindD J)nd ohL if e?er 0 should forget, I #?ear ;ut that?s impossi%le, and cannot %e"J +;yron/ ;rea$HinHtheHnarrative has a strong degree of predicta%ility, which is ensured %y the structure of the sentence" )s a stylistic device it is used in complex sentences, in particular in conditional sentences, the clause %eingJ given in full and the second part only implied" =owever aposiopesis may %e noted in different syntactical structures"

Thus one of Shelley?s poems is entitled AT) ( A+ which is an aposiopesis of a different character inasmuch as the implication here is so vague that it can %e li$ened to a secret code" 0ndeed, no one except those in the $now would %e a%le to find out to whom the poem was addressed" Sometimes a %rea$ in the narrative is caused %y euphemistic considerationsHunwillingness to name a thing on the ground of its %eing offensive to the ear, for exampleD JThen, Mamma, 0 hardly li$e to let the words cross my lips, %ut they have wic$ed, wic$ed attractions out there H li$e dancing girls that H that charm sna$es and da 'e ?i%$)-%( Miss Moir with downcast eyes, %ro$e off significantly and %lushed, whilst the down on her upper lip #uivered modestly"J ;rea$HinHtheHnarrative is a device, which, on the one hand, offers a num%er of variants in deciphering the implication and, on the other, is highly predicta%le" The pro%lem of implication is, as it were, a crucial one in stylistics" <hat is implied sometimes outweighs what is expressed" 0n other stylistic devices the degree of implication is not so high as in %rea$HinHtheH narrative" ) sudden %rea$ in the narrative will inevita%ly focus the attention on what is left unsaid" Therefore the interrelation %etween what is given and what is new %ecomes more significant, inasmuch as the given is what is said and the new H what is left unsaid" There is a phrase in collo#uial English, which has %ecome very familiar" J2ood intentions 0-% ( A The implication here is that nothing has come of what it was planned to accomplish" )posiopesis is a stylistic device in which the role of the intonation implied cannot %e overestimated" The pause after the %rea$ is generally charged with meaning and it is the intonation only that will decode the communicative significance of the utterance" N-e#%i) (i (%$e( Narra%i*e. Nuestions, %eing %oth structurally and semantically one of the types of sentences, are as$ed %y one person and expected to %e answered %y another" This is the main, and the most characteristic property of the #uestion, i" e" it exists as a syntactical unit of language to %ear this particular function in communication" Essentially, #uestions %elong to the spo$en language and presuppose the presence of an interlocutor, that is, they are commonly encountered in dialogue" The #uestioner is presumed not to $now the answer" N-e#%i) (i ( %$e( arra%i*e changes the real nature of a #uestion and turns it into a stylistic device" ) #uestion in the narrative is as$ed and answered %y one and the same person, usually the author" 0t %ecomes a$in to a parenthetical statement with strong emotional implications" =ere are some cases of #uestionHinHtheH narrative ta$en from ;yron?s JDon :uanJD

,/ AF)r ?$a% i# "e7% %$e 6)e% $erd or 2ree$s a %lush H for 2reece a tear"J 7/ J)nd starting, she awo$e, a d ?$a% %) *ie?B#B >h, Powers of =eaven" J$a% dar@ e&e /ee%# #$e %$ereI JTisH?tis her father?sHfix?d upon the pair"J )s is seen from these examples the #uestions as$ed, unli$e rhetorical #uestions do not contain statements" ;ut %eing answered %y one who $nows the answer, they assume a semiHexclamatory nature, as in ?what to viewY? Sometimes #uestionHinHtheHnarrative gives the impression of an intimate tal$ %etween the writer and the reader" or exampleD AS'r))!e @ e? $e ?a# deadBI >f course he did" H)? ')-"d i% 0e )%$er?i#eI Scrooge and he were partners for 0 don?t $now how many years"J +Dic$ens/ NuestionHinHtheHnarrative is very often used in oratory" This is explained %y one of the leading features of oratorical style H to induce the desired reaction to the content of the speech" Nuestions here chain the attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with and prevent it from wandering" They also give the listeners time to a%sor% what has %een said, and prepare for the next point" NuestionHinHtheH narrative may also remain unanswered as inD AH)? ") ! must it go onY H)? ") ! must we sufferY J$ere i# the endY J$a% is the endYJ +Korris/ These sentences show a gradual transition to rhetorical #uestions" There are only hints of the possi%le answers" 0ndeed, the first and the second #uestions suggest that the existing state of affairs should %e put an end to and that ?e should not suffer any longer" The third and the fourth #uestions suggest that the orator himself could not find a solution to the pro%lem" JThe specific nature of interrogative sentences,J writes P" S" Popov, Jwhich are transitional stages from what we $now to what we do not yet $now, is reflected in the interconnection %etween the #uestion and the answer" The interrogative sentence is connected with the answerHsentence far more closely than the inference is connected with two interrelated pronouncements, %ecause each of the two pronouncements has its own significanceI whereas the significance of the interrogative sentence is only in the process of see$ing the answer"J This very interesting statement concerning the psychological nature of the #uestion however, does not ta$e into consideration the stimulating aspect of the #uestion" <hen a #uestion %egins to fulfill a function not directly arising from its linguistic and psychological nature, it may have a certain volume of emotional charge" NuestionHinHtheHnarrative is a case of this $ind" =ere its function deviates

slightly from its general signification" This deviation +%eing in fact a modification of the general function of interrogative sentences/, is much more clearly apparent in rhetorical #uestions" Re6re#e %ed S6ee'$. There are three ways of reproducing actual speechD a/ repetition of the exact utterance as it was spo$en 2dire'% #6ee'$4+ %/ conversion of the exact utterance into the relater?s mode of expression 2i dire'% #6ee'$4+ and c/ representation of the actual utterance %y a second person, usually the author, as if it had %een spo$en, whereas it has not really %een spo$en %ut is only represented in the author?s words 2re6re#e %ed #6ee'$4. There is also a device, which conveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, thus presenting his thoughts and feelings" This device is also termed represented speech" To distinguish %etween the two varieties of represented speech we call the representation of the actual utterance through the author?s language -%%ered re6re#e %ed #6ee'$+ and the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character - -%%ered )r i er re6re#e %ed #6ee'$. The term dire'% #6ee'$ came to %e used in the %ellesHlettres style in order to distinguish the words of the character from the author?s words" )ctually direct speech is a #uotation" Therefore it is always introduced %y a ver% li$e #a&+ -%%er+ de'"are+ re6"&+ e5'"ai/+ #$)-%+ 'r&+ &e""+ !a#6+ 0a00"e+ '$-'@"e+ /-r/-r+ #i!$+ 'a""+ 0e!+ i/6")re+ ')/7)r%+ a##-re+ 6r)%e#%+ )0He'%+ ')//a d+ ad/i%+ and others" )ll these words help to indicate the intonation with which the sentence was actually uttered" Direct speech is always mar$ed %y inverted commas as any #uotation is" =ere is an exampleD JMou want your money %ac$, 0 suppose,J #aid 2eorge with a sneer" J>f course 0 do H 0 always did, didn?t 0 IA #a&# Do%%in" +<" M" Thac$eray/ The most important feature of the spo$en language, that is, intonation, is indicated %y different means" 0n the example a%ove we have ,/ graphical meansD the dash after ?0 do?, 7/ lexicalD the word ?sneer?, and 9/ grammaticalD a/ morphological H different tenses of the ver% %) #a& +?said? and ?says?/, %/ syntacticalD the disCunctive #uestion H ?didn?t 0Y?" Direct speech is sometimes used in the pu%licistic style as a #uotation" The introductory words in this case are usually the followingD as""", $a# i%+ a'')rdi ! %)...+ and the li$e" 0n the %ellesHlettres style direct speech is used to depict a character through his speech" 0n the emotive prose of the %ellesHlettres style where the predominant form of utterance is narrative, direct speech is inserted to more fully depict the characters of

the novel" 0n the other variety of the %ellesHlettres prose style, i"e" in plays, the predominant form of utterance is dialogue" 0n spite of the various graphical and lexical ways of indicating the proper intonation of a given utterance, the su%tleties of the intonation design re#uired %y the situation cannot %e accurately conveyed" The richness of the human voice can only %e suggested" Direct speech can %e viewed as a stylistic device only in its setting in the midst of the author?s narrative or in contrast to all forms of indirect speech" Even when an author addresses the reader, we cannot classify the utterance as direct speech" Direct speech is only the speech of a character in a piece of emotive prose" <e have i dire'% #6ee'$ when the actual words of a character, as it were, pass through the author?s mouth in the course of his narrative and in this process undergo certain changes" The intonation of indirect speech is even and does not differ from the rest of the author?s narrative" The graphical su%stitutes for the intonation give way to lexical units, which descri%e the intonation pattern" Sometimes indirect speech ta$es the form of a precis in which only the main points of the actual utterance are given" Thus, for instance, in the following passageD JMarshal as$ed the crowd to disperse and urged responsi%le diggers to prevent any distur%ance which would prolong the tragic force of the rush for which the pu%lication of inaccurate information was chiefly responsi%le"J 0n grammars there are rules according to which direct speech can %e converted into indirect" These rules are logical in character, they merely indicate what changes must %e introduced into the utterance due to change in the situation" Thus the sentenceD JMour mother wants you to go upstairs immediatelyJ corresponds to JTell him to come upstairs immediately"J <hen direct speech is converted into indirect, the author not infre#uently interprets in his own way the manner in which the direct speech was uttered, thus very often changing the emotional colouring of the whole" =ence indirect speech may fail entirely to reproduce the actual emotional colouring of the direct speech and distort it unrecogniGa%ly" ) change of meaning is inevita%le when direct speech is turned into indirect or viceHversa, inasmuch as any modification of form calls forth a slight difference in meaning" 0t is pro%a%ly due to this fact that in order to convey actual utterances of characters in emotive prose more ade#uately, a new way to represent direct speech came into %eing, that is, re6re#e %ed #6ee'$. 1epresented speech is that form of utterance, which conveys the actual words of the spea$er through the mouth of the writer %ut retains the peculiarities of the

spea$er?s mode of expression" 1epresented speech exists in two varietiesD ,/ uttered represented speech and 7/ unuttered or inner represented speech" a4 U%%ered re6re#e %ed #6ee'$. U%%ered re6re#e %ed #6ee'$ demands that the tense should %e switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should %e changed from ,st and 7nd person to 9rd person as in indirect speech, %ut the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change" or exampleD J C)-"d $e %ring a reference from where he now wasY =e ')-"d"J +Dreiser/Y )n interesting example of three ways of representing actual speech is to %e seen in a conversation %etween >ld :olyon and :une in 2alsworthy?s JMan of Property"J J>ld :olyon was on the alert at once" Ja# B% the Jman of propertyJ going to live in his new house, thenY =e never alluded to Soames now %ut under this title" ?KoJ,H C- e #aid H Jhe was notI #$e @ e? that he ?a# notLJ =ow did #$e $nowY S$e ')-"d not tell him, %ut #$e @ e?. S"ie @ e? ear"& 7)r 'er%ai " 0t was most unli$elyI circumstances had changedLJ The first sentence is the author?s speech" 0n the second sentence BJa# B% the Jman"""J? there is uttered represented speechD the actual speech must have %een _0sn?t the """?" This sentence is followed %y one from the authorD ?=e never"""? Then again comes uttered represented speech mar$ed off in inverted commas, which is not usual" The direct speech JKoJ, the introductory ?:une said? and the following inverted commas ma$e the sentence half direct half uttered represented speech" The next sentence ?=ow did she $nowY? and the following one are clearHcut models of uttered represented speechD all the peculiarities of direct speech are preserved, i"e", the repetition of ?she $new,? the collo#uial ?nearly for certain,? the a%sence of any connective %etween the last two sentences and finally the mar$ of exclamation at the end of the passage" )nd yet the tenses and pronouns here show that the actual utterance passes through the author?s mouth" Two more examples will suffice to illustrate the use of uttered represented speech, J) maid came in now with a %lue gown very thic$ and soft" Could she do anything for Miss reelandY N)+ %$a @#+ #$e ')-"d )%, only, did #$e @ )? where Mr" reeland?s room ?a#IB +2alsworthy/ The shift from the author?s speech to the uttered represented speech of the maid is mar$ed only %y the change in the syntactical pattern of the sentences from declarative to interrogative, or from the narrative pattern to the conversational" Sometimes the shift is almost impercepti%le H the author?s narrative sliding over into the character?s utterance without any formal indications of the switch over, as in the following passageD JShe had $nown him for a full year when, in !ondon for

a while and as usual alone, she received a note from him to say that he had to come up to town for a night and ')-"d B% %$e& dine together and go to some place to dance" She thought it very sweet of him to ta$e pity on her solitariness and accepted with pleasure" They spent a delightful evening"J This manner of inserting uttered represented speech within the author?s narrative is not common" 0t is peculiar to the style of a num%er of modern English and )merican writers" The more usual structural model is one where there is either an indication of the shift %y some introductory word +#/i"ed+ #aid+ a#@ed+ etc"/ or %y a formal %rea$ li$e a full stop at the end of the sentence as inD J0n conse#uence he was #uic$ to suggest a wal$""" Did B% C"&de want to goYJ +Dreiser/ Uttered represented speech has a long history" )s far %ac$ as the ,4th century it was already widely used %y menHofH letters, evidently %ecause it was a means %y which what was considered, vulgar might %e excluded from literatureD i"e" expletives, vivid collo#uial words, expressions and syntactical structures typical of the lively collo#uial speech of the period" 0ndeed, when direct speech is represented %y the writer, he can change the actual utterance into any mode of expression he considers appropriate" 0n ielding?s J=istory of Tom :ones the oundlingJ we find various ways of introducing uttered represented speech" =ere are some interesting examplesD J<hen dinner was over, and the servants departed, Mr" )llHworthy %egan to harangue" =e set forth, in a long speech, the ini#uities of which :ones had %een guilty, particularly those which this day had %rought to lightI and concluded %y telling him, ?That unless he could clear himself of the charge, he was resolved to %anish him from his sight for ever"? 0n this passage there is practically no represented speech, inasmuch as the words mar$ed off %y inverted commas are indirect speech, i"e", the author?s speech with no elements of the character?s speech, and the only signs of the change in the form of the utterance are the inverted commas and the capital letter of ?That?" The following paragraph is %uilt on the same pattern" J=is heart was, %esides, almost %ro$en alreadyI and his spirits were so sun$, that he could say nothing for himself %ut ac$nowledge the whole, and, li$e a criminal in despair, threw himself upon mercyI concluding, ?that though he must own himself guilty of many follies and inadvertencies, he hoped he had done nothing to deserve what would %e to him the greatest punishment in the world"? =ere again the introductory ?concluding? does not %ring forth direct speech %ut is a natural continuation of the author?s narrative" The only indication of the change is the inverted commas"

Mr" )lworthy?s answer is also %uilt on the same pattern, the only modification %eing the direct speech at the end" JH )lworthy answered, JThat he had forgiven him too often already, in compassion to his youth, and in hopes of his amendmentD that he now found he was an a%andoned repro%ate, and such as it would %e criminal in any one to support and encourage,J ?Kay,? said Mr" )lworthy to him, ?your audacious attempt to steal away the young lady, calls upon me to Custify my own character in punishing you"H? Then follows a long speech %y Mr" )lworthy not differing from indirect speech +the author?s speech/ either in structural design or in the choice of words" ) critical analysis will show that the direct speech of the characters in the novel must have undergone considera%le polishing up in order to force it to conform to the literary norms of the period" Collo#uial speech, emotional, inconsistent and spontaneous, with its vivid intonation suggested %y elliptical sentences, %rea$s in the narrative, fragmentariness and lac$ of connectives, was %anned from literary usage and replaced %y the impassionate su%stitute of indirect speech" )lmost in any wor$ of ,4th century literary art one will find that the spo$en language is adapted to conform to the norms of the written language of the period" 0t is only at the %eginning of the ,-th century that the elements of collo#uial English %egan to el%ow their way into the sacred precincts of the English literary language" The more the process %ecame apparent, the more the conditions that this created %ecame favoura%le for the introduction of uttered represented speech as a literary device" Kowadays, this device is used not only in the %ellesHlettres style" 0t is also efficiently used in newspaper style" =ere is an exampleD JMr" Silverman, his Parliamentary language scarcely concealing his %itter disappointment, accused the government of %rea$ing its pledge and of violating constitutional proprieties . Ja# the government %asing its policy not on the considered Cudgement of the =ouse of Commons, %ut on the considered Cudgement of the =ouse of !ordsY J)-"d it not %e a grave %reach of constitutional duty, not to give the =ouse a reasona%le opportunity of exercising its rights under the Parliament )ctYJ J<ait for the terms of the ;ill,J was Eden?s reply" Uttered represented speech in newspaper communications is somewhat different from that in the %ellesHlettres style" 0n the former, it is generally used to #uote the words of spea$ers in Parliament or at pu%lic meetings" 0n the modern %ellesHlettres prose style, the speech of the characters is modeled on natural

collo#uial patterns" The device of uttered represented speech ena%les the writer to reshape the utterance according to the normal polite literary usage" 04 U -%%ered )r i er re6re#e %ed #6ee'$ )s has often %een pointed out, language has two functionsD the communicative and the expressive" The communicative function serves to convey one?s thoughts, volitions, emotions and orders to the mind of a second person" The expressive function serves to shape one?s thoughts and emotions into language forms" This second function is %elieved to %e the only way of materialiGing thoughts and emotions" <ithout language forms thought is not yet thought %ut only something %eing shaped as thought" This process of materialiGing one?s thoughts %y means of language units is called i er #6ee'$.. 0nasmuch as inner speech has no communicative function it is very fragmentary, incoherent, isolated, and consists of separate units" They only hint at the content of the utterance %ut do not word it explicitly" 0nner speech is a psychological phenomenon" ;ut when it is wrought into full utterance, rt ceases to %e inner speech, ac#uires a communicative function and %ecomes a phenomenon of language" The expressive function of language is suppressed %y its communicative function, and the reader is presented with a complete language unit capa%le of carrying information" This device is called i er re6re#e %ed #6ee'$. =owever the language forms of inner represented speech %ear a resem%lance to the psychological phenomenon of inner speech" 0nner represented speech retains the most characteristic features of inner speech" 0t is also fragmentary, %ut only to an extent, which will not hinder the understanding of the communication, as is the case with inner speech proper" 0nner represented speech, unli$e uttered represented speech, expresses feelings and thoughts of the character, which were not materialiGed in spo$en or written language" That is why it a%ounds in exclamatory words and phrases, elliptical constructions, %rea$s, and other means of conveying the feelings and psychological state of the character" <hen a person is alone with his thoughts and feelings, he can give vent to those strong emotions, which he usually $eeps hidden" =ere is an example from 2alsworthy?s JMan of PropertyJD J=is nervousness a%out this disclosure irritated him profoundlyI she had no %usiness to ma$e him feel li$e that H a wife and a hus%and %eing one person" She had not loo$ed at him once since they sat down, and he wondered what on earth she had %een thin$ing a%out all the time" 0t was hard, when a man wor$ed hard as he did, ma$ing money for her H yes and with an ache in his heart H that she should

sit there, loo$ing H loo$ing as if she saw the walls of the room closing in" 0t was enough to ma$e a man get up and leave the ta%le"J The inner speech of Soames orsyte is here introduced %y two words descri%ing his state of mindH ?irritated? and ?wondered"? The collo#uial aspect of the language in which Soames?s thoughts and feelings are expressed is o%vious" =e uses collo#uial collocationsD ?she had no %usiness,? ?what on earth,? ?li$e that? and collo#uial constructionsD ?yes and with"""? ?loo$ing H loo$ing as if """?, and the words used are common collo#uial" Unuttered or inner represented speech follows the same morphological pattern as uttered represented speech, %ut the syntactical pattern shows variations to %e accounted for %y the fact that it is inner speechH, not uttered speech" The tense forms are shifted to the pastI the third person personal pronouns replace the first and second" The interrogative word order is maintained as in direct speech" The fragmentary character of the utterance manifests itself in unfinished sentences, exclamations and in oneHmem%er sentences" =ere is another exampleD J)n idea had occurred to Soames" =is cousin :olyon was 0rene?s trustee, the first step would %e to go down and see him at 1o%in =ill" 1o%in =illL The oddHthe very odd feeling those words %rought %ac$" 1o%in =ill H the house ;osinney had %uilt for him and 0rene H the house they had never lived in H the fatal houseL )nd :olyon lived there nowL =?mLJ +2alsworthy/ This device is undou%tedly an excellent one to depict a character" 0t gives the writer an opportunity to show the inner springs, which guide his character?s actions and utterances" ;eing a com%ination of the author?s speech and that of the character, inner represented speech on the one hand fully discloses the feelings and thoughts of the character, his world outloo$, and on the other hand, through efficient and sometimes hardly percepti%le interpolations %y the author himself, ma$es the desired impact on the reader" 0n English literature this device has gained vogue in the wor$s of the writers of the last two centuries, especially in the wor$s of :ane )usten, Thac$eray, Dic$ens, Charlotte and Emily ;ronte, :ac$ !ondon, 2alsworthy, Dreiser, Somerset Maugham and others" Every writer has his own way of using represented speech" Careful linguistic analysis of individual peculiarities in using it will show its wide range of function and will expand the hitherto limited notions of its use" 0nner represented speech, unli$e uttered represented speech, is usually introduced %y ver%s of mental perception as %$i @+ /edi%a%e+ 7ee"+ )''-r +an idea occurred to"""/, ?) der+ a#@+ %e"" ) e#e"7+ - der#%a d and the li$e" or exampleD J>ver and

over $e ?a# a#@i ! $i/#e"7D would she receive himY would she recogniGe himY what should he say to herYJ J<hy weren?t things going well %etween themY $e ?) dered.A (ery fre#uently, however, inner represented speech thrusts itself into the narrative of the author without any introductory words and the shift from the author?s speech to inner represented speech is more or less impercepti%le" Sometimes the one glides into the other, sometimes there is a sudden clearHcut change in the mode of expression" =ere are a few examples of %oth varietiesD J;utler was sorry that he had called his youngest a %aggageI %ut these children H2od %less his soulHwere a great annoyance" <hy, in the name of all the saints, wasn?t this house good enough for themYJ +Dreiser/ The only indication of the transfer from the author?s speech to inner represented speech is the semicolon, which suggests a longish pause" The emotional tension of the inner represented speech is enhanced %y the emphatic ?these? +in ?these children?/, %y the exclamatory sentences ?2od %less his soul? and ?in the name of all the saints"? This emotional charge gives an additional shade of meaning to the ?was sorry? in the author?s statement, *i1. ;utler was sorry, %ut he was also trying to Custify himself for calling his daughter names" )nd here is an example of a practically impercepti%le shiftD JThen, too, in old :olyon?s mind was always the secret ache that the son of :amesHof :ames, whom he had always thought such a poor thing, should %e pursuing the paths of success, while his own son H LJ +2alsworthy/ 0n this passage there are hardly any signs of the shift except perhaps the repetition of the words ?of :ames?" Then comes what is half the author?s narrative, half the thoughts of the character, the inner speech coming to the surface in ?poor thing? +a collo#uialism/ and the sudden %rea$ after ?his own son? and the mar$ of exclamation" 0nner represented speech remains the monopoly of the %ellesHlettres style, and especially of emotive prose, a variety of it" There is hardly any li$elihood of this device %eing used in other styles, due to its specific function, which is to penetrate into the inner life of the personages of an imaginary world, which is the exclusive domain of %ellesHlettres" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.2<E(2EK4. TRANSFERRED USE OF STRUCTURAL MEANING >n analogy with transference of lexical meaning, in which words are used other than in their primary logical sense, syntactical structures may also %e used in meanings other than their primary ones" Every syntactical structure has its definite function, which is sometimes called its #%r-'%-ra" /ea i !. <hen a structure is

used in some other function it may %e said to assume a new meaning, which is similar to lexical transferred meaning" )mong syntactical stylistic devices there are two in which this transference of structural meaning is to %e seen" They are rhetorical #uestions and litotes" R$e%)ri'a" N-e#%i) # T$e r$e%)ri'a" 8-e#%i) is a special syntactical stylistic device the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence" 0n other words, the #uestion is no longer a #uestion %ut a statement expressed in the, form of an interrogative sentence" Thus there is an interplay of two structural meaningsD ,/ that of the #uestion and 7/ that of the statement" ;oth are materialiGed simultaneously" or exampleD AAre %$e#e the remedies for a starving and desperate populaceYJ AI# %$ere not %lood enough upon your penal code, that more must %e poured forth to ascend to =eaven and testify against youYJ +;yron/ >ne can agree with Prof" Popov who statesD J"""the rhetorical #uestion is e#ual to a categorical pronouncement plus an exclamation"J, 0ndeed, if we compare a pronouncement expressed as a statement with the same pronouncement expressed as a rhetorical #uestion %y means of transformational analysis, we will find ourselves compelled to assert that the interrogative form ma$es the pronouncement still more categorical, in that it excludes any interpretation %eyond that contained in the rhetorical #uestion" rom the examples given a%ove, we can see that rhetorical #uestions are generally structurally em%odied in complex sentences with the su%ordinate clause containing the pronouncement" =ere is another exampleD J"""S$a"" %$e #) # )7 C$i/ar& <ho never forgive the fault of a friend Fid an enemyH liveY"""J +;yron/ <ithout the attri%utive clause the rhetorical #uestion would lose its specific #uality and might %e regarded as an ordinary #uestion" The su%ordinate clause, as it were, signaliGes the rhetorical #uestion" The meaning of the a%ove utterance can hardly fail to %e understoodD i"e"" T$e #) # of Chimary ?i"" e*er 0id an enemy live" There is another structural pattern of rhetorical #uestions, which is %ased on negation" 0n this case the #uestion may %e a simple sentence, as in ADid )% %$e I%a"ia Mosico CaGGani Si ! at my heart six months at least in vainYJ +;yron/ J=ave 0 not had to wrestle with my lotY

=ave 0 not suffered things to %e forgivenYJ +;yron/ KegativeHinterrogative sentences generally have a peculiar nature" There is always an additional shade of meaning implied in themD sometimes dou%t, sometimes assertion, sometimes suggestion" 0n other words they are full of emotive meaning and modality" <e have already stated that rhetorical #uestions may %e loo$ed upon as a transference of grammatical meaning" ;ut Cust as in the case of the transference of lexical meaning the stylistic effect of the transference of grammatical meaning can only %e achieved if there is a simultaneous realiGation of the two meaningsD direct and transferred" So it is with rhetorical #uestions" ;oth the #uestion meaning and the statement meaning are materialiGed with an emotional charge, the weight of which can %e Cudged %y the intonation of the spea$er" The intonation of rhetorical #uestions, according to the most recent investigations, differs materially from the intonation of ordinary #uestions" This is also an additional indirect proof of the dou%le nature of this stylistic device" The nature of the rhetorical #uestion has not %een fully studied and what structural peculiarities cause an ordinary #uestion to turn into a rhetorical one is still to %e discovered" 0n the #uestionHsentence JI# %$e 6))r 6ri*i"e!e to turn the $ey Upon the captive, 7reed)/I? +;yron/ instead of a categorical pronouncement one can detect dou%t" 0t is the word ?poor? that prompts this interpretation of the utterance" ) more detailed analysis of the semantic aspect of different #uestionH sentences leads to the conclusion that these structural models have various functions" Kot only ordinary #uestions, not only categorical pronouncements are expressed in #uestion form" 0n fact there are various nuances of emotive meaning em%odied in #uestionHsentences" <e have already given an example of one of these meanings+ *i1. dou%t" 0n Sha$espeare?s J<ho is here so vile that will not love his countryYJ there is a meaning of challenge openly and une#uivocally declared" 0t is impossi%le to regard it as a rhetorical #uestion ma$ing a categorical pronouncement" 0n the rhetorical #uestion from ;yron?s maiden speech given a%ove +?0s there not %lood"""?/ there is a clear implication of scorn and contempt for Parliament and the laws it passes" So rhetorical #uestions may also %e defined as utterances in the form of #uestions which pronounce Cudgements and also express various $inds of modal shades of meaning as dou%t, challenge, scorn and so on" 0t has %een stated elsewhere that #uestions are more emotional than statements" <hen a #uestion is

repeated as in these lines from Poe?s JThe 1avenDJ JH0s thereH is there %alm in 2ileadYL Tell meH tell meH 0 imploreLHJ the degree of emotiveness increases and the particular shade of meaning +in this case, despair/ %ecomes more apparent" The rhetorical #uestion reHenforces this essential #uality of interrogative sentences and uses it to convey a stronger shade of emotional meaning" 1hetorical #uestions, due to their power of expressing a variety of modal shades of meaning, are most often used in pu%licistic style and particularly in oratory, where the rousing of emotions is the effect generally aimed at" Li%)%e# is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions" The negation plus noun or adCective serves to esta%lish a positive feature in a person or thing" This positive feature, however, is somewhat diminished in #uality as compared with a synonymous expression ma$ing a straightforward assertion of the positive feature" !et us compare the following two pairs of sentencesD ," 0t?s )% a 0ad thing H 0t?s a good thing" [7" =e is no ')?ard H =e is a 0ra*e man" ?Kot %ad? is not e#ual to ?good? although the two constructions are synonymous" The same can %e said a%out the second pair, ?no coward? and ?a %rave man?" 0n %oth cases the negative construction is wea$er than the affirmative one" Still we cannot say that the two negative constructions produce a lesser effect than the corresponding affirmative ones" Moreover, it should %e noted that the negative constructions here have a stronger impact on the reader than the affirmative ones" The latter have no additional connotationI the former have" That is why such constructions are regarded as stylistic devices" !itotes is a deli%erate understatement used to produce a stylistic effect" 0t is not a pure negation, %ut a negation that includes affirmation" Therefore here, as in the case of rhetorical #uestions, we may spea$ of transference of meaning, i"e", a device with the help of which two meanings are materialiGed simultaneouslyD the direct +negative/ and transferred +affirmative/" So the negation in litotes should not %e regarded as a mere denial of the #uality mentioned" The structural aspect of the negative com%ination %ac$s up the semantic aspectD the negatives ) and )% are more emphatically pronounced than in ordinary negative sentences, thus %ringing to mind the corresponding antonym" The stylistic effect of litotes depends mainly on intonation, on intonation only" 0f we compare two intonation patterns, one which suggests a mere denial 2I% i# )% 0ad as a contrary to I% i# 0ad4 with the other which suggests the assertion of a positive #uality of the o%Cect 2I% i# )% 0ad Z i% i#

!))d4 the difference will %ecome apparent" The degree to which litotes carries the positive #uality in itself can %e estimated %y analysing the semantic structure of the word which is negated" !et us examine the following sentences in which litotes is usedD ," J<hatever defects the tale possessedHand they were )% a 7e? H it had, as delivered %y her, the one merit of seeming li$e truth"J 7" J=e was )% ?i%$)-% %a#%e...A 9" J0t trou%led him )% a "i%%"e...A E" J=e found that this was ) ea#& %a#@.A F" J=e was ) !e %"e "a/0+ and the part of second fiddle would never do for the highHpitched dominance of his nature"J +:ac$ !ondon/ 3" JMr" ;ardell was a man of honour H Mr" ;ardell was a man of his wordHMr" ;ardell was no de'ei*er...A +Dic$ens/ ." JShe was wearing a fur coat""" Carr, the enthusiastic appreciator of smart women and as good a Cudge of dress as any man to %e met in a Pall Mall clu%, saw that she was no ')- %r& ')-#i " She had style, or ?devil?, as he preferred to call it"J +<arwic$ Deeping/ Even a superfluous analysis of the litotes in the a%ove sentences clearly shows that the negation does not merely indicate the a%sence of the #uality mentioned %ut suggests the presence of the opposite #uality" Charles ;ally, a wellH$nown Swiss linguist, states that negative sentences are used with the purpose of Jrefusing to affirm"J 0n sentences F, 3 and . where it is explained %y the context, litotes reveals its true function" The idea of ?no gentle lam%? is further strengthened %y the ?highHpitched dominance of his nature?, the litotes ?no deceiver? is clearer and more emphatic %ecause of the preceding phrases ?a man of honour?, ?a man of his word?, and finally the function and meaning of ?no country cousin? is made clear %y ?as good a Cudge of dress"""?, ?she had style"""?" Thus li$e other stylistic devices litotes displays a simultaneous materialiGation of two meaningsD one negative, the other affirmative" This interplay of two grammatical meanings is $eenly felt, so much so indeed, that the affirmation suppresses the negation, the latter %eing only the form in which the real pronouncement is moulded" )ccording to the science? of logic, negation as a category can hardly express a pronouncement" >nly an assertion can do so" That is why we may say that any negation only suggests an assertion" !itotes is a means %y which this natural logical and linguistic property of negation can %e strengthened" The two senses of the litotic expression, negative and positive, serve a definite stylistic purpose" ) variant of litotes is a construction with two negations, as in )% - "i@e+ r)% - 6r)/i#i !+ )% di#6"ea#ed and the li$e" =ere, according to general logical and mathematical principles, two negatives ma$e a positive" Thus in the sentence H JSoames, with his lips and his s#uared chin was not unli$e a %ull dogJ

+2alsworthy/, the litotes may %e interpreted as somewhat resem%ling" 0n spite of the fact that such constructions ma$e the assertion more logically apparent, they lac$ precision" They may truly %e regarded as deli%erate understatements, whereas the pattern structure of litotes, i"e" those that have only one negative are much more categorical in stating the positive #uality of a person or thing" )n interesting Cest at the expense ot an English statesman who overHused the device of dou%le negation was pu%lished in the S6e'%a%)r" =ere it isD J)nyway, as the preH<hitsun dogHdays %ar$ed themselves into silence, a good deal of pleasure could %e o%tained %y a connoisseur who $new where to see$ it" >n Monday, for instance, from Mr" Selwyn !loyd" =is tric$ of seiGing upon a phrase that has struc$ him +erroneously, as a rule/ as a happy one, and doggedly stic$ing to it thereafter is one typical of a spea$er who lac$s all confidence" >n Monday it was ?not unpromising?I three times he declared that various aspects of the Summit preparations were ?not unpromising?, and 0 was moved in the end to conclude that Mr" !loyd is a not unpoor oreign Secretary, and that if he should not unshortly leave that office the not un%etter it would %e for all of us, not unhim included"J !itotes is used in different styles of speech, excluding those, which may %e called the matterHofHfact styles, li$e official style and scientific prose" 0n poetry it is sometimes used to suggest that language fails to ade#uately convey the poet?s feelings and therefore he uses negations to express the inexpressi%le" Sha$espeare?s Sonnet Ko" ,98 is to some extent illustrative in this respect" =ere all the hac$neyed phrases used %y the poet to depict his %eloved are negated with the purpose of showing the superiority of the earthly #ualities of JMy mistress"J The first line of this sonnet ?My mistress? eyes are nothing li$e the sun? is a clearHcut litotes although the o%Cect to which the eyes are compared is generally perceived as having only positive #ualities" The analysis of the semantic structure of words that can %e used in litotes is an interesting study, which still awaits investigators" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9+ 66.2EK(25<4.

