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Selection of celebrity endorsers


A case approach to developing an endorser selection process model
Svend Hollensen
Department of Border Region Studies, University of Southern Denmark, Snderborg, Denmark, and

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Received 2 September 2011 Revised 8 August 2012 Accepted 10 August 2012

Christian Schimmelpfennig
University of St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
Abstract
Purpose This paper aims at shedding some light on the various avenues marketers can undertake until finally an endorsement contract is signed. The focus of the study lies on verifying the generally held assumption that endorser selection is usually taken care of by creative agencies, vetting several candidates by means of subtle evaluation procedures. Design/methodology/approach A case study research has been carried out among companies experienced in celebrity endorsements to learn more about the endorser selection process in practise. Based on these cases theory is inductively developed. Findings The research suggests that the generally held assumption that endorsers being selected and thoroughly vetted by a creative agency may not be universally valid. A normative model to illustrate the continuum of the selection process in practise is suggested and the two polar case studies (Swiss brand Lindt and Austrian Vitatherm) are presented in depth. Research limitations/implications As the results of the study suggest, generally held assumptions towards the endorser selection process may be challenged. Consequently, this affects the necessary accuracy of models to evaluate the brand-endorser matchup. Practical implications Conducted case studies indicate that there are various avenues how brands come to their endorser. This paper could not find evidence of a best practice strategy. Originality/value A normative model for the celebrity endorser selection process is suggested. Keywords Endorsement, Branding, Celebrity endorser, Brand value, Brands, Product endorsement Paper type Research paper

Marketing Intelligence & Planning Vol. 31 No. 1, 2013 pp. 88-102 r Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-4503 DOI 10.1108/02634501311292948

1. Introduction On average, one in five UK and one in four US advertisements feature a celebrity in todays marketing campaigns. On a global scale also roughly every fifth ad includes a celebrity, making endorsements a widely used and popular strategy among marketers to promote consumer products and services (Halonen-Knight and Hurmerinta, 2010). Celebrities star in TV commercials, appear in print advertisements of papers and glossy magazines or grin from billboards. Their support for featured brands and products comes along in form of testimonials in which they act as experts in areas related to their fame, their mere appearance in ads subtly influencing consumers, or their emergence at corporate events connecting a brand to their glamorous personality. As consumers we are all exposed to such endorsements when watching television, listening to the radio, browsing in papers and magazines or walking the streets of urban areas. We come across them on the subway when getting to the office on Monday morning or on Saturday night at the movies. The rationale behind such endorsements is leveraging secondary brand associations. In order to increase brand equity, marketers borrow associations attached to other entities and link them to their brands, creating secondary brand