STYLISTICS AND GRAMMATICAL MORPHOLOGY. Each grammatical form possesses one or more categorial forms" ) grammatical category consists of two or more categorical forms, one of which is mar$ed" The mar$ed mem%er of the opposition is expressive, metasemiotically charged in

comparison with the unmar$ed ones" Thus, the same categorial form may express %oth a categorial and a metasemiotic meaning" The word in the given grammatical form may have a morphologic or syntactic meaning, or %oth, an additional inherent or adherent stylistic connotation of the given lexeme" ;oth the lexical and grammatical stylistic connotation may or may not %e intensified %y prosodic means" Nuite a num%er of grammatical forms turn out to %e metasemiotic, polysemantic, synonymous, homonymous and even antonymous" Thus, the category of mood in modern 1omanian and English could %e reinterpreted, %ecause the present classifications are somewhat confusing" The difference in case of various moods is not only one of modality, it is also one of style" 0f we ta$e the conCunctive +conCunctivul/ in 1omanian, we discover that it has a multitude of su%meanings, +most of them %eing stylistically coloured/ its grammatical form is polyfunctional and can correspond to the English indicative, su%Cunctive 0, su%Cunctive 00, suppositional, infinitive in %oth perfect and nonHperfect formsD ,/ Su%Cunctive 0 +>ld Su%Cunctive4. L) ! "i*e de/)'ra'&D 2S,4 %raia#', de/)'ra3iaD I i #i#% %$a% $e ')/e. E- i #i#% 'a e" #, *i ,. I% i# e'e##ar& %$a% $e 0e 2')/e4 $ere i %i/e. E e'e#ar 'a e" #, 7ie 2*i ,4 ai'i "a %i/6. 7/ Su%Cunctive 00D I7 I ?ere &)-. S, 7i- 2Zda', a[ 7i4 \ ")'-" d-/i%a"e... I7 I $ad $ad %i/e &e#%erda&... S, 7i a*-% 2Zda', a[ 7i a*-%Rda', a*ea/4 %i/6 ieri... I ?i#$ I $ad "i*ed %$e . A[ d)ri 2d)re#'4 #, 7i %r,i% a%- 'i. 9/ 1egularly su%stituting the infinitive in 1omanianD T$e& 6r)/i#ed %) %a@e $i/ $)/e. Ei a6r)/i# #,(" d-', a'a#,. He /-#% $a*e ')/e i %i/e. E" %re0-ie #, 7i *e i% "a %i/6. E*e a '$i"d ')-"d - der#%a d+ i - ')6i" 6-%ea #, \ 3e"ea!,. T) 0e"ie*e /e 'a6a0"e )7 #)/e%$i ! "i@e %$a%D S, /, 'read, 'a6a0i" de a[a 'e*aD E/ uture tenseD J$a% #$a"" I d)I Ce #, 7a'I He ?i"" ')/e i %i/e. E" are #, *i , "a %i/6G F/ To express supposition, including the meanings of suppositional moodD +supposition, necessity, order, command, insistence /" Mi!$% $e $a*e 0ee $ereI S, 7i 7)#% e" ai'iIG He /I!$% $a*e 0ee %$ere. E" ar 7i 6-%-% #, 7ie a')"). Ha*e I ")#% i% ) /& ?a& $)/eI S,(" 7i 6ierd-% \ dr-/ #6re 'a#,I I i #i#% 2)rder4 %$a% $e #$)-"d 0e 6re1e %. E- i #i#% 2)rd) 4 'a e" #, 7ie 6re1e %. I% i# e'e##ar& %$a% $e #$)-"d 0e $ere. E e'e#ar 'a e" #, 7ie ai'i. 3"Present indefinite indicative moodD D) L% &)- ?)rr&+ /)%$erD S, - %e e"i i[%e[%i+ /a/,D D) )% d)-0%D S, - %e \ d)ie[%iD Le%B# #i% a d %a"@. S, [ede/ [i #, *)r0i/. There is no dou%t that conCunctivul cannot %e considered a grammatical form expressing one

categorial mood form" 0t can %e used in different moods and functions, #%&"i#%i'a""& e-%ra" )r+ i /)#% 'a#e#+ #%&"i#%i'a""& ')")-red 2e#6e'ia""& i %$e )0"i8-e /))d#4. Most surprising is the fact that condimionalul and optativul may %e expressed in 1omanian %y several #%&"i#%i'a""& di77ere % !ra//a%i'a" 7)r/# , which are polyfunctional and formally %elong to three moodsD AI7 I $ad $ad %i/e I 2#$)-"d4 ?)-"d $a*e ')/e %) $e"6 &)- &e#%erda&A ( Da', a*ea/ %i/6+ *e ea/ #, %e aH-% ieriG +imperfectul modal in %oth cases is #%&"i#%i'a""& ')")-red/I Da', a[ 7i a*-% %i/6 a[ 7i *e i% #, %e aH-% ieriG 2)6%a%i*e )r #-0H- '%-i*e II+ a d ') di%i) a"4G S, 7i a*-% %i/6 a[ 7i *e i% 2)r *e ea/4 #, %e aH-% ieri +conCunctivul in the secondary clause/" YHad $ad %i/eX here may expresses an anterior unreal action in the future, past and to a present moment and is different from a similar form used in the indicative mood used to express anteriority in the past and future in the past +in clauses of time and condition/" Past conditional +perfect form/ has several homonymous formsD suppositional mood +in the first person/, future perfect in the past indicative mood, the modals &should' and &would' plus perfect infinitive" Thus, for exampleD He ?)-"d $a*e ')/e+ 0-% $e $ad ) %i/eG I #$)-"d $a*e read %$e 0))@ 0-% I ')-"d )% 7i d i%G I #$)-"d $a*e ')/e ear"ierG He 6r)6/i#ed %$a% $e ?)-"d $a*e ')/e 0e7)re %$e 0e!i i ! )7 %$e /ee%i !. The nonHperfect forms can also possess homonymous and synonymous forms stylistically chargedD ,/ Present su%Cunctive 00 in English is homonynous to the forms of past indefinite and past continuous indicative moodD I ?i#$ I ?ere i L) d) )? W A[ d)ri #, 7i- \ L) dra a'-/R De a[ 7i \ L) dra a'-/G I7 I ?ere ?a"@i ! i %$e 6ar@ )? I #$)-"d e H)& i% W Da', /( a[ 6"i/0a \ 6ar' a'-/ /i(ar 7a'e 6",'ere. 7/ Conditional mood +nonHperfect forms/ is identical to the nonHperfect forms of future in the past, suppositional, and modal ver%s &should' and &would' plus the nonHperfect infinitive" C)/6ari ! %$e #e %e 'e# i %$e i di'a%i*e a d %$e )0"i8-e /))d# ?e ')/e %) %$e ') '"-#i) %$a% %$e "a%%er 6)##e## a '"ear('-% #%&"i#%i' ') )%a%i) . Thus, for example the sentences &0 am not at home now" 0 want to %e at home now' are less expressive than &0 wish 0 were at home now" 0f 0 were at home now'" There is a very interesting o%servation concerning the polyfunctionality of the 1omanian +usually called &reflexive'/ particle &se' and the 1ussian flexion &Hno', which have %oth turned out to express not only reflexive meanings" They are also used to express passive continuous actions in collo#uial 1ussian and 1omanian" Thus, regular confrontation of examples allows us to conclude that the English

continuous forms are regularly translated %y means of ver%s with the particle &se' in 1omanian and flexion &Hno', in 1ussian, the reflexive particle and flexion are usually used to express a reflexive action %ut in this case they are used homonymously to express unfinished +continuous or durative/ actions in the passive voice possessing a considera%le #%&"i#%i' e56re##i*i%&" !et?s ta$e some examplesD OThe house is %eing %uilt nowX, &The house was %eing %uilt when we arrived there', &The house will %e %uilt this time next year' ^ YCa#a #e ') #%r-ie[%e a'-/ 2Ca#a e#%e ') #%r-i%, a'-/4+ YCa#a #e ') #%r-ia 2era ') #%r-i%,4 '] d a/ #)#i% a')")X+ YCa#a #e *a ') #%r-i 2*a 7i ') #%r-i%,4 6e %i/6-" a'e#%a a -" *ii%)rX ( ^_`a bcd`ecbf bghijbk. ^_`a bcd`elf+ m`noj ap qdegrsjle ctojk+ ^_`a utogc bcd`ecbf v wc` vdgaf v blgotxyga n`otX. The reflexive particle and flexion here is completely synonymous with the meanings of passive voice of imperfective +durative/ actions" 0n the English literary language there is no continuous aspect in the passive voice in the future, %ecause %oth categorial forms are used with the ver% &to %e' and it is not accepta%le in the literary English to sayD &The house will %e %eing %uilt', which can %e found only in dialects" ;oth in 1omanian and 1ussian future continuity is expressedD Y#e *a ') #%r-iX+ Yutogc bcd`ecbfk. YVa 7i ') #%r-i%,X usually represents a perfective action" <e should mention here that the a%ove mentioned particle OHseX and the flexion &Hno' in the reflexive meaning are used lexicoH grammatically, ?$i"e i %$e 6a##i*e ') %i -)-# 2i/6er7e'%i*e4 %$e& 0e')/e 6-re"& !ra//a%i'a" 7)r/# a d 6)##e## #%&"i#%i' e56re##i*i%&. The English reflexive pronouns have developed homonymous #%&"i#%i'a""& e/6$a%i' 7)r/# li$e in the examplesD I #a? $i/ /&#e"7G T$e& did %$e ?)r@ %$e/#e"*e#. Metasemiotic transposition is found in %oth English and 1omanian" Thus, the 1omanian preGumptivul expresses #upposition, dou%t, pro%a%ility +all these modal meanings are stylistically mar$ed/ and this categorial form can %e expressed %y such forms li$eD simple future, future continuous, future perfect, conditional, optative and conCunctive 0n %oth continuous and nonHcontinuous forms" 0n fact here we have a whole system of progressive forms that are part of the category of aspect in 1omanian, though practically very rarely used in direct moods, they are more often used in the o%li#ue moods ?i%$ a /e%a#e/i)%i' ') )%a%i) " Here ?e )7%e $a*e a 'a#e )7 /e%a#e/i)%i' %ra #6)#%i) "i@e i %$e E !"i#$ "a !-a!e+ ?$ere a#6e'% 'a 0e /e%a#e/i)%i'a""& -#ed )% i i%# -#-a" ?a&+ 0-% i a ?a& %$a% ?i"" 6r)*ide addi%i) a" )*er%) e#. e56re##i*e+ e*a"-a%i*e+ e/)%i) a"+

modal, etc" or example . AHe i# "ea*i ! %)/)rr)?A. AAre &)- ')/i ! ) S- da&IA 0n these two forms the aspectual and tense categorial meanings are used to express a stylistic connotation, the future action %eing expressed purely lexically +tomorrow, on Sunday/" 0n the case of 1omanian preGumptivul we have almost a complete metasemiotic transposition of future continuous and future perfect +%oth forms are extremely rarely used to express future actions in the indicative/ into a relatively new mood JpreGumptivulJ" Partially transposed are the forms of simple future, conCunctive continuous and nonHcontinuous, conditional and optative continuous and nonHcontinuous" T$e 'a%e!)r& )7 a#6e'% i %$e E !"i#$ "a !-a!e i# i a 6r)'e## )7 %ra #i%i) 7r)/ a !ra//a%i'a" %) a #%&"i#%i' 'a%e!)r&. 0n most cases it is used expressively or even completely transposed" 0n the examplesD a/ I "))@ed )-% )7 %$e ?i d)?. A /a ?a# #%a di ! a% %$e d))r. 04 I "))@ed )-% )7 %$e ?i d)?. A /a #%))d a% %$e d))r. ;oth actions in English express an imperfective + durative or progressive/ action" The difference %etween them is a stylistic one" Ja# #%a di ! expresses a durative action %oth lexically and grammatically and %y com%ining them we achieve a stylistic effect" This form is more expressive and emotional" T$e 'a%e!)ria" 7)r/# )7 6re#e % %e #e can serve as an example of metasemiotic transposistion" 0n various manuals we usually find an explanation that the present tense can %e used to express past and future actions" <hat we really have is the metasemiotic or stylistic use of present tense forms to descri%e a past or future action, 7)r 'er%ai e/)%i) a"(e56re##i*e )r e*a"-a%i*e 6-r6)#e#+ %) e56re## *i*a'i%& a d d& a/i#/ )7 %$e a'%i) + as if deployed in the spea$er?s mind at the moment of speech" 0n this case the categorial forms of past and future are expressed purely lexically or contextually" Thus, for exampleD JMesterday 0 was reading in the lounge" Suddenly )nn ')/e# in, #i%# on the sofa and #%ar%# %) 'r&J" &Kext wee$ I a/ "ea*i ! +leave/ for Paris"' The ver%s expressing mental perception and feeling can %e /e%a#e/i)%i'a""& used in the continuous aspectI the same is true in the case of the usage of progressive forms with words a"?a&#+ )7%e + #e"d)/+ !e era""&+ ') #%a %"&+ 6er/a e %"&+ etc" )s a case of /e%a#e/i)%i' )r #%&"i#%i' %ra #6)#i%i) can serve the use of conditional mood forms to expressD a/ an unreal action the fulfillment of which depends on an unreal conditionI %/ an action, which is not contrary to reality and expressing politeness, interest, indirect re#uest, etc" or example . I #$)-"d ea% a a66"e i7 I $ad a &. 2- rea" ') di%i) 4G L))@D Y)- $a*e a66"e#D I #$)-"d ea% ) eD 2i dire'% 6)"i%e

re8-e#%4G C)-"d I $e"6 Y)-I C)-"d &)- $e"6 /eI A3i 6-%ea #, /, aH-%a3iI 26)"i%e re8-e#%4. The category of e!a%i) Ra77ir/a%i) usually influences the realiGation of a categorial form" Thus, the continuous aspect used in the negative forms may %e considered as a failure to realiGe the mar$ed aspectual meaning" !etds ta$e some examplesD YI ?a# ?)r@i ! i %$e !arde XRXI ?a# )% ?)r@i ! i %$e !arde XG YI ?a# readi ! a 0))@XRXI ?a# )% readi ! a 0))@X The stylistically charged positive forms indicate that the actions 2I ?a# ?)r@i !G I ?a# readi !G are %eing carried out at the moment" The negative forms, on the other hand, stress the fact that the given actions are not %eing carried out" 0n fact the continuous aspect is realiGed in %oth cases and thus, %oth forms possess a stylistic connotation" 0n the negative forms we stress the fact, that ?e ?ere )% ?)r@i ! i %$e !arde )r readi ! a 0))@+ 0-% ?e ?ere d)i ! #)/e%$i ! e"#e+ for exampleD YI ?a# )% ?)r@i ! i %$e !arde + I ?a# ?a"@i ! i %$e !arde X+ YI ?a# )% readi ! a 0))@+ I ?a# ?ri%i ! a "e%%erX. 0n %oth cases there is an aspectual expressive meaning of actions developing in time at the given moment" ;ut we can find #uite a different relation %etween various categorial forms in what the category of negation\affirmation is concerned" Thus, for example, in the category of mood, negation in a categorial form is opposed to a positive form in another one, in %oth cases the same lexical information is practically expressed the difference again is one of style and modality" or instanceD YI7 &)- $ad ')/e 2$ad &)- ')/e4 &e#%erda& &)- ?)-"d $a*e /e% $i/XR YY)- did )% ')/e &e#%erda& a d &)did )% /ee% $i/XG YI7 &)- $ad )% ')/e 2$ad L% &)- ')/e4 &e#%erda& &)?)-"d )% $a*e /e% $i/XRXY)- 'a/e &e#%erda& a d &)- /e% $i/ RXAi *e i% ieri [i "(ai *,1-% 6e d] #-"X4G YI ?i#$ I $ad %i/e )?XRXA 6i%& I d) L% $a*e %i/e )?X. 0n each opposition of sentences expressing real\unreal actions +indicative\su%Cunctive 00, conditional/ we have the same lexical meaning, the difference is detected on the metasemiotic level, the o%li#ue moods expressing a stylistically coloured meaning of modality in relation to the indicative neutral modality" >f considera%le importance is the phenomenon of transition of grammatical categories into lexicalHgrammatical or lexical ones and simplification of redundant forms" The category of gender in English and the category of anteriority +taxis/ in 1ussian can serve as an example of a complete transition" Taxis in English +li$e in many European languages/ is in the process of a similar transition" Perfect forms in

modern English and 1omanian are variously interpreted, as expressing anteriority, a complete action, a result, as a tense form, time relation" ;ut more and more linguists consider anteriority to %e the main categorlal meaning of finite and nonH finite perfect forms" This difference is most clearly o%served when we compare the perfect future with the usual past indefinite, as in for exampleD AHe ?i"" $a*e 7i i#$ed readi ! %$e 0))@ 0& 90 )B'")'@ and AHe 7i i#$ed %) read %$e 0))@. The meaning of past is clearly expressed in %oth cases, %ut in the former the past is referred to a certain moment, which is conceived with respect to future, while with past indefinite it is simply the relationship %etween the action and the moment of spea$ing" Thus, anteriority or perfectivity is the meaning of an action, which precedes another action or moment on the time axis" 0t should %e mentioned here that the means of expressing future anteriority in %oth languages slightly differ" 0n %oth languages future anteriority is expressed here %oth grammatically and lexically" <hen %oth the means are expressed we can spea$ of a e/6$a%i' -#e )7 a %eri)ri%&. The use of grammatical anteriority +perfect/ forms is used %y some writers as a #%&"i#%i' /ea # )7 de#'ri0i ! ') #er*a%i*e )r 6eda %i' 6er#) #. This can %e seen in )" Christieds wor$s, where the use of future perfect forms is purely stylistic" 0n this connection we should pay attention to the phenomenon of $&6er!ra//a%i'a"i%& 2)r $&6er')rre'% e##4 )r a0-#e )7 !ra//ar while analysing the English language or confronting grammatical systems of different languages" )%use of grammar may %e of two $indsD a/ The spea$er turns to some very complex and artificial complex structures, %ecause he thin$s that they are more literary and will ena%le him to appear as a highly educated man" This is a $ind of stylistically coloured hypergrammaticality, which we meet specially fre#uently in documents and in some varieties of Cournalese, etc" %/ The formation of complex artificial grammatical forms and structures may depend on metasemiotic factors, on a desire to a'$ie*e a #6e'i7i' #%&"i#%i' e77e'% " The results of scientific a%straction must %e verified %y the actual functioning of the system, the researcher always %earing in mind that language is in a state of constant change" This is especially important when we confront related and unrelated languages" The study of grammar, the attempts to normaliGe grammatical usage, the study of the new tendencies and systematic confrontation of these with those falling into disuse, re#uires a much more serious scientific generaliGation on the su%Cect than has %een done so far" <e should $eep in mind that categories come first as primary entities" Tal$ing a%out categories we always have to ta$e into

consideration the fact that the reality of human communication is primary, the most important element" <e can spea$ of a lexical category only if we find identity of stem and the utter impossi%ility of a simultaneous realiGation of all categorial forms of the given opposition" >therwise stated, in actual enunciations or utterances only one of the two or more categorial forms can %e realiGed" <e should also mention the fact that morphological studies should %e initiated with the mar$ed mem%er of any opposition" Thus, in case of the category of taxis we should start with the perfect forms" The morphologicalHgrammatical forms can %e studied on two levels ,/ the semantic level, where, for example, the present tense forms express actions which include the moment of spea$ing, and 7/ %$e /e%a#e/i)%i' "e*e"+ where present tense forms are used to denote an action which clearly does not include the moment of spea$ing" The process of transition of some grammatical categories into lexical ones is %eing o%served in the confronted languages" )s a good example of hypergrammaticality we can ta$e the future perfect forms in English, and 1omanian" <hen we investigate the material we still come across examples of uture perfect in all the confronted languages" Thus, for exampleD future perfect^ viitorul anteriorD 9. Y)-L"" arri*e e5% da& a7%er ?e #$a"" $a*e 6re6ared %$e ?a&. V)i *e3i aH- !e a d)-a 1i+ d-6, 'e )i *)/ 7i 6re!,%i% 'a"ea. 2.Y)- ?i"" $a*e re7-#ed ) 'e a!ai . Ve3i 7i re7-1a% \ ', ) da%,. 0n all these examples we have complete coincidence" ;ut we should always remem%er the fact that grammatical future anteriority is getting out of usage" 0n English and 1omanian" The future perfect forms here posses a stylistic colouring in comparison with simple future" 0n order to verify the tendency in Modern English to su%stitute perfect forms in the spo$en language %y using simple forms a num%er of examples were ta$en and given to students to %e translated from 1ussian into 1omanian" The maCority of examples had lexical or contextual mar$ers of anteriority" Most of the students translated the examples using simple nonHperfect future formsD z m`{|t bgagbcdj ap vptiea a{`n` {`vp} bl`v e vpdjsg{ehG S6re #7]r[i%-" a -"-i )i *)/ #%-dia /-"%e '-*i %e [i e56re#ii )iG ~p rjm`{iea wct dju`ct m m`{|t {gogleG N)i *)/ %er/i a "-'r-" a'e#%a #6re #7]r[i% de #,6%,/] ,G ~p rjm`{iea wc`c tigu{em m m`{|t n`ojG N)i *)/ %er/i a /a -a"-" a'e#%a #6re #7]r[i% de a G {j vbg rjutogc m c`at vdgag{eG Ea *a -i%a %)%-" 6] , a%- 'iG { {jqegc wct bcjcx o` c`n`+ mjm tgogcG E" *a #'rie a'e#% ar%i')" \ ai %e de a 6"e'a. The 1omanian and 1ussian e#uivalents were given to a different group of students to translate them into English" Those students, who

were not familiar with the fact that future perfect is rarely used in Modern English, regularly used grammatical perfect forms in nearly all the given examplesD Je #$a"" $a*e "ear ed /a & e? ?)rd# a d e56re##i) # 0& %$e e d )7 %$e &earG Je #$a"" $a*e 7i i#$ed %$i# ?)r@ 0& %$e e d )7 %$e ?ee@G S$e ?i"" $a*e 7)r!)%%e e*er&%$i ! 0& %$a% %i/eG Je #$a"" $a*e 7i i#$ed %$i# %e5%(0))@ 0& %$e e d )7 %$e &earG He ?i"" $a*e ?ri%%e %$i# ar%i'"e 0e7)re $e "ea*e#. The English native spea$ers usually prefer simple nonHperfect forms in the given situations" 0n a third group the students were as$ed to translate the a%ove given English examples with future perfect into 1omanian" =ere we had two su%groups" 0n the first su%group the teacher stressed the fact that similar forms exist in 1omanian as well +viitorul anterior/" ) num%er of students did not hesitate to use grammatical future anteriority in 1omanian +in spite of the fact that it is very rarely used/D S6re #7]r[i%-" a -"-i )i *)/ 7i #%-dia% /-"%e '-*i %e [i e56re#ii )i. N)i *)/ 7i %er/i a% "-'r-" a'e#%a #6re #7]r[i% de #,6%,/] ,. Ea *a 7i -i%a% %)%-" 6] , a%- 'i. N)i *)/ 7i %er/i a% a'e#% /a -a" #6re #7]r[i% de a . E" *a 7i #'ri# ar%i')"-" a'e#%a \ ai %e de a 6"e'a. 0n the second su%group nothing was said a%out *ii%)r-" a %eri)r" =ere the students in the maCority of cases used simple grammatical future forms, su%stituting grammatical anteriority with the lexical one" 0n the history of separate languages the %orderline %etween past tense and those formations which are similar in their grammatical meaning to the present +and perfect in some languages/ was not only shifted in the course of time, %ut even tended to %e o%literated or effaced altogether" Thus, in the 2ermanic languages the old perfect was confounded with the aorist, and thus ac#uired the meaning of past" 0n 1ussian the >ld Slavonic analytical perfect had ousted the old imperfect aorist, the rench 6a##i #i/6"e and the 1omanian 6er7e'%-" #i/6"- lost their perfect meaning and now express a simple past action" +The rench 6a##i #i/6"e and the 1omanian 6er7e'%-" #i/6"- are stylistically limited and different from the English past indefinite/" These forms were replaced %y analytical perfects +passi composi and perfectul compus/, which in their turn now are losing their anteriority meanings" There is now a general tendency for the perfect forms to %e replaced %y nonHperfect ones, especially in the spo$en language" Thus, in English, we can also o%serve a rapprochement of present perfect and past indefinite, especially in the )merican English, where the process is more advanced" 0n this connection we can conclude that the perfect\nonHperfect opposition +especially present perfect\past indefinite in English, passi composi\ passi simple in rench and perfectul

compus\ perfectul simplu in 1omanian/ is developing in a direction where there is a transition of a grammatical category in a stylistic one, i"e" a new category is raising its head, the category of stylistics" Thus, in 1omanian perfectul simplu is very rarely used in the spo$en language, where it is completely replaced %y perfectul compus" Perfectul simplu is used in fiction literature and is never used in scientific literature" +Perfectul compus is also used now to su%stitute in collo#vial speech the 1omanian pluscvamperfectul and sometimes even imperfectul/" T$-#+ %$i# !ra//a%i'a" )66)#i%i) i# !rad-a""& ')/i ! %) e56re## #)/e%$i ! di77ere %+ a /e%a#e/i)%i' )r #%&"i#%i' )66)#i%i) . Perfectul compus in 1omanian can %e used to express future anteriority only in case of stylistic +metasemiotic/ transposition, to show that the action in the future as if has practically %een carried out, there should %e no dou%t a%out it %eing carried out in time" or example, AA# #)) a# I $a*e read %$e 0))@ I #$a"" re%-r i% %) %$e "i0rar&. 0n 1omanian, in this case, we can have three variantsD 94 C-/ -/ai *)i 7i 'i%i% 'ar%ea *)i i %)ar'e() 2a/ #() i %)r'+ *)i \ %)ar'e()4 "a 0i0"i)%e', 27-%-re 6er7e'% rare"& -#ed4G 24 C-/ -/ai a/ 'i%i% 'ar%ea *)i \ %)ar'e() 2a/ #, ) i %)r'4 "a 0i0"i)%e', +in %oth clauses perfectul compus and simple present are -#ed #%&"i#%i'a""&/" ;ut in neutral situations simple future is used in %oth clausesD C-/ -/ai *)i 'i%i 'ar%ea *)i i %)ar'e() "a 0i0"i)%e',. Spea$ing of past perfect form we should mention that it can express the following meanings in EnglishD ,/ 0n the indicative moodD a/ past anteriority +an action anterior to another action or moment in the past/D J$e I 'a/e $)/e $e $ad 2a"read&4 !) e. %/ future anteriority in the pastD He 6r)/i#ed %) re%-r %$e 0))@ a# #)) a# $e $ad read i%. 7/ Unreal optative meaning, or condition, or %oth in the past su%Cunctive 00 express a #%&"i#%i'a""& ')")-red /)da"i%&. 0n this case the form of past perfect is not limited to anterior actions in the past or anterior actions in the future from a moment in the past +in clauses of time and condition/" 0t is used to express any anterior action to the moment of speech in the past, present or future" !et us adduce some examplesD He #aid #$e $ad ')/e i %i/e +past perfect indicative4G He #aid $e ?)-"d $a*e ')/e ear"ier i7 $e $ad @ )? +su%Cunctive 00, anteriority to a past action 4G I7 #$e $ad ')/e i %i/e &e#%erda& &)- ?)-"d $a*e #ee $er +su%Cunctive 00, anteriority to the present moment of speech 4G I @ e? $e ?)-"d #a& %$a% $e ?)-"d $a*e ')/e i7 $e $ad @ )? +su%Cunctive 00, future anteriority in the past4G S$e %$i @# $e ?i"" #a& %$a% $e ?)-"d $a*e ')/e i7 $e $ad @ )? +su%Cunctive 00, future anteriority from the present moment/" The Modern

English present perfect represents a stylistically mar$ed mem%er of the opposition in comparison with simple past actions, which are not connected with the present moment" 0n )merican spo$en English there is a tendency of rapprochment of present perfect in the second meaning and past indefinite and the former is often su%stituted %y the latterD Did &)- e*er !) %) Pari#I Did $e arri*e &e%I He e*er read %$i# 0))@. )nteriority in this case is expressed lexically and these forms stylistically are still different from such examples asD Did &)- !) %) Pari# "a#% &earI Did $e arri*e i %i/e &e#%erda&I He did )% read %$i# 0))@ ?$e $e ?a# a% #'$))". 0n the ;ritish Standard English present perfect differs regularly from past indefinite in all the meanings" There is a tendency of regulation and simplification of categorial and redundant grammatical forms" Thus, the grammatical anteriority can %e regarded as a pedanticism, for in situations of ordinary everyday speech it is very easy to do without it, and express the same categorial meaning lexically or contextually" There is a clearHcut tendency of transition of some grammatical categories to stylistic, lexicalHgrammatical or lexical ones" T$e 'a%e!)r& )7 ')/6ari#) has historically changed" The reduction of the morphological paradigm in English led to the o%literation of the grammatical categories of gender, num%er and case" The mar$ed and unmar$ed categorial forms of positive, comparative and superlative degrees are expressed in English synthetically, analytically and suppletively" =istorically the synthetic forms were used in >ld English and the analytical ones appeared as a system in the Middle English, when the periphrastic comparative forms, only occasionally used in >ld English, %egan to %e su%stituted +under rench influence/ %y analytical forms ?i%$ /a+ /). /are+ /)re+ /a#%+ /)#%, which were used %oth with English and rench adCectives, with monosylla%les and disylla%les, as well as with polysylla%les" The preference of these over synthetic forms is i #)/e 'a#e# #%&"i#%i'. The category of comparison consists of three categorical formsD the positive or unmar$ed form +stylistically neutral/ and the mar$ed forms ^ comparative and superlative grammatical forms, which correspondingly possess a certain metasemiotic connotation, even in cases of adCectives without an inherent stylistic connotation" Usually grammar %oo$s say that #ualitative adCectives can form the degrees of comparison and the relative ones do not" This is not always the case" ThusD adCectives with the suffix ^ish +reddish/, with a negative meaning +li$e impossi%le/, a num%er of adCectives possessing an inherent stylistic connotation,

which mainly %elong to a superlative meaning 2e5'"-#i*e+ a0#)"-%e+ e5%re/e+ 6ri 'i6a"+ '$ie7+ - i8-e+ #-6eri)r+ i 7eri)r+ ')/6"e%e+ etc"/ ;ut even these adCective can %e used with i %e #i7ier# to express a certain ine#ualityD 7ar #-6eri)r+ /-'$ /)re #-6eri)r+ *er& /-'$ #-6eri)r+ "e## #-6eri)r+ /-'$ "e## #-6eri)r+ "ea#% #-6eri)r. Even those adCectives that do not form the degrees of comparison, %elong to the positive degree and can in some cases %e used 7)r #%&"i#%i' 6-r6)#e# to form a comparative degreeD Y)- 'a )% 0e deader %$a dead. He ?a# %$e deade#% )7 %$e/ a"". Y)- are )% "e## dead %$a $e i# " 0n some cases relative adCectives ac#uire an additional connotation and can form the degrees of comparisonD T$e "i7e %$ere $ad 0ee /)re E !"i#$ %$a i E !"a d. 2A"drid!e4 C)$ i# /)re E !"i#$ %$a %$e E !"i#$. C)$ i# *er& E !"i#$. 2S?a 4 He i# E !"i#$ %) %$e 0a'@0) e. He $a# *er& "i%%"e E !"i#$ i $i/ a d &)- $a*e e*e "e##. 0n all these examples we really detect a difference or variation of #uality and style within the same adCective" Nualitative adCectives express various #ualities within the same adCective defining a certain o%Cect or phenomenon" Thus, varying and static #uality could %e considered as an opposition" 0n this respect we should mention ;lo$hds division of adCectives into Ye*a"-a%i*eX and &specific' +See &) Course in Theoretical English 2rammar'/" >ne and the same adCective can %e used either in the e*a"-a%i*e or in the specificative function" )s an example he gives the adCective !))d+ which is %asically #ualitative +goodH%etterHthe %est/, %ut when used as part of a mar$ing scale together with the grading terms 0ad+ #a%i#7a'%)r&+ e5'e""e % it ac#uires a static or &specificative' function" >n the other hand, the whole grading system here 20ad(#a%i#7a'%)r&(!))d(e5'e""e %4 could %e considered as a paradigm of lexical degrees of comparison" )ll the adCectives, which can form degrees of comparison either lexically or grammatically +the synthetic forms/ can vary their #uality or %e Ye*a"-a%i*eX 2i.e. #%&"i#%i'a""& ')")-red4. There are #uite a num%er of idioms +a"" %$e/ 6)##e## a i $ere % #%&"i#%i' ') )%a%i) 4 , where the comparative of e#uality is used +though in many cases the meaning of superlative is implied/D a# 0-#& a# a 0ee 2*er& 0-#&4 W $ar i' 'a a"0i a 27)ar%e $ar i'4 0n such cases we o%serve a com%ination of stylistic connotations of lexical units and their grammatical categorical meanings The comparative degree of superiority shows that the o%Cect or phenomenon has a higher degree of #uality in comparison with those, which are compared" 0ntensifiers are often used to increase the variation on the comparative degree level and produce a stronger stylistic effectD T$i# i#

/-'$ 0e%%erG T$i# i# /-'$ /)re 0e%%erG T$i# i# 7ar 0e%%erG T$i# i# 0e%%er 0& 7arG T$i# i# ') #idera0"& 0e%%er. T$e 6er7)r/a 'e 0e'a/e /)re a d /)re %$ri""i !G T$e ?a%er ?a# dee6er a d dee6er 2re6e%i%i) #4. E*er !rea%er #-''e## $a*e 0ee a'$ie*ed. T$e /)re "ea#-re $e $a#+ %$e $a66ier $e i#. (ery often the usual intensifiers are further intensified %y other contextual lexical meansD i/i' \ "-/e Z )%$i ! i %$e ?)r"d. (ery often the second element of the comparison of superiority or inferiority is omitted %ecause of contextual redundancyD A /)re di77i'-"% a d da !er)-# %a#@ re/ai ed. Y)- ?) L% 7i d 0e%%er e5a/6"e#. T$e !ir" ?a# !e%%i ! /)re a d /)re 0ea-%i7-". The superlative degree esta%lishes that an o%Cect or phenomenon possesses a #uality and stylistic connotation in the intensifiers are often used to increase the stylistic meaningD Y)- are a *er& !))d '$i"d W Y)- are a e5%re/e"& !))d '$i"d W Y)- are a *er& !))d '$i"d i deed W Y)- "))@ %)) !))d. Add& a d E""ie "))@ 0ea-%i7-" e )-!$ %) 6"ea#e %$e /)#% 7a#%idi)-# /a . 2S$a?4 He #aid )7 $i/ %$a% $e ?a# %)) #eri)-#. 2Drei#er4 Fe 8-i'@ )r i% /a& 0e %)) "a%e. 2Di'@e #4 He i# a?7-""& i'e. S$e i# e5%ra)rdi ari"& 2e5%re/e"&+ %erri0"&+ e%'.4 '"e*er. T$-#+ /)#% )7 %$e i %e #i7ier# are )% ) "& -#ed %) i %e #i7& %$e de!ree )7 *aria%i) )7 %$e e8-a"i%& 0-% %$e& are a"#) -#ed /e%a#e/i)%i'a""&+ %) 6r)d-'e a #%&"i#%i' e77e'%. 0n this case grammatical and especially the lexical means are widely supported %y prosodic meansD O$+ #$e i# !")ri)-#D 0n addition to the lexical superlative expressed %y &glorious' the prosodic elements that should %e used here considera%ly intensify the degree of a%solute superlative %oth semiotically and metasemioticallyD the adCective &glorious' is pronounced in a loud voice +increased loudness/, slowed down tempo, wide range, high falling tone ^ all these prosodic elements are characteristic of highly emotional, emphatic speech" There are #uite a num%er of adCectives with inherent stylistic connotations, which %ecome a%solute superlatives %y using such lexical means li$eD a/ affixesD H&less', &ultraH, superH, overH, etc" /a%'$"e##+ 6eer"e##+ )*er#e #i%i*e+ )*er!reed&+ )*er!e er)-#+ )*er0-#&+ )*era/0i%i)-#+ )*era'%i*e+ #-6er7i e+ #-6ere/i e %+ #-6era0- da %+ -"%ra#$)r%+ -"%ra/)der + etc"I %/ analytical genitivesD A /)- %ai )7 a /a W a *er& %a"" /a . A de*i" )7 a '$i"d W a *er& a-!$%& '$i"d. A /) #%er )7 a d)! W a /) #%r-)-# d)!. A /)- %ai )7 $a66i e## W e5%re/e"& $a66&+ e%'. '4 Some other com%inations. 0e&) d 0e"ie7+ ?i%$)-% ')/6are 2e8-a"4 (%)) !))d 2!rea%4 %) 0e ')/6ared %) a &0)d& e"#e4. d/ repetitions. A red+ red r)#eD e/ $&6er0)"e#. #'ared %) dea%$ Z *er& 7ri!$%e edG i//e #e"& )0"i!ed Z

*er& /-'$ )0"i!edG 7-"" %) %$e 0ri/ W 8-i%e 7-""G g/ Si/i"e. 2a#4 0"a'@ a# ')a" Z 8-i%e 0"a'@G 2a#4 dr& a# a 0) e Z *er& dr&G $4 /e%a6$)r. 0")?i ! $)% a d ')"d Z *er& $e#i%a%i !G $e i# a 7)5 Z $e i# *er& #"&G i4 "i%)%e#. ) ')?ard Z *er& 0ra*e" Practically all these means, which help express an a%solute superlative are /e%a#e/i)%i'a""& '$ar!ed a d 6)##e# i $ere % #%&"i#%i' ') )%a%i) #. Sometimes the article may %e omitted for the sa$e )7 e56re##i*i%& a d i# e/)%i) a""& ')")-red+ i %e #i7ied $ere 0& 6r)#)d&. O$+ /)#% 7ai%$7-" )7 7rie d#D <hen a noun is defined %y a num%er of superlatives the definite noun may %e repeated only in case of e/6$a#i#. He i# %$e '"e*ere#%+ #?ee%e#% a d /)#% a77e'%i) a%e )7 '$i"dre . He i# %$e '"e*ere#%+ %$e #?ee%e#% a d %$e /)#% a77e'%i) a%e )7 '$i"dre 2e/6$a#i1ed4. Most intensifiers, including dou%le superlative, are used for the sa$e of intensification or to produce a stylistic effect, or %oth, %elong to collo#uial or dialectal style" Thus, such forms as &most no%lest' was accepted in Sha$espeareds times, %ut now it is not accepta%le in the literary language" ;ut other intensifying elements are found #uite oftenD I $)6e &)- ?i"" $a*e %$e 7i e#% ?ea%$er 6)##i0"e. I $a*e read %$e ?)r#% )*e" i/a!i a0"e. I% i# 0& 7ar %$e /)#% i %ere#%i ! 6"a& I $a*e e*er #ee . T$e& are %$e *er& 0e#% 7rie d#. Practically all the grammatical and lexical grammatical categories there exist means to create a stylistic effect" Thus, in the case of the category of deixis, the a%sence of definite and indefinite deictic means does not mean that the category of general deictic identification is %eing realised" 0n most cases the mar$ers are dropped for the sa$e of economy of space, for %revity +newspaper headlines, dictionary articles, etc"/, in /e%a#e/i)%i' -#a!e+ especially in collo#uial speech, where the spea$er can drop the articles to attract attention, to ma$e it more expressive" T$e e56re##i*e+ e*a"-a%i*e #%&"i#%i' )*er%) e# 7)- d i /a & !ra//a%i'a" 'a%e!)ria" 7)r/# i# a# a r-"e i %e #i7ied 0& %$e -#e )7 6r)#)d& a d "e5i'a" /ea # ?i%$ i $ere % a d ad$ere % #%&"i#%i' ') )%a%i) #. 2See D-/i%rMe"e 'i-'. C)/6ara%*i#%i'#. M)"d)*a S%a%e U i*er#i%& W 200<4.

Pra'%i'a" E5er'i#e#. +,/ 0nversion E5er'i#e I. )nalyse the following cases of complete and partial inversion" State the difference %etween inversion in interrogative and affirmative sentences" ," >ut

came the chaise H in went the horses H on sprung the %oys H in got the travellers" 7" Up came the file and down sat the editor, with Mr" Pic$wic$ at his side" 9" <omen are not made for attac$" <ait they must" E" )nd she saw that 2opher Prairie was merely an enlargement of all the hamlets, which they had %een passing" >nly to the eyes of a *ennicott was it exceptional" F" " " "Calm and #uiet %elow me in the sun and shadeI lay the old house" 3" J;enny 2ollan, a respected guy, ;enny 2ollan wants to marry her"J J)n agent could as$ for moreYJ ." Then he saidD JMou thin$ it?s soY She was mixed up in this lousy %usinessYJ 4" J=er sic$ness is only griefYJ he as$ed, his difficult English lending the #uestion an unintended irony" JShe is grieving onlyYJ " " " JShe is only grievingYJ insisted :ose" -" =ow have 0 implored and %egged that man to in#uire into Captain?s family connectionsI how have 0 urged and entreated him to ta$e some decisive step" ,8" 2ay and merry was the timeI and right gay and merry were at least four of the numerous hearts that were gladdened %y its coming" 224 R$e%)ri'a" N-e#%i) E5er'i#e 9. Discuss the nature and functions of the following rhetorical #uestions" ," 2entleness in passionL <hat could have %een more seductive to the scared, starved heart of that girlY 7" <hy do we need refreshment, my friendsY ;ecause we are %ut mortal, %ecause we are %ut sinful, %ecause we are %ut of the earth, %ecause we are not of the airY Can we fly, my friendsY <e cannot" <hy can we not flyY 0s it %ecause we are calculated to wal$Y 9" <hat courage can withstand the everduring and all %esetting terrors of a woman?s tongueY E" ;ut what words shall descri%e the Mississippi, great father of rivers, who +praise %e to =eaven/ has no young children li$e himY F" Dar$ Sappho, could not verse immortal save, That %reast im%ued with such immortal fireY Could she not live who life eternal gaveY 3" =ow should a high%orn lady %e $nown from a sun%urnt mil$Hmaid, save that spears are %ro$en for the one, and only haGelpoles shattered for the otherY ." " " "%ut who would scorn "the month of :une, ;ecause Decem%er, with his %reath so hoary, Must comeY 4" <ho will %e open where there is no sympathy, or has call to spea$ to those who never can understandY -" <ouldn?t we all do %etter not trying to understand, accepting the fact that no human %eing will ever understand another, not a wife a hus%and, a lover a mistress, nor a parent a childY +9/ )po$oinu Construction E5er'i#e I. 0ndicate the type of complex sentences contracted into the following apo$oinu constructions" Suggest conCunctions and connecting words, which might

have Coined former clauses"," 0?m the first one saw her" 7" 0t was 0 was a father to you" 9" =e?s the one ma$es the noise at night" E" =e would show these %ums who it was $ept them fed" F" 0t was Sponge told ;ruce who was in the car" 3" 0 didn?t transfer" 0 was transferred" 0t was =ouston did it %ecause 0 spo$e my piece" ." There?s no one enCoys good food more than he does" 4" Mou?d %e surprised at the times we do get our manH sometimes after several years" 0t?s patience does itH patience and never letting up" -" 0t was then he too$ the plunge" ,8" 0 love Kevada" <hy, they don?t even have mealtimes here" 0 never met so many people didn?t own a watch" ,," There was a door led into the $itchen" ,7" There was no %reeGe came through the door" ,9" Everyone found him attractive" 0t was his temper let him down" ,E" 0t was then he met Stella" ,F" There was a whisper in my family that it was love drove him out, and not love of the wife he married" 2E4 E""i6#i# a d O e(Me/0er Se %e 'e# E5er'i#e I. Discuss the nature of the following elliptical and oneHmem%er sentences" ," ast asleepHno passion in the face, no avarice, no anxiety, no wild desireI all gentle, tran#uil, and at peace" 7" J0?ll go, DollL 0?ll goLJ This from ;ead, large eyes larger than usual %ehind his hornHrimmed glasses" 9" " " "the girl was washing the glasses" The esta%lishment %oasted fourI we do not record the circumstance as at all derogatory to Mrs" 1addle " " " E" There was only a little round window at the ;itter >range Company" Ko waitingHroomHno%ody at all except a girl, who came to the window when Miss Moss $noc$ed, and saidD J<ellYJ F" Pain and discomfortHHthat was all the future held" )nd meanwhile ugliness, sic$ness, fatigue" 3" ) poor %oy """ Ko father, no mother, no any one" ." 0?m afraid you thin$ 0?m conservative" 0 am" So much tp conserve" )ll this treasure of )merican ideals" Sturdiness and democracy and opportunity" May%e not at Palm ;each" ;ut, than$ heaven, we?re free from such social distinctions in 2opher Prairie" 4" Kot that 0 give a hoot a%out Cewelry" Diamonds, yes" ;ut it?s tac$y to wear diamonds %efore you?re fortyI and even that?s ris$y" They only loo$ right on the really old girls" Maria >uspens$aya" <rin$les and %ones, white hair and diamonds" -" 0nspector ;adgworthy in his office" Time, 4"98 a"m" ) tall portly man" 0nspector ;adgworthy, with a heavy regulation tread" 0nclined to %reathe hard in moments of professional strain" 0n attendance Consta%le :ohnson, very new to the orce, with a downy unfledged loo$ a%out him, li$e a human chic$en" ,8" <e have never %een readers in our family" 0t?don?t pay" Stuff" 0dleness" olly" Ko, noL ,," ) %lac$ e%ruary day" Clouds hewn of ponderous tim%er weighing down on

the earthI an irresolute dropping of snow spec$s upon ?the trampled wastes" 2loom %ut no veiling of angularity" The lines of roofs and sidewal$s sharp and inescapa%le" The second day of *ennicott?s a%sence " " ,7" ) dar$ gentleman """ ) very %ad manner" 0n the last degree constrained, reserved, diffident, trou%led" ,9" )nd we got down at the %ridge" <hite cloudy s$y, with motherHofHpearl veins" Pearl rays shooting through, green and %lueHwhite" 1iver roughed %y a %reeGe" <hite as a new file in the distance" ishwhite strea$ on the smooth pinHsilver upstream" Shooting new pins" ,E" J<hat sort of a place is Dufton exactlyYJ J) lot of mills" )nd a chemical factory" )nd a 2rammar school and a memorial and a river that runs different colours each day" )nd a cinema and fourteen pu%s" That?s? really all one can say a%out it"J ,F" J2oodHnight" Mr" Povey" 0 hope you?ll %e a%le to sleep"J Constance?s voiceL J0t will pro%a%ly come on again"J Mr" Povey?s voice pessimisticL Then the shutting of doors" 0t was almost dar$, ,3" JThem %igHassed fol$s is dum%LJ Emphatic Cudgement" JDum% ain?t no word for ?emL They Cust li$e us, %ut they too damned mean to admit itLJ =ilarious agreement" JThey scared to death of us" They $now if they give us? half a chance, we?d %eat ?emLJ Uttered with sage confidence """ J ish, you so #uiet and wise"J ) memoriGed smile" J0 didn?t want to mess up my plans with no trou%le with white fol$s"J ) spontaneous lie """ J2ee, ish, you luc$y"J Crooned admiration" J)w, that?s nothing"J =inting at undisclosed marvels" E5er'i#e II. State the functions of the following ellipses" 0ndicate most fre#uently omitted mem%ers of the sentence" ," )nd if his feelings a%out the war got $nown, he?d %e nicely in the soup" )rrested, perhapsHgot rid of, somehow" 7" =e is understood to %e in want of witnesses, for the 0n#uest tomorrow """ 0s immediately referred to innumera%le people who can tell nothing whatever" 0s made more im%ecile %y %eing constantly informed that Mrs" 2reen?s son Jwas a lawHwriter hisself" " "J 9" <hat happiness was ours that day, what Coy, what rest, what hope, what gratitude, what %lissL E" J0 have noticed something a%out it in the papers" =eard you mention it once or twice, now 0 come to thin$ of it"J F" J(ery windy, isn?t itYJ said Strachan, when the silence had lasted some time" J(ery,J said <imsey" J;ut it?s not raining,J pursued Strachan" JKot yet,J said <imsey" J;etter than yesterday,J said Strachan " " " JTons %etter" 1eally you $now, you?d thin$ they?d turned on the waterHwor$s yesterday on purpose to spoil my s$etching party"J J>h, well,J said Strachan" J=ow long have you %een on thatYJ J)%out an hour,J said Strachan" 3" J<here mamaYJ JShe home,J his father %reathed" ." J<hat

you thin$, ishYJ he$e as$ed with an aloof smile" Jhe$e, you a dog and 0 $ind of %elieve you,J ish%elly said" 4" JShe one of you family or somethingYJ J<ho, the one downstairsY Ko, she?s called Mrs" DaHvies"J -" J>ur father is dead"J J0 $now"J J=ow the hell do you $nowYJ JStation agent told me" =ow long ago did he dieYJ ?J;out a month"J J<hat ofYJ JPneumonia"J J;uried hereYJ JKo" 0n <ashington" " "J 254 De%a'$/e % E5er'i#e I. Classify the following isolated mem%ers according to their syntactical function" Discuss the punctuation used to isolate the detached mem%ers and their distri%ution in the sentence" ," Each of them carried a note%oo$, in which whenever the great man spo$e, he desperately scri%%led" Straight from "the horse?s mouth" 7" She narrowed her eyes a trifle at me and faid 0 loo$ed exactly li$e Celia ;riganGa?s %oy" )round the mouthI 9" )nd life would move slowly and excitingly" <ith much laughter and much shouting and tal$ing and much drin$ing and much fighting" E" J=ow do you li$e the )rmyYJ Mrs" Sils%urn as$ed" )%ruptly, conversationally" F" =e is alert to his fingertips" !ittle muffs, silver garters, fringed gloves draw his attentionI he o%serves with a $een #uic$ glance, not un$indly, and full rather of amusement than of censure" 3" Despiere had %een nearly $illed, ingloriously, in a Ceep accident" ." ) haw$, serene, flows in the narrowing circles a%ove" 4" The people are awful this year" Mou should see what sits next to us in the dining room" )t the next ta%le" They loo$ as if they drove down in a truc$" +S"/ -" 0 have to %eg you for money" DailyL ,8" )nd he stirred it with his penHin vain" ,," )nd leurHH charming in her CadeHgreen wrapperH tuc$ed a corner of her lip %ehind a tooth, and went %ac$ to her room to finish dressing" 2M4 A6)#i)6e#i# E5er'i#e I. Comment on the syntactical distri%ution of the following cases of aposiopesis and on the causes, which necessitated them" Suggest the implied meaning of trite aposiopesis" ," =e would have to stay" <hatever might happen, that was the only possi%le way to salvationHto stay, to trust Emily, to ma$e himself %elieve that with the help of the children" " " 7" ParittD <ell, they?ll get a chance now to showHhastily/ 0 don?t meanH;ut let?s forget that" 9" JShe must leaveHorHor, %etter yetHmay%e drown herselfHma$e away with herself in some wayHorHJ E" JShuttleworth, 0H0 want to spea$ to you inHin strictest confidenceHto as$ your advice" MetHyet it is upon such a serious matter that 0 hesitateHfearingHJ F" ParittD 0 told her, JMou?ve always acted the free woman", you?ve never let any thing stop you fromHJ +=e chec$s himselfHgoes on hurriedly"/ That made her sore" 3" )nd it was so

unli$ely that any one would trou%le to loo$ thereHuntilHuntilHwell" ." J0t is the moment one opens one?s eyes that is horri%le at sea" These daysL >h, these daysL 0 wonder how any%ody can " " "J 4" <hat a%out the gold %racelet she?d %een wearing that afternoon, the %racelet he?d never seen %efore and which she?d slipped off her wrist the moment she realiGed he was in the roomY =ad Steve given her thatY )nd if he had" " " -" >h, that?s what you are doing" <ell, 0 never, ,8" J3ut, :ohn, you $now 0?m not going to a doctor" 0?ve told you"J JMou?re goingHor else"J ,,"" " "shouting out that he?d come %ac$ that his mother had %etter have the money ready for him" >r elseL That is what he saidD J>r elseLJ 0t was a threat" ,7" J0 still don?t #uite li$e the face, it?s Cust a trifle too full, %utHJ 0 swung myself on the stool" ,9" JSo you won?t come at allYLJ J0 don?t yet $now" 0t all depends"J +P"/ ,E" J<ill you ever change your mindYJ J0t depends, you $now"J 2;4 S-#6e #e E5er'i#e I. )nalyse the manner in which the following cases of suspense are organiGed" ," )ll this Mrs" Snags%y, as an inCured woman and the friend of Mrs" Chad%and, and the follower of Mr" ChadH%and, and the mourner of the late Mr" Tul$inghorn, is here to certify" 7" 0 have %een accused of %ad taste" This has distur%ed me, not so much for my own sa$e +since 0 am used to the slights and arrows of outrageous fortune/ as for the sa$e of criticism in general" 9" Ko one seemed to ta$e proper pride in his wor$D from plum%ers who were simply thieves to, say, newspapermen +he seemed to thin$ them a specially intellectual class/ who never %y any chance gave a correct version of the simplest affair" E" J" " "The day on which 0 ta$e the happiest and %est step of my lifeHthe day on which 0 shall %e a man more exulting and more envia%le than any other man in the worldHthe day on which 0 give ;lea$ =ouse its little mistressHshall %e next month, then,J said my guardian" F" J0f you had any partH, don?t say whatHin this attac$,J pursued the %oy, Jor if you $now anything a%out itH0 don?t say how muchHor if you $now who did itH0 go no closerHyou did an inCury to me that?s never to %e forgiven"J 3" Corruption could not spread with so much success, though reduced into a systemY and though some ministers, with e#ual impudence and folly, avowed it %y themselves and their advocates, to %e the principal expedient %y which they governed" 2K4 Re6e%i%i) E5er'i#e I. Classify the following cases of repetition according to the position occupied %y the repeated unit" State their functions" ," =eroes all" Katural leaders" Morrows always %een leaders, always %een gentlemen" >h, ta$e a drin$ once in a

while %ut always li$e Morrows" )lways $now how to ma$e heroic gesturesHexcept meHhow to $noc$ their wives up with good Morrow sonsHhow to ma$e money without loo$ing li$e they even give a damn" O$ the Morrows and the Morrows and the Morrows and the Morrows, to the last sylla%le of recorded time" 7" JThis is a rotten country,J said Cyril" J>h, 0 don?t $now, you $now, don?t you $nowLJ 0 said" 9" """ the photograph of !otta !ind%ec$ he tore into small "%its across and across and across" E" 0 wanted to $noc$ over the ta%le and hit him until my arm had no more strength in it, then give him the %oot, give him the %oot, give him the %ootH0 drew a deep %reath " F" There followed six months in Chicago, in which he painted not one picture that was satisfactory to him, that was not messed into nothingness %y changes and changes and changes" 3" There seemed to %e no escape, no prospect of freedom" J0f 0 had a thousand pounds,J thought Miss ul$es, Ja thousand pounds" ) thousand pounds"J The words were magical" J) thousand pounds"J .I >ne may see %y their footprints that they have not wal$ed arm in armI and that they have not wal$ed in a straight trac$, and that they have wal$ed in a moody humour" 4" 0t were %etter that he $new nothing" ;etter for common sense, %etter for him, %etter for me" -" =e sat, still and silent, until his future landlord accepted his proposals and %rought writing materials to complete the %usiness" =e sat, still and silent, while the landlord wrote" ,8" Supposing his head had %een held under water for a while" Supposing the first %low had %een truer" Supposing he had %een shot" Supposing he had %een strangled" Supposing this way, that way, the other way" Supposing anything %ut getting unchained from the one idea for that was inexora%ly impossi%le" ,," The whitewashed room was pure white as of old, the methodical %oo$H$eeping was in peaceful progress as of old, and some distant howler was hanging against a cell door as of old" ,7" 0 wa$e up and 0?m alone, and 0 wal$ round <arley and 0?m alone, and 0 tal$ with people and 0?m alone and 0 loo$ at his face when 0?m home and it?s dead" " " ,9" =e ran away from the %attle" =e was an ordinary human %eing that didn?t want to $ill or %e $illed, so he ran away from the %attle" ,E" " " "they too$ coach and drove westward" Kot only drove westward, %ut drove into that particular westward division, which ;ella had seen last when she turned her face from Mr" ;offin?s door" Kot only drove into that particular division, %ut drove at last into that very street" Kot only drove into that very street, %ut stopped at last at that very house" ,F" ailure meant poverty, poverty meant s#ualor, s#ualor led, in the final stages, to the smells and stagnation of ;" 0nn )lley" ,3" 0f he had acted guilty " " " they would have had him" ;ut he had carried it

off" =e had carried it off, and it was the private who had come out as the guilty party" ,." Mr" <in$le is gone" =e must %e found, SamHfound and %rought %ac$ to me" ,4" " " "all was old and yellow with decay" )nd decay was the smell and %eing of that room" ,-" Mou $nowHhow %rilliant he is, what he should %e doing" )nd it hurts me" 0t hurts me every day of my life" 78" 0f you have anything to say, say it, say it" 2:4 Para""e"i#/ E5er'i#e 9. Classify the following parallel constructions into complete and partial parallelismD ," 0t was Mr" S#ueers?s custom to """ ma$e a sort of report" " " regarding the relations and friends he had seen, the news he had heard, the letters he had %rought down the %ills which had %een paid, the accounts which had 0ee unpaid, and so forth" 7" 0t is the fate of most men who mingle with the world and attain even in the prime of life, to ma$e many real friends, and lose them in the course of nature" 0t is the fate of all authors or chroniclers to create imaginary friends, and lose them in the course of art" 9" Mou $now 0 am very grateful to himI don?t youY Mou $now 0 feel a true respect for him " " " don?t youY E" " " "their anxiety is so $een, their vigilance is s great, their excited :oy grows so intense as theHsigns of life strengthen, that how can she resist itL " " F" J0f you are sorrowful, let me $now why, and %e sorrowful, tooI if you waste away and are paler and wea$ens every day, let me %e your nurse and try to comfort you" 0f you are poor, let us %e poor togetherI %ut let me %e with you"J <hat is itY <ho is itY <hen was itY <here was itY =ow was itY ." The coach was waiting, the horses were fresh, the roads were good, and the driver was willing" 4" The 1everend ran$ Milvey?s a%ode was a very modest a%ode, %ecause his income was a very modest income" -" " " Hthey all stood, high and dry, safe and sound, hale and hearty, upon the steps of the ;lue !ion" ,8" The expression of his face, the movement of his shoulders, the turn of his spine, the gesture of his hands, pro%a%ly even the twiddle of his toes, all indicated a halfH humorous apology" ,," The one was all the other failed to %e" Protective, not demandingI dependa%le, not wea$I lowHvoiced, never strident" " " ,7" The s$y was dar$ and gloomy, the air damp and raw, the streets wet and sloppy" ,9" >hL %e that ideal stillL That great inheritance throw not awayHthat tower of ivory do not destroyL ,E" Kostrils wide, scenting the morning air for the taint of game, his senses pic$ed up something alien in the atmosphere" Ka$ed %ody, taut and alert, his dar$ eyes searched the distance"

E5er'i#e II. State what other syntactical stylistic means are used alongside with the following cases of parallelism" ," =e was a sallow manHall co%%lers areI and had a strong %ristly %eardHall co%%lers have" 7" Mou missed a friend, you $nowI or you missed a foe, you $nowI or you wouldn?t come here, you $now" 9" Through all the misery that followed this unionI through all the cold neglect and undeserved reproachI through all the poverty he %rought upon herI through all the struggles of their daily life " , " she toiled on" E" 0t?s only an adopted child" >ne 0 have told her of" >ne 0?m going to give the name to" F" Secretly, after nightfall, he visited the home of the Prime Minister" =e examined it from top to %ottom" =e measured all the doors and windows" =e too$ up the flooring" =e inspected the plum%ing" =e examined the furniture" =e found nothing" 3" J)haLJ he cried" J<here now, ;rassY <here nowY Sally with you, tooY Sweet SallyL )nd Dic$Y Pleasant Dic$L )nd *itY =onest *itLJ ." Passage after passage did he exploreI room after room did he?peep into " " " 4" Talent Mr" Micaw%er has" Capital Mr" Micaw%er has not" 2904 C$ia#/-# E5er'i#e I" Discuss the following cases of chiasmus" ," 0 $now the world and the world $nows me" 7" Mr" ;offin loo$ed full at the man, and the man loo$ed full at Mr" ;offin" 9" There are so many sons who won?t, have anything to do with their fathers, and so many fathers who won?t spea$ to their sons" E" 0 loo$ed a?t the gun, and the gun loo$ed at me" F" =is disli$e of her grew %ecause he was ashamed of it """ 1esentment %red shame, and shame in its turn %red more resentment" 3" or the former her adoration was ecstatic and therefore %lindI her admiration for "the latter, although e#ually devoted, was less uncritical" ." <ellL 1ichard said that he would wor$ his fingers to the %one for )da, and )da said that she would wor$ her fingers to the %one for 1ichard" 2994 P)"&#& de%) E5er'i#e I. State the functions of the following examples of polysyndeton" Pay attention to the repeated conCunction and the num%er of repetitions" ," )nd the coach, and the coachman, and the horses, rattled, and Cangled, and whipped, and cursed, and swore, and tum%led on together, till they came to 2olden S#uare" 7" )nd they wore their %est and more colourful clothes" 1ed shirts and green shirts and yellow shirts and pin$ shirts" 9" ;ella soaped his face and ru%%ed his face, and soaped his hands and ru%%ed his hands, and splashed him, and rinsed him and towelled him, until he was as red as %eetroot" E" " " "Then from the town pour <ops and Chinamen and Pola$s, men and women in trousers and ru%%er coats and

oilcloth aprons" They come running to clean and cut and plac$ and coo$ and can the fish" The whole street rum%les and groans and screams and rattles while the silver rivers of fish pour in out of the %oats and the %oats rise higher and higher in the water until they are empty" The canneries rum%le and rattle and s#uea$ until the last fish is cleaned and cut and coo$ed and canned and then the i whistles scream again and the dripping smelly tired <ops and Chinamen and Pola$s, men and women, straggle out and droop their ways up the hill into the town and Cannery 1ow %ecomes itself againH#uiet and magical" jF" Mr" 1ichard, or his %eautiful cousin, or %oth, could , sign something, or ma$e over something, or give some sort of underta$ing, or pledge, or %ondY 3" irst the front, then the %ac$, then the sides, then the superscription, then the seal, were o%Cects of Kewman?s admiration" 2924 A#& de%) E5er'i#e I. )nalyse the following cases of asyndeton, indicating their functions and paying attention to the #uality of units, connected asyndetically" ," The pulsating motion of Malay Camp at night was everywhere" People sang, People cried" People fought" People loved" People hated" >thers were sad" >thers gay" >thers with friends" >thers lonely" Some died" Some were %orn" 7" The mail coach doors were on their hinges, the lining was replaced, the ironHwor$ was as good as new, the paint was restored, the lamps were alightI cushions and great coats were on every coach %ox, porters were thrusting parcels into every %oot, guards were stowing away letter %ags, hostlers were dashing pails of water against the renovated wheelsI num%ers of men were rushing a%out" " ", portmanteaus were handed up, horses were put to, and in short it was perfectly clear that every mail there was to %e off directly" 9" Dou%le on their steps, though they may, weave in and out of the myriad corners of the city?s streets, return, go forward, %ac$, from side to side, here, there, anywhere, dodge, twist, wind, the central cham%er where Death sits is reached inexora%ly at the end" E" J<ell, guess it?s a%out time to turn in"J =e yawned, went out to loo$ at the thermometer, slammed the door, patted her head, un%uttoned his waistcoat, yawned, wound the cloc$, went to loo$ at the furnace, yawned, and clumped upstairs to %ed, casually scratching his thic$ woolen undershirt" F" Through his %rain, slowly, sifted the things they had done together" <al$ing together" Dancing together" Sitting silent together" <atching people together" 3" <ith these hurried words, Mr" ;o% Sawyer pushed the post%oy on one side, :er$ed his friend into the vehicle, slammed the door, put up the steps,

wafered the %ill on the streetHdoor, loc$ed it, put the $ey in his poc$et, Cumped into the dic$ey, gave the word for starting " " " +(")"*u$haren$o" Seminars in Style" M", ,-.,, H pp" 33H4F/" 2U0DE T> !Eb0C>HSMKT)CT0C)! STM!0ST0C DE(0CES Pra'%i'a" E5er'i#e#. 294 C"i/a5 E5er'i#e I. Discuss the nature and distri%ution of the components of logical climax in the following examples" 0"0t was a mista$e""" a %lunder""" lunacy""" 7" <hat 0 have always said, and what 0 always shall say, is, that this anteHpost %etting is a mista$e, an error, and a mug?s game" 9" )nd you went down the old steep way""" the wellH$nown to%oggan run""" insane pride""" lies""" treachery""" murder""" E" Poor erseL Tal$ a%out trou%le, DinnyH illness, poverty, vice, crimeHnone of them can touch mental derangement for sheer tragedy of all concerned" F" =e was num%ed" =e wanted to weep, to vomit, to die, to sin$ away" +)" ;"/ 3" 0t is doneHpastHfinishedL ." J0t must %e a warm pursuit in such a climate,J o%served Mr" Pic$wic$" J<armLH red hotLH scorchingH glowing" 4" ) storm?s coming up" ) hurricane" ) deluge" -" 0 was well inclined to him %efore 0 saw him" 0 li$ed him when 0 did see himI 0 admire him now" ,8" There are drin$ers" There are drun$ards" There areL alcoholics" ;ut these are only steps down the ladder" 1ight down at the %ottom is the meths drin$er H and man can?t sin$ any lower than that" ,," JSay yes" 0f you don?t, 0?ll %rea$ into tears" 0?ll so%" 0?ll moan" 0?ll growl"J ,7" J0 swear to 2od" 0 never saw the %eat of this winter"L More snow, more cold, more sic$ness, more death"JL ,9" JMy nephew, 0 introduce to you a lady of strong force of character, li$e myselfI a resolved lady, a stern lady, a lady who has a will that can %rea$ the wea$ to powderD a lady without pity, without love, implaca%le"""? ,E" J0 designed them for each otherI they were made for each other, sent into the world for each other, %orn for each other, <in$leJ, said Mr" ;en )lien" ,F" 0 don?t attach any value to money" 0 don?t can a%out it, 0 don?t $now a%out it, 0 don?t want it, 0 don? $eep itHit goes away from me directly" E5er'i#e II. State the nature of the increasing entities in the following examples of #uantitative climax" ," JMou have heard of :efferson ;ric$ 0 see, Sir,J #uoth the Colonel with a smile" JEngland has heard of :efferson ;ric$" Europe has heard of :efferson ;ric$"""J 7" 1D J0 never told you a%out that letter :ane Crofut got from her minister when she was sic$" =e wrote :ane a letter and on the envelope the address was li$e

this" 0t saidD :ane CrofutI The Crofut armI 2rover?s CornersI Sutton CountyI Kew =ampshireI United States of )merica"J 2D J<hat?s funny a%out itYJ 1D J;ut listen, it?s not finishedD the United States of )mericaI Continent of Korth )mericaI <estern =emisphereI the EarthI the Solar SystemI the UniverseI the Mind of 2odH that?s what it said on the envelope"J 9" =ow many sympathetic souls can you rec$on on in the worldY O e in tenHone in a hundredHone in a thousandHin ten thousandY )hL E" Mou $nowHafter so many $isses and promises, the lie given to her dreams, her words """ the lie given to $issesHhours, days, wee$s, months of unspea$a%le %liss""" E5er'i#e III. Classify the following examples of emotive climax according to their structure and the num%er of the components" ," >f course it?s important" 0ncredi%ly, urgently, desperately important" 7" J0 have %een so unhappy here, dear %rother,J so%%ed poor *ateI Jso very, very misera%le"J 9" The mother was a rather remar$a%le woman, #uite remar$a%le in her way" E" That?s a nice girlI that?s a very nice girlI a promising girlL F" She felt %etter, immensely %etter, standing %eside this %ig old man" 3" =e who only five months %efore had sought her so eagerly with his eyes and intriguing smile" The liarL The %ruteL The monsterL ." 0 am a %ad man, a wic$ed man, %ut she is worse" She is really %ad" She is %ad, she is %adness" She is Evil" She not only is e*i"+ %ut she is Evil" 4" J)n unprincipled adventurerHa dishonoura%le characterHa man who preys upon society, and ma$es easilyHdeceived people his dupes, sir, his a%surd, his foolish, his wretched dupes, sir,J said the excited Mr" P" -" J0 a%hor the su%Cect" 0t is an odious su%Cect, an offensive su%Cect, a su%Cect that ma$es me sic$"J ,8" J0?ll smash you" 0?ll crum%le you, 0?ll powder you" 2o to the devilLJ ,," JUpon my word and honour, upon my life, upon my soul, Miss Summerson, as 0 am a living man, 0?ll act according to your wishLJ ,7""""to them %oys she is a mother" ;ut she is more than "a mother to them, ten times more" ,9" Mr" Tul$inghorn """ should have communicated to him nothing of this painful, this distressing, this unloo$edHfor, this overwhelming, this incredi%le intelligence"J Exercise IV. Comment on the influence of the negative particle upon the structure of climax and the meaning of its components" ," Ko tree, no shru%, no %lade of grass, not a %ird or %east, not even a fish that was not ownedL 7" JKot a word, SamHnot a sylla%leLJ 9" Kot a word, not a loo$, not a glance, did he %estow upon his heart?s pride of the evening %efore" E" J ledge%y has not heard of anything"J Ko, there?s not a word of news,J says !ammle" JKot a particle,J adds