associations (Kotler et al., 2006). It is argued that with such linkages consumers assume or infer that associations characterizing other entities also are true for the linked brand (Keller et al., 2008). Hence, consumers consequently transfer any or all judgements and feelings towards an entity to the endorsed brand. As possibilities for brands to differentiate their products through its characteristics and technical attributes have become limited we can observe a fundamental shift in companies promotion; today, the emphasis of marketing communication efforts often lies on symbolic, emotional features generating more socio-psychological associations in consumers minds (Carroll, 2008), such as leveraging secondary brand associations. For secondary brand associations to be created Keller (1998) suggests eight categories to transfer positive image from; the usage of spokespersons being one of them. And celebrities certainly provide a variety of positive images marketing managers would gladly have their brands linked to. They can be seen as super-consumers, as exemplary figures that represent powerful and admirable selves everyone seeks and so strong that even a glimpse of them in an advertisement conveys meaning (Carroll, 2008). Besides, contracting a well-known personage almost certainly guarantees a minimum amount of consumers attention, media coverage, higher recall of the brand and credibility for its products (Majumdar, 2010). Summing up, it can be said that the possibilities for brands to differentiate consumer goods by performance specifications have become very limited. Creating socio-psychological connotations in consumers minds on the other hand, constitutes a more promising avenue for product differentiation taking into account todays product variety available to consumers. Spokespersons being an effective means of leveraging secondary brand associations explain the steady augmentation of endorsement campaigns over the years. However, celebrity endorsement campaigns also bear several drawbacks: improper behaviour negatively affecting the brand, vampire effect, overexposure, usage of competitions products or lack of credibility are some issues brand managers may have to deal with after an endorsement deal was signed. Not to mention exorbitant royalties being exchanged and expenses covered for accommodation, transportation and the like for the stars and their entourage. Hence, whether or not to engage a brand in some kind of endorsement deal needs to be assessed carefully. Let alone the decision of who to finally appoint brand ambassador. Given the many risks at hand scholars argue that identifying the right celebrity endorser is one of the most important decisions that can be taken for a brand (Halonen-Knight and Hurmerinta, 2010). 2. Literature review Common sense tells us that the same words uttered or written by different people can have very different effects. This coherence explains why these so called source effects have been investigated by scholars for half a century by now. Assisting marketing practitioners in their decision making, researchers have examined which characteristics of communicators are most effective for the target groups attitude to change. It was found that particularly important characteristics of the message sender are attractiveness and credibility (Solomon et al., 2006). Building on research findings three models were developed to help explain which traits an endorser should have to successfully transfer positive meaning to a brand. The source attractiveness model suggests that an endorser should be attractive to the target audience with regard to physique, intellectual skills, athletic capabilities

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and lifestyle. The source credibility model assumes that the success of a message in a marketing context is based on the perceived expertise and trustworthiness of the endorser. Finally, the meaning transfer model suggests that an endorser should also possess a set of traits compatible with those of the brand for meaning to be transferred (Roll, 2005). Summarizing fundamental findings and theories Shimp (2008) developed the TEARS model according to which endorsers trustworthiness, expertise, physical attractiveness, respect and similarity significantly affect a campaigns success. Additionally, Shimp suggests eight crucial factors to be considered for making an endorsement campaign favourable: celebrity and audience match-up, celebrity and brand matchup, celebrity credibility, celebrity attractiveness, cost considerations, working ease or difficulty factor and likelihood-of-getting-into-trouble-factor (Shimp, 2008). Besides academics also marketing practitioners developed tools to advice in endorsement-related issues. Rather hands-on devises than comprehensive frameworks, tools such as Q rating and Davie Brown Index help marketers to find the most appropriate ambassador for a brand. The Q rating by Marketing Evaluation Inc constitutes an established indicator to find the most famous celebrities (Hollensen, 2010) and thus, can be used as an initial filtering layer in selecting celebrity endorsers (Erdogan, 1999). Furthermore, the Davie Brown Index set up by the agency DavieBrown Talent is a helpful tool to measure the fit between an endorsing character and a brand. Based on the eight criteria appeal, notice, trendsetting, influence, trust, endorsement, aspiration and awareness the index intends to find the celebrity who best matches and represents the values marketers want its target audience to perceive (Glaister, 2006). As this brief review shows, a considerable lot of research has been assigned to the underlying concepts of leveraging secondary brand associations by means of endorsements as well as traits necessary for an endorser to transfer meaning from. However, little research has been carried out to shed some light on the process a marketer seeking to engage in an endorsement deal is likely to go through (Erdogan and Drollinger, 2008), answering questions such as: which parties are involved? who to contact? what is the procedure until finally a contract is signed? and so forth. From a marketers perspective the question of the campaigns process appears to be of major importance. For it determines who to contact and helps to get an estimate on the campaigns costs as well as workload for the marketing department. Besides, in endorsement in-experienced marketing managers may be curious to see how other brands initiate their endorsement campaign before embarking on such a venture themselves. From an academic perspective on the other hand, the question of the campaigns process determines the necessity of subtle models to find the best matching endorser for a brand. Different parties are likely to tackle this challenge differently as their expertise, experience, financial and human resources may vary significantly. A creative agency specialized in celebrity endorsements can certainly be expected to evaluate candidates appropriateness for an endorsement of a certain brand in a far more sophisticated manner than the marketing team of a small company would be able to. As a matter of fact, whether or not an endorser is vetted through and ultimately chosen by a highly professional and experienced agency is likely to affect the degree of accuracy and precision that academic models and theories need to strive for. Thus, this study seeks to shed some light on the process of conducting an endorsement campaign to provide marketing practitioners with a basic guideline and

an overview. Furthermore, marketing literature shall be enriched by providing an indication to which extend subtle models to matchup brand and endorser may be required. Since our research indicates that the process is multifaceted in practise two contrasting in-depth case studies shall borderline the range. Subsequently, a normative endorser selection process model is suggested to further enrich marketing literature. 3. Prior research on the endorser selection process The widespread assumption seems to be that most of the endorser selection process is carried out or at least guided by a creative agency which may be even specialized in endorsements. This presumption has revealed to us over the years in informal talks with (in endorsement inexperienced) marketing managers. The fact that no research on the overall selection process has been conducted or published yet further supports this assumption (Erdogan and Drollinger, 2008). The only research on the process of endorser selection available in literature focuses on the processes within advertising agencies. In 2008 a pioneering study was conducted by Erdogan and Drollinger who examined the process by which advertising agencies select endorsers. Given the scope and depth of this study this work can be seen as a ground-breaking achievement in investigating the endorser selection process. The results, which mounted in the development of a normative model of the selection process, shall be introduced briefly in the following: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Companys marketing staff requests a campaign achieving certain goals with its advertising agency. Agencies teams discuss and evaluate various campaigns and finally move ahead with a celebrity-led campaign. Market research is carried out to find appropriate candidates. Agency gets in touch with pre-selected celebrities to clarify pre-conditions. Agency proposes the campaign to its client. After clients approval final negotiations are conducted, which usually take place among company staff, agency staff and celebritys staff.

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However, focusing only on the agencies internal processes the study neglects that companies may directly ask an agency to work out an endorsement campaign or do not reach out to an agency at all. Furthermore, this normative model implies that celebrityled campaigns are suggested by advertising agencies, research is carried out to find appropriate candidates, first contact is usually established by agencies and negotiations usually do not include celebrities themselves. Since other relevant research on the selection process has not been carried out or published yet, academic knowledge on the overall selection process appears to be fragmented and needs to be further elaborated. 4. Research questions and propositions In order to further add to existing knowledge on the endorser selection process we seek to find evidence either supporting or rejecting the assumptions made by previous research. Hence our study seeks to shed some light on the whole selection process examining interactions between various parties possibly involved.

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To achieve this objective the following research questions and propositions have been formulated: Do companies involve advertising agencies to find an appropriate endorser?

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P1. Our proposition is that various companies may come to an appropriate endorser because of their agencys evaluation. However, other companies may as well come up with candidates themselves. If an agency was involved, was the endorsement campaign suggested by the agency or explicitly requested by the company? P2. Various companies may be carrying out an endorsement campaign because of their agencys estimation that it would best achieve given marketing objectives. However, other companies might have reached out to an agency to only have vetted appropriate candidates after the decision of embarking on an endorsement campaign had been made. Is there a subtle evaluation process vetting a candidates appropriateness to endorse the brand? P3. In case of the involvement of a creative agency we assume several possible candidates are weighed against each other and the brand-endorser matchup is properly reviewed. Should the companys marketing department handle the campaign without support of an agency we do not expect such evaluation process to be in place. Are celebrities themselves and/or their agents involved in negotiations? P4. Many times a celebrity may leave negotiating an endorsement deal to his agent. Due to exiting research gaps we do not know yet if this usually is the case. 5. Research methodology As previously argued, research on the process of endorser selection is very limited. Though endorsements extensively occur in marketing practise a theory of the overall endorser selection process has not been developed yet. Due to the lack of academic literature, the complexity of the examined processes and the fact that the study primarily addresses the how (the endorser selection process works) we expect qualitative data to offer insights into the selection process that quantitative data cannot easily reveal. Therefore theory-building rather than theory-testing research is necessary. To develop a normative model of the overall endorser selection process we have chosen to inductively build theory from case studies. In other words we aim to create a theoretical construct from case-based, empirical evidence. This approach is likely to produce theory that is accurate, interesting and testable and provides depth and insight into a little-known phenomenon. More precisely, a multiple case approach has been chosen as this typically yields more robust, generalizable and testable theory and also enables broader exploration of research questions and theoretical elaboration (Eisenhardt and Graebner 2008). Like multiple experiments a multiple case approach represents replications that allow the development of a rich, theoretical framework.