;oots" JKot an atom,J chimes in ;rewer" F" J;e careful,J said Mr" :ingleHJnot a loo$"J JKot a win$,J said Mr" Tupman" JKot a sylla%le"HKot a whisper"J E5er'i#e V. Spea$ on the modes of organiGation of anticlimax" Pay attention to punctuation" ," J0n moments of utter crises my nerves act in the most extraordinary way" <hen utter disaster seems imminent, my whole %eing is simultaneously %raced to avoid it" 0 siGe up the situation in a flash, set my teeth, contract my muscles, ta$e a firm grip of myself, and without a tremor, a,ways do the wrong thing"J 7" This was appallingHand soon forgotten" 9" <omen have a wonderful instinct a%out things" T$e& 'a discover everythingHexcept the o%vious" E" "" "they """ were a%solutely #uietI eating no apples, cutting no names, inflicting no pinches, and ma$ing no grimaces, for full two minutes afterwards" 224 A %i%$e#i# Exercise 0" 2ive morphological and syntactical characteristics ) the following cases of antithesis"," "" something significant may Hcome out at last, which may %e criminal or heroic, may %e madness or wisdom 7" Three %old and experienced menH cool, confident and dry when they %eganI white, #uivering and wet when they finished""" 9" Don?t use %ig words" They mean so little" E" Mrs" Kor$ had a large home and a small hus%and" F" =e """ ordered a %ottle of the worst possi%le portwine, at the highest possi%le price" 3" 0t is safer fo %e married to the man you can %e happy with than to the man you cannot %e happy without" ." The mechanics are underpaid, and underfed, and overwor$ed, 4" There was something eerie a%out the apartment house, an unearthly #uiet that was a com%ination of overHcarpeting and underHoccupancy" -" 0n marriage the up$eep of woman is often the downfall of man" E5er'i#e II. )nalyse the following examples of developed antithesis" ," Cannery 1ow in Monlerey in California is a poem, a stin$, a grating noise, a #uality of light, a tone, a ha%it, a nostalgia, a dream" Cannery 1ow is the gathered and scattered, tin and iron, and rust and splintered wood, chipped pavement and weedy lots and Cun$ heaps, sardine canneries of corrugated iron, hon$y ton$s, restaurants and whore houses, and" little crowded groceries, and la%oratories and flophouses" 0ts inha%itants are, as the man once said, Jwhores pimps, gam%lers and sons of %itches,J %y which he meant Every%ody" =ad the man loo$ed throughJ another peephole he might have said, Jsaints and angels and martyrs and holy men,J and he would have meant the same thing" 7" Men?s tal$ was %etter than women?s" Kever food, never %a%ies, never sic$ness, or %oots needing mending, %ut people, what

happened, the reason" Kot the state of the house, %ut the state of the )rmy" Kot the children next door, %ut the re%els in rance" Kever what %ro$e the china, %ut who %ro$e ?the treaty" Kot what spoilt the washing, %ut who spilled the %eans""" Some of it was puGGling and some"? of it was tripe, %ut all of it was %etter than darning Charley?s soc$s" 9" """as we passed it seemed that two worlds were meeting" The world of worry a%out rent and rates andj groceries, of the smell of soda and %lac$lead and JKo Smo$ingJ and JKo SpittingJ and JPlease =ave the Correct Change 1eadyJ and the world of the 1olls and the ;lac$ Mar$et clothes and the Coty perfume and the career ahead of one running on wellHoiled grooves to a $nighthood""" E" 0t was the %est of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of %elief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of !ight, it was the season of Dar$ness it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despairI ?e had everything %efore us, we had nothing %efore us, we were all going direct to =eaven, we were all going direct the other wayHin short the period was so far li$e the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its %eing received for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only" F" They went down to the camp in %lac$, %ut they came %ac$ to the town in whiteI they went down to the camp in ropes, they came %ac$ in chains of goldI they went down to the camp in fetters, %ut came %ac$ with their steps enlarged under themI they went also to the camp loo$ing for death, %ut they came %ac$ from thence with assurance of lifeI they went down to the camp with heavy hearts, %ut came %ac$ with pipes and ta%or playing %efore them" 3" ) special contrast Mr" 2eorge ma$es to Smallweed family """ 0t is a %roadsword to an oyster $nife" =is developed figure, and their stunned formsI his large manner filling any amount of room, and their little narrow pinched waysI his sounding voice and their sharp spare tones are in the strongest and the strangest opposition" 2<4 Li%)%e# E5er'i#e I. Classify the following cases of litotes according to the structure" ," =is sister was in favor of this o%vious enthusiasm on the part of her %rother, although she was not unaware that her %rother more and more gave to her the status of a privileged governess" 7" J0 am not unmindful of the fact that 0 owe you ten dollars"J 9" J=ow slippery it is, Sam"J JKot an uncommon thing upon ice, Sir,J replied Mr" <eller" E" 0n a sharp, determined way her face was not unhandsome" F" Powell?s sentiment of amused surprise was not unHmingled with indignation" 3" =e was laughing at !ottie %ut not un$indly" +=ut"/ ." "" "there was something %ayonetli$e

a%out her, something not altogether unadmira%le" 4" She had a snouty $ind of face, which was not completely unpretty" -" The idea was not totally erroneous" The thought did not displease me" ,8" She was not without realisation already that this thing was impossi%le, so far as she was concerned" ,," 0t was not without satisfaction that Mrs" Sun%ury perceived that ;etty was offended" ,7" ;ell understood, not without sympathy, that Nueen had pu%licly committed himself" ,9" *irsten said not without dignityD JToo much tal$ing is unwise"J ,E" She couldn?t help remem%ering those last terri%le days in 0ndia" Kot that she isn?t very happy now, of course""" ,F" <ell, 0 couldn?t say noD it was too romantic" ,3" 0 felt 0 wouldn?t say no to a cup of tea" ,." 0 don?t thin$ 0?m the type that doesn?t even lift a finger to prevent a wedding from flatting" ,4" """0 am a vaga%ond of the harumH scarum order, and not of the mean sort""" ,-" Kot altogether %y accident he was on the train that %rought her %ac$ to Kew Mor$ at the end of school" 78" =e was almost the same height standing up as sitting down +a not all that rare type of physi#ue in <ales/" E5er'i#e II. Comment on the nature and function of litotes" ," :oe Clegg also loo$ed surprised and possi%ly not too pleased" 7" =e was not overHpleased to find <imsey palpitating on his doorHstep" 9" J=ow are you feeling, :ohnYJ JKot too %ad"J E" =e wasn?t too awful" F" The place wasn?t too tidy" 3" 0 turned to Margaret who wasn?t loo$ing too happy" ." J0t?s not too %ad,J :ac$ said, vaguely defending the last ten years" 2;4 Si/i"e. E5er'i#e I. Classify the following into traditional and original similes" ," JThe man is a pu%lic nuisance and ought to %e put down %y the police,J said the little Princess %eating her foot on the floor" J=e has a tongue li$e a sword and a pen li$e a dagger,J said the young 1oman" 7" She went on to say that she wanted all her children a%sor% the meaning of the words they sang, not Cust mouth them, li$e sillyH%illy parrots" 9" She was o%stinate as a mule, always had %een, from a child" E" J<hen my missus gets sore she is as hot as at oven"J F" The air was warm and felt li$e a $iss as we steppe off the plane" 3" !i$e a sigh, the %reath of a living thing, the smo$e rose" ." She has always %een as live as a %ird" 4" )s they sang they too$ turns spinHdancing a !ir" over the co%%les under the ElI and ?the girl """ floated round in their arms light as a scarf" -" JThat?s the place where we are to lunchI and %y :ove there?s the %oy with the %as$et, punctual as cloc$Hwor$"' ,8" =e stood immova%le li$e a roc$ in a torrent" ,," =e wore a grey dou%leH%reasted waistcoat,

and his eyes gleamed li$e raisins" ,7" =is speech had a Cer$y, metallic rhythm, li$e a teletype" ,9" The lamp made an ellipse of yellow light on the ceiling, and on the mantel the little ala%aster cloc$ dripped time li$e a lea$ing faucet" ,E" 0 left her laughing" The sound was li$e a hen having hiccups" E5er'i#e II. State the semantic field, to which the second components of the similes %elong" ," ChildrenL ;rea$fast is Cust as good as any other meal and 0 won?t have you go%%ling li$e wolves" 7" The eyes were watery and veined with red, li$e the eyes of a hound who lies too often too close to the fire" 9" =is mind went round and round li$e a s#uirrel in a cage, going over the past" E" J<e can hear him coming" =e?s got a tread li$e a rhinoceros"J F" J0?m as sharp,J said Nuilp to him at parting, Jas sharp as a ferret"J 3" )nd then in a moment she would come to life and %e as #uic$ and restless as a mon$ey" ." 0tHwas a young woman and she entered li$e a windHrush, a s#uall of scarves and Cangling gold" 4" J unny how ideas come,J he said afterwards, J!i$e a flash of lightning"J -" The sidewal$s ran li$e spring ice going out, grinding and hurried and pac$ed close from %an$ to %an$" ,8" She perceived that even personalities were failing to hold the party" The room filled with hesitancy as with a fog" E5er'i#e III. )nalyse the causes, due to which a developed image is created +$ey to a simile, explicitness of the second component, etc"/" ," =e felt li$e an old %oo$D spine defective, covers dull, slight foxing, fly missing, rather sha$en copy" 7" JMou?re li$e the East" >ne loves it at first sight, or not at all, and one never $nows it any %etter"J 9" =e ached from head to foot, all Gones of pain seemingly interdependent" =e was rather li$e a Christmas tree whose lights, wired in series, must all go out if eve/ one %ul% is defective" E" !ondon seems to me li$e some hoary massive under world, a hoary ponderous inferno" The traffic flows through the rigid grey streets li$e the rivers of hell through the %an$s of dry, roc$y ash" F" 0t +the district/ lies on the face of the county li$e an insignificant stain, li$e a dar$ Pleiades in a green and empty s$y" )nd =and%ridge has the shape of a horse and its rider, ;ursley of half a don$ey, *nype a pair of trousers, !ongshaw of an octopus, and little Turnhill of a %eetle" The ive Towns seem to cling together for safety, 3" or a long whileHfor many years in factHhe had not thought of how it was %efore he came to the farm" =is memory of those times was li$e a house where no one lives and where the furniture has rotted away" ;ut tonight it was as if lamps had %een lighted through all the gloomy dead rooms" ." Mag <ildwood couldn?t understand

it, the a%rupt a%sence of warmth on her returnI the conversation she %egan %ehaved li$e green logs, they fumed %ut would not fire" IV. A a"&#e the following disguised similes" 0ndicate ver%s and phrases organiGing them"," ="2" <ells """ reminded her of the rice paddies in her native California" )cres and acres of shiny water %ut never more than two inches deep" 7" There are in every large chic$enHyard a num%er of old and indignant hens who resem%le Mrs" ;ogart and when they are served at Sunday noon dinner, as fricasseed chic$en with thic$ dumplings, they $eep up the resem%lance" 9" """grinning a strangely taut, fullH width grin which made his large teeth resem%le a daGGling miniature piano 0 $ey%oard in the green light" E" =er startled glance descended li$e a %eam of light, and settled for a moment on the man?s face" =e was fortyish and rather fat, with a moustache that made her, thin$ of the yol$ of an egg, and a nose that spread itself" 2J.D.4 F" Sco%ie turned up :amesH Street past the Secretariat" <ith its long %alconies it has always reminded him of a hospital" or fifteen years he had watched the arrival of a succession of patientsD periodically at the end of eighteen months certain patients were sent home, yellow and nervy, and others too$ their placeHColonial Secretaries, Secretaries of )griculture, Treasurers and Directors of Pu%lic <or$s" =e watched their temperature charts every oneH the first out%rea$ of unreasona%le temper, the drin$ too many, the sudden attac$ for principle after a year of ac#uiescence" The %lac$ cler$s carried their %edside manner li$e doctors down the corridorsD cheerful and respectful, they put up with any insult" The patient was always right" 3" 0?m not nearly hot enough to draw a wordHpicture that would do Custice to that extraordinarily hefty crash" Try to imagine the )l%ert =all falling on the Crystal Palace, and you will have got the rough idea" 254 Peri6$ra#i# E5er'i#e I. Distri%ute the following periphrases into original and traditional" ," JDid you ever see anything in Mr" Pic$wic$?s manner and conduct towards the opposite sex to induce you to %elieve""" 7" <ithin the next #uarterHhour a stagH party had ta$en over the apartment, several of them in uniform" 0 counted two Kaval officers and an )ir orce colonelD %ut they were outnum%ered %y graying arrivals %eyond draft status" 9" =is arm a%out her, he led her in and %awled, J!adies and worser halves, the %rideLJ E" 0 was earning %arely enough money to $eep %ody and soul together" +S" M"/ F" ;ill went with him and they returned with a tray of glasses, siphons and other necessaries of life" 3" "" ", participated in that delayed Teutonic migration $nown as the 2reat <ar" ." JThe way 0 loo$ at it is

this,J he told his wife" J<e?ve all of us got a little of the >ld Kic$ in us""" The way 0 see it, that?s Cust a $ind of energyJ" 4" The nose was anything %ut 2recianHthat was a certainty, for it pointed to heaven" E5er'i#e II. Discuss the following euphemistic periphrases" ," Everything was conducted on the most li%eral and delightful scale" Excisa%le articles were remar$a%ly cheap at all the pu%lic housesI and spring vans paraded the streets for the accommodation of voters who were seiGed with any temporary diGGiness in the headHan epidemic which prevailed among the electors during the contest, to a most alarming extent, and under the influence of which they might fre#uently %e seen lying on the pavements in a state of utter insensi%ility" 7" J0 expect you?d li$e a wash,J Mrs" Thompson said" JThe %athroom?s to the right and the usual offices next to it"J +:" ;r"/ 9" 0n the left corner, %uilt out into the room, is the toilet with the sign JThis is itJ on the door" E" 0 am thin$ing an unmentiona%le thing a%out your mother" F" :ean nodded without turning and slid %etween two vermilionHcoloured %uses so that two drivers simultaneously used the same #ualitative word" 3" The late Mr" ;ardell, after enCoying for many years the esteem and confidence of his sovereign, as one of guardians of his royal revenues, glided almost impercepti%ly from the world, to see$ elsewhere for that repose and peace which a customHhouse can never afford" ." :ames Porter, aged 7F, was %ound over last wee$ after pleading guilty to interfering with a small ca%%age and two tins of %eans on his way home""" E5er'i#e III. Classify the following figurative periphrases into metaphorical and metonymical" ," The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in )frica" 7" The %each, strewn with the steel overflow of the factories at home, loo$ed li$e a rummaged %asement in some store for giants" 9" =e would ma$e some money and then he would come %ac$ and marry his dream from ;lac$wood" E" J<ellL =ere?s the Police Court" 0?m sorry 0 candt spare time to come in" ;ut every%ody will %e nice to you 0t?s a very human place, if somewhat indelicate""" C)/e %ac$ to tea, if you can"J She was gone" The exchange and mart of human indelicacy was crowded""" F" or a single instant, ;irch was helpless, his %lood curdling in his veins at ?the imminence of the danger, and his legs refusing their natural and necessary office" 3" "" ", contracted pneumonia, in that day a $illing disease" 0 went down and down, until the wing tips of the angels %rushed my

eyes" . =is face was red, the %ac$ of his nec$ overflowed his collar, and there had recently %een pu%lished a second edition of his chin" E5er'i#e IV. State the nature and functions of the following periphrases" ," JThat elegant connection of ours H that dear lady who was here yesterdayHJ" J0 understand,J said )rthur" JEven that affa%le and condescending ornament of society,J pursued Mr" Meagles, Jmay misrepresent us, we are afraid"J 7" She was still fatI the destroyer of her figure sat at the head of the ta%le" 9" <hen he saw that 0 was loo$ing at him, he closed his eyes, sleepily, angelically, then stuc$ out his tongue H an appendage of startling lengthHand gave out what in my country would have %een a glorious tri%ute to a myopic umpire" 0t fairly shoo$ the tearoomE" )nd then we ?ta$e a soldier and put murder in his hands and we say to him""" J2o out and $ill as many of a certain $ind of classification of your %rothers as you can"J F" )lso, my draft %oard was displaying an uncomforta%le interestI and, having so recently escaped the regimentation of a small town, the idea of entering another form of disciplined life made me desperate" 3" 0 wanted something that would depict my face as =eaven gave it to me, hum%le though the gift may have %een" ." 0n the inns Utopians were shouting the universe into order over %eer, and in the halls and par$s the dignity of England was %eing preserved in a fitting manner" The villages were full of women who did nothing %ut fight against dirt and hunger,, and repair the effects of friction on clothes" 2M4 Re6re#e %ed S6ee'$ E5er'i#e I. Classify the following examples of represented speech into represented inner and represented uttered speech" ,"Me loo$ed at the distant green wall" 0t would %e a long wal$ in this rain, and a muddy H one" =e was tired and he was depressed" =is toes s#uelched in his shoes" )nyway, what would they findY !ots of trees" 7" 0 shoo$ her as hard as 0 could" 0?d done it in play %efore, when she?d as$ed me to hurt her, please hurt herI %ut this time 0 was in %rutal earnest""" 9" J"" "Mou ought to ma$e a good mural decorator some day, if you have the inclination,J ;oyle went on, JMou?ve got the sense of %eauty"J The roots of Eugene?s hair tingled" So art was coming to him" This man saw his capacity" =e really had art in him" E" >ttilie should have %een the happiest girl in PortHauH Prince" )s ;a%y said to her, loo$ at all the things that can %e put to your creditD you have a lovely light color, even almost %lue eyes, and such a pretty, sweet faceHthere in no girl on the road with steadier customers, every one of them ready to %uy you all the %eer you can drin$" F" =e held the cigarette in his mouth, tasting it, feeling, its roundness, for

a long time %efore he lit it" Then with a sigh, feeling, well, 0?ve earned it, he lit the cigarette" 3" She hadn?t wanted to marry him or anyone else, for that matter, unless it was someone li$e her father" ;ut there was no one li$e her father" Ko one she had ever seen" So, oh, well, what?s the diffL Mou have to get married some time" ." or once <ilson?s hand +of cards/ was poor, a d after staying a round %ecause he was the heavy winner, he dropped out" <hen the campaign was over, he told himself, he was going to drum up some way of ma$ing li#uor" There was a mess sergeant over in Charley Company who must have made two thousand of them pounds, the way he sold a #uart for five pounds" )ll a man needed was sugar and yeast and some of them cans of peaches or apricots" 0n anticipation he felt a warm mellow glow in his chest" <hy, you could even ma$e it with less" Cousin Ed, he remem%ered, had used molasses and raisins, and his stuff had %een passing decent" or a moment, though, <ilson was deCected" 0f he was going to fix himself any, he would have to steal all the ma$ings from the mess tent some night, and he?d have to find a place to hide it for a couple of days" )nd then he?d need a good little noo$ where he could leave the mash" 0t couldn?t %e too near the %ivouac or any%ody might %e stum%ling onto it and yet it shouldn?t %e too far if a man wanted to siphon off a little in a hurry" There was Cust gonna %e a lot of pro%lems to it, unless he waited till the campaign was over and they were in permanent %ivouac" ;ut that was gonna ta$e too long" 0t might %e even three or four months" <ilson %egan to feel restless" There was Cust too much figgering a man had to do if he wanted to get anything for himself in the )rmy" E5er'i#e II. Discuss lexical and grammatical phenomena characteriGing represented inner speech" ," Then he would %ring her %ac$ with him to KewHMor$H he, Eugene <itla, already famous in the East" )lready the lure of the %ig eastern city was in his mind, its palaces, its wealth, its fame" 0t was the great world he $new, this side of Paris and !ondon" =e would go to it now, shortly" <hat would he %e thereY =ow greatY =ow soonY So he dreamed" 7" )ngela loo$ed at him with swimming eyes" =e was really different from anything she had ever $nown, young, artistic, imaginative, am%itious" =e was going out into a world, which she had longed for %ut never hoped to see that of art" =ere one was telling her of his prospective art studies, and tal$ing of Paris" <hat a wonderful thingL 9 >h, love, loveL EdwardL EdwardL >h, he would not, could not remain away" She must see himHgive him a chance to explain" She must ma$e him understand that it was not want of love %ut fear of life H her father, everything, every%ody H that $ept her so

sensitive, aloof, remote" E" )nd then he laughed at himself" =e was getting nervy and het up li$e every%ody else in the house" E5er'i#e III. 0ndicate characteristic features of represented uttered speech" ," 0 then found a couple of stale letters to reread, one from my wife """ and one from my motherHinHlaw, as$ing me to please send her some cashmere yarn" 7" The Mayor of Maycom% as$ed us to please help the gar%age collector %y dumping our own trees and trash" 9" )ngela, who was ta$ing in every detail of Eugene?s old friend, replied in what seemed an affected tone that no, she wasn?t used to studio lifeD she was Cust from the country, you $nowHa regular farmer girl H ;lac$wood, <isconsin, no lessL"" E" 1osita sniffed and""" in her wellH%ottom voice declared that yes, it was %etter that they stay out of the sun, as it seemed to %e affecting >ttilie?s head" F" Certainly he had seen no%ody remotely resem%ling the photograph of 2owan" <as there any%ody at all li$e what 2owan would %e if cleanHshavenY <ell, there now, that was as$ing something that was" =ad the 0nspector any idea what a ?edgeH?og would loo$ li$e without its spi$esY 3" "" "the servants summoned %y the passing maid without a %ell %eing rung, and #uic$, #uic$, let all this luggage %e ta$en down into the hall and let one of you call a ca%" ." =e $ept thin$ing he would write to herHhe hadHno other girl ac#uaintance nowI and Cust %efore he entered art school he did this, penning, a little note saying that he remem%ered so pleasantly their rideI and when was she comingY 4" J""" So 0?ve come to %e servant to you"J J=ow much do you wantYJ J0 don?t $now" My $eep, 0 suppose"J Mes, she could coo$" Mes, she could wash" Mes, she could mend, she could darn" She $new how to shop a mar$et" 2V.A.V-@$are @). Se/i ar# i S%&"e. M.+ 9:;9+ ( 66. KM(90M4.

FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A. INTRODUCTORY REMARVS

<e have already pointed out the most characteristic features of the styles of language and how they should %e distinguished from the written and spo$en varieties of language" Each style of the literary language ma$es use of a group of language means the inter relation of which is peculiar to the given style" 0t is the coordinatior of the language means and stylistic devices, which shapes the distinctive features of each style, and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves" Each style, however, can %e recogniGed %y one or more leading features, which are especially conspicuous" or instance the use of special

terminology is a lexical characteristic of the style of scientific prose, and one, %y which it can easily %e recogniGed" =owever, any style %eing a system in which various features are interwoven in a particular manner, one group of language means, a leading feature though it may %e, will not suffice to determine the style" ) close analysis of the interrelation %etween the language means in a given passage will ena%le the student to recogniGe different styles and even to %uild up a system incorporating them" ) style of language can %e defined as a system of coordinated, interrelated and interconditioned language means intended to fulfill a specific function of communication and aiming at a definite effect" Each style is a relatively sta%le system at the given stage in the development of the literary language, %ut it changes, and sometimeI considera%ly, from one period to another" Therefore style of language is a historical category" There are many instances to prove this" Thus, the style of emotive prose actually %egan to function as an independent style after the second half of the ,3th centuryI the newspaper style %udded off from the pu%licistic styleI the oratorical style has undergone considera%le fundamental changes and so with other styles" The development of each style is predetermined %y the changes in the norms of Standard English" 0t is also greatly influenced %y changing social conditions, the progress of science and the development of cultural life in the country" or instance, the emotive elements of language were a%undantly used in scientific prose in the ,4th century" This is explained %y the fact that scientists in many fields used the emotional language instead of one more logically precise and convincing, %ecause thec lac$ed the scientific data o%taina%le only %y deep, prolonged research <ith the development of science and the accumulation of scientific data, emotive elements gave way to convincing arguments and Jstu% %ornJ facts" The English literary language has evolved a num%er of style easily distinguisha%le one from another" They are not homogeneous and fall into several variants all having some central point of resem%lance, or %etter to say, all integrated %y the invariant H i"e", the a%stract ideal system" <e shall now consider each of the styles in its most characteristic features" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9 W 66.25<(2554. THE FELLES(LETTRES STYLE <e have already pointed out that the 0e""e#("e%%re# #%&"e is a generic term for three su%styles in which the main principles and the most general properties of the

style are materialiGed" These three su%styles areD , . T$e "a !-a!e )7 6)e%r&, or simply verse" 7" E/)%i*e 6r)#e, or the language of fiction" 9" T$e "a !-a!e )7 %$e dra/a. Each of these su%styles has certain common features, typical of the general %ellesHlettres style, which ma$e up the foundation of the style, %y which the particular style is made recogniGa%le and can therefore %e singled out" Each of them also enCoys some individuality" This is revealed in definite features typical only of one or another su%style" This correlation of the general and the particular in each variant of the %ellesHlettres style had manifested itself differently at different stages in its historical development" The common features of the su%styles may %e summed up as follows" irst of all comes the common function, which may %roadly %e called JaestheticoHcognitive"J This is a dou%le function, which aims at the cognitive process, which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader and at the same time calls forth a feeling of pleasure, a pleasure, which is derived from the form in which the content is wrought" The psychological elementH pleasure is not irrelevant when evaluating the effect of the communication", This pleasure is caused not only %y admiration of the selected language means and their peculiar arrangement %ut also, and this is perhaps the main cause, %y the fact that the reader is led to form his own conclusions as to the purport of the author" Kothing gives more pleasure and satisfaction than realiGing that one has the a%ility to penetrate into the hidden tissue of events, phenomena and human activity, and to perceive the relation %etween various seemingly unconnected facts %rought together %y the creative mind of the writer" Since the %ellesHlettres style has a cognitive function as well as an aesthetic one, it follows that it has something in common with scientific style, which will %e discussed in detail later, %ut which is here mentioned for the sa$e of comparison" The purpose of science as a %ranch of human activity is to disclose %y research the inner su%stance of things and phenomena of o%Cective reality and find out the laws regulating them, thus ena%ling man to predict, control and direct their further development in order to improve the material and social life of man$ind" The style of scientific prose is therefore mainly characteriGed %y an arrangement of language means, which will %ring proofs to clinch a theory" Therefore we say that the main function of scientific prose is proof" The selection of language means must therefore meet this principal re#uirement" The purpose of the %ellesHlettres style is not to prove %ut only to suggest a possi%le interpretation of the phenomena of life %y forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer" This is the cognitive function of the %ellesHlettres style"

rom all this it follows, therefore, that the %ellesHlettres style must select a system of language means which will secure the effect sought, which is an aestheticoH cognitive effect" 0n showing the difference in the manner of thin$ing of the manHofH letters and the manHofHscience, K" )" Do%rolu%ov writesD JThe manHofHletters""" thin$s concretely, never losing sight of particular phenomena and imagesI the other +the manHofHscience/ strives to generaliGe, to merge all particulars in one general formula"?? The %ellesHlettres style rests on certain indispensa%le linguistic features, which areD ," 2enuine, not trite, imagery, achieved %y purely linguistic devices" 7" The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced %y the lexical environment" 9" ) voca%ulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author?s personal evaluation of things or phenomena" E" ) peculiar individual selection of voca%ulary and syntax, a $ind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy" F" The introduction of the typical features of collo#uial language to a full degree, +in plays/ or a lesser one +in emotive prose/ or a slight degree, if any +in poems/" The %ellesHlettres style is individual in essence" This is one of its most distinctive properties" 0ndividuality in selecting language means +including stylistic devices/, extremely apparent in poetic style, %ecomes gradually less in, let us say, pu%licistic style, is hardly noticea%le in the style of scientific prose and is entirely lac$ing in newspapers and in official style" The relation %etween the general and the particular assumes different forms in different styles and in their variants" This relation is differently materialiGed even within one and the same style" This is due to the strong imprint of personality on any wor$ of poetic style" There may %e a greater or lesser volume of imagery +%ut not an a%sence of imagery/I a greater or lesser num%er of words with contextual meaning +%ut not all words without contextual meaning/I a greater or lesser num%er of collo#uial elements +%ut not a complete a%sence of collo#uial elements/" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9 W 66.25<(2554. LANGUAGE OF POETRY The first su%style we shall consider is verse" 0ts first differentiating property is its orderly form, which is %ased mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances" The rhythmic aspect calls forth syntactical and semantic peculiarities, which also fall into a more or less strict orderly arrangement" ;oth the syntactical and semantic aspects of the poetic su%style may %e defined as compact,

for they are held in chec$ %y rhythmic patterns" ;oth syntax and semantics comply with the restrictions imposed %y the rhythmic pattern, and the result is %revity of expression, epigramHli$e utterances, and fresh, unexpected imagery" Syntactically this %revity is shown in elliptical and fragmentary sentences, in detached constructions, in inversion, asyndeton and other syntactical peculiarities" 1hythm and rhyme are immediately distinguisha%le properties of the poetic su%style provided they are wrought into compositional patterns" They can %e called the external differentiating features of the su%style, typical only of this one variety of the %ellesHlettres style" The various compositional forms of rhyme and rhythm are generally studied under the terms *er#i7i'a%i) or 6r)#)d&. !et us examine the external properties or features of the poetic su%style in detail" a4 C)/6)#i%i) a" Pa%%er # )7 R$&%$/i'a" Arra !e/e % Me%re a d Li e 0t is customary to %egin the exposition of the theory of English versification with the statement that J"""there is no esta%lished principle of English versification"J ;ut this statement may apply to almost any %ranch of linguistic science" Science in general can live and develop only provided that there are constant disputes on the most crucial issues of the given science" English versification is no exception" <e have already discussed some of the most general points of rhythm" This was a necessary introduction to English versification, inasmuch as English verse is entirely %ased on rhythmical arrangement and rhyme" ;oth rhythm and rhyme are o%Cective #ualities of language and exist outside verse", ;ut in verse %oth have assumed their compositional patterns and, perhaps, due to this, they are commonly associated with verse" The most o%serva%le and widely recogniGed compositional patterns of rhythm, ma$ing up '"a##i'a" *er#e+ are %ased onD ,/ alternation of stressed and unstressed sylla%les,? 7/ e#uilinearity, that is, an e#ual num%er of sylla%les in the lines, 9/ a natural pause at the end of the line, the line %eing a more or less complete semantic unit, E/ identity of stanGa pattern, F/ esta%lished patterns of rhyming" !ess o%serva%le, although very apparent in modern versification, are ?all $inds of deviations from these rules, some of them going so far that classical poetry ceases to %e strictly classical and %ecomes what is called 7ree *er#e+ which in extreme cases %orders on prose" English verse, li$e all verse, emanated from song" (erse assumes an independent existence only when it tears itself away from song" Then only does it ac#uire the status of a genuine poetic system, and rhythm, %eing the su%stitute for music, assumes a new significance" The unit of measure of

poetic rhythm in English versification is not so much of a #uantitative as of a #ualitative character" The unit of measure in musical rhythm is the time allotted to its reproduction, whereas the unit of measure in English verse rhythm is the #uality of the alternating element +stressed or unstressed/" Therefore English versification, li$e 1ussian, is called #ualitative, in contradistinction to the old 2ree$ verse, which, %eing sung, was essentially #uantitative" 0n classic English verse, #uantity is ta$en into consideration only when it is a matter of the num%er of feet in a line" That is why classic English verse is called #&""a0)%) i'. Two parameters are ta$en into account in defining the measureD the num%er of sylla%les +sylla%o/ and the distri%ution of stresses +tonic/" The nature of the English language with its specific phonetic laws, however, is incompati%le with the demand for strict regularity in the alternation of similar units, and hence there are a num%er of accepted deviations from esta%lished metrical schemes, which we shall discuss in detail after pointing out the most recogniGa%le E !"i#$ /e%ri'a" 6a%%er #. There are five of themD ,"Ia/0i' /e%re, in which the unstressed sylla%le is followed %y a stressed one" 7" Tr)'$ai' /e%re, where the order is reversed, i"e" a stressed sylla%le is followed %y one unstressed" 9" Da'%&"i' /e%re H one stressed sylla%le is followed %y two unstressed" +Many linguists hold that verse rhythm is %ased on alternation %etween stronger and wea$er stresses" They maintain that four degrees of stresses are easily recogniGa%le" ;ut for the sa$e of a%stractionHan indispensa%le process in scientific investigationHthe opposition of stressedHunstressed sylla%les is the only authentic way of presenting the pro%lem of verse rhythm"/ E" A/6$i0ra'$i' /e%re H one stressed sylla%le is framed %y two unstressed" F" A a6ae#%i' /e%re( two unstressed sylla%les are followed %y one stressed" These arrangements of #ualitatively different sylla%les are the units of the metre, the repetition of which ma$es verse" >ne unit is called a 7))%. The num%er of feet in a line varies, %ut it has its limitI it rarely exceeds eight" 0f the line consists of only one foot it is called a /a )/e%erG a line consisting of two feet is a de/e%erG three H %ri/e%erG four H %e%ra/e%erG five ( 6e %a/e%erG six H $e5a/e%erG seven H #e6%a/e%erG eight H )'%a/eier. 0n defining the measure, that is the $ind of ideal metrical scheme of a verse, it is necessary to point out %oth the type of metre and the length of the line" Thus a line that consists of four iam%ic feet, is called ia/0i' %e%ra/e%erG correspondingly a line consisting of eight trochaic feet will %e called trochaic )'%a/e%er, and so on" English verse is predominantly iam%ic" This is sometimes explained %y the iam%ic tendency of the English language in general" Most of the English words have a

trochaic tendency, that is the stress falls on the first sylla%le of twoHsylla%ic words" ;ut in actual speech these words are preceded %y nonHstressed articles, prepositions, conCunctions or %y unstressed sylla%les of preceding words thus imparting an iam%ic character to English speech" )s a result iam%ic metre is more common in English verse than any other metre" =ere are a few examples illustrating various metrical arrangements of English verse" ," 0am%ic pentameterD >h _let me _true in _love %ut _truly _write 7" Trochaic tetrameterD _<ould you _as$ me _whence these _stories 9" Dactylic dimeterD _Cannon to _right of them ?Cannon to _left of them E" )mphi%rachic tetrameterD >, _where are you _going to _all you ;ig _Steamers F" )napaestic tetrameterD Do you _as$ what the _%irds sayY The _sparrow, the _dove 0f we ma$e a careful study of almost any poem, we will find what are called irregularities or modifications of its normal metrical pattern" These modifications generally have some special significance, usually connected with the sense, though in some cases they may %e due to the nature of the language material itself" This is particularly the case with the first modification when the stress is lifted from a sylla%le on which the language will not allow stress, and we have what is called a 6&rr$i' 7))% instead of an iam%ic or a trochee, for exampleD _So, that _now to _still the _%eating )7 /& _heart 0 _stood redpeating +Poe/I ;ut _ma$es surdrender to some _thoughtless _%oy +*eats/ 0n %oth examples the stress is lifted from prepositions on which the stress very seldom falls, therefore pyrrhics are very common and #uite natural modifications in English verse" The second common modification of the rhythmical pattern is the intrusion of a trochee into an iam%ic metre or of an iam%us into a trochaic one" This is called r$&%$/i' i *er#i) . The third modification is the insertion of a foot of two stressed sylla%les, called a #6) dee. 0t is used instead of an iam%us or a trochee" 0n Sha$espeare?s iam%ic pentameter these two modifications are fre#uently to %e found, for exampleD T$e P/)r i Pr-##e% P/a %"e P'"ad PJa"@# o?er the _dew of _yon _$i!$ Lea#%er _hill =ere the first foot of the second line is rhythmic inversion, and the fourth is a spondee" 1hythmic inversion and the use of the spondee may %e considered

deli%erate devices to reinforce the semantic significance of the word com%inations" =ere are other examples. PR)"" P) + thou _deep and _dar$ _%lue ocean,d roll" _Te P%$)-#a d _fleets sweep _over _thee in _vain" _L-red 0& the _love of the dgenii that _move The spondee as a rhythmic modifier, unli$e the pyrrhic, is always used to give added emphasis" This may %e explained %y the fact that two successive sylla%les %oth under heavy stress produce a $ind of clash, as a result of which the Cuncture %etween the sylla%les %ecomes wider, thus ma$ing each of them conspicuous" ) pyrrhic smooths and #uic$ens the pace of the rhythmI a spondee slows it down and ma$es it Cer$y" Pyrrhics may appear in almost any foot in a line, though they are rarely found in the last foot" This is natural as the last foot generally has a rhyming word and rhyming words are always stressed" Spondees generally appear in the first or the last foot" These three modifiers of the rhythm are the result of the clash %etween the re#uirements of the metrical scheme and the natural tendency of the language material to conform to its phonetic laws" The more verse see$s to reflect the lively norms of collo#uial English, the more fre#uently are modifications such as those descri%ed to %e found" The fourth modifier has to do with the num%er of sylla%les in the line" There may %e either a sylla%le missing or there may %e an extra sylla%le" Thus the last sylla%le of a trochaic odometer is often missing as in this line from Poe?s JThe 1avenJ" _Thrilled me, _filled me with fandtastic _terrors _never _felt %edfore" This is called a $&6) /e%ri' "i e. >ther lines in the poem have the full sixteen sylla%les" 0n iam%ic metre there may %e an extra sylla%le at the end of the line" 0n the line from the Sha$espeare?s sonnetD JThen in these thoughts myself almost despisingJ there are eleven sylla%les, whereas there should have %een ten, the line %eing iam%ic pentameter, as are all the lines of a sonnet" ) line with an extra sylla%le is called $&6er/e%ri'. Such departures from the esta%lished measure also %rea$ to some extent the rhythmical structure of the verse, and are therefore to %e considered modifications of the rhythm" The fifth departure from the norms of classic verse is e Ha/0/e %+ or the r- () line" This term is used to denote the transfer of a partHof a syntagm from one line to the following one, as in the following lines from ;yron?s JChilde =arold?s PilgrimageJD ," air is proud SevilleI let her country 0)a#% 7" Her #%re !%$, her wealth, her site of ancient daysI

3" <hile %oyish %lood is mantling, ?$) 'a B#'a6e ." T$e 7a#'i a%i) of the magic gaGeY 0t will %e o%served that here again is a violation of the re#uirements of the classical verse according to which the line must %e a more or less complete unit in itself" =ere we have the overflowing of the sense to the next line due to the %rea$ of the syntagm H in the first and sixth lines the close predicateHo%Cect groups" The lines seem to %e torn into two halves, the second half flowing structurally into the first half of the next line" The first impression is that this is some $ind of prose, and not verse, %ut this impression is immediately contradicted %y the feeling that there is a definite metrical scheme and pattern of rhyming" The rhythmic pattern of the verse leads us to anticipate a certain semantic structureI %ut when the device of enCam%ment is used, what we anticipate is %rought into conflict with what we actually find, that is, what is actually materialiGed" This is still more acutely felt in the case of #%a 1a e Ha/0/e %. =ere the sense of a larger rhythmic unit, the stanGa, which is generally selfHcontained and complete, is made to flow over to the second stanGa" =ere is an example from ;yron?s JChilde =aroldJ, Canto 0, stanGas !0 and !00" !0 4" The holster?d steed %eneath the shed of thatch, -" The %allHpiled 6&ra/id+ %$e everH%laGing /a%'$+ !00 ,. P)r%e d the deeds to comeD H %ut he whose nod 7" =as tum%led fee%ler despots from their sway, The essence of enCam%ment is the violation of the concordance %etween the rhythmical and the syntactical unity in a line of verse" )t the end of each rhythmical line in classical verse there must %e a pause of an apprecia%le siGe %etween the lines, which ensures the relative independence of each" The Cuncture %etween the lines is wide" EnCam%ment throws a part of the syntagm over to the second line, thus causing the pause to grow smaller and the Cuncture closer" This leads to a %rea$ in the rhythmicoHsyntactical unity of the linesI they lose their relative independence" StanGa enCam%ment is the same in nature, %ut it affects larger rhythmicoHsyntactical units, the stanGas" =ere we seldom witness the %rea$ of a syntagm, %ut the final part of the utterance is thrown over to the next stanGa, thus uniting the two stanGas, %rea$ing the selfHsufficiency of each and causing the Cuncture %etween the stanGas to close considera%ly" 0t is important to remind the reader that modifications in English metre, no matter how fre#uent, remain

modifications, for the given metrical scheme is not affected to any apprecia%le extent" )s a matter of fact these irregularities may %e said to have %ecome regular" They add much variety and charm to the verse" 0ndeed, if the metre is perfectly regular without any of the five modifications descri%ed a%ove, the verse may sound mechanical and lifeless, artificial and monotonous" T$e S%a 1a <e have defined rhythm as more or less regular alternations of similar units" >f the units of verse rhythm the following have %een namedD the sylla%le, the foot, the line and finally the stanGa" T$e #%a 1a is the largest unit in verse" 0t is composed of a num%er of lines having a definite measure and rhyming system, which is repeated throughout the poem" The stanGa is generally %uilt up on definite principles with regard to the num%er of lines, the character of the metre and the rhyming pattern" There are many widely recogniGed stanGa patterns in English poetry, %ut we shall name only the following" ,/ T$e $er)i' ')-6"e% H a stanGa that consists of two iam%ic pentameters with the rhyming pattern aa" Specialists in versification divide the history of the development of this stanGa into two periodsD the first is the period of Chaucer?s JCanter%ury TalesJ and the second the period of Marlowe, Chapman and other EliGa%ethan poets" The first period is characteriGed %y the mar$ed flexi%ility of the verse, the relative freedom of its rhythmic arrangement in which there are all $inds of modifications" The second period is characteriGed %y rigid demands for the purity of its rhythmical structure" The heroic couplet, %eginning with the ,3th century and particularly in the poetry of Spencer, was enchained %y strict rules of versification, and lost its flexi%ility and freedom of arrangement" The heroic couplet was later mostly used in elevated forms of poetry, in epics and odes" )lexander Pope used the heroic couplet in his JThe 1ape of the !oc$J with a satirical purpose, that of parodying the epic" =ere are two couplets from this poemD JThen flashed the living lightning from her eyes, )nd screams of horror rent the affrighted s$ies" Kot louder shrie$s to pitying heaven are cast, <hen hus%ands or when lapdogs %reathe their lastIJ 7/ The next model of stanGa which once enCoyed popularity was T$e S6e 'eria #%a 1a+ named after Edmund Spencer, the ,3th century poet who first used this type of stanGa in his J airy Nueene"J 0t consists of nine lines, the first eight of which are iam%ic pentameters and the ninth is one foot longer, that is an iam%ic hexameter" The rhyming scheme is a%a%%c%cc" ;yron?s JChilde =aroldJ is written in this stanGaD

," )wa$e, ye sons of SpainL )wa$eL )dvanceL +a/ 7" !oL Chivalry, your ancient goddess, cries, +%/ 9" ;ut wields not, as of old, her thirsty lance, +a/ E" Kor sha$es her crimson plumage in the s$iesD +%/ F" Kow on the smo$e of %laGing %olts she flies, +%/, 3" )nd spea$s in thunder through yon engine?s roarD +c/ ." 0n every peal she callsHJ)wa$eL )riseLJ +%/ 4" Say, is her voice more fee%le than of yore, +c/ -" <hen her warHsong was heard on )ndalusia?s shoreY +c/ 9/ The stanGa named )%%a*a ri/a has also %een popular in English poetry" 0t is composed of eight iam%ic pentameters, the rhyming scheme %eing a0a0a0''. This type of stanGa was %orrowed from 0talian poetry and was widely used %y Philip Sidney and other poets of the ,3th century" Then it fell into disuse %ut was revived at the end of the ,4th century" ;yron used it in his poem J;eppoJ and in JDon :uan"J =ere it isD ," J<ith all its sinful doings, 0 must say, +a/ 7" That 0taly?s a pleasant place to me, +%/ 9" <ho love to see the Sun shine every day, +a/ E" )nd vines +not nail?d to walls/ from tree to tree +3/ F" estoon?d much li$e the %ac$ scene of a play +a/ 3" >r melodrame, which people floc$ to see, +%/ ." <hen the first act is ended %y a dance +c/ 4" 0n vineyards copied from the South of rance"J +c/ E/ ) looser form of stanGa is the 0a""ad #%a 1a. This is generally an alternation of iam%ic tetrameters with iam%ic dimeters +or trimeters/ and the rhyming scheme is a%c%I that is, the tetrameters are not rhymed H the trimeters are" True, there are variants of the %allad stanGa, particularly in the length of the stanGa" The %allad, which is a very old, perhaps the oldest form of English verse, is a short story in rhyme, sometimes with dialogue and direct speech" 0n the poem of ;eowulf there are constant suggestions that the poem was made up from a collection of much earlier %allads" Modern %allads in form are imitations of the old English %allad" =ere is a sample of the %allad stanGaD JThey too$ a plough and plough?d him down +a/ Put clods upon his headI +%/ )nd they had sworn a solemn oath +c/

:ohn ;arleycorn was dead"J +%/ +1o%ert ;urns/ 0n some of the variants of the %allad stanGa the rhyming scheme is a0a0, that is the stanGa %ecomes a typical #uatrain" F/ >ne of the most popular stanGas, which %ears the name of stanGa only conventionally, is the #) e%. This is not a part of a larger unit, it is a complete independent wor$ of a definite literary genre" =owever, %y tradition and also due to its strict structural design this literary genre is called a stanGa" The English sonnet is composed of fourteen iam%ic pentameters with the following rhyming schemeD a0a0'd'de7e7!!+ that is three #uatrains with cross rhymes and a couplet at the end" The English sonnet was %orrowed from 0talian poetry, %ut on English soil it underwent structural and sometimes certain semantic changes" The 0talian sonnet was composed of two #uatrains with a framing rhyme a00a. These two #uatrains formed the )'%a*e. 0t was followed %y a #e#%e%%e, i"e", six lines divided into two tercets, i"e" three line units with 'de rhyming in each, or variants, namely, 'd'd'd or 'ded'e and others" The semantic aspect of the 0talian sonnet was also strictly regulariGed" The first #uatrain of the octave was to lay the main idea %efore the readerI the second #uatrain was to expand the idea of the first #uatrain %y giving details or illustrations or proofs" So the octave had not only a structural %ut also a semantic patternD the eight lines were to express one idea, a thesis" The same applies to the sestette" The first three lines were to give an idea opposite to the one expressed in the octave, a $ind of antithesis, and the last three lines to %e a synthesis of the ideas expressed in the octave and the first tercet" This synthesis was often expressed in the last two lines of the sonnet and these two lines therefore were called epigrammatic lines" The English, often called the S$a@e#6earea #) e% has retained many of the features of its 0talian parent" The division into octave and sestette is o%served in many sonnets, although the sestette is not always divided into two tercets" The rhyming scheme is simplified and is now expressed %y the formula a0a0'd'de7e7!! given a%ove" The most clearly o%serva%le characteristic feature of the sonnet on the content plane is the epigramHli$e last line +or last two lines/" Sonnets were very popular in England during the sixteenth century" <yatt, Surrey, Sidney and many other English poets of this period indulged in writing sonnets, and it is significant that during this period an enormous num%er were

written" <yatt adhered strictly to the 0talian model" Surrey modified it and it was this modification that Sha$espeare used" The Sha$espearean sonnets, which are $nown all over the world, are a masterpiece of sonnet composition" )ll ,FE sonnets express the feelings of the poet towards his %eloved, his friend and his patron" Even those sonnets, the main idea of which is %y no means limited to the lyrical laying out of the feelings of the poet +as Sonnets Kos" 33, 7, and others/, still pay tri%ute to the conventional form of the sonnet %y mentioning the o%Cect of the poet?s feelings" The types of English stanGas enumerated in no way exhaust the variety of this macroHunit in the rhythmical arrangement of the utterance" The num%er of types of stanGas is practically unlimited" <e have chosen only those, which have won wide recognition and are ta$en up %y many poets as a convenient mould into which new content may %e poured" ;ut there are many interesting models, which still remain uni#ue and therefore cannot yet %e systematiGed" Free Ver#e a d A''e %ed Ver#e (erse remains classical if it retains its metrical scheme" There are however types of verse which are not classical" The one most popular is what is called Jverse li%reJ, which is the rench term for 7ree *er#e" ree verse departs considera%ly from the strict re#uirements of classical verse, %ut its departures are legaliGed" ree verse is recogniGed %y lac$ of strictness in its rhythmical design" The term Jfree verseJ is used rather loosely %y different writersI so much so that what is $nown as a''e %ed or #%re##ed *er#e is also sometimes included" =ere we shall use the term free verse to refer only to those varieties of verse which are characteriGed %yD ,/ a com%ination of various metrical feet in the lineI 7/ a%sence of e#uilinearity and 9/ stanGas of varying length" 1hyme, however, is generally retained" =ence the term free verse is limited in this wor$ to verse in which there is a more or less regular com%ination of different metrical feet, different lengths of lines and different lengths of stanGas" ) good illustration of free verse in our sense of the term is Shelley?s poem JThe Cloud"J J0 %ring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, rom the seas and the streamsI 0 %ear light shade for the leaves when laid 0n their noonday dreams" rom my wings are sha$en the dews that wa$en

The sweet %uds every one, <hen roc$ed to rest on their mother?s %reast, )s she dances a%out the sun" 0 wield the flail of the lashing hail, )nd whiten the green plains under, )nd then again 0 dissolve it in rain, )nd laugh as 0 pass in thunder"J =ere the odd lines are tetrameters in which there are com%inations of iam%ic and anapaestic metres" The even lines are either dimeters or trimeters of iam%ic and anapaestic metre" So the metre is not homogeneous with in the linesI the lines are of different lengths and the stanGas have different num%ers of linesD the first one has twelve lines, the second eighteen, the third fourteen" The remaining stanGas also vary in length" The num%er of sylla%les in each line also varies" The first line has nine sylla%les, the second H six, the third H nine, the fourth H five, the fifth H eleven, the sixth H six, the seventh H nine, the eighth H seven, the ninth H nine, the tenth H eight, the eleventh H ten, the twelfth H eight" Met in this irregularity there is a certain regularity" irst of all there is a regular alternation of long and short linesI there is a definite com%ination of only two feetD iam%ic and anapaesticI there is a definite rhyming schemeD the long lines have internal rhyme, the short ones rhyme with each other" These regularities are maintained throughout the poem" )nd that is why we say that in spite of an apprecia%le departure from classical principles it remains to a large extent sylla%oH tonic verse" The regularities we have pointed out prevent us from naming the instances of departure from the classic model modifications since they have a definite structural pattern" Modifications of the rhythm are accidental, not regular" ree verse is not of course confined to the pattern Cust descri%ed" There may not %e any two poems written in free verse, which will have the same structural pattern" This underlying freedom ma$es verse more flexi%le, less rigid and more lively" The departure from strict metrical rules is sometimes considered a sign of progressiveness in verse, a rather erroneous notion" Classical English verse, free verse and the accented verse which we are a%out to discuss all enCoy e#ual rights from the aesthetic point of view and none of these types of verse has any privilege over the others" A''e %ed *er#e is a type of verse in which only the num%er of stresses in the line is ta$en into consideration" The num%er of sylla%les is not a constituentI it is

irrelevant and therefore disregarded" )ccented verse is not sylla%oHtonic %ut only tonic" 0n its extreme form the lines have no pattern of regular metrical feet nor fixed length, there is no notion of stanGa, and there are no rhymes" !i$e free verse, accented verse has very many variants, some approaching free verse and some departing so far from any recogniGed rhythmical pattern that we can hardly o%serve the essential features of this mode of communication" or the sa$e of illustration we shall #uote two poems representing the two extremes of accented verse" ," J<ith fingers weary and wornI <ith eyelids heavy and red, ) woman sat in unwomanly rags, Plying her needle and thread, H StitchL StitchL StitchL 0n poverty, hunger and dirtI )nd still with a voice of dolorous pitch She sang the JSong of the Shirt"J <or$L <or$L <or$L <hile the cloc$ is crowing aloofL )nd wor$ H wor$ H wor$ H Till the stars shine through the roofL 0t?s >L to %e a slave )long with the %ar%arous Tur$, <here woman has never a soul to save, 0f this is Christian wor$L <or$ H wor$ H wor$ H L Till the %rain %egins to swimL <or$ H wor$ H wor$ H Till the eyes are heavy and dimL Seam, and gusset, and %and, ;and, and gusset, and seam,H Till over the %uttons 0 fall asleep, )nd sew them on in a dream"J +Thomas =ood/ Even a superfluous analysis of the rhythmical structure of this poem clearly shows that the rhythm is founded on stress only" 0n the first line there are seven sylla%les and three stressesI the second has the sameI %ut the third has ten sylla%les and four stressesI the fourth H seven and threeI the fifthHthree and threeI and so on"

;ut still we can find a regularity in the poemI for most of the lines have three stresses" )t more or less regular intervals there appear longer lines with four stresses" Since the unstressed sylla%les are not ta$en into consideration, and therefore there are no secondary or tertiary stresses +as in classic verse/, the stresses in accented verse are very heavy" The stanGas in this poem are all %uilt on the same patternD eight lines, each containing two fourHstressed lines" The lines are rhymed alternately" )ll this ma$es this verse half accented, half free" 0n other words, this is %orderline verse, the %ias %eing in the direction of accented verse" This is not the case with the following poem %y <alt <hitmanD JCrossing ;roo$lin erry"J JKow 0 am curious what can ever %e more stately and admira%le to me than my masthemm?d Manhattan, My river and sunset and my scallopHedg?d waves of floodHtide, The seaHgulls oscillating their %odies, the hayH%oat in the twilight, and the %elated lighterI Curious what gods can exceed these that clasp me %y the hand, )nd with voices 0 love call me promptly and loudly %y my highest name as 0 approachIJ This type of poetry can hardly %e called verse from a purely structural point of viewI it is that $ind of tonic verse which, %y neglecting almost all the laws of verse %uilding, has gradually run into prose" ;ut somehow there is still something left of the structural aspect of verse and this is the singlingHout of each meaningful word ma$ing it conspicuous and selfHdeterminative %y the pauses and %y the character of the Cunctures which precede and follow each of these words" ;esides this, what ma$es this text poetry is also the selection of words, the peculiar syntactical patterns, and the imagery" (erse cannot do away with its formal aspects and remain verse" Therefore, the extreme type of accented verse, Cust given, ceases to %e verse, as such" 0t has %ecome what is sometimes called 6)e%i' 6r)#e. )ccented verse is nothing %ut an orderly singlingHout of certain words and syntagms in the utterance %y means of intonation" This singlingHout %ecomes a constituent of this type of verse, provided that the distance %etween each of the component parts presents a more or less constant unit" (iolation of this principle would lead to the complete destruction of the verse as such" )ccented verse +tonic verse/ has a long fol$lore tradition" >ld English verse was tonic %ut not sylla%oHtonic" The latter appeared in English poetry as a

%orrowing from 2ree$ and !atin poetry, where the alternation was not %etween stressed and unstressed %ut %etween long and short sylla%les" 0n the process of %eing adapted to the peculiarities of the phonetic and morphological system of the English language, sylla%oHtonic verse has undergone considera%le changes and accented verse may therefore conventionally %e regarded as a stage in the transformational process of adapting the sylla%oHtonic system to the organic norms of modern collo#uial English" This is Custified %y the fact that presentHday accented verse is not a mere revival of the >ld English poetical system %ut a newly arranged form and type of English verse" Katurally, however, fol$lore traditions have influenced modern accented verse in a num%er of ways" 04 Le5i'a" a d S& %a'%i'a" Fea%-re# )7 Ver#e The phonetic features of the language of poetry constitute what we have called its e5%er a" a#6e'%. These features immediately stri$e the ear and the eye and therefore are easily discerni%leI %ut the characteristics of this su%style are %y no means confined to these external features" !exical and syntactical peculiarities, together with those Cust analysed, will present the su%style as a stylistic entity" These properties and features of poetry assume a compressed formD they are rich in associative power, they are fre#uent in occurrence, they +particularly imagery/ %ecome part and parcel of the su%style %ecause they are the media through, which the idea and feeling are conveyed to the reader" That is why they may %e called i %er a" 7ea%-re#. The i/a!e+ as a purely linguistic notion, is something that must %e decoded %y the reader" So are the su%tle inner relations %etween the parts of an utterance and %etween the utterances themselves" These relations are not so easily discerni%le as they are in logically arranged utterances" 0nstances of detached construction, asyndeton, etc" must also %e interpreted" )n image can %e decoded through a fine analysis of the meanings of the given word or word com%ination" 0n decoding a given image, the dictionary meanings, the contextual meanings, the emotional colouring and, last %ut not least, the associations, which are awa$ened %y the image should all %e used" The easier the images are decoded, the more intelligi%le the poetic utterance %ecomes to the reader" 0f the image is difficult to decode, then it follows that either the ideas are not #uite clear to the poet himself or the ac#uired experience of the reader is not sufficient to grasp the vague or remote associations hidden in the given image" 0van onagy, a =ungarian linguist, saysD J0nterpreters of certain lines written %y Mallarme often differ a great deal in their explanations" ?0t

must %e ac$nowledged, writes 2uy Michaud on Mallarme?s poetry, that despite their sharp wit, commentators are still very far from %eing a%le to provide a satisfactory explanation for poems written in the Jlatest styleJ +derniere maniere/"J 0mages from a linguistic point of view are mostly %uilt on metaphors, metonymy and simile" These are direct semantic ways of coining images" 0mages may %e divided into three categoriesD two concrete +visual, aural/, and one a%stract +relational/" Vi#-a" i/a!e# are the easiest of perception, inasmuch as they are readily caught %y what is called the mental eye" 0n other words, visual images are shaped through concrete pictures of o%Cects, the impression of which is present in our mind" Thus inD J""" and then my state, !i$e to the lar$ at %rea$ of day arising rom sullen earth"""J +Sha$espeare/ the simile has called up a visual image, that of a lar$ rising" >nomatopoeia will %uild an a-ra" i/a!e in our mind, that is, it will ma$e us hear the actual sounds of nature or things +See, for exampleD J=ow the water comes down at !adoreJ/" ) re"a%i) a" i/a!e is one that shows the relation %etween o%Cects through another $ind of relation, and the two $inds of relations will secure a more exact realiGation of the inner connections %etween things or phenomena" This inD JMen of England, =eirs of 2lory, =eroes of unwritten story" Kurslings of one mighty mother, =opes of her, and one another"J +Shelley/ Such notions as ?heirs of glory?, ?heroes of unwritten story?, ?nurslings of """ mother?, ?hopes of her"""? all create relational images, inasmuch as they aim at showing the relations %etween the constituents of the metaphors %ut not the actual +visual/ images of, in this case, ?heir?, ?hero?, ?nursling?, ?hope?" ) stri$ing instance of %uilding up an image %y means other than metaphor, metonymy and simile is to %e seen in the following passage of emotive prose from JThe Man of Property"J 2alsworthy has created in this particular case an atmosphere of extreme tension at a dinner ta%le" This is only part of the passage" JDinner %egan i #i"e 'eI the women facing one another, and the men" I #i"e 'e the soup was finished H excellent, if a little thic$I and fish was %rought" I #i"e 'e it was handed" ;osinney venturedD J0t?s the first spring day"J 0rene echoed softlyD JMes H the first spring day"J JSpringLJ said :uneD JThere isn?t a %reath of airLJ N) ) e re6"ied. The fish was

ta$en away, a fine fresh sole from Dover" )nd ;ilson %rought champagne, a %ottle swathed around the nec$ with white" Soames saidD JMou?ll find it dry"J Cutlets were handed, each pin$Hfrilled a%out the legs" They were refused %y :une, and #i"e 'e 7e"".A The first thing that stri$es the close o%server is the insistent repetition of words, constructions, phrases" The word ?silence? is repeated four times in a short stretch of text" The idea of silence %y means of synonymous expressions is repeatedD ?There was a lengthy pause?, ?no one replied? +?answered?/ is repeated several times" ) long silence followedL Then the passive constructions +?fish was %rought?, ?it was handed?, ?the fish was ta$en away?, ?cutlets were handed?, ?They were refused?, ?they were %orne away?, ?chic$en was removed?, ?sugar was handed her?, ?the charlotte cvas removed?, ?olives""" caviare were placed?, ?the olives were removed?, ?a silver tray was %rought?, and so on/ together with parallel construction and asyndeton depict in a few %ald phrases the progress of the dinner, thus revealing the strained atmosphere of which all those present were aware" )nother feature of the poetical su%style is its volume of emotional colouring" =ere again the pro%lem of #uantity comes up" The emotional element is characteristic of the %ellesHlettres style in general" ;ut poetry has it in full measure" This is to some extent due to the rhythmic foundation of verse, %ut more particularly to the great num%er of emotionally coloured words" True, the degree of emotiveness in wor$s of %ellesHlettres depends also on the idiosyncrasy of the writer, on the content, and on the purport" ;ut emotiveness remains an essential property of the style in general and it %ecomes more compressed and su%stantial in the poetic su%style" This feature of the poetic su%style has won formal expression in poetic words, which have %een regarded as conventional sym%ols of poetic language" 0n the history of poetic language there are several important stages of development" )t every stage the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement, which is the most characteristic feature of the su%style, remains its essence" )s regards the voca%ulary, it can %e descri%ed as noticea%ly literary" The collo#uial elements, though they have el%owed their way into poetry at some stages in its development, still remain essentially unimportant and, at certain periods, were #uite alien to the style" ;ut even common literary words %ecome conspicuous in poetry %ecause of the new significance they ac#uire in a poetic line" J<ords completely colourless in a purely intellectual setting,J writes S" Ullmann, Jmay suddenly disclose unexpected resources of expressiveness in emotive or poetic discourse" Poets may reCuvenate and revitiliGe faded images %y tracing them %ac$ to their etymological

roots" <hen T" S" Eliot says ?a thousand visions and revisions?, ?revision? is suddenly illuminated and %ecomes transparent"J Poetry has long %een regarded as Jthe domain of the fewJ and the choice of voca%ulary has always %een in accord with this motto" The words, their forms, and also certain syntactical patterns were chosen to meet the refined tastes of admirers of poetry" 0n the chapter on poetic words, we have pointed out the character of these words and the role they have played in preserving the soHcalled JpurityJ of poetic language" The struggle against the conventionalities of the poetic language found its expression in the famous JPreface to !yrical ;alladsJ written %y <ordsworth and Coleridge which undou%tedly %ore some fruitful results in li%eraliGing poetic language" They tried to institute a reform in poetic diction, which would employ Ja selection of language really used %y menJ as they put it in their Preface" =owever their protest against poetical words and phrases was doomed to failure" The transition from refined poetical language, select and polished, to a language of collo#uial plainness with even ludicrous images and associations was too violent to %e successful" Shelley and ;yron saw the reactionary aspect of the JreformJ and criticiGed the poetic language of the !a$e poets, regarding many of the words they used as new Jpoeticisms"J =owever the protest raised %y <ordsworth and Coleridge reflected the growing dissatisfaction with the conventionalities of poetic diction" Some of the morphological categories of the English language, as for instance, the Present Continuous tense, the use of nouns as adCectives and other $inds of conversion had long %een %anned from poetical language" The N-ar%er"& Re*ie?, a literary Cournal of the ,-th century, %lamed *eats for using new words coined %y means of conversion" )fter the manifesto of <ordsworth and Coleridge the JdemocratiGationJ of poetic language was accelerated" 0n ;yron?s J;eppoJ and JDon :uanJ we already find a great num%er of collo#uial expressions and even slang and cant" ;ut whenever ;yron uses nonHpoetic words or expressions, he shows that he is well aware of their stylistic value" =e does this either %y footnotes or %y ma$ing a comment in the text itself as, for example, such phrases asD J=e was ?free to confess? H +whence comes this phraseY 0s?t EnglishY Ko H t?is only parliamentary/J orD J""""""""" to use a phrase ;y which such things are settled nowadays"J ;ut poetical language remains and will always remain a specific mode of communication differing from prose" This specific mode of communication uses specific means" The poetic words and phrases, peculiar syntactical arrangement,

orderly phonetic and rhythmical patterns have long %een the signals of poetic language" ;ut the most important of all is the power of the words used in poetry to express more than they usually signify in ordinary language" )" )" Pote%nCa expresses this idea in the following wordsD J<hat is called ?common? language can at %est %e only a technical language, %ecause it presupposes a readyHmade thought, %ut does not serve as a means of shaping the thought" 0t +the common/ is essentially a prose language"J The se#uence of words in an utterance is hardly, if at all, predicta%le in poetry" ?<ordHpairs?, writes 0van onagy, Joften used together %ecause of the pleasing, often rhyming com%ination of sounds, stand opposed to free com%inations" or modern poetry they often tend to ac#uire a startingly new meaning through slight modification or appear in the shape of highly impro%a%le com%inations"J Semantic entropy is therefore an inherent property of poetic language" ;ut sometimes this entropy grows so large that it stuns and stupefies the reader, preventing him from decoding the message, or it ma$es him exert his mental powers to the utmost in order to discover the significance given %y the poet to ordinary words" This is the case with some of the modern English and )merican poetry" Significant in this respect is the confession of *enneth )llott, compiler of JThe Penguin ;oo$ of Contemporary (erse,J who in his introductory note on <illiam Empson?s poetry writesD J0 have chosen poems 0 understand, or thin$ 0 understand, and therefore can admire""" There are some poems 0 cannot understand at all"J Poetry of this $ind will always remain Jthe domain of the few"J 0nstead of poetic precision we find a deli%erate plunge into semantic entropy, which renders the message incomprehensi%le" The increase of entropy in poetic language is mainly achieved %y #ueer word com%inations, fragmentary syntax H almost without logical connections" )n illustrative example is part of T" S" Eliot?s poem JThe !ove Song of )lfred Prufroc$"J J)nd indeed there will %e time or the yellow smo$e that slides along the street, 1u%%ing its %ac$ upon the window panesI There will %e time, there will %e time To prepare a face to meet the faces that you meetI There will %e time to murder and create, )nd time for all the wor$s and days of hands That lift and drop a #uestion on your plateI

Time for you and time for me, )nd time vet for a hundred indecisions, )nd for a hundred visions and revisions, ;efore the ta$ing of a toast and tea" 0n the room the women come and go Tal$ing of Michelangelo" )nd would it have %een worth it, after all, <ould it have %een worth while, )fter the sunsets and the dooryards and the sprin$led streets, )fter the novels, after the teacups, after the s$irts that trail along the floor ^ )nd this, and so much moreY ^ 0t is impossi%le to say Cust what 0 meanLJ The last sentence in the passage #uoted discloses the fact that the poet?s idea is not clearly shaped" Dissatisfaction with the hac$neyed phrases reflecting the ac$nowledged routine of lifeI disappointment in the most common and long cherished evaluations of the phenomena of life, fatigue caused %y the monotonous rhythm of the social environment of the poet H all these force him to see$ the essence of things, new and only vaguely conceived relations %etween seemingly unconnected facts" )nd as a result there appear these strange disconnected com%inations of words and phrases and new meanings of words" <e have already pointed out that in the history of the development of the literary language, a prominent role was played %y menHofHletters" There was a constant struggle %etween those who were dissatisfied with the esta%lished laws, which regulated the functioning of literary English and those who tried to restrain its progressive march" The same struggle is evident in the development of poetic language" 0n ascertaining the norms of the ,-th century poetic language, a most significant part was played %y ;yron and Shelley" ;yron moc$ed at the efforts of <ordsworth and the other !a$e poets to reform poetical language" 0n his critical remar$s in the polemic poem JEnglish ;ards and Scotch 1eviewersJ and in his other wor$s, he showed that the true progress of poetic language lies not in the denial of the previous stylistic norms %ut in the creative reshaping and recasting of the values of the past, their adaptation to the re#uirements of the present and a healthy continuity of longHesta%lished tradition" !anguage %y its very nature will not tolerate sudden unexpected and #uic$ changes" 0t is evolutionary in essence"

Poetry li$ewise will revolt against forci%le impositions of strange forms and will either reCect them or mould them in the furnace of recogniGed traditional patterns" Shelley in his preface to JThe ChenchiJ writesD J0 have written more carelesslyI that is, without an overHfastidious and learned choice of words" 0n this respect 0 entirely agree with those modern critics who assert that in order to move men to true sympathy we must use the familiar language of men, and that our great ancestors the ancient English poets are the writers, a study of whom might incite us to do that for our own age which they have done for theirs" ;ut it must %e the real language of men in general and not that of any particular class to whose society the writer happens to %elong"J 0n Shelley?s wor$s we find the materialiGation of these principles" 1evolutionary content and the progress of science laid new demands on poetic diction and as a result scientific and political terms and imagery %ased on new scientific data, together with lively collo#uial words, poured into poetic language" Syntax also underwent noticea%le changes %ut hardly ever to the extent of ma$ing the utterance unintelligi%le" The li%eraliGation of poetic language reflects the general struggle for a freer development of the literary language, in contrast to the rigorous restrictions imposed on it %y the language law givers of the ,4th century" 0n poetry words %ecome more conspicuous, as if they were attired in some mysterious manner, and mean more than they mean in ordinary neutral communications" <ords in poetic language live a longer life than ordinary words" They are intended to last" This is, of course, achieved mainly %y the connections the words have with one another and to some extent, to the rhythmical design, which ma$es the words stand out in a more isolated manner so that they seem to possess a greater degree of independence and significance" EMOTIVE PROSE The su%style of emotive prose has the same common features as have %een pointed out for the %ellesHlettres style, in generalI %ut all these features are correlated differently in emotive prose" The imagery is not so rich as it is in poetryI the percentage of words with contextual meaning is not so high as in poetryI the idiosyncrasy of the author is not so clearly discerni%le" )part from metre and rhyme, what most of all distinguishes emotive prose from the poetic style is the com%ination of the literary variant of the language, %oth in words and syntax, with the collo#uial variant" 0t would perhaps %e more exact to define this as a

com%ination of the spo$en and written varieties of the language, inasmuch as there are always two forms of communication present H monologue +the writer?s speech/ and dialogue +the speech of the characters/" The language of the writer conforms or is expected to conform to the literary norms of the given period in the development of the English literary language" The language of the hero of a novel, or of a story will in the main %e chosen in order to characteriGe the man himself" True, this language is also su%Cected to some $ind of reshaping" This is an indispensa%le re#uirement of any literary wor$" Those writers who neglect this re#uirement may unduly contaminate the literary language %y flooding the speech of their characters with nonHliterary elements, thus overHdoing the otherwise very advantageous device of depicting a hero through his speech" 0t follows then that the collo#uial language in the %ellesHlettres style is not a pure and simple reproduction of what might %e the natural speech of living people" 0t has undergone changes introduced %y the writer" The collo#uial speech has %een made JliteratureHli$e"J This means that only the most stri$ing elements of what might have %een a conversation in life are made use of, and even these have undergone some $ind of transformation" Emotive prose allows the use of elements from other styles as well" Thus we find elements of the newspaper style +see, for example, Sinclair !ewis?s J0t Can?t =appen =ereJ/I the official style +see, for example, the %usiness letters exchanged %etween two characters in 2alsworthy?s novel JThe Man of PropertyJ/I the style of scientific prose +see excerpts from Cronin?s JThe CitadelJ where medical language is used/" ;ut all these styles under the influence of emotive prose undergo a $ind of transformation" ) style that is made use of in prose, is diluted %y the general features of the %ellesHlettres style, which su%Cects it to its own purposes" Passages written in other styles may %e viewed only as interpolations and not as constituents of the style" E/)%i*e 6r)#e as a separate form of imaginative literature, that is fiction, came into %eing rather late in the history of the English literary language" 0t is well $nown that in early )ngloHSaxon literature there was no emotive prose" )ngloH Saxon literature was mainly poetry, songs of a religious, military and festive character" The first emotive prose, which appeared was translations from !atin of stories from the ;i%le and the !ives of the Saints" Middle English prose literature was also educational, represented mostly %y translations of religious wor$s from !atin" 0n the llth and ,7th centuries as a result of the Korman con#uest, )ngloH

Saxon literature fell into a decline" )lmost all that was written was in rench or in !atin" 0n the ,7th and ,9th centuries however, there appeared the JTales of *ing )rthur and his 1ound Ta%leJ, some of which were written in verse and others in prose" They were imitations of rench models" 0n the ,Eth century there was an event which played an important role not only in the development of general Standard English, %ut in the development of the peculiarities of emotive prose" This was the translation of the ;i%le made %y <yclif and his disciples" Emotive prose actually %egan to assume a life of its own in the second half of the ,Fth century when romances and chronicles descri%ing the life and adventures of semiH legendary $ings and $nights %egan to appear" >ne of the most nota%le of these romances was Malory?s JMorte D?)rthur,J printed %y Caxton in ,E.," 0t winds up a long series of poems and tales of chivalry %egun in the ,7th century" 0t was retold in prose from the rench" JThe Death of )rthurJ is a wor$ of great historical, literary and stylistic interest" )ttempts were made to introduce dialogue into the texture of the author?s narrative %efore this, %ut here dialogue %ecomes an organic part of the wor$" Dialogue within the author?s narrative is a stylistic constituent of the su%style of emotive prose" True, Malory?s dialogues were far from even resem%ling the natural features of living collo#uial speech" The speech of the heroes lac$s elliptical sentences, %rea$s in the narrative and other typical features of the spo$en variety of English" Emotional colouring is not shown in the syntactical design of the sentences %ut in the author?s remar$s and descriptions" ;ut nevertheless JMorte d?)rthurJ must %e counted as a historical landmar$ in esta%lishing the principles of emotive prose" The introduction of dialogue means that the road to the more or less free use of collo#uial language was already mar$ed out" urther on, collo#uial elements %egan to infiltrate into poetic diction as well" <ith the coming of the #i5%ee %$ 'e %-r&+ which incidentally heralded a great advance in all spheres of English social life, English emotive prose progressed rapidly" Kumerous translations from !atin and 2ree$ played a great role in helping to wor$ out stylistic norms for the emotive prose of that period" Translations from modern languages, of 0talian and rench romances in particular, also %egan to influence the stylistic norms of emotive prose" The necessity to find ade#uate language means to convey the ideas and the stylistic peculiarities of the text in the source language made the translators extend the scope of language resources already used in literature, thus enlarging the potentialities of stylistic devices and language means"

Sixteenth century professional literary men li$e Philip Sidney, :ohn !yiy, 1o%ert 2reene and others $nown as the JUniversity <its,J alongside their interests in poetry and the dramatic art, did not neglect emotive prose" ) special stylistic trend arose named after a literary wor$ %y !yly entitled JEuphues, the )natomy of <it"J The whole %oo$ is written in a highHflown, overHrefined manner" There is a fine su%tlety of expression com%ined with an unrestrained use of periphrasis" >ne can find allusions, parallel constructions, antithesis, similes and many other stylistic devices in such a%undance that they pile up on one another or form long monotonous chains, the lin$s of which are instances of a given stylistic device" 0nasmuch as this literary wor$ has had rather a nota%le effect on the su%se#uent development of emotive prose +!yiy is called the pioneer of the English novel/ it will not come amiss to give a sample of the prose of JEuphuesJD JThe merchant that travaileth for gain, the hus%andman that toileth for increase, the lawyer that pleadeth for gold, the craftsman that see$eth to live %y his la%our, all these, after they have fatted themselves with sufficient, either ta$e their ease or less pain than they were accustomed" =ippomenes ceased to run when he had gotten the goal, =ercules to la%our when he had o%tained the victory, Mercury to pipe when he had cast )rgus in a slum%er" Every action hath his endI and then we leave to sweat when we have found? the sweet" The ant, though she toil in summer, yet in winter she leaveth to travail" The %ee, though she delight to suc$ the fair flower, yet is she at last cloyed with honey" The spider that weaveth the finest thread ceaseth at the last, when she hath finished her we%" ;ut in the action and the study of the mind, gentlemen, it is far otherwise, for he that tasteth the sweet of his learning endureth all the sour of la%our" ie that see$eth the depth of $nowledge is as it were in a la%yrinth"""J This passage shows the prolixity of what came to %e called the e-6$-i#%i' #%&"e with its illustrations %uilt on semantic parallelism, the much favoured device of mythological allusions, the carefully chosen voca%ulary and with its refinement and grace" !yiy?s aim was to write in a style that was distinct from collo#uial speech and yet not poetry" =e actually says that Englishmen wished Jto hear a finer speech than the language will allow"J Euphuism however is regarded as a reactionary trend in the development" The word ?style? is used here not in the terminological sense employed in this %oo$, %ut in a more general, looser application" of emotive prose" 0t was orientated upon the language of the court and the no%ility and %arred all $inds of lively collo#uial words and expressions" 0n general it is characteriGed %y artificiality of manner"