Literature suggests that six to ten cases should provide compelling evidence to support or reject an initial set of propositions (Yin, 1994; Yin 1981). This is to increase external validity which reflects how accurately the results represent the phenomenon studied and allows generalizability of results (Yin, 1981). For our research we have chosen to perform ten case studies to maximize the accuracy of the developed endorser selection process model. For this to succeed, approximately 30 organizations have initially been contacted. However, some of them were not qualified, interested or able to participate in our study. Subsequently, the studys results need to be tested against a larger population using quantitative methodology for validation. To get a picture of the overall selection procedure we have decided to conduct the research at the very start of every such campaign: the client. This is in fact a company trying to increase awareness for its brand by embarking on a promotion campaign. The cases included in this study we have chosen based on companies track record in celebrity endorsements. Main criterion to be contacted has been an actual or previous engagement in celebrity endorsements. For practicability also geographical proximity has been taken into consideration. For this reason companies headquartered in central Europe namely Switzerland, Austria and Germany have been addressed. To improve the reliability of the studys results and hence to enable a replication achieving the same results, we elaborated an interview guide which was part of the case study protocol (Yin 2003; Miles and Huberman, 1994). Companies participating in the case study have all been asked the following questions: (1) Was a creative agency involved in the endorser selection process? (2) (3) (4) If so, did you directly request a celebrity endorsement campaign with your agency or was such a campaign suggested by them? Did the creative agency come up with a set of possible candidates which were then thoroughly vetted concerning their matchup? Was the celebrity personally involved in the selection process or only his/her agent?

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In the course of the interview companies responses have been discussed into further detail and additional questions have been asked for better understanding and clarification. In the following an overview of the participating brands and their endorsers (in case of multiple endorsers a selection is listed) is provided:
. . . . . . . . . .

A.T.U. Waldemar Hartmann (Germany); BMW Stress (Switzerland); Castrol Cristiano Ronaldo (Germany); EUNOVA Vitali Klitschko, Wladimir Klitschko (Germany); Lindt Roger Federer (Switzerland); Maurice Lacroix Bob Geldof, Justin Rose, Jimmy Wales (Switzerland); Rosbacher Michael Schumacher (Germany); CKLI Bruno Kernen, Daniel Mahrer (Switzerland); STO TISSOT Michal Owen, Tony Parker (Switzerland); and Vitatherm Hansi Hinterseer (Austria).

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As our study suggests, the avenues participating companies have undertaken to finally being represented by a celebrity are multifaceted. To borderline the broad continuum two of the ten case studies will be presented more in-depth after an overview of the results is presented. Those polar types are a particularly important theoretical sampling approach in which a researcher samples extreme cases in order to more easily observe contrasting patterns in the data (Eisenhardt and Graebner 2008). In this study depicting such polar types gives a better understanding of the range of possible avenues available to companies to come to an endorser. By limiting the case studies presented to the polar types we also intend to cope with the trade-off between theory and empirical richness as presenting a relatively complete and unbroken narrative of each case of our study is infeasible due to limitations of scope (Eisenhardt and Graebner 2008). 6. Results It came as a surprise to us how differently the ten examined companies ended up being represented by a celebrity. Hence we conclude that the results of our study provide a basis to challenge the generally held assumption that endorsers are selected and vetted by creative agencies. So did the majority of interviewees indicate that the idea of engaging a celebrity for a marketing campaign was initiated by the companys marketing staff: seven of the ten interviewed companies responded that the actual or previous endorsement campaign was initiated by company staff and an agency was not involved in the process at all. Only three respondents reported agencies were involved in some way. This result indicates that advertising agencies stake in the selection process of endorsers may not be as great as generally assumed. Also, we could not find evidence that the size of the company and with it manpower of its marketing department or degree of professionalism allows any deduction whether or not agencies will be involved. Furthermore three companies have responded they focused on a certain individual right from the start, without vetting the appropriateness of their choice neither weighing it against other candidates. In one case only one candidate was suggested by the advertising agency which means alternative candidates might have been considered by the agency. The remaining six companies have indicated that they did compare and rank several candidates. However, only in two cases celebrities were suggested and chosen due to a professionally carried out market research. The majority four companies have reported pre-selected and ultimate candidates were chosen by a less objective and more subjective approach based on marketing staffs experience and personal perception of the fit between brand values and candidates characteristics. This finding suggests that not in any case a company arrives at a particular ambassador due to a thorough and objective evaluation process. Finally, the involvement of the celebrity itself in the selection process has been examined. Our interviews have revealed that in two cases negotiations were mainly conducted with the stars agents. A personal get-together with the star and the company took place before the endorsement contract was signed though. Overall, these two companies did not perceive the personalities to have a particular interest in the brand or its values beyond the mere financial deal. In five cases companies have indicated that celebrities did have a considerable stake in the process and were involved in negotiations to a sizeable extend. Two companies even conducted all negotiations directly with the endorsers without any agent being involved. In one case the interviewee was not able to respond to this issue. We could not find evidence that

the overall fame of an endorser explains the degree of his involvement in the process. In those cases without any agents being involved the stars fame might play a key role. In the majority of cases in which an agent was involved to some extend marketing representatives perceived celebrities personal interest in and commitment to the brand variably strong. Relating the degree of perceived personal interest to the brands characteristics we have found an indication that an endorsers interest and commitment might depend on the brands and its products perception in terms of values, passion, tradition and the like. 7. Case study examples The two extreme cases shall now be sampled to convey a better understanding of the range of possible endorser selection processes (Plate 1). Vitatherm by OMV/BP & Hansi Hinterseer Vitatherm: the brand name of a new heating oil distributed by HINNOVA (Heating Innovations Austria GmbH) which is mutually held by BP and OMV. The new sulphur free oil claims to be more efficient and environmentally friendlier than other fuels. Hansi Hinterseer: the brands endorser was born in 1954 in Austria and is a former alpine skier. He won several alpine skiing World Cup races in Slalom skiing and Giant Slalom skiing. In 1994 he started a career as a singer and entertainer and is wellknown pre-dominantly in German speaking countries. Cooperation: the campaign was launched in October 2010 and the cooperation is scheduled until 2013. Besides advertisements in print media and direct mail also around 1,400 billboard ads spread over Austria and roughly 1,000 TV advertisements are planned.

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Plate 1. Vitatherm advertisement