Euphuism %red a li$ing for excessive em%ellishment, and this in its turn, called forth an unrestrained use of rhetorical devices unmotivated %y the content and unCustified %y the purport of the communication" ;ut not all ,3th century emotive prose was of this character" <alter 1aleigh?s writing was much simpler, %oth in voca%ulary and syntaxI it was less em%ellished and often collo#uial" 1oger )scham, though an excellent classical scholar, chose to write JEnglish matter in the English speech for English men"J =e writes in a plain, straightforward, clear manner with no attempt at elegance" Philip Sidney, though a poet, wrote prose that could %e as clear as )scham?s" Even when his sentences are long, they do not lose their clarity" 0n contrast to )scham he did not scorn ornament, %ut unli$e !yiy, he used it in moderation" The prose of 1ichard =oo$er, who wrote on contraversial religious themes, is restrained and has power and %alance" =oo$er also had considera%le influence on the development of English emotive prose" Euphuism however had merits in its time" 0t made menHofHletters loo$ for finer, more elegant forms of expression and this search inevita%ly made them more formH conscious H they learned to polish their language and, to some extent developed a feeling for prose rhythm" ;ut at later periods euphuism %ecame reactionary, inasmuch as it %arred all $inds of lively collo#uial words and expressions and hindered the process of li%erating the %ellesHlettres style from rigid poetical restrictions" The JdemocratiGationJ of the means of expression was incompati%le with the aristocratic artificiality and prettiness of euphuism" ) great influence on the further development of the characteristic features of the %ellesHlettres style was exercised %y Sha$espeare" )lthough he never wrote prose, except for a few insertions in some of his plays, he declared his poetical credo and his attitude towards all $inds of em%ellishments in language in some of his wor$s", )lso in his J!ove?s !a%our !ostJ Sha$espeare condemns the em%ellishing tendencies of some of the poets" =ere is a wellH$nown #uotation, which has long %een used to characteriGe the pompous, showy manner of expression" JTaffeta phrases, sil$en terms precise, ThreeHpil?d hyper%oles, spruce affectationD igures pedanticalI these summer flies =ave %lown me full of maggot ostentationD 0 do forswear them"""J

>n the whole, the emotive prose of the ,3th century had not yet shaped itself as a separate style" (erse and drama predominate among wor$s of %ellesHlettres" The small amount of prose written, in particular emotive prose, can %e ascri%ed to the general strong tendency to regard the spo$en variety of the English language as inferior and therefore unworthy to %e represented in %ellesHlettres" )nd without speech of characters there can %e no true emotive prose" This perhaps explains the fact that most of the prose wor$s of the period were histories, %iographies, accounts of travels, essays on different philosophical and aesthetic pro%lems" There were, of course, exceptions li$e 1o%ert 2reene?s J!ife and Death of Ked ;rowneJ and Thomas Kash?s JThe Unfortunate Traveller, or The !ife of :ac$ <ilton,J the former %eing a story of crime and the latter an adventure story" These are precursors of the modern novel" The #e*e %ee %$ 'e %-r& saw a considera%le development in emotive prose and in prose as a whole" 0t was an epoch of great political and religious strife, and much that was written had a pu%licistic aim" The decline in drama due to the closing of the theatres %y the Puritans in ,3E4 may also have had its effect in stimulating the development of emotive prose" The two contrary tendencies in the use of language means, so stri$ing in the ,3th century, assume new forms in the ,.th" There was first of all the continuation of the classical tradition, and secondly there was the less scholarly, %ut more English prose that had %een employed %y the fortyHseven translators of the J)uthoriGed (ersionJ of the ;i%le" )s is $nown, during the ,3th century the English literary language had received large additions from classical 2ree$ and !atin and also from modern rench and 0talian" Some writers considered it good style to introduce not only lexical %ut also syntactical innovationsD sentences were often %uilt according to classical patterns" ;urton, ;rowne and others constructed long passages following !atin models" >ne of the ,.th century writers statesD JMany thin$ that they can never spea$ elegantly, nor write significantly, except they do it in a language of their own devisingI as if they were ashamed of their mother tongue, and thought it not sufficiently curious to express their fancies" ;y means where of, more rench and !atin words have gained ground upon us since the middle of Nueen Elisa%eth?s reign than were admitted %y our ancestors"""J The two tendencies were com%ined in the prose wor$s of Milton who, %eing a Puritan, recogniGed the ;i%le as the highest authority in all matters, %ut who had a deep $nowledge of the ancient classics as well"

The influence of the ;i%le on English emotive prose is particularly stri$ing in the wor$s of :ohn ;unyan" JThe Pilgrim?s ProgressJ represents a new trend in the development of emotive prose" =ere is an excerpt from the wor$D JKow 2iant Despair had a wife, and her name was DiffidenceI so when he was gone to %ed, he told his wife what he had done, to wit, that he had ta$en a couple of prisoners and cast them into his dungeon, for trespassing on his grounds" Then he as$ed her also what he had %est to do further to them" So she as$ed what they were, whence they came, and whither they were %ound, and he told her" Then she counseled him, that when he arose in the morning he should %eat them without mercy" """The next night she tal$ed with her hus%and a%out them further, and understanding that they were yet alive, did advise him to counsel them to ma$e away with themselves" So when morning was come, he goes to them in a surly manner, as %efore, and perceiving them to %e very sore with the stripes that he had given them the day %efore, he told them that since they were never li$e to come out of that place, their only way would %e forthwith to ma$e an end of themselves, either with $nife, halter, or poisonD for why, said he, should you choose life, seeing it is attended with so much %itternessY ;ut they desired him to let them go" """Then did the prisoners consult %etween themselves, whether it was %est to ta$e his counsel or noI and thus they %egan to discourseD H H C$r. ;rother, #aid C$ri#%ia + what shall we doY The life that we now live is misera%le" or my part, 0 $now not whether it is %est to live thus, or die out of hand" My soul chooseth strangling rather than life, and the grave is more easy for me than this dungeonL Shall we %e ruled %y the giantY H)6e. 0ndeed our present condition is dreadful, """<ell, towards the evening the giant goes down into the dungeon again, to see if his prisoners had ta$en his counselI"""J 0n this excerpt the main peculiarities of the style of emotive prose of the puritan trend stand out clearly" Simplicity in choice of words and in syntax is the predominant feature of the language of this type of emotive prose" The speech of the characters is mainly shaped in the form of indirect discourse" <hen direct speech appears, it is arranged as in a play, that is, the spea$er is indicated %y giving his full name or its contracted form at the %eginning of a line" The name is not syntactically connected with the character?s utterance" 0t is interesting to note in passing, that the yet unesta%lished norms of emotive prose are reflected in a com%ination of the syntactical arrangement of a play and that of emotive prose, as for example in this passage where the name of the spea$er precedes the utterance as in plays, and the

same name is mentioned within the direct speech as if it were introduced %y the writer" So there is a $ind of mixture of two su%styles, emotive prose and drama" =owever, ?$e incursions of direct speech are short, they are given within the author?s narrative, for example, J"""their only way would %e forthwith to ma$e an end of themselves, either with $nife, halter, or poisonD for why, said he, should you choose life, seeing it is attended with so much %itternessY ;ut they desired him to let them go """J )nother peculiarity of the prose of this period is a rather poorly developed system of connectives" The connectives a d+ #) %$a%+ %$e are used a%undantly and often in a way that does not comply with their generally accepted functions" ;unyan?s wor$s have played a considera%le role in esta%lishing the most characteristic features of emotive prose" 0magery, so characteristic of the %ellesH lettres style in general, %egins to colour emotive prose differently from the way used in poetry and plays of the nonHpuritan trend" The imagery in the JPilgrim?s ProgressJ is %ased on allegory" )llegory is a$in to metaphor, %ut it differs from the latter %y having a definite sym%olic meaning" )llegory in its most common form is a variety of antonomasia" <ords denoting a%stract notions are used as proper names" So, in the passage #uoted a%ove the name of the giant is ?Despair?, his wife?s name H ?Diffidence?, the name of the Castle is ?Dou%ting Castle?, the names of the pilgrims are ?Christian? and ?=opeful"? This type of imagery has considera%le tenacity in emotive prose and particularly in plays" TellHtale names for characters are still widely used and should %e evaluated as a variety of antonomasia" The puritan influence on the language of emotive prose at this time displays what may %e called an antiHrenaissance spirit" This is shown in the disparagement of mythological imagery and any em%ellishment of language whatever" ;unyan?s a%stract way of treating ordinary everydayHlife events and conflicts led to an a%stract manner in depicting his characters" They are, as a rule, devoid of individuality" There is no typification of a character?s speech, and therefore there is practically no difference %etween the language of the author and that of the heroes" ) tendency to simplify the literary language, resulting from the derogatory attitude of the puritans to classical learning, is apparent in seventeenth century emotive prose, at least among some writers" =owever, the language of emotive prose in this period, as in the preceding and su%se#uent periods, did not progress in one line" The classical tradition and the overHuse of em%ellishments were also alive, and can %e seen at any period in the

development of the English literary language, and of emotive prose in particular, in a greater or lesser degree right until the %eginning of the 78th century" The struggle %etween the two opposing tendencies in rendering ideas in the style of emotive prose reflects the political and religious strife %etween the Puritans and the Cavaliers, who were on the side of Charles 0 against the Puritan Party during the Civil <ar of ,3E7H,3F7" )mong representatives of the JCavalierJ trend in literature we shall mention :eremy Taylor, whose wor$s, mainly sermons, are illustrative of this ornamental manner" J"""he strongly resem%les Spenser in his prolific fancy and diction, in a certain musical arrangement and sweetness of expression, in prolonged description, and in delicious musings and reveries, suggested %y some favourite image or metaphor, on which he dwells with the fondness and enthusiasm of a young poet" 0n these passages he is also apt to run into excessI epithet is heaped upon epithet, and figure upon figureI all the #uaint conceits of his fancy, and the curious stores of his learning are dragged in, till %oth precision and propriety are sometimes lost"J There was also a third trend in emotive prose, which %egan to develop in the ,.th century and which %ecame more apparent in su%se#uent periods" 1epresentative of this trend are Thomas Sprat, and in particular :ohn Dryden" This trend is responsi%le for the introduction into writing of common words and phrases $nown as collo#uialisms" True, in ,.th century emotive prose these elements were yet few" ;ut this third trend, as it were, %ro$e the ice and a tric$le of collo#uial words %egan to flow into emotive prose" Thomas Sprat raised his voice against luxury and redundance of speech" =e %eheld Jwith indignation how many mists and uncertainties these specious tropes and figures have %rought on our $nowledge"J =e was all for a Jclose, na$ed, natural way of spea$ing, positive expressions, clear senses, a native easiness"J =e preferred Jthe language of artisans, countrymen and merchants %efore that of wits and scholars"J The models of prose writing at Dryden?s disposal were the collo#uial manner of ;unyan and similar writers on the one hand and, on the other, the ela%orate manner of !yiy, Sidney, ;rowse, :eremy Taylor and others" Dryden retained the simple diction, and disciplined the loose everyday expressions of the former, he cut off the aw$ward !atinisms and longHwinded elegance of the latter" The features of Dryden?s prose are clarity, simplicity of sentence structure, lac$ of ornament, fluency and rhythm" The influence of Dryden on %oth emotive prose and pu%licistic

prose, which %egan to develop rapidly in the ,4th century, was felt throughout the century" Dryden has %een called the father of English literary criticism" )fter the 1estoration of the Monarchy in ,338 a new trend arose in literature, which was also reflected in prose" The critical spirit was more and more ta$ing the place of the imaginative" Emotive prose was %ecoming a weapon of satire and not simply a means of descri%ing and interpreting the life of the day" This trend, materialiGed mainly in essays, was outstanding in the prose wor$s of Dryden +his JEssay on Dramatic PoesyJ in particular/ and continued into the ,4th century, where it %ecame conspicuous" Ei!$%ee %$ 'e %-r& emotive prose when compared to that of the seventeenth is in its most essential, leading features, characteriGed %y the predominance of the third trend" This third trend, which may Custly %e called realistic, is not the further development of the puritan tendencies descri%ed a%ove, although, dou%tless, these tendencies %ore some relevance to its typical features" The motto, of this trend may %e expressed %y the phrase Jcall a spade a spade"J ;y this phrase the adherents of the realistic trend in literature, and in emotive prose in particular, expressed the idea that all things should %e called %y their right names, that the writers should use plain, %lunt words" This was a $ind of protest against the complicated and ela%orate periphrases %y which the most common concepts were often descri%ed" The history of English literature gives their due to such prominent menHofHletters as Defoe, Swift and ielding who were ardent apologists of this direction in prose writing, and who created fascinating novels, most of which are still rec$oned among the masterpieces of English literature" The aim of this new school of writers was to ma$e the language clear, precise, wellH%alanced, and moderate" They developed a manner of writing, which %y its strength, simplicity, and directness, was admira%ly adapted to ordinary everyHday needs" The writers of the ,4th century did much to esta%lish emotive prose as an independent form of literary art" >f course the general philosophical and aesthetic views dominating in this period greatly influenced the manner of writing" Eighteenth century menHofHletters considered that, %eing educated representatives of their society, it was their duty to safeguard the purity of the English language" =owever the principles they followed were o%scure and even contradictory" >n the one hand, some of them, li$e :ohnson, were against the introduction into literary English of any collo#uial elements, regarding the latter as %eing inferior to the polished language of educated people" >n the other hand, many others felt an urgent necessity to %ridge the gap %etween literary and

collo#uial modes of expression in order to achieve a greater vividness and flexi%ility of utterance" Therefore, though using the general language of this period, at the same time they sought to su%Cect it to conventional stylistic norms" These stylistic norms were very rigid" So much so, that the individual peculiarities of the authors were fre#uently overHweighed %y the general re#uirement of the stylistic norms" These norms are revealed in the levelingHoff of the differences %etween the literary language and the spo$en language of the time" The author?s speech and that of the heroes resem%le each other, so there is no speech characteriGation" )ll the characters spea$ ali$e and almost in the same way as the author himself does" )nother stylistic feature of the emotive prose of the ,4th century is a peculiar manner of conveying the impression that the event narrated actually occurred, that the narrative possessed authenticity" This manner of writing imparts some of the features of official documents to emotive prose" Some of the wor$s of emotive prose therefore, with their wealth of detail and what seems to %e genuine fact, resem%le chronicles" <hen the narrative is written in the first person singular, as it very often is, it reads almost li$e a diary" The narrative itself is generally impassionate, devoid of any emotional elements, with strict o%servance of syntactical rules governing the structure of the sentences" 0n such wor$s there are very few epithets, almost no imagery" Such are most of the novels %y Defoe, Swift, ielding and others" 0llustrative in this respect are the wor$s of Defoe" =e really deserves the title of the originator of the JauthenticatedJ manner in emotive prose" =is novel J1o%inson CrusoeJ is written in a language, which %y its lexical and syntactical peculiarities has very much in common with the style of an official report" :oseph )ddison and 1ichard Steele, whose essays were written for the Cournals JThe TatlerJ and JThe SpectatorJ also followed the general stylistic principles of this period" The most stri$ing feature, of course, is the inade#uate representation of direct speech" The most lively conversations +dialogues/ are generally rendered in indirect speech and only fragments of lively direct intercourse can %e found in long passages of the narrative" These are mostly exclamatory sentences, li$e JSir Cloudesley ShovelL ) very gallant manLJ or JDr" ;us%yL ) great manL =e whipped my grandfatherI a very great manLJ The ,4th century is Custly regarded as the century, which formed emotive prose as a selfH sufficient %ranch of the %ellesHlettres style" ;ut still, the manner in which emotive prose used language means and stylistic devices in some cases still resem%led the

manner of poetic style" )t this time also it was difficult to tell a piece of emotive prose from an essay or even from scientific prose" This was mainly due to the fact that the most essential and characteristic features of these styles were not yet fully shaped" 0t was only %y the end of the ,4th century that the most typical features of the emotive prose style %ecame really prominent" !aurence Sterne with his JTristram ShandyJ contri%uted greatly to this process" Sterne thought that the main tas$ of emotive prose was J"""to depict the inner world of man, his everHchanging moods" Therefore, at the foundation of his novel lies the emotional and not the logical principle"J <ith Sterne, emotive prose %egan to use a num%er of stylistic devices which practically determined many of its characteristic features" 0n Tristram Shandy there appear rudimentary forms of represented speechI the speech of the heroes approaches the norms of lively collo#uial languageI the narrative itself, %egins to reflect the individuality of the author, not only in his world outloo$ %ut, which is very important for linguistic analysis, in his manner of using the language means of his time" =e attempts to give speech characteristics to his heroes, uses the different stylistic strata of the English voca%ulary widely %oth in the individual speech of his characters and in the language of the author himself" The role of Sterne in the shaping of the typical features of emotive prose of the following centuries is underestimated" =e was the first to ma$e an attempt to overcome the traditional form of the then fashiona%le narrative in depicting characters, events, social life and human conflicts" 0t was necessary to enliven the dialogue and it was !aurence Sterne who was a%le to do so" The great realistic writers of the nineteenth and the %eginning of the twentieth centuries to some extent followed in his footsteps" Ni e%ee %$ 'e %-r& emotive prose can already %e regarded as a su%style of %ellesHlettres, complete in its most fundamental properties as they are descri%ed at the %eginning of this chapter" The general tendency in English literature to depict the life of all strata of English society called forth changes in regard to the language used for this purpose" Standard English %egins to actively a%sor% elements of the English voca%ulary which were %anned in earlier periods from the language of emotive prose, that is Cargonisms, professional words, slang, dialectal words and even vulgarisms, though the latter were used sparingly and euphemistically H da/ was printed d(G 0"))d&(0Hand the li$e" 7 0lliterate speech finds its expression in emotive prose %y distorting the spelling of words, %y using coc$ney and dialectal wordsI there appears a clear difference %etween the speech of

the writer and that of his characters" ) new feature %egins to esta%lish itself as a property of emotive prose alone, namely, what may %e called multiplicity of style" !anguage means typical of other styles of literary language are drawn into the system of expressive means and stylistic devices of this particular su%style" 0t has already %een pointed out that these insertions do not remain in their typical form, they are recast to comply with the essential principles of emotive prose" =ere is an example of a newspaper %rief found in Thac$eray?s J(anity airJD J2overnorship of Coventry 0sland"H =" M" S" MellowCac$, Commander :aunders, has %rought letters and papers from Coventry 0sland" =" E" Sir Thomas !iverseege had fallen a victim to the prevailing fever at Swampton" =is loss is deeply felt in the flourishing colony" <e hear that the governorship has %een offered to Colonel 1awdon Crawley, C" ;", a distinguished <aterloo officer" <e need not only men of ac$nowledged %ravery, %ut men of administrative talents to superintend the affairs of our coloniesI and we have no dou%t that the gentleman selected %y the Colonial >ffice to fill the lamented vacancy which has occurred at Coventry 0sland is admira%ly calculated for the post which he is a%out to occupy"J ;y the end of the nineteenth century and particularly at the %eginning of the twentieth, certain stylistic devices had %een refined and continue to %e further developed and perfected" )mong these must %e mentioned represented speech, %oth uttered and unuttered or inner, and also various ways of using detached construction, which is particularly favoured %y presentHday menHofHletters" Syntax too has undergone modifications in the emotive prose of the last century and a half" Pre#e %(da& emotive prose is to a large extent characteriGed %y the %rea$ingHup of traditional syntactical designs of the preceding periods" Kot only detached construction, %ut also fragmentation of syntactical models, peculiar, unexpected ways of com%ining sentences, especially the gapHsentence lin$ and other modern syntactical patterns, are freely introduced into presentHday emotive prose" 0ts advance is so rapid that it is only possi%le to view it in the gross" Many interesting investigations have %een made of the characteristic features of the language of different writers where what is typical and what is idiosyncratic are su%Cected to analysis" ;ut so far no deductions have %een made as to the general trends of emotive prose of the nineteenth century, to say nothing of the twentieth" This wor$ awaits investigators who may %e a%le to draw up some general principles distinguishing modern emotive prose from the emotive prose of the preceding periods"

LANGUAGE OF THE DRAMA The third su%division of the %ellesHlettres style is the "a !-a!e )7 6"a&#. The first thing to %e said a%out the parameters of this variety of %ellesHlettres is that unli$e poetry, which, except for %allads, in essence excludes direct speech and therefore dialogue, and unli$e emotive prose, which is a com%ination of monologue +the author?s speech/ and dialogue +the speech of the characters/, the language of plays is entirely dialogue" The author?s speech is almost entirely excluded except for the playwright?s remar$s and stage directions, significant though they may %e" ;ut the language of the characters is in no way the exact reproduction of the norms of collo#uial language, although the playwright see$s to reproduce actual conversation as far as the norms of the written language will allow" )ny variety of the %ellesHlettres style will use the norms of the literary language of the given period" True, in every variety there will %e found, as we have already shown, departures from the esta%lished literary norms" ;ut in genuinely artistic wor$ these departures will never go %eyond the %oundaries of the permissi%le fluctuations of the norms, lest the aesthetic aspect of the wor$ should %e lost" 0t follows then that the language of plays is always styliGed, that is, it strives to retain the modus of literary English, unless the playwright has a particular aim, which re#uires the use of nonHliterary forms and expressions" =owever, even in this case a good playwright will use such forms sparingly" Thus in ;ernard Shaw?s play J anny?s irst Play,J Dora, a streetHgirl, whose language reveals her up%ringing, her lac$ of education, her way of living, her tastes and aspirations, nevertheless uses comparatively few nonHliterary words" A 0- @+ a #8-i77er+ are examples" Even these are explained with the help of some literary device" This is due to the styliGation of the language" The styliGation of collo#uial language is one of the features of plays which at different stages in the history of English drama has manifested itself in different ways, revealing on the one hand the general trends of the literary language, and on the other hand the personal indiosyncrasies of the writer" 0n the ,3th century the styliGation of collo#uial language was scarcely maintained due to several factsD plays were written in haste for the companies of actors eagerly waiting for them, and they were written for a wide audience, mostly the common people" )s is $nown, plays were staged in pu%lic s#uares on a raised platform almost without stage properties"

The collo#uial language of the ,3th century therefore enCoyed an almost unrestrained freedom and this partly found its expression in the lively dialogue of plays" The general trends in the developing literary language were also reflected in the wide use of %i%lical and mythological allusions, evocative of 1enaissance traditions as well as in the a%undant use of compound epithets, which can also %e ascri%ed to the influence of the great 2ree$ and !atin epics" 2enerally spea$ing, the influence of 1enaissance traditions can also %e seen in a fairly rich inCection of oaths, curses, swear words and other vulgarisms into the language texture of the English drama of this period" 0n order to chec$ the unlimited use of oaths and curses in plays, an act of Parliament was passed in ,389, which for%ade the profane and Cesting use of the names of 2od, Christ, the =oly 2host and the Trinity in any stage play or performance" The ,3th century plays are mostly written in iam%ic pentameter, rhymed or unrhymed" The plays of this period therefore were Custly called dramatic poetry" The staged performance, the dialogue character of the discourse and the then o%vious tendency to $eep close to the norms of collo#uial language affected the verse and resulted in %rea$ing the regular rhythm of the metre" This %rea$ing of the regularity and strictness of the rhythmical design %ecame one of the characteristic features of the language of dramatic poetry, and the language of plays of the earlier writers, who employed a strict rhythmic pattern without runHon lines +enCam%ment/ or other rhythmical modifications, is considered tedious and monotonous" Thus one of the most nota%le plays of this period JThe !ove of *ing David and air ;ethsa%eJ %y 2eorge Peele, in spite of its smooth musical versification, is regarded as lac$ing variety" True, J"""the art of varying the pauses and modulating the verse without the aid of rhyme had not yet %een generally adopted"J ;ut the great playwrights of this period, forced %y the situation in which the communicative process ta$es place H on a stage facing an audience H, realiGed the necessity of modulating the rhythmical pattern of %lan$ verse" Marlowe, 2reene, Kash, Sha$espeare and ;en :onson modulated their verse to a greater or lesser degree" Marlowe, for instance, found %lan$ verse consisting of lines each ending with a stressed monosylla%le, and each line standing %y itself rather monotonous" =e modified the pauses, changed the stresses and made the metre suit the sense instead of ma$ing the sense fit the metre as his predecessors had done" =e even went further and introduced passages of prose into the texture of his plays, thus aiming at an elevation of the utterance" =is J!ife and Death of Dr" austusJ a%ounds in passages, which can hardly %e classed as verse"

Compare, for example, the following two passages from this playD )USTD >h, if my soul must suffer for my sin, impose some end to my incessant pain" !et austus live in hell a thousand years, ) hundred thousand, and at the last %e savedD Ko end is limited to damned souls" )USTD ;ut austus?s offence can ne?er %e pardoned" The serpent that tempted Eve may %e saved, %ut not austus" >h, gentlemen, hear me with patience, and trem%le not at my speeches" Though my heart pant and #uiver to remem%er that 0 have %een a student here these thirty years, >h, would 0 had ne?er seen <irtem%erg, never read %oo$L )nd what wonders have 0 done, all 2ermany can witness, yes, all the worldD for which austus hath lost %oth 2ermany and the worldI """ 0t is unnecessary to point out the rhythmical difference %etween these two passages" The iam%ic pentameter of the first and nonHrhythmical prose of the second are #uite apparent" Sha$espeare also used prose as a stylistic device" The prose passages in Sha$espeare?s plays are well $nown to any student of EliGa%ethan drama" Sha$espeare used prose in passages of repartee %etween minor characters, particularly in his comediesI in JThe Taming of the Shrew,J and JTwelfth KightJ for instance, and, also in the historical plays J=enry 0(J +Part 0, Part 00/ and J=enry ("J 0n some places there are prose monologues %earing the characteristic features of rhythmical prose with its parallel constructions, repetitions, etc" )s an example we may ta$e alstaff?s monologue addressed to the young Prince =enry in J=enry 0(J +Part 0, )ct 00, Sc" E/" >n the other hand, prose conversation %etween tragic characters retains much of the sylla%ic #uality of %lan$ verse, e"g", the conversation %etween Polonius and =amlet +J=amlet"J )ct 00, Sc" 7/" ) popular form of entertainment at the courts of EliGa%eth and the Stuarts was the mas#ue" The origin of the court mas#ue must have %een the performances presented at the court on cele%rated occasions, as a coronation, a peer?s marriage, the %irth of a prince and similar events" These performances were short s$etches with allusions to 2ree$ and !atin mythology, allegoric in nature, fre#uently accompanied %y song and music and performed %y the no%ility" These mas#ues are %elieved to %e the earliest forms of what is now $nown as Jspo$en drama"J The reference to the events of the day and allegoric representation of the mem%ers of the no%ility called forth the use of words and phrases alien to poetic diction and passages of prose %egan to flood into the text of the plays" ;ut the drama of the

seventeenth century still holds fast to poetic diction and up to the decline of the theatre which was caused %y the Puritan 2overnment )ct of ,3E7, a spo$en drama as we $now it toHday had not seen the stage" The revival of drama %egan only in the second half of the ,4th century" ;ut the ultimate shaping of the play as an independent form of literary wor$ with its own laws of functioning, with its own characteristic language features was actually completed only at the end of the ,-th century" The natural conventionality of any literary wor$ is most o%vious in plays" People are made to tal$ to each other in front of an audience, and yet as if there were no audience" Dialogue, which as has %een pointed out, is %y its very nature ephemeral, spontaneous, fleeting, is made lasting" 0t is intended to %e reproduced many times %y different actors with different interpretations" The dialogue loses its collo#uial essence and remains simply conversation in form" The individualiGation of each character?s speech then %ecomes of paramount importance %ecause it is the idiosyncrasy of expression, which to some extent reveals the inner, psychological and intellectual traits of the characters" The playwright see$s to approximate a natural form of dialogue, a form as close to natural living dialogue as the literary norms will allow" ;ut at the same time he is %ound %y the aestheticoHcognitive function of the %ellesHlettres style and has to mould the conversation to suit the general aims of this style" Thus the language of plays is a styliGed type of the spo$en variety of language" <hat then is this process of styliGation that the language of plays undergoesY 0n what language peculiarities is the styliGation revealedY The analysis of the language texture of plays has shown that the most characteristic feature here is H to use the term of the theory of information H redundancy of information caused %y the necessity to amplify the utterance" This is done for the sa$e of the audience" 0t has already %een pointed out that the spo$en language tends to curtail utterances, sometimes simplifying the syntax to fragments of sentences without even showing the character of their interrelation" 0n plays the curtailment of utterances is not so extensive as it is in natural dialogue" ;esides, in lively conversation even when a prolonged utterance, a monologue, ta$es place, it is interspersed with the interlocutor?s Jsignals of attentionJ, as they may %e called, for exampleD &e#+ &ea$+ )$. T$a%B# ri!$%+ #)+ I #ee+ !))d+ &e# I @ )?+ )$()$+ 7i e+ O$+ /& !))d e##+ )$ dear+ ?e""+ ?e""(?e""+ Je""+ I e*er, and the li$e" 0n plays these Jsignals of attentionJ are irrelevant and

therefore done away with" The monologue in plays is never interrupted %y any such exclamatory words on the part of the person to whom the speech is addressed" urther, in plays the characters? utterances are generally much longer than in ordinary conversation" =ere is a short example of a dialogue %etween two characters from ;ernard Shaw?s play J=eart%rea$ =ouseJD C)PT)0K S=>T>(E1D Kurse, who is this misguided and unfortunate young ladyY KU1SED She says Miss =essy invited her, sir" C)PT)0K S=>T>(E1D )nd had she no friend, no parents to warn her against my daughter?s invitationsY This is a pretty sort of house, %y heavensL ) young and attractive lady is invited here" =er luggage is left on this steps, for hoursI and she herself is deposited in the poop and a%andoned, tired and starving"""J This passage is typical in many ways" irst of all the matterHofHfact dialogue %etween the captain and the nurse gradually flows into a monologue in which elements of the spo$en language and of emotive prose are merged" The monologue %egins with the conCunction ?and? which serves to lin$ the preceding #uestion to the monologue" The #uestion after ?and? is more of a J#uestionHinHtheHnarrativeJ than a real #uestionD the captain does not expect an answer and proceeds with his monologue" Then, after an exclamatory ?This is a pretty sort of house, %y heavensL? which is actual, common collo#uial, there again comes an utterance intended to inform the audience of the Captain?s attitude towards the =ouse and the household" Mar$ aisc the professionalism ?poop? used to characteriGe the language of ShotH over, a retired ship?s captain" 0n fact, there is no dialogue, or as Prof" :a$u%ins$y has it, a Jfalse dialogueJ, or Jmonological dialogueJ, the nurse?s remar$ %eing a $ind of lin$ing sentence %etween the twc parts of the captain?s monologue" These lin$ing remar$s serve to enliven the monologue, thus ma$ing it easier to grasp the meaning of the utterance" The monological character of the dialogue in plays %ecomes apparent also %y the fact that two or more #uestions may %e as$ed one after another, as in the following excerptsD ," J!)DM ;10T>M)1TD Do you suppose this wic$ed and immoral tradition can %e $ept up for everY Do you pretend that Stephen could not carry on the foundry Cust as well as all the other sons of %ig %usiness housesYJ

7" J;)1;)1)D DollyD were you really in earnest a%out itY <ould you have Coined if you had never seen meYJ +Shaw/ Keedless to say, in ordinary conversation we never use a succession of #uestions" 2enerally only one, perhaps two, #uestions are as$ed at a time, and if more are as$ed H then we already have a $ind of emotional narrativeI not a dialogue in the exact meaning of %$e word" 0n ordinary conversation we generally find Jse#uence sentences?? connected %y Jse#uence signalsJ" These signals help to esta%lish the logical reference to what was said %efore, thus lin$ing all se#uential series of sentences into one whole" These se#uence signals are mostly pronouns, adver%s, conCunctions, as in JThe %oy has Cust %rought the evening 6a6er. I% i# a% the door,J or JUp to 9:E5 !" was with :ohnson. Si 'e he has wor$ed with us"J 0t must %e remar$ed in passing that almost any lively dialogue will hold a se#uence of sentences for only a short span, the nature of lively dialogue allowing deviations from the starting point" =ow often do we hear the phraseD J<hat was 0 going to sayYJ or J<hat was 0 driving atYJ J=ow did we come to tal$ a%out thisYJ H to ascertain the initial topic of conversation, which has %een forgotten" This is not the case in plays" The se#uence of sentences reflecting the se#uence of thought, %eing directed %y the purport of the writer, will not allow any deviations from the course ta$en, unless this was the deli%erate intention of the playwright" Therefore unli$e the real, natural spo$en variety of language, the language of plays is already purposeful" The se#uence signals, which are not so apparent in lively conversation %ecome conspicuous in the language of plays" =ere is an illustrative example of a span of thought expressed in a num%er of sentences all lin$ed %y the pronoun he and all referring to the first word of the utterance ?Dunn? which in its turn hoo$s the utterance to the preceding sentenceD JT=E C)PT)0KD D- D 0 had a %oatswain whose name was D- . He was originally a pirate in China" He set up as a ship?s chandler with stores, which 0 have every reason to %elieve $e stole from me" Ko dou%t $e %ecame rich" )re you $i# daughterYJ The degree to which the norms of ordinary collo#uial language are converted into those of the language of plays, that is, the degree to which Jthe spo$en language is made literaryJ varies at different periods in the development of drama and depends also on the idiosyncrasies of the playwright himself" =ere are two illustrations, one ta$en from >liver 2oldsmith?s play JThe 2oodHKatured ManJ, an ,4th century play, and the other from =" Pinter?s play JThe ;irthday PartyJ, a play

of our time" JM1" C1>)*E1D ;ut can anything %e more a%surd, than to dou%le our distresses %y our apprehensions, and put it in the power of every low fellow that can scrawl ten words of wretched spelling, to torment usYJ Compare this utterance with the followingD J2>!D;E12D <hat?s your name nowY ST)K!EMD :oe Soarp" 2>!D;E12D 0s the num%er 4E3 possi%le or necessaryY ST)K!EMD Keither" 2>!D;E12D <rongL 0s the num%er 4E3 possi%le or necessaryY ST)K!EMD ;oth"J )lmost the whole play is composed of such short #uestions and answers tending to reproduce an actual communicative process where the sense is vague to the outsider" Considera%le effort on the part of the audience is sometimes necessary in order to follow the trend of the conversation and decode the playwright?s purport" 0t may %e remar$ed in passing that there is an analogous tendency in modern emotive prose where dialogue occupies considera%le space" 0n some of the novels it ta$es up three or four pages running, thus resem%ling a play"? 0n summing up, it will not come amiss to state that any presentation of a play is an aesthetic procedure and the language of plays is of the type, which is meant to %e reproduced" Therefore even when the language of a play approximates that of a real dialogue, it will none the less %e JstyliGedJ" The ways and means this styliGation is carried out are difficult to o%serve without careful consideration" ;ut they are there and specification of these means will %e a valua%le contri%ution to linguistic science" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9 W 66.255(2:M4. PUFLICISTS STYLE P-0"i'i#%i' #%&"e %ecame discerni%le as a separate style in the middle of the ,4th century" 0t also falls into three varieties, each having its own distinctive features, which integrate them" Unli$e other styles, the pu%licistic style has spo$en varieties, in particular, the oratorical su%style" The development of radio and television has %rought into %eing a new spo$en variety, namely, the radi) ')//e %ar&. The other two are the e##a& +moral, philosophical, literary/ and ar%i'"e# +political, social, economic/ in newspapers, Cournals and magaGines" ;oo$ reviews in Cournals and magaGines and also pamphlets are generally included among essays" The general aim of pu%licistic style, which ma$es it stand out as a

separate style, is to exert a constant and deep influence on pu%lic opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given %y the writer or the spea$er is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essays or article not merely %y logical argumentation, %ut %y emotional appeal as well" This %rainwashing function is most effective in oratory, for here the most powerful instrument of persuasion is %rought into playD the human voice" Due to its characteristic com%ination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, pu%licistic style has features in common with the style of scientific prose, on the one hand, and that of emotive prose, on the other" 0ts coherent and logical syntactical structure, with an expanded system of connectives and its careful paragraphing, ma$es it similar to scientific prose" 0ts emotional appeal is generally achieved %y the use of words with emotive meaning, the use of imagery and other stylistic devices as in emotive proseI %ut the stylistic devices used in pu%licistic style are not fresh or genuine" The individual element essential to the %ellesHlettres style is, as a rule, little in evidence here" This is in $eeping with the general character of the style" The manner of presenting ideas, however, %rings this style closer to that of %ellesHlettres, in this case to emotive prose, as it is to a certain extent individual" Katurally, of course, essays and speeches have greater individuality than newspaper or magaGine articles where the individual element is generally toned down and limited %y the re#uirements of the style" Pu%licistic style is also characteriGed %y %revity of expression" 0n some varieties of this style it %ecomes a leading feature, an important linguistic means" 0n essays %revity sometimes %ecomes epigrammatic" The most general distinguishing features of pu%licistic style and its su%divisions are laid down here, %ut it is not always possi%le to draw a clear demarcation line %etween these su%divisions, as their features often overlap" <e shall outline only the most o%vious su%? divisionsD oratory, that is, speeches and orations, essays and articles" >1)T>1M )KD SPEEC=ES Ora%)ri'a" #%&"e is the oral su%division of the pu%licistic style" 0t has already %een pointed out that persuasion is the most o%vious purpose of oratory" J>ratorical speechJ, writes )" Pote%nya, Jaims not only at the understanding and digesting of the idea, %ut also serves simultaneously as a spring setting off a mood +which is the aim/ that may lead to action"J