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Process: HINNOVA intended to further extend the marketing campaign for its Vitatherm brand increasing the brands recognition. In a workshop HINNOVAs marketing staff and its advertising agency contemplated three different campaigns, a celebrity-led endorsement campaign among them. This option appeared to be most convincing and promising to the advertising agency and HINNOVA likewise and hence, was agreed on. In the course of the selection process a list with pre-selected candidates was presented by the agency. As an objective market research revealed, Hansi Hinterseer did best match the brand and would therefore represent it most convincingly. The contact to the star was established by HINNOVAs creative agency. Although a personal get-together with Hansi Hinterseer, the agency and HINNOVA representatives was arranged, negotiations were exclusively conducted with Hinterseers agent. Key facts: HINNOVA addressed its advertising agency requesting a campaign achieving certain objectives; the endorsement campaign was suggested by and worked out with an agency; a pre-selection of candidates was suggested by the agency; market research was carried out to find the most appropriate candidate; communication was done mainly through the candidates agent. Summing up: we can say that Vitatherm followed a rather objective and formal approach in the endorser selection process. Decisions were made based on the expertise of a creative agency which weighed various candidates thoroughly until finally an endorser was chosen (Plate 2). Lindt & Roger Federer ngli: more commonly known as Lindt is a Swiss chocolate and Lindt & Spru confectionary company. The company was founded in 1845 in Zurich, Switzerland and is one of the most traditional and known Swiss brands. Roger Federer: is a globally known tennis player. He has won a male record 16 Grand Slam singles titles and has appeared in an unprecedented 22 career Grand Slam finals. He has won four ATP World.

Plate 2. Lindt advertisement

Tour Finals and 17 ATP Masters Series tournaments. He holds the record of reaching the semi-finals or better of 23 consecutive Grand Slam tournaments over five and a half years (2005-2010) and the record of reaching ten consecutive Grand Slam finals. Sports analysts, tennis critics and former and current players consider Federer to be the greatest tennis player of all time. According to marketing experts Federer appears to be the most attractive Swiss testimonial. He has a high degree of popularity and a flawless image. Furthermore he represents performance, quality and stability. Cooperation: in October 2009 Roger Federer became the global brand ambassador for the world renowned chocolate brand. He is the first brand ambassador in the tres Chocolatiers campaign 165 years history of the company. Together with the Ma the celebrity endorsement campaign aims at increasing the popularity of LINDT in its global markets. The company also aims at encountering the consequences of the financial crisis which also has affected Lindts sales. ngli, Process: some years ago Ernst Tanner, CEO and president of Lindt & Spru sent a personal letter to Roger Federer, who resides in the vicinity of the companys headquarter at lake Zurich, inviting him to visit. A few days later Roger Federer indeed appeared and toured the companys premises. As a result of this get-together the idea of an endorsement cooperation was developing and finally realized. Negotiations were and are either carried out via Federers manager or with him personally. Key facts: the endorsement cooperation was initiated by the company; an agency was not involved in the selection process; other candidates were not considered; market research to find the best spokesperson was not carried out; the endorser was and still is personally involved in negotiations with the company. Summing up: we can say that Lindt followed a rather intuitive and emotional approach in the endorser selection process. Decisions made were based on experience of marketing staff who best knows their brand and its values and hence, which campaign might be most successful and which personality may be the best match. 8. Endorser selection process model Our study indicates that there are various ways how companies end up carrying out an endorsement campaign with a celebrity. The depicted two contrasting case studies are only two of the very many. In this section two normative models shall be introduced to demonstrate the borders of the possible continuum in a more theoretical format. In practise companies may deliberately choose or happened to pursue a selection strategy between those contrasting models (Figure 1). The extended endorser selection process model constitutes the most extended selection process, comprising multiple steps and stakeholders. In this model the company does not focus on a celebrity-led marketing campaign from the beginning. Foremost are specific objectives a to-be-launched campaign is to achieve. With the campaigns objectives in mind the company addresses its advertising agency which considers various types of campaigns in light of the given objectives. The use of an expert or a common man may be considered for an endorsement campaign as well as a non-endorsement marketing campaign. After agency and client have agreed to pursue a celebrity-led endorsement campaign the agency comes up with a set of pre-selected candidates. Pre-selection is based on objective market research to assure a proper fit between endorser and brand. Often pre-negotiations are carried out with

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Candidates involved

Steps in the process

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[Step1] Company contacts advertising agency requesting a marketing campaign achieving certain objectives.