Direct contact with the listeners permits the com%ination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of %oth the written and spo$en varieties of language" 0n its leading features, however, oratorical style %elongs to the written variety of language, though it is modified %y the oral form of the utterance and the use of gestures" Certain typical features of the spo$en variety of speech present in this style areD direct address to the audience +ladies and gentlemen, honoura%le mem%er+s/, the use of the 7nd person pronoun you, etc"/, sometimes contractions +IL""+ ?) B%+ $a*e B%+ i# B% and others/ and the use of collo#uial words" This style is evident in speeches on political and social pro%lems of the day, in orations and addresses on solemn occasions as pu%lic weddings, funerals and Cu%ilees, in sermons and de%ates and also in the speeches of counsel and Cudges in courts of law" Political speeches fall into two categoriesD parliamentary de%ates and speeches at rallies, congresses, meetings and election campaigns" Sermons mostly touch upon religious su%Cects, ethics and morality, and sometimes nowadays they ta$e up social and political pro%lems as well" >rations on solemn pu%lic occasions are typical specimens of this style and not a few of their word se#uences and phrases are readyHmade phrases or cliches" The sphere of application of oratory is confined to appeal to an audience and therefore crucial issues in such spheres as science, art, literature, or %usiness relations are not touched upon except perhaps %y allusion" 0f such pro%lems are dealt with in oratorical style the effect is humorous" The following extract from JPosthumous Papers of the Pic$wic$ Clu%J %y Charles Dic$ens is a parody of an oration" H J;ut 0 trust, Sir,J said Pott, Jthat 0 have never a%used the enormous power 0 wield" 0 trust, Sir, that 0 have never pointed the no%le instrument which is placed in my hands, against the sacred %osom of private life, of the tender %reast of individual reputationI H 0 trust, Sir, that 0 have devoted my energies to H to endeavours H hum%le they may %e, hum%le 0 $now they are H to instil those principles of H which H are H "J H =ere the editor of the Ea%) #?i""" Ga1e%%e+ appearing to ram%le, Mr" Pic$wic$ came to his relief, and said H JCertainly"J H The stylistic devices employed in oratorical style are determined %y the conditions of communication" 0f the desire of the spea$er is to rouse the audience and to $eep it in suspense, he will use various traditional stylistic devices" ;ut undue prominence given to the form may lead to an exaggerated use of these devices, to various em%ellishments"

Tradition is very powerful in oratorical style and the ,3th century rhetorical principles laid down %y Thomas <ilson in his J)rte of 1hetori#ueJ are sometimes still used in modern oratory, though, on the whole, modern oratory tends to lower its $ey more and more, using the note of #uiet %usinessHli$e exposition of ideas" Stylistic devices are closely interwoven and mutually complementary thus %uilding up an intricate pattern" or example, antithesis is framed %y parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied %y repetition, while climax can %e formed %y repetitions of different $inds" )s the audience rely only on memory, the spea$er often resorts to repetitions to ena%le his listeners to follow him and retain the main points of his speech" 1epetition is also resorted to in order to persuade the audience, to add weight to the spea$er?s opinion" The following extract from the speech of the )merican Confederate general, )" P" =ill, on the ending of the Civil <ar in the U"S")" is an example of anaphoric repetitionD AI% i# $i!$ %i/e this people had recovered from the passions of war" I% i# $i!$ %i/e that counsel were ta$en from statesmen, not demagogues... I% i# $i!$ %i/e the people of the Korth and the South understood each other and adopted means to inspire confidence in each other"J urther, anadiplosis is used %y the spea$erD JThe South will not secede again" That was her great folly H folly against her own interest, not wrong against you'" ) mere repetition of the same idea and in the same linguistic form may %ore the audience and destroy the spea$erHaudience contact, therefore synonymous phrase repetition is used instead, thus filling up the speech with details and em%ellishing it, as in this excerpt from a speech on 1o%ert ;urnsD J or ;urns exalted our race, he hallowed Scotland and the Scottish tongue" ;efore his time ?e $ad 7)r a ") ! 6eri)d 0ee #'ar'e"& re')! i1edG we had %een 7a""i ! )-% )7 %$e re')""e'%i) )7 %$e ?)r"d. rom the time of the Union of the Crowns, and still more from the legislative union, Scotland had "a6#ed i %) )0#'-ri%&" Except for an occasional riot or a :aco%ite rising, her e5i#%e 'e ?a# a"/)#% 7)r!)%%e .A =ere synonymous phrase repetition +?%een scarcely recogniGed,? ?falling out of the recollection of the world?, ?had lapsed into o%scurity?, ?her existence was almost forgotten?/ is coupled with climax" 1epetition can %e regarded as the most typical stylistic device of English oratorical style" )lmost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, antithesis, suspense, climax, rhetorical #uestions and #uestionsHinH theHnarrative" 0t will %e no exaggeration to say that almost all typical syntactical stylistic devices can %e found in English oratory" Nuestions are most fre#uent

%ecause they promote closer contact with the audience" The change of intonation %rea$s the monotony of the intonation pattern and revives the attention of the listeners" The desire of the spea$er to convince and to rouse his audience results in the use of simile and metaphor, %ut these are generally traditional ones, as fresh and genuine stylistic devices may divert the attention of the listeners away from the main point of the speech" ;esides, unexpected and original images are more difficult to grasp and the process ta$es time" 0f a genuine metaphor is used %y the orator, it is usually a sustained one, as a series of related images is easier to grasp and facilitates the conception of facts compared" )llusions in oratorical style depend on the content of the speech and the level of the audience" Special o%ligatory forms open up and end an oration, e"g . M& L)rd#G Mr. Pre#ide %G Mr. C$air/a G Y)-r J)r#$i6G Ladie# a d Ge %"e/e + etc" )t the end of his speech the spea$er usually than$s the audience for their attention %y sayingD T$a @ &)- )r T$a @ &)- *er& /-'$. Expressions of direct address can %e repeated in the course of the speech and may %e expressed differently . dear 7rie d#+ /& 7rie d#. Mar@ &)-D Mi d4. =ere is an interesting example showing how overdoing the use of stylistic devices may veil the uncertainty of the spea$er, in this case as to what should %e done to remedy the state of affairs he descri%es" J0n defending the ;ottom Dog 0 do not deal with hard science onlyI %ut with the dearest faiths, the oldest wrongs and the most awful relationship of the great human family, for whose good 0 strive and to whose Cudgment 0 appeal" Showing, as 0 do, how the hardwor$ing and hardHplaying pu%lic shun la%orious thin$ing and serious writing, and how they hate to have their ease distur%ed or their preCudices handled rudely, 0 still ma$e %old to underta$e this tas$, %ecause of the vital nature of the pro%lems 0 shall pro%e" The case for the ;ottom Dog should touch the pu%lic heart to the #uic$, for it affects the truth of our religions, the Custice of our laws and the destinies of our children and our children?s children" Much golden elo#uence has %een s#uandered in praise of the successful and the goodI much stern condemnation has %een vented upon the wic$ed" 0 venture now to plead for those of our poor %rothers and sisters who are accursed of Christ and reCected of men" =itherto all the love, all the honors, all the applause of this world, and the rewards of heaven have %een lavished on the fortunate and the strongI and the portion of the unfriended ;ottom Dog, in his adversity and wea$ness, has %een curses, %lows, chains, the gallows and everlasting damnation" 0 shall plead, then, for those who are loathed and

tortured and %randed as the sinful and uncleanI for those who have hated us and wronged us, and have %een wronged and hated %y us" 0 shall defend them for right?s sa$e, for pity?s sa$e and for the %enefit of society and the race" or these also are of our flesh, these also have erred and gone astray, these also are victims of an inscruta%le and relentless ate" 0f it concerns us that the religions of the world are childish dreams of nightmaresI if it concerns us that our penal laws and moral codes are survivals of %ar%arism and fearI if it concerns us that our most cherished and venera%le ideas of our relations to 2od and to each other are illogical and savage, then the case for the ;ottom Dog concerns us nearly" 0f it moves us to learn that disease may %e prevented, that ruin may %e averted, that %ro$en hearts and %ro$en lives may %e made wholeI if it inspires us to hear how %eauty may %e conCured out of loathsomeness and glory out of shameI how waste may %e turned to wealth and death to life, and despair to happiness" Then the case for the ;ottom Dog is a case to %e well and truly tried"J +1o%ert ;latchford/ The ornamental elements of the oratorical pattern are highly exaggerated in this speech" 0t overa%ounds in various syntactical stylistic devicesD in parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetition of various $inds, in particular, anaphoric repetitionI there is climax in practically every paragraph" The passage is e#ually rich in such devices as suspense and antithesis" Elevation and emotional appeal are achieved %y the use of highHflown words and words of emotive meaning" ;ut this pomposity, as a matter of fact, conceals wea$ness in purport" (ery little remains if all these devices are removed and the speech, as it were, translated into the language of logic" <hat is the aim of the spea$erY <hat is he proposing to the audience he wishes to stirY <hat reaction does he expectY )ll this remains unsaid" The main idea of ;latchford?s speech, however, can %e discerned in spite of all the em%ellishments of his oratory" =e wants help for those misera%le people who are to %e found at the %ottom of the social ladder, %ut he ma$es no practical suggestions" 0t will %e of considera%le interest to compare this speech to ;yron?s Maiden Speech in the =ouse of !ords in defence of the !uddites, which can %e regarded as a perfect specimen of oratorical style" ;yron used his elo#uence against the ;ill providing capital punishment for the destruction of machines" =is purpose was to prevent the passage of the ;ill, to get an impartial examination of the facts" ;yron?s speech is also rich in oratorical devices" ;ut all these devices are motivated, they are organically connected with the utteranceD the form %y no means dominates the content"

)n examination of the following speech will show that it is practically devoid of meaning" The spea$er is merely see$ing an effect" JMr" Chairman, !adies and 2entlemenD 0t is indeed a great and undeserved privilege to address such an audience as 0 see %efore me" )t no previous time in the history of human civiliGation have greater pro%lems confronted and challenged the ingenuity of man?s intellect than now" !et us loo$ around us" <hat do we see on the horiGonY <hat forces are at wor$Y <hither are we driftingY Under what mist of clouds does the future stand o%scuredY My friends, casting aside the raiment of all human speech, the crucial test for the solution of all these intricate pro%lems to which 0 have Cust alluded is the sheer and forceful application of those immuta%le laws which down the corridor of Time have always guided the hand of man, groping, as it were, for some faint %eacon light for his hopes and aspirations" <ithout these great vital principles we are %ut puppets responding to whim and fancy, failing entirely to grasp the hidden meaning of it all" <e must reHaddress ourselves to these #uestions, which press for answer and solution" The issues cannot %e avoided" There they stand" 0t is upon you, and you, and yet even upon me, that the yo$e of responsi%ility falls" <hat, then, is our dutyY Shall we continue to driftY KoL <ith all the emphasis of my %eing 0 hurl %ac$ the message N)D Drifting must stop" <e must press onward and upward toward the ultimate goal to which all must aspire" ;ut 0 cannot conclude my remar$s, dear friends, without touching %riefly upon a su%Cect, which 0 $now is steeped in your very consciousness" 0 refer to that spirit which gleams from the eyes of a newH%orn %a%e, that animates the toiling masses, that sways all the hosts of humanity past and present" <ithout this energiGing principle all commerce, trade and industry are hushed and will perish from this earth as surely as the crimson sunset follows the golden sunshine" Mar$ you, 0 do not see$ to unduly alarm or distress trieHmothers, fathers, sons and daughters gathered %efore me in this vast assem%lage, %ut 0 would indeed %e recreant to a high resolve which 0 made as a youth if 0 did not at this time and in this place, and with the full realiGing sense of responsi%ility which 0 assume, pu%licly declare and affirm my dedication and my consecration to the eternal principles and receipts of simple, ordinary, commonplace H-#%i'e.A The proper evaluation of this speech should %eD J<ords, words, words"J The whole speech is made to hide the fact that the spea$er has no thought" Nuestions remain unanswered, climaxes are not

motivated" <hat is the su%Cect that ?cannot %e left untouched?Y This is really a masterpiece of elo#uent emptiness and ver%osity" THE ESSAY )s a separate form of English literature the essay dates from the close of the ,3th century" The name appears to have %ecome common on the pu%lication of Montaigne?s JEssaysJ, a literary form created %y this rench writer" The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary su%Cects" 0t never goes deep into the su%Cect, %ut merely touches upon the surface" Personality in the treatment of theme and naturalness of expression are two of the most o%vious characteristics of the essay" A e##a& i# rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter" This literary genre has definite linguistic traits, which shape the essay as a variety of pu%licistic style" =ere is a part of an essay %y ;en :onson, which illustrates this style in its most typical and original form as it was at the end of the ,3th centuryD J!anguage most shows a manI spea$, that 0 may see thee" 0t springs out of the most retired and inmost parts of us, and is the image of the parent of it, the mind" Ko glass renders a man?s form or li$eness so true, as his speech" Kay, it is li$ened to a manI and as we consider feature and composition in a man, so words in languageI in the greatness, aptness, sound, structure, and harmony of it" Some men are tall and %ig, so some language is high and great" Then the words are chosen, the sound ample, the composition full, the a%solution plenteous, and poured out, all grace, sinewy and strong" Some are little and dwarfsI so of speech, it is hum%le and lowI the words are poor and flatI the mem%ers are periods thin and wea$, without $nitting or num%er" The middle are of Cust stature" There the language is plain and pleasingD even without stopping, round without swellingI all well turned, composed, elo#uent, and accurate" The vicious language is vast and gapingI swelling and irregularI when it contends, high, full of roc$, mountain and pointednessI as it affects to %e low it is a%Cect and creeps, full of %ogs and holes"J The essay was very popular in the ,.th and ,4th centuries" 0n the ,.th century essays were written on topics connected with morals and ethics, while those of the ,4th century focussed attention on political and philosophical pro%lems" The ,4th century was the great age of essay writing" 0t was then the principal literary form, and discoursed on the important su%Cects of the day, often criticiGing the shortcomings of the political and social system in England" JEncyclopedia

;ritannicaJ states that the essay %ecame a dominant force in English literature of the ,4th century" The following statement of an ,4th century essayist is of some interest as it descri%es the character of the essayD J<e writers of essays or +as they are termed/ periodical papersJ""" This statement shows that periodical papers at that time contained only essays" 0n the ,-th century the essay as a literary term gradually changed into what we now call the Cournalistic article or feature article which covers all $inds of su%Cects from politics, philosophy or aesthetics to travel, sport and fashions" eature articles are generally pu%lished in newspapers, especially wee$lies and Sunday editions" They are often written %y one and the same writer or Cournalist, who has cultivated his own individual style" The most characteristic language features of the essay, however, remain ,/ %revity of expression, reaching in good writers a degree of epigrammaticalness, 7/ the use of the first person singular, which Custifies a personal approach to the pro%lems treated, 9/ a rather expanded use of connectives, which facilitate the process of grasping the correlation of ideas, E/ the a%undant use of emotive words, F/ the use of similes and sustained metaphors as one of the media for the cognitive process" 0t is in the interrelation of these constituents that the real secret of the essay su%style consists" Some essays, depending on the writer?s individuality, are written in a highly emotional manner resem%ling the style of emotive prose, others resem%le scientific prose and the terms re*ie?+ /e/)ir )r %rea%i#e are more applica%le to certain more exhaustive studies"? The essay on moral and philosophical topics in modern times has not %een so popular, perhaps %ecause a deeper scientific analysis and interpretation of facts is re#uired" The essay in our days is often %iographicalI persons, facts and events are ta$en from life" These essays differ from those of previous centuries H their voca%ulary is simpler and so is their logical structure and argumentation" ;ut they still retain all the leading features of the pu%licistic style" 0n comparison with oratorical style, the essay aims at a more lasting, hence at a slower effect" Epigrams, paradoxes and aphorisms are comparatively rare in oratory, as they re#uire the concentrated attention of the listener" 0n the essay they are commoner, for the reader has opportunity to ma$e a careful and detailed study %oth of the content of the utterance and its form" The close resem%lance in structure %etween the essay and the oration has more than once %een emphasiGed %y linguists" The main difference %etween them is very well summariGed %y =" 1o%%ins and 1" >liver in their wor$ JDeveloping 0deas into

Essays and Speeches"J J"""an essay is distinguished from a speech primarily %y the fact that the essay see$s a lasting, the speech an immediate effect" The essay must have a depth of meaning which will repay the closest analysis and fre#uent rereading """ the %asic re#uirement of a good speech is that it carry immediately into the mind of its hearer precisely the point which the spea$er wishes to ma$e"J? Therefore writers say that J"""the spea$er is allowed much more leeway in sentence structure than the writer"J 0n summing up the characteristics of the essay it wicc not come amiss to give the following epigrammatic definitionD JThe Essay is not a treatise" 0t is not Euclid, it is flashlight" 0t is not proof, it is representation" 0t is a chatI the $eynote to the essay is its personality"J ARTICLES 0rrespective of the character of the magaGine and the divergence of su%Cect matter H whether it is political, literary, popularHscientific or satirical, all the already mentioned features of pu%licistic style are to %e found in any article" The character of the magaGine as well as the su%Cect chosen affects the choice and use of stylistic devices" <ords of emotive meaning, for example, are few, if any, in popular scientific articles" Their exposition is more consistent and the system of connectives more expanded than, say, in a satirical article" The language of political magaGine articles differs little from that of newspaper articles as descri%ed in the chapter on Kewspaper Style" ;ut such elements of pu%licistic style as rare and %oo$ish words, neologisms +which sometimes re#uire explanation in the text/, traditional word com%inations and parenthesis are more fre#uent here than in newspaper articles" 0n an article dealing with what were forthcoming presidential elections in the US), which it is impossi%le to #uote here %ecause of its length, we find such %oo$ish and highflown words as a/0i*a"e %+ e5$i"ara%ed+ a66a""ed+ etc" 0ts argumentation and emotional appeal is achieved %y emphatic constructions of different $indsI ?how dim the outloo$ for victory was?, ?Stevenson is anything %ut an irresponsi%le man?, ?it could well have %een, though?""", ?he is at once exhilarated and appalled?" =umorous effect is produced %y the use of words and phrases which normally are out of the range of this sort of articleD /e"a '$)"&+ !ra'i)-#"&+ e5%e di ! $i# 0e#% ?i#$e# and %y periphrases" !iterary reviews stand closer to essays %oth %y their content and %y their linguistic form" More a%stract words of logical meaning are used in them, they more often

resort to emotional language and less fre#uently to traditional set expressions" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9 W 66.20M(2:M4. NEJSPAPER STYLE Ne?#6a6er #%&"e was the last of all the styles of written literary English to %e recogniGed as a specific form of writing standing apart from other forms" English newspaper writing dates from the ,.th century" )t the close of the ,3th century short news pamphlets %egan to appear" )ny such pu%lication either presented news from only one source or dealt with one specific su%Cect" Kote the titles of some of the earliest news pamphletsD JKewe newes, containing a short rehearsal of Stu$ely?s and Morice?s 1e%ellionJ +,F.-/, JKewes from Spain and =ollandJ +,F-9/, J<onderful and strange newes out of Suffoi$e and Essex, where it rayned wheat the space of six or seven milesJ +,F49/" Kews pamphlets appeared only from time to time and cannot %e classed as newspapers, though they were un#uestiona%ly the immediate forerunners of the ;ritish press" The first of any regular series of English newspapers was the Jee@"& Ne?e#, which first appeared on May 79, ,377" 0t lasted for some twenty years till in ,3E, it ceased pu%lication" The ,.th century saw the rise of a num%er of other news sheets which, with varying success, struggled on in the teeth of discouragement and restrictions imposed %y the Crown" <ith the introduction of a strict licensing system many such sheets were suppressed, and the 2overnment, in its turn, set %efore the pu%lic a paper of its own H T$e L) d) Ga1e%%e, first pu%lished on e%ruary F, ,333" The paper was a semiHwee$ly and carried official information, royal decrees, news from a%road, and advertisements" The first English daily newspaperH%$e Dai"& C)-ra %Hwas %rought out on March ,,, ,.87" The paper carried news, largely foreign, and no comment, the latter %eing against the principles of the pu%lisher, as was stated in the first issue of his paper" Thus the early English newspaper was principally a vehicle of information" Commentary as a regular feature found its way into the newspapers later" ;ut as far %ac$ as the middle of the ,4th century the ;ritish newspaper was very much li$e what it is today, carrying on its pages news, %oth foreign and domestic, advertisements, announcements and articles containing comments" The rise of the )merican newspaper, which was %rought onto )merican soil %y ;ritish settlers, dates %ac$ to the late ,.th, early ,4th centuries" 0t too$ the English newspaper more than a century to esta%lish a style and a standard of its own" )nd it

is only %y the ,-th century that newspaper English may %e said to have developed into a system of language means, which forms a separate functional style" The specific conditions of newspaper pu%lication, the restrictions of time and space, have left an indeli%le mar$ on newspaper English" or more than a century writers and linguists have %een vigorously attac$ing Jthe slipshod construction and the vulgar voca%ularyJ of newspaper English" The very term e?#6a6er E !"i#$ carried a shade of disparagement" Met, for all the defects of newspaper English, serious though they may %e, this form of the English literary language cannot %e reduced H as some purists have claimed H merely to careless slovenly writing or to a distorted literary English" This is one of the forms of the English literary language characteriGed H as any other style H %y a definite communicative aim and its own definite system of language means" Thus, English newspaper style may %e defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means, which is perceived %y the community spea$ing the language as a separate unity that %asically serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader" Kot all the printed matter found in newspapers comes under newspaper style" The modern newspaper carries material of an extremely diverse character" >n the pages of a newspaper one finds not only news and comment on it, %ut also stories and poems, crossword puGGles, chess pro%lems, and the li$e" Since these serve the purpose of entertaining the reader, they cannot %e considered specimens of newspaper style" Kor can articles in special fields, such as science and technology, art, literature, etc" %e classed as %elonging to newspaper style" Since the primary function of newspaper style is to impart information, only printed matter serving this purpose comes under newspaper style proper" Such matter can %e classed asD ," %rief news items and communi#ues, 7" press reports +parliamentary, of court proceedings, etc"/, 9" articles purely informational in character, E" advertisements and announcements" The most concise form of newspaper information is the headline" The newspaper also see$s to influence pu%lic opinion on political and other matters" Elements of appraisal may %e o%served in the very selection and way of presentation of news, in the use of specific voca%ulary, such as a""e!e and '"ai/+ casting some dou%t on the facts reported, and syntactic constructions indicating a lac$ of assurance on the part of the reporter as to the

correctness of the facts reported or his desire to avoid responsi%ility +for example, ?Mr" b ?a# #aid %) $a*e )66)#ed the proposal?I ?Mr" b ?a# 8-)%ed a# #a&i !...?p" The headlines of news items, apart from giving information a%out the su%CectH matter, also carry a considera%le amount of appraisal +the siGe and arrangement of the headline, the use of emotionally coloured words and elements of emotive syntax/, thus indicating the interpretation of the facts in the news item that follows" ;ut, of course, the principal vehicle of interpretation and appraisal is the newspaper article, and the editorial in particular" Editorials, leading articles or leaders are characteriGed %y a su%Cective handling of facts, political or otherwise, and therefore have more in common with political essays or articles and should rather %e classed as %elonging to pu%licistic style than newspaper style" =owever, newspaper pu%licistic writing %ears the stamp of newspaper style" Though it seems natural to consider newspaper articles, editorials included, as coming within the system of English newspaper style, it is necessary to note that such articles are an intermediate phenomenon characteriGed %y a com%ination of styles H the newspaper style and the pu%licistic style" 0n other words, they may %e considered hy%rids" To understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper style it will %e sufficient to analyse the following %asic newspaper featuresD ," %rief news items, 7" advertisements and announcements, 9" the headline, and E" +with the reservations stated a%ove/ the editorial" FRIEF NEJS ITEMS The function of a 0rie7 e?# i%e/ is to inform the reader" 0t states only facts without giving comments" This accounts for the total a%sence of any individuality of expression and the almost complete lac$ of emotional colouring" 0t is essentially matterHofHfact, and stereotyped forms of expression prevail" 0t goes without saying that the %ul$ of the voca%ulary used in newspaper writing is neutral and common literary" ;ut apart from this, newspaper style has its specific voca%ulary features and is characteriGed %y an extensive use ofD a/ S6e'ia" 6)"i%i'a" a d e') )/i' %er/#+ e"g.+ ') #%i%-%i) + 6re#ide %+ a6ar%$eid+ 0&( e"e'%i) + Ge era" A##e/0"&+ !r)## )-%6-%+ 6er 'a6i%a 6r)d-'%i) . %/ N) (%er/ 6)"i%i'a" *)'a0-"ar&+ e"g", 6-0"i'+ 6e)6"e+ 6r)!re##i*e+ a%i) (?ide+ - i%&+ 6ea'e" ) characteristic feature of political voca%ulary is that the %orderline %etween terms and nonHterms is less distinct than in the voca%ulary of other special fields" The semantic structure of some words comprises %oth terms and nonHterms,

e"g", a%i) + 'ri#i#+ a!ree/e %+ /e/0er+ re6re#e %a%i*e+ "eader. c/ Ne?#6a6er '"i'$e#+ i"e", stereotyped expressions, commonplace phrases familiar to the readerI e"g", *i%a" i##-e+ 6re##i ! 6r)0"e/+ ?e""(i 7)r/ed #)-r'e#+ da !er )7 ?ar+ %) e#'a"a%e a ?ar+ ?ar $&#%eria+ )*er?$e"/i ! /aH)ri%&+ a/id #%)r/& a66"a-#e. Cliches more than anything else reflect the traditional manner of expression in newspaper writing" They are commonly loo$ed upon as a defect of style" 0ndeed, some cliches, especially those %ased on trite images +e"g" 'a6%ai # )7 i d-#%r&+ 6i""ar# )7 #)'ie%&+ 0-"?ar@ )7 'i*i"i1a%i) 4 are pompous and hac$neyed, others, such a# ?e"7are #%a%e+ a77"-e % #)'ie%&+ are false and misleading" ;ut nevertheless, cliches are in dispensa%le in newspaper styleD they prompt the necessary associations and prevent am%iguity and misunderstanding" d/ A00re*ia%i) #. Kews items, press reports and headlines a%ound in a%%reviations of various $inds" )mong them a%%reviated terms H names of organiGations, pu%lic and state %odies, political associations, industrial and other companies, various offices, etc" $nown %y their initials are very commonI e"g" UK> + U i%ed )ctions >rganiGation/, TUC +Trades U i) Congress/, K)T> +Korth )tlantic Treaty >rganiGation/, ) !HC0> +)merican ederation of !a%ourHCongress of 0ndustrial >rganiGations/, EEC +European Economic Community/, T2<U +Transport and 2eneral <or$ers U i) /, > + oreign >ffice/, P0; +Prices and 0ncomes ;oard/" The widespread use of initials in newspaper language has %een expanded to the names of persons constantly in the pu%lic eye and we find references to !;: +!yndon ;aines :ohnson/, : * +:ohn itGgerald *ennedy/" <e even find whole statements referred to %y their initials, e"g", UD0 +Unilateral Declaration of 0ndependence \of 1hodesia\/ and K0;M)1 +N) independence %efore maCority )frican 1ule/" e/ Keologisms" These are very common in newspaper voca%ulary" The newspaper is very #uic$ to react to any new development in the life of society, in science and technology" =ence, neologisms ma$e their way into the language of the newspaper very easily and often even spring up on newspaper pages, e"g", #6-% i@+ %) )-%#6-% i@+ "- i@+ a #6"a#$(d)? +the act of %ringing a spacecraft to a water surface/, a teachHin +a form of campaigning through heated political discussion/, 0a'@"a#$ )r ?$i%e 0a'@"a#$ +a violent reaction of )merican racists to the Kegroes? struggle for civil rights/, 7r) %"a#$ +a vigorous antiHracist movement/, #%)6(!) 6)"i'ie# +contradictory, indecisive and inefficient policies/" The a%oveHlisted peculiarities of %rief news items are the voca%ulary parameters of English newspaper style"

The voca%ulary of %rief news items is generally devoid of any emotional colouring" Some JpopularJ papers, however, such as the Dai"& Mirr)r, tend to introduce emotionally coloured elements into the matterHofHfact, linguistically neutral news stories, e"g", J=ealth Minister *enneth 1o%inson made this shoc$ announcement yesterday in the Commons"J +Daily Mirror/ JTechnicians at the space %ase here are now wor$ing flat out to prepare 2emini 3 for next Monday?s %lastHoff"J +Daily Mail/ 0mportant as voca%ulary is, it is not so much the words and phrases used in %rief news items that distinguish them from other forms of newspaper writing" The voca%ulary groups listed a%ove are also commonly found in headlines and newspaper articles" The %asic peculiarities of news items lie in their syntactical structure" )s the reporter is o%liged to %e %rief, he naturally tries to cram all his facts into the space alloted" This tendency predetermines the peculiar composition of %rief news items and the syntactical structure of the sentences" The siGe of %rief news items varies from one sentence to several +short/ paragraphs" )nd generally, the shorter the news, the more complex itds syntactical structure" The following grammatical peculiarities of %rief news items are of paramount importance, and may %e regarded as grammatical parameters of newspaper style" a/ Complex sentences with a developed system of clauses, e"g", JMr" ;oydHCarpenter, Chief Secretary to the Treasury and PaymasterH2eneral +*ingstonHuponHThames/, said $e $ad 0ee a#@ed ?$a% ?a# /ea % 0& %$e #%a%e/e % i %$e S6ee'$ %$a% %$e 6)#i%i) )7 ?ar 6e #i) er# a d %$)#e re'ei*i ! a%i) a" i #-ra 'e 0e e7i%# ?)-"d 0e @e6% - der '")#e re*ie?.A 2T$e Ti/e#4 AT$ere are i di'a%i) # %$a% FOAC /a& ?i%$dra? %$rea%# )7 a""()-% di#/i##a"# 7)r 6i")%# ?$) re#%ri'% 7"&i ! $)-r#+ a spo$esman for the ;ritish )irline Pilots? association said yesterday"J %/ Ver0a" ') #%r-'%i) # +infinitive, participial, gerundial/I and ver%al noun constructions, e"g", JMr" Ko%usu$e *ishi, the former Prime Minister of :apan, has sought to set an example to the factionHridden 2overning !i%eral Democratic Party 0& a )- 'i ! %$e di#0a di ! of his own faction -/0eri ! E. of the total of 7-F conservative mem%ers of the !ower house of the Diet"J +The Times/ c/ S& %a'%i'a" ')/6"e5e#+ especially the nominative with the infinitive" These constructions are largely used to avoid mentioning the source of information or to shun responsi%ility for the facts reported, e"g", JThe condition of !ord Samuel, aged -7, ?a# #aid last night %) 0e a ?little %etter"?J +The 2uardian/ ) Petrol %om% i# 0e"ie*ed %) $a*e 0ee e56")ded against the grave of Cecil 1hodes in the Matopos"J +The Times/ d/ A%%ri0-%i*e )- !r)-6# are another powerful means

of effecting %revity in news items, e"g", B$ear% #?a6 patient? 2M)r i ! S%ar4+ B%$e a%i) a" i ')/e a d e56e di%-re figures? +T$e Ti/e#4+ BLa0)-r 0a'@0e '$ de'i#i) B 2M)r i ! S%ar4+ ?Mr" <ilson?s HMS Fear"e## 6a'@a!e dea"B 2M)r i ! S%ar4+ "ea6 i %) #6a'e age +Daily <or$er/" e/ S6e'i7i' ?)rd )rder. Kewspaper tradition, coupled with the rigid rules of sentence structure in English, has greatly affected the word order of %rief news items" The word order in oneHsentence news paragraphs and in what are called leads +the initial sentences in longer news items/ is more or less fixed" :ournalistic practice has developed what is called the JfiveHwH andHhHpattern ruleJ 2?$)(?$a%(?$&($)?(?$ere(?$e 4 and for a long time strictly adhered to it" 0n terms of grammar this fixed sentence structure may %e expressed in the following mannerD Su%Cect H Predicate +o%Cect/ H )dver%ial modifier of reason +manner/ H )dver%ial modifier of place H )dver%ial modifier of time, e"g", JThe US ConsulH2eneral, Mr" Maxwell McCullough, snooped incognito round the antiHPolaris art exhi%ition JCount DownJ in the Mc!ellan 2alleries here %$i# /)r i !A. 2Dai"& J)r@er4 0t has %een repeatedly claimed %y the authors of manuals of Cournalistic writing that the JfiveHwHandHhJ structure was the only right pattern of sentence structure to use in news reports" acts, however, disprove this contention" Statistics show that there are approximately as many cases in which the traditional word order is violated as those in which it is o%served" 0t is now o%vious that the newspaper has developed new sentence patterns not typical of other styles" This o%servation refers, firstly, to the position of the adver%ial modifier of definite time" Compare another pattern typical of %rief news sentence structureD Derec =eath, E9, &e#%erda& "e7% almouth for the third time in his attempt to cross the )tlantic in a ,7ft dinghy" +Morning Star/ ;righton council &e#%erda& a66r)*ed a fi 77,F88 scheme to have par$ing meters operating in the centre of the town %y March" +The Times This and some other unconventional sentence patterns have %ecome a common practice with %rief news writers" There are some other, though less mar$ed, tendencies in news item writing of modifying wellHesta%lished grammatical norms" Mention should %e made of occasional disregard for the se#uence of tenses rule +e"g", 0t ?a# a )- 'ed in Cairo yesterday that elections ?i"" 0e $e"d... Dai"& J)r@er/ and the rules for reporting speech +e"g", )fter offering Jthe hearty congratulations of myself and the federation 0 representJ and expressing his wish for Jevery success in the future,J Mr" =olt ') '"-de#""" Dai"& J)r@er/" <hat is ordinarily loo$ed upon as a gross violation of grammar rules in

any other $ind of writing is %ecoming increasingly common as a functional peculiarity of newspaper style" THE HEADLINE T$e $ead"i e is the title given to a news item or a newspaper article" The main function of the headline is to inform the reader %riefly of what the news that follows is a%out" Sometimes headlines contain elements of appraisal, i"e", they show the reporter?s or the paper?s attitude to the facts reported" English headlines are short and catching, they Jcompact the gist of news stories into a few eyeH snaring words" ) s$ilfully turned out headline tells a story, or enough of it, to arouse or satisfy the reader?s curiosity"J, 0n most of the English and )merican newspapers sensational headlines are #uite common" The practices of headline writing are different with different newspapers" 0n The Morning Star, for example, as in many other papers, there is, as a rule, one headline to a news item, whereas The Times and The 2uardian more often than not carry a news item or an article with two or three headlines, and The Kew Mor$ Times H sometimes as many as four, e"g", DANES CHALLENGE MR HEATH Sa/e %er/# ?a %ed 7)r 0-%%er a# ASi5A ?ere )77ered 2T$e G-ardia 4 COOL FRITISH REPLY FILIP9NOSB AGENT AIDED CAMPAIGNS OF 20 IN CONGRESS L)00&i#% 7)r Jar Da/a!e C"ai/a %# Ga*e F- d# %) Me i F)%$ Par%ie# GIFTS TOTALED ;.900 Ta0")'@i )7 Ji#') #i G)% 2+000( H-/6$re& Ja# %$e Re'i6ie % )7 500 +The Kew Mor$ Times/ Such group headlines are almost a summary of the information contained in a news item or an article" The functions and the peculiar nature of English headlines predetermine the choice of language means used" The voca%ulary groups considered in the analysis of %rief news items are commonly found in headlines" ;ut unli$e news, headlines also contain emotionally coloured words and phrases as the italicised words in the followingD UK<0!!0K2 !UK*EMS eDaily =erald/ CraGy <aste of Mouth

+1eynolds Kews/ Mac Silent on Paris Tal$s +Daily <or$er/ KEDDM S=><S S02KS > !)220K2 +The 2uardian/ Ko <onder =ousewives are PleadingD ?=E!P? +Dally Mirror/ 1oman Catholic Priest sac$ed" urthermore, to attract the reader?s attention, headline writers often resort to a deli%erate %rea$ingHup of set expressions, in particular fused set expressions, and deformation of special terms, a stylistic device capa%le of producing a strong emotional effect, e"g", Ca$es and ;itter )le +The Sunday Times/ Multilateral og +Daily <or$er/I ConspiratorHinHchief Still at !arge +The 2uardian/ Compare respectively the allusive set expression ca$es and ale, and the terms multilateral force and commanderHinHchief" >ther stylistic devices are not infre#uent in headlines, as for example, the pun +e"g", ?)nd what a%out <att? H The >%server/, alliteration +e"g" Miller in Maniac Mood H The >%server/, etc" The %asic language peculiarities of headlines, however, lie in their structure" Syntactically headlines are very short sentences or phrases of a variety of patternsD a/ F-"" de'"ara%i*e #e %e 'e#+ e" g" ?They Threw ;om%s on 2ipsy Sites? +Morning Star/, ?)llies Kow !oo$ to !ondon? +The Times/" %/ I %err)!a%i*e #e %e 'e#+ e"g", ?Do you love warY? +Daily <orld/, ?<ho has never had it so goodY? +Daily <or$er/" '4 Kominative sentences, e"g", ?2loomy Sunday? +The 2uardian/, ?)tlantic Sea Traffic? +The Times/, ?Union peace plan for 2irling stewards? +Morning Star/" d4 E""i6%i'a" #e %e 'e#. a" with an auxiliary ver% omitted, e"g", ?0nitial report not expected until :une? +The 2uardian/, ?Machtsman spotted? +Morning Starp, ?South (ietnamese Company <iped >ut %y 2uerrillas? +The Kew Mor$ =erald Tri%une/I %" with the su%Cect omitted, e"g", ?Stole luxury cars %y photo? +Daily <or$er/, ? ell E floors and wal$ed in at a door? +Daily <or$er/Ic" with the su%Cect and part of the predicate omitted, e"g", ?>ff to the sun? +Morning Star/, ?Still in danger? +The 2uardian/" e/ Sentences with articles omitted, e"g", ? rogman finds girl in river? +Daily <or$er/, ?Staff Coin teachHin %y ;ristol students? +Morning Star/, ?)denauer 2ives (iew >n Erhard? +Kew Mor$ =erald Tri%une/" )rticles are very fre#uently omitted in all types of headlines" f/ Phrases with ver%alsD a" infinitive, e"g", ?To get US aid? +Morning Star/, ?To visit aiHsal? +Morning Star/I

%" participial and gerundial, e"g", ?*eeping Prices Down? +The Times/, ?Preparing reply on cold war? +Morning Star/, ?Spea$ing parts? +The Sunday Times/, ?Clu% sta%%ing? +Daily <or$er/" g/ Nuestions in the form of statements, e"g", ?The worse the %etterY? +Daily <orld/, ?2rowl now, smile laterY? +The >%server/" h/ Complex sentences, e"g", ?Senate Panel =ears ;oard of Military Experts <ho avoured !osing ;idder? +The Kew Mor$ Times/, ?US Kewsman Declares =e =elped ;om% =avana? +Kew Mor$ =erald Tri%une/" i/ =eadlines including direct speechD a" introduced %y a full sentence, e"g" ?Prince 1ichard saysD J0 was not in trou%le?J +The 2uardian/, ?<hat >ils the <heels of 0ndustryY )s$s :ames !oweryH>learch of the ShellHMex and ;" P" 2roup? +The Times/I %" introduced elliptically, e"g", ?City idiots are the people?s enemies H M ? +Morning Star/, ?The NueeneD JMy deep distress?J +The 2uardian/, ?>%serve MidH East CeasefireHU Thant? +Morning Star/" The a%oveHlisted patterns, though they are the most typical, do not cover the great variety in headline structure" The headline in ;ritish and )merican newspapers is an important vehicle of %oth information and appraisal, and editors give it special attention, admitting that few read %eyond the headline,, or at %est the lead" To lure the reader into going through the whole of the item or at least a greater part of it, ta$es a lot of s$ill and ingenuity on the part of the headline writer" ADVERTISEMENTS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS )dvertisements made their way into the ;ritish press at an early stage of its development, i"e", in the midH,.th century" So they are almost as old as newspapers themselves" The function of advertisements and announcements, li$e that of %rief news, is to inform the reader" There are two %asic types of advertisements and announcements in the modern English newspaperD classified and nonHclassified +separate/" 0n classified advertisements and announcements various $inds of information are arranged according to su%Cect matter into sections, each %earing an appropriate name" 0n The Times, for example, the reader never fails to find several hundred advertisements and announcements classified into groups, such as ;01T=S, M)110)2ES, DE)T=S, 0K MEM>10)M, ;US0KESS > E1S, PE1S>K)!, *EKKE!, )1M and )(0)1M, etc" This classified arrangement

has resulted in a num%er of stereotyped patterns regularly employed in newspaper advertiGing" Kote one of the accepted patterns of classified advertisements and announcements in The TimesD FIRTHS CU!=)KE"H >n Kovem%er ,st, ,-37 at St" ;artholomew?s =ospital, to ;)1;)1) and :>=K CU!=)KEHa son" )ll announcements in the ?;irth? section are %uilt on exactly the same elliptical pattern" This tendency to eliminate from the sentence all elements that can %e done without is a pronounced one in advertisement and announcement writing" The elliptic sentence structure has no stylistic functionI it is purely technical H to economiGe space, expensive in what newspaper men call the JadvertiGing hole"JL Though of course, having %ecome a common practice, this peculiar %revity of expression is a stylistic feature of advertisements and announcements, which may ta$e a variety of forms, for exampleD T1)0KED KU1SE with child 7 years see$s post !ondon preferred"H<rite ;ox C" 3F4, The Times, E"C" E" =ere the a%sence of all articles and some punctuation mar$s ma$es the statement telegramHli$e" Sentences, which are grammatically complete also tend to %e short and compact" The voca%ulary of classified advertisements and announcements is on the whole essentially neutral with here and there a sprin$ling of emotionally coloured words or phrases used to attract the reader?s attention" Katurally, it is advertisements and announcements in the PE1S>K)! section that are sometimes characteriGed %y emotional colouring, for exampleD 1>;UST, friendly student, not entirely unintelligent, see$s Christmas vacation Co%" Ko wife, will travel, wal$, ride or drive and underta$e any domestic, agricultural or industrial activity" <ill %idders for this curiously normal chap please write ;ox C" FF7, The Times, E"C"E" Emotional colouring is generally moderate, however, though editors seem to place no restrictions on it" See the following announcement in the PE1S>K)! section of The TimesD )lleluia?" 0?m a mum" +) Cocular modification of the chorus of the wellH$nown )merican song J)lleluia, 0?m a %umJ" ) young woman is stating that she has %ecome a mother"/ )s for the separate +nonHclassified/ advertisements and announcements, the variety of language form and su%CectHmatter is so great that hardly any essential

features common to all may %e pointed out" The reader?s attention is attracted %y every possi%le meansD typographical, graphical and stylistic, %oth lexical and syntactical" =ere there is no call for %revity, as the advertiser may %uy as much space as he chooses" The following are the initial lines of a fullHpage advertisement of ;arclays ;an$ carried %y an issue of The 2uardianD <=)T <E <)KT ) %an$?s %usiness is with other people?s money, so we want people whose integrity is %eyond #uestion" Money is a very personal %usiness, so we want people who li$e people" ;an$ing is wor$ that calls for accuracy, so we want people who can wor$ accurately" >ur staff has to have integrity, personality, accuracy" <e want them to have imagination too" THE EDITORIAL )s has %een stated, edi%)ria"#+ li$e some other types of newspaper articles, are an intermediate phenomenon %earing the stamp of %oth the newspaper style and the pu%licistic style" The function of the editorial is to influence the reader %y giving an interpretation of certain facts" Editorials comment on the political and other events of the day" Their purpose is to give the editor?s opinion and interpretation of the news pu%lished and suggest to the reader that it is the correct one" !i$e any pu%licistic writing, editorials appeal not only to the reader?s mind %ut to his feelings as well" =ence, the use of emotionallyHcoloured language elements, %oth lexical and structural" =ere are examplesD JThe longHsuffering ;ritish housewife needs a %ottomless purse to cope with this scale of inflation"J +Daily Mirror/ J;ut since they came into power the trend has %een up, up, up and the pace seems to %e accelerating"J +Daily Mail/ 0n addition to voca%ulary typical of %rief news items, writers of editorials ma$e an extensive use of emotionally coloured voca%ulary" )longside political words and expressions, terms, cliches and a%%reviations one can find collo#uial words and expressions, slang, and professionalisms" The language of editorial articles is characteriGed %y a com%ination of different strata of voca%ulary, which enhances the emotional effect, for exampleD J""";ut most ;ritish people applaud the protesters" )nd they are sic$ened at the spectacle of " >" sycophants %ellyH crawling to the %urgomaster of a city whose administration is stiff with exHnaGi officials" J?;ut that?s the " >" all over" 2ive them a Cuicy specimen of some foreign

reactionary outfit and they?ll slo%%er all over him" The more reactionary the %igger the slo%"J +Daily <or$er/ Emotional colouring in editorial articles is also achieved with the help of various stylistic devices, %oth lexical and syntactical, the use of which is largely traditional" Editorials a%ound in trite stylistic means, especially metaphors and epithets, e.!.+ i %er a%i) a" '"i/a%e+ a 6ri'e e56")#i) + a 6ri'e #6ira"+ a #6e'%a'-"ar #i!$%+ a )-%ra!e)-# a'%+ 0r-%a" r-"e+ a a#%)- di ! #%a%e/e %+ 'ra1& 6)"i'ie#. Traditional periphrases are also very common in newspaper editorials, such as <all Street +)merican financial circles/" Downing Street +the ;ritish 2overnment/, leet Street +the !ondon press/, the 2reat Powers +the five or six %iggest and strongest states/, the third world +states other than socialist or capitalist/, and so on" ;ut genuine stylistic means are also fre#uently used, which helps the writer of the editorial to %ring his idea home to the reader through the associations that genuine imagery arouses" Practically any stylistic device may %e found in editorial writing, and when aptly used, such devices prove to %e a powerful means of appraisal, of expressing a personal attitude to the matter in hand, of exercising the necessary emotional effect on the reader" Kote the following examplesD JSo if the result of the visit is the %urying of the cold war, the only mourners will %e people li$e )denauer and the arms manufacturers who profit from it" The ordinary people will dance on the grave"J +Daily <or$er/ JKor would Mr" Maudling, not having %egotten JKeddyJ himself, %e necessarily $een on $eeping it in existence after the life had gone out of it"J +The 2uardian/ The stylistic effect of these sustained metaphors is essentially satirical" ) similar effect is fre#uently achieved %y the use of irony, the %rea$ingHup of set expressions, the stylistic use of word %uilding, %y using allusions, etc" Two types of allusions can %e distinguished in newspaper article writingD a" allusions to political and other facts of the day, which are indispensa%le and have no stylistic value, and %" historical, literary and %i%lical allusions which are often used to create a specific stylistic effect, largelyHsatirical" The emotional force of expression in the editorial is often enhanced %y the use of various syntactical stylistic devices" Some editorials a%ound in parallel constructions, various types of repetition, rhetorical #uestions and other syntactical stylistic means" Met, the role of expressive language means and stylistic devices in the editorial should not %e overestimated" They stand out against the essentially neutral

%ac$ground" )nd whatever stylistic devices one comes across in editorials, they are for the most part trite" ;roadly spea$ing, tradition reigns supreme in the language of the newspaper" >riginal forms of expression and fresh genuine stylistic means are comparatively rare in newspaper articles, editorials included" =owever, although editorials as a specific genre of newspaper writing have common distinguishing features, the editorials in different papers vary in degree of emotional colouring and stylistic originality of expression" <hile these #ualities are typical enough of the JpopularJ newspapers +those with large circulations/, such as the Daily Mirror and the Daily Mail, the soHcalled J#uality papersJ, as The Times and The 2uardian, ma$e rather a sparing use of the expressive and stylistic means of the language" <hatever stylistic JgemsJ one may encounter in the newspaper, they cannot o%scure the essentially traditional mode of expression characteristic of newspaper English. 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9 W 66.<0M(<9:4. SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE The language of science is governed %y the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations %etween different phenomena, etc" The language means used, therefore, tend to %e o%Cective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individualityI there is a striving for the most generaliGed form of expression" JThe proper medium of scientific expression,J writes E" SaHpir, Jis therefore a generaliGed language that may %e defined as a sym%olic alge%ra of which all $nown languages are translations" >ne can ade#uately translate scientific literature %ecause the original scientific expression is itself a translation"J The first and most noticea%le feature of this style is the ")!i'a" #e8-e 'e )7 -%%era 'e# with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence" 0t will not %e an exaggeration to say that in no other functional style do we find such a developed and varied system of connectives as in scientific prose" ) second and no less important feature and, perhaps, the most conspicuous, is the use of terms specific to each given %ranch of science" 0t will %e wise to state in passing that due to the rapid dissemination of scientific and technical ideas, particularly in what are called the exact sciences, we may o%serve the process of JdeHterminiGation,J that is, some scientific and technical terms %egin to circulate outside the narrow field they

%elong to and eventually %egin to develop new meanings" ;ut the overwhelming maCority of terms do not undergo this process of deHterminiGation and remain the property of scientific prose" There they are %orn, may develop new terminological meanings and there they die" Ko other field of human activity is so prolific in coining new words as science is" The necessity to penetrate deeper into the essence of things and phenomena gives rise to new concepts, which re#uire new words to name them" )s has already %een pointed out, a term will ma$e more direct reference to something than a descriptive explanation, a nonHterm" =ence the rapid creation of new terms in any developing science" urther, the general voca%ulary employed in scientific prose %ears its direct referential meaning, that is, words used in scientific prose will always tend to %e used in their primary logical meaning" =ardly a single word will %e found here which, in contrast to the %ellesHlettres style, is used in more than one meaning" Kor will there %e any words with contextual meaning" Even the possi%ility of am%iguity is avoided" urthermore, terms are coined so as to %e selfHexplanatory to the greatest possi%le degree" ;ut in spite of this a new term in scientific prose is generally 7)"")?ed +or preceded/ %y an explanation" !i$ewise neutral and common literary words used in scientific prose will %e explained, even if their meaning is only slightly modified, either in the context +%y a parenthesis, or an attri%utive phrase/ or in a footHnote" 0n modern scientific prose an interesting phenomenon can %e o%served H the exchange of terms %etween various %ranches of science" This is evidently due to the interpenetration of scientific ideas" SelfHsufficiency in any %ranch of science is now a thing of the past" Colla%oration of specialists in related sciences has proved successful in many fields" The exchange of terminology may therefore %e regarded as a natural outcome of this colla%oration" Mathematics has priority in this respect" Mathematical terms have left their own domain and travel freely in other sciences, including linguistics" ) third characteristic feature of scientific style is what we may call sentenceH patterns" They are of three typesD postulatory, argumentative and formulative" ) hypothesis, a scientific conCecture or a forecast must %e %ased on facts already $nown, on facts systematiGed and defined" Therefore every piece of scientific prose will %egin with postulatory pronouncements, which are ta$en as selfHevident and needing no proof" ) reference to these facts is only preliminary to the exposition of the writer?s ideas and is therefore, summed up in precisely

formulated statements accompanied, if considered necessary, %y references to sources" The writer?s own ideas are also shaped in formulae, which are the enunciation of a doctrine or theory of a principle, an argument, the result of an investigation, etc" The definition sentenceHpattern in a scientific utterance, that is the sentence, which sums up the argument, is generally a $ind of clincher sentence" Thus in his J!inguistics and StyleJ Kils Eric En$vist concludes one of his arguments in the following wordsD JThe study of features not stata%le in terms of contextual pro%a%ilities of linguistic items, style mar$ers, stylistic sets and shifts of style is not the tas$ of stylistics %ut of other levels of linguistic or literary analysis"J ) fourth o%serva%le feature of the style of modern scientific prose, and one that stri$es the eye of the reader, is the use of 8-)%a%i) # a d re7ere 'e#. These sometimes occupy as much as half a page"7 The references also have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the name of the writer referred to, the title of the wor$ #uoted, the pu%lishing house, the place and year it was pu%lished, and the page of the excerpt #uoted or referred to" ) fifth feature of scientific style, which ma$es it distinguisha%le from other styles, is the fre#uent use of 7))%( )%e#, not of the reference $ind, %ut di!re##i*e i '$ara'%er. This is in full accord with the main re#uirement of the style, which is logical coherence of ideas expressed" )nything that seems to violate this re#uirement or seems not to %e immediately relevant to the matter in hand %ut at the same time may serve indirectly to %ac$ up the idea will %e placed in a footH note" The i/6er#) a"i%& of scientific writings can also %e considered a typical feature of this style" This #uality is mainly revealed in the fre#uent use of passive constructions" Scientific experiments are generally descri%ed in the passive voice, for example, JThen acid ?a# %a@e A+ instead of JI 2?e4 then %))@ acid"J ) correspondent of the Times !iterary Supplement says that to write J0 weighed ,8 grams of aspirin and dissolved them in as little water as 0 couldJ would %e ?deplora%le? in a research paper" The desira%le plain scientific statement, he maintains, would %e JTen grams of aspirin were dissolved in a minimum volume of water"J )nother correspondent o%Cects to this mode of expression and saysD JThe terri%le thing a%out that second sentence is that its infection has spread in all its falsity %eyond research H into politics, religion, pu%lic statements, film scripts,

Cournalism" 0t creates the %ureaucratic impression that things Jwere doneJ and that no%ody Jdid them"J !eaving aside this unreasona%le protest against the esta%lished and widely recogniGed models of scientific syntax, we must agree that an overHuse of the passive, particularly in other styles, will create the Jsententious voice of %oredomJ as the writer puts it" )nd his statement, J) pen was not filled with in$ this morning, %ut 0 filled my pen,J will certainly %e more appropriate in ordinary language" ;ut this is not a valid argument against using such constructions in scientific prose" 0n connection with the general impersonal tone of expression, it should %e noted that impersonal passive constructions are fre#uently used with the ver%s #-66)#e+ a##-/e+ 6re#-/e+ ') '"-de+ i 7er+ 6)i % )-%+ etc", as in ?0t should %e pointed out?, ?0t must not %e assumed?, ?0t must %e emphasiGed?, ?0t can %e inferred?, etc" There is a noticea%le difference in the syntactical design of utterances in the exact sciences +mathematics, chemistry, physics, etc"/ and in the =umanities" The passive constructions fre#uently used in the scientific prose of the exact sciences are not indispensa%le in the =umanities" This perhaps is due to the fact that the data and methods of investigation applied in the =umanities are less o%Cective" The necessity to #uote the passages under o%servation and to amplify arguments seriously affects syntactical patterns" 0n the =umanities some seemingly wellH $nown pronouncement may %e and often is su%Cected to revaluation, whereas in the exact sciences much can %e accepted without #uestion and therefore needs no comment" =ere are two samples of scientific prose, one from a linguistic paper and the other from a text%oo$ on chemistry" JThe critical literature on *eats? J>de on a 2recian UrnJ is enormous, and much of it is extremely penetrating" 0t may therefore come as a surprise to maintain that there are several points in the poem which are in need of further classification, and that to do so may give us not only %etter $nowledge of the poem, %ut hypothesis a%out method which can %e tested elsewhere" The criticisms fall into three main groupsI those that ta$e up some #uite minor %lemishes, or possi%le %lemishes, in the >deI a very large group that discusses at great length the e#uation %etween Truth and ;eautyI and a small group which gives extended, lineH%yHline discussion" 0t is one of this latter group which alone ta$es up the difficulty involved in lines 74 and 7-, in the possi%le uncertainty in the reference of JThat leaves a heart high sorrowful"J =ere is the second sample" Sulphur Trioxide 489" 0t is very easy to decompose sulphurous

acid into the anhydride and water" 2entle heating will effect it, and indeed, if the solution %e strong, the decomposition is spontaneous" Sulphurous acid always smells of sulphur dioxide" The decomposition of sulphuric acid into water and sulphur trioxide cannot %e effected %y any such simple means" The trioxide is made directly %y inducing S>g to com%ine with more oxygen" There is always a slight tendency for S>g to pass into 489 in the presence of oxygen, %ut the process is too slow to %e of much interest" The gases can, however, %e made to react much more rapidly %y the use of a suita%le catalytic agent, the %est $nown %eing platinum, and as the effect of the platinum depends upon its surface area it is necessary to arrange for this to %e as great as possi%le" 0f a piece of as%estos fi%re is steeped in a solution of platinum chloride in hydrochloric acid and then heated, the as%estos %ecomes coated with a thin grey coating of spongy platinum" 0n this way Jplatinised as%estosJ is produced" 0f now a mixture of sulphur dioxide and oxygen is passed over heated platinised as%estos, the dioxide is converted into the trioxide, thusD 7S87g8Z7SCq9 The apparatus is #uite simple and is shown in fig" 9F" The vapour of sulphur trioxide, which comes off is condensed %y means of a freeGing mixture into colourless iceHli$e needles" 0f this can %e stored, without access to moisture, it undergoes some sort of molecular change and turns to a white sil$y crystalline solid" The remar$a%le difference %etween the two samples lies in the fact that the second one re#uires a far greater amount of preliminary $nowledge than the first one" )lthough %oth samples are impersonal in form, they nevertheless differ in the amount of o%Cectivity, the first %eing less o%Cective in stating data" urther, in the first excerpt, views and opinions are expressed" 0n the second none are given" 0n %oth samples the syntax is governed %y logical reasoning, and there are no emotional elements whatsoever" =owever emotiveness is not entirely or categorically excluded from scientific prose" There may %e hypotheses, pronouncements and conclusions, which, %eing %ac$ed up %y strong %elief, therefore call for the use of some emotionally coloured words" >ur emotional reaction to facts and ideas may %ear valua%le information, as it itself springs from the inner #ualities of these facts and ideas" <e depend in no small degree upon our emotional reactions for $nowledge of the outer world" )n interesting investigation was made %y K" M" 1aGin$ina into the emotive character of scientific prose of the ,-th century" 0n some articles pu%lished in Kature, a Cournal, which made its first appearance in ,43-, there were many emotional words used, evidently

compensating for lac$ of evidence and argumented facts" 0t was normal in the discussion on many fundamental pro%lems to use such words as /ar*e"")-#+ ?) der7-"+ /) #%r)-#+ /a! i7i'e %+ 0ri""ia % a d %$e li$e to attempt proof of a hypothesis or a pronouncement" 0n modern scientific prose such emotional words are very seldom used" )t least they are not constituents of modern scientific style" Kor can we find emotional structures or stylistic devices, which aim at rousing aesthetic feelings, reaching the paper that the language of much scientific writing is unintelligi%le to ordinary people uninitiated in the principles of the given science" )ll the participants in the discussion agreed that science must have its own language +that is its own voca%ulary/ and that the exposition of new ideas in science must rest on a very solid foundation of previously ac#uired $nowledge" ;ut what they actually meant was not only the $nowledge of the terminology of the given science, %ut also an immediate recognition of technicalities in the text, which predetermines understanding" These preHre#uisites are confined exclusively to the lexical aspect of the language" So it is not the language itself that is special, %ut certain words or their sym%ols" This perhaps explains the fact that those who $now the technical nomenclature of a given science can read and understand scientific texts in a foreign language even with a poor $nowledge of its grammatical structure" The characteristic features enumerated a%ove do not cover all the peculiarities of scientific prose, %ut they are the most essential ones" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9 W 66.<9:(<254. THE STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS There is finally one more style of language within the scope of standard literary English which has %ecome singled out, and that is the #%&"e )7 )77i'ia" d)'-/e %#, or JofficialeseJ as it is sometimes called" !i$e other styles, it is not homogeneous and is represented %y the following su%styles or variantsD ," the language of %usiness documents, 7" the language of legal documents, 9" that of diplomacy, E" that of military documents" !i$e other styles of language this style has a definite communicative aim and accordingly has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means" The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions %inding two parties in an underta$ing" These parties may %eD the state and the citiGen, or citiGen and citiGen +Curisdiction/I a society and its mem%ers +statute or ordinance/I two or more enterprises or %odies +%usiness correspondence or contracts/I two or more

governments +pacts, treaties/I a person in authority and a su%ordinate +orders, regulations, instructions, authoritative directions/I the %oard or presidium and the assem%ly or general meeting +procedures acts, minutes/, etc" 0n other words the aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agreement %etween two contracting parties" Even protest against violations of statutes, contracts, regulations, etc", can also %e regarded as a form %y which normal cooperation is sought on the %asis of previously attained concordance" This most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style" The most stri$ing, though not the most essential feature, is a special system of cliches, terms and set expressions %y which each su%style can easily %e recogniGed, for exampleD I 0e! %) i 7)r/ &)-+ I 0e! %) /)*e+ I #e') d %$e /)%i) + 6r)*i#i) a" a!e da+ %$e a0)*e(/e %i) ed+ $erei a7%er a/ed+ ) 0e$a"7 )7+ 6ri*a%e ad*i#)r&+ Dear Sir+ Je re/ai + &)-r )0edie % #er*a %#. 0n fact each of the su%divisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions, which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style" Thus in finance we find terms li$e e5%ra re*e -e+ %a5a0"e 'a6a'i%ie#+ "ia0i"i%& %) 6r)7i% %a5. Terms and phrases li$e $i!$ ') %ra'%i ! 6ar%ie#+ %) ra%i7& a a!ree/e %+ /e/)ra d-/+ 6a'%. C$ar!e dBa77aire#+ 6r)%e'%)ra%e+ e5%ra(%erri%)ria" #%a%-#+ 6"e i6)%e %iar& will immediately %rand the utterance as diplomatic" 0n legal language, examples are . %) dea" ?i%$ a 'a#eG #-//ar& 6r)'ed-reG a 0)d& )7 H-d!e#G a# "aid d)? i . !i$ewise other varieties of official language have their special nomenclature, which is conspicuous in the text, and therefore easily discerni%le" ;esides the special nomenclature characteristic of each variety of the style, there is a feature common to all these varieties H the use of a%%reviations, conventional sym%ols and contractions, for exampleD M" P" +Mem%er of Parliament/, 2vt +government/, =" M" S" +=is MaCesty?s Steamship/, r +dollar/, !td +!imited/" There are so many of them that there are special addenda in dictionaries to decode them" This characteristic feature was used %y Dic$ens in his JPosthumous Papers of the Pic$wic$ Clu%IJ for instance, P" (" P", M" P" C" +Perpetual (iceH President, Mem%er Pic$wic$ Clu%/I 2" C" M" P" C" +2eneral ChairmanHMem%er Pic$wic$ Clu%/" These a%%reviations are particularly a%undant in military documents" =ere they are used not only as conventional sym%ols %ut as signs of the military code, which is supposed to %e $nown only to the initiated" Examples areD D" )" >" +Divisional ammunition >fficer/I adv" +advance/I at$ +attac$/I o%C"

+o%Cect/I )\T +antiHtan$/I )T)S +)ir Transport auxiliary Service/" )nother feature of the style is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning" :ust as in the other matterHofHfact styles and in contrast intrinsically to the %ellesHlettres style, there is no room for words with contextual meaning or for any $ind of simultaneous realiGation of two meanings" 0n military documents sometimes metaphorical names are given to mountains, rivers, hills or villages, %ut these metaphors are perceived as code signs and have no aesthetic value, as inD J7",87 d" 0nt" Div" continues at$ 73 e%" EF to captive o%Cs Spruce Peach and Cherry and prepares to ta$e over o%Cs Plum and )pple after capture %y CC;, Fth armd Div"J <ords with emotive meaning are also not to %e found in the style of official documents" Even in the style of scientific prose some words may %e found which reveal the attitude of the writer, his individual evaluation of the facts and events of the issue" ;ut no such words are to %e found in official style, except those, which are used in %usiness letters as conventional phrases of greeting or close, as Dear Sir, yours faithfully" )s in all other functional styles, the distinctive properties appear as a system" <e cannot single out a style %y its voca%ulary only, recogniGa%le though it always is" The syntactical pattern of the style is as significant as the voca%ulary though not perhaps so immediately apparent" Perhaps the most noticea%le of all syntactical features are the compositional patterns of the variants of this style" Thus %usiness letters have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the heading giving the address of the writer and the date, the name of the addressee and his address" =ere is a sample of a %usiness letterD Smith and Sons 7F Main Street Manchester -th e%ruary, ,-3. Mr" :ohn Smith 7- Cran%ourn Street !ondon Dear Sir, <e %eg to inform you that %y order and for account of Mr" :ulian of !eeds, we have ta$en the li%erty of drawing upon you for g 7F at three months? date to the order of Mr" Sharp" <e gladly ta$e this opportunity of placing our services at your disposal, and shall %e pleased if you fre#uently ma$e use of them" 1espectfully yours, Smith and Sons %y :ane Crawford There is every reason to %elieve that many of the emotional words and phrases in presentHday commercial correspondence, which are not merely conventional sym%ols of polite address did retain their emotive meaning at earlier stages in the

development of this variety of official language" =ere is an interesting sample of a %usiness letter dated :une F, ,3FF" Mr" 2" Dury to Secretary Tharloe, 1ight =onora%le, The Commissary of Sweden, Mr" ;ormel, doth most hum%ly intreat your honour to %e pleased to procure him his audience from his highnesse as soon as conveniently it may %e" =e desires, that the same %e without much ceremony, and %y way of private audience" 0 hum%ly su%scri%e myself Mour =onour?s most hum%le and o%edient servant, 2" Dury" :une F, ,3FF" Such words and word com%inations as ?most hum%ly,? ?intreat? +entreat/, ?0 hum%ly su%scri%e?, ?most hum%le and o%edient servant? and the li$e are too insistently repeated not to produce the desired impression of hum%leness so necessary for one who as$s for a favour" )lmost every official document has its own compositional design" Pacts and statutes, orders and minutes, codes and memoranda all have more or less definite forms and it will not %e an exaggeration to state that the form of the document is itself informative, inasmuch as it tells something a%out the matter dealt with +a letter, an agreement, an order, etc/" 0n this respect we shall #uote the Pream%le of the Charter of the United Kations, which clearly illustrates the most peculiar form of the arrangement of an official document of agreement" C=)1TE1 > T=E UK0TED K)T0>KS AJe %$e Pe)6"e# )7 %$e U i%ed Na%i) # De%er/i ed T> S)(E succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has %rought untold sorrow to man$ind, and T> 1E) 01M faith in fundamental rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the e#ual rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and T> EST);!0S= conditions under which Custice and respect for the o%ligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can %e maintained, and T> P1>M>TE social progress and %etter standards of life in larger freedom, A d F)r T$e#e E d# T> P1)CT0CE tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neigh%ours, and T> UK0TE our strength to maintain international peace and security, and T> EKSU1E, %y the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not %e used, save in the common interest, and T> EMP!>M international machinery for the promotion of

the economic and social advancement of all peoples, Ha*e Re#)"*ed %) C)/0i e O-r E77)r%# %) A'')/6"i#$ T$e#e Ai/#. )ccordingly, our respective 2overnments, through representatives assem%led in the City of San rancisco, who have exhi%ited their full powers found to %e in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Kations and do here%y esta%lish an international organiGation to %e $nown as the United Kations"J )s is seen, all the reasons, which led to the decision of setting up an international organiGation are expressed in one sentence with parallel infinitive o%Cect clauses" Each infinitive o%Cect clause is framed as a separate paragraph thus ena%ling the reader to attach e#ual importance to each of the items mentioned" The separate sentences shaped as clauses are naturally divided not %y full stops %ut either %y commas or %y semicolons" 0t is also an esta%lished custom to divide separate utterances %y num%ers, maintaining, however, the principle of dependence of all the statements on the main part of the utterance" Thus in chapter 0 of the U"K" Charter the purposes and principles of the charter are given in a num%er of predicatives, all expressed in infinitive constructions and num%eredD JC=)PTE1," PU1P>SES )KD P10KC0P!ES The Purposes of the United Kations areD ," T> M)0KT)0K international peace and security, and to that endD to ta$e effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other %reaches of the peace, and to %ring a%out %y peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of Custice and international law, adCustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a %reach of the peace" 7" T> DE(E!>P friendly relations among nations %ased on respect for the principle of e#ual rights and selfHdetermination of peoples, and to ta$e other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace" 9" T> )C=0E(E international cooperation on solving international pro%lems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religionI and E" T> ;E ) CEKT1E for harmoniGing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends"J =ere is another sample of an official document maintaining the same principlesD

Technical )ssistance Committee Expanded Programme of Technical )ssistance 1eview of the Programme for ,-F3 )ustralia and EgyptD revised draft resolution" T$e Technical )ssistance Committee, 1EC)!!0K2 T=)T according to Economic and Social Council resolution FE7 +b(000/ the preparation and review of the Expanded Programme and all other necessary steps should %e carried out in a way that T)C ought to %e in a position to approve the overHall programme and authoriGe allocation to participating organiGations %y 98 Kovem%er at the latest, C>KS0DE10K2 T=)T a realistic programme such as the Expanded Programme cannot %e planned and formulated without prior $nowledge of the financial resources availa%le for its implementation, C>KS0DE10K2 T=)T T)C, with the assistance of such ad hoc su%committees as it may find necessary to esta%lish, will normally need a%out one wee$ to carry out the tas$ referred to in the resolution mentioned a%ove, %earing in mind the necessary consultations with the representatives of the participating organiGations, ," )S*S the SecretaryH2eneral to see$ to arrange each year that the Pledging Conference should %e convened as early as possi%le ta$ing due account of all factors involvedI 7" DEC0DES that the SecretaryH2eneral should in future wor$ on the assumption that in carrying out the functions of approving the programme and authoriGing allocations as re#uired %y Economic and Social Council resolution FE7 +b(000/, the T)C will usually need to meet for one wee$I 9" 1ENUESTS further the SecretaryH2eneral to transmit this resolution to all States Mem%ers and nonHmem%ers of the United Kations which participate in the Expanded Programme"J FFH7-998 0n no other style of language will such an arrangement of utterance te found" 0n fact the whole document is one sentence from the point of view of its formal syntactical structure" The su%Cect of the sentence ?The Technical )ssistance Committee? is followed %y a num%er of participial constructions H ?1ecalling?H, ?Considering? H, ?Considering? H, is cut off %y a comma from them and from the homogeneous predicates, ?)s$s?, ?Decides?, ?1e#uests?" Every predicate structure is num%ered and %egins with a capital letter Cust as the participial constructions"

This structurally illogical way of com%ining different ideas has its sense" 0n the text Cust #uoted the reason for such a structural pattern pro%a%ly lies in the intention to show the e#uality of the items and similar dependence of the participial constructions on the predicate constructions" J0n legal English,J writes =" <hitehall, J"""a significant Cudgement may depend on the exact relations %etween words" """The language of the law is written not so much to %e understood as not to %e misunderstood"J, )s is seen from the different samples a%ove, the overHall code of the official style falls into a system of su%codes, each characteriGed %y its own terminological nomenclature, its own compositional form, its own variety of syntactical arrangements" ;ut the integrating features of all these su%codes emanating from the general aim of agreement %etween parties, remain the followingD ,/ conventionality of expressionI 7/ a%sence of any emotivenessI 9/ the encoded character of languageI sym%ols +including a%%reviations/ and E/ a general syntactical mode of com%ining several pronouncements into one sentence" 2I.R.Ga"6eri . S%&"i#%i'#. M.+ 9:;9 W 66.<25(<<24.

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