[Step2] Among other campaigns a celebrity led endorsement campaign is discussed, suggested and finally decided on. Extended endorser selection process

[Step3] Market research is carried out and a list with pre-selected candidates is prepared by the agency. pre-negotiations may be carried out with celebrities' agents before candidates are presented to the client.

[Step4] Pre-selected candidates are presented to and discussed with the client. certain candidates move from a "short list" to a "shorter shortlist".

[Step5] Get-together with celebrity, agent, company and advertising agency may takes place until final negotiations are conducted between agency and agent.

Figure 1. Extended endorser selection process

[Step6] Endorsement contract between company and celebrity is signed.

pre-selected candidates as agencies like to avoid suggesting personalities who are not available in the required timeframe, request a fee too high or, to make things worse, are not interested in representing the brand at all (Erdogan and Drollinger, 2008). After narrowing down the selection taking into account endorser-brand fit and formal limitations the most promising candidates are presented to the company. Characteristic for this approach is also a rather low involvement of the celebrity itself which means negotiations are usually conducted with the stars agent via the advertising agency (Figure 2).

Candidates involved

Steps in the process Compact endorser selection process

[Step1] Company decides to carry out a celebrity led endorsement campaign.

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[Step2] Company's marketing focuses on a particular candidate from the start who is being directly contacted or via his agent. [step3] Negotiations are carried out with celebrity (and his agent) and the endorsement contract between company and celebrity is signed.

Figure 2. Compact endorser selection process model

The compact endorser selection process model constitutes the least extensive selection process comprising only few steps with lesser stakeholders involved. In this model the company focuses on a celebrity-led endorsement campaign right from the beginning. Frequently the companys marketing officers would have a desired endorser in mind from the outset. Advertising agencies are not involved in making the decision to pursue an endorsement campaign nor are they consulted to find suitable spokesmen. Due to the companys initial focus on a particular individual no evaluation process is in place which would vet a pre-selection of candidates ensuring a proper brand-endorser fit. Characteristic for this approach is also a rather high involvement of the celebrity who is present at most negotiations and in direct contact with the company. Sometimes agents might not be involved at all, limiting the parties participating in the process to company and celebrity. 9. Conclusion The results of our study provide a basis to question the generally held assumption that the endorser selection process is a pre-defined procedure with a definite set of participating stakeholders. In the ten case studies we have conducted the avenues by which the companies have come to a celebrity-led endorsement campaign and to its brand ambassador are versatile. The suggestion to build a marketing campaign around a celebrity may come from an experienced creative agency which has been asked to work out a campaign achieving certain objectives. Then again, the decision to pursue such strategy may as well derive gradually and internally as a particular personality has got marketing staffs attention over time. Also the process of deciding on a certain individual appears to be multifaceted. It can be a formal procedure carried out by a specialized agency including extensive market research, screening Q scores and Davie-Brown-Indices or the application of other subtle tools to evaluate candidates appropriateness. On the contrary, it can as well be that simple as a company focuses on one particular person as from the beginning. In some cases a list of pre-selected candidates might comprise tens of characters who move from a short list to a shorter short list while evaluations and negotiations are proceeding, whereas in other cases the decision appears to be made rather intuitive. Thus the final determination may be based on a formal endorser selection process guided by a

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practiced agency or as well on marketing staffs experience, in-depth knowledge of the brand and its values and ultimately a portion of intuition. Overall, the general assumption that finding an appropriate celebrity for an endorsement campaign is usually taken care of by a creative agency could not be supported by our study. Nor that for the most part a subtle screening process is in place vetting brand-endorsermatchup. Due to the qualitative nature of our study and its scope of ten case studies the implications are limited. Nonetheless, we have demonstrated that we could not find evidence to support generally held assumptions concerning the overall endorser selection process. Furthermore, we have suggested an extended endorser selection process model as well as a compact endorser selection process model which contrast the two extremes of the full range of the endorser selection process we have found in practise. Companies are likely to deliberately choose or happened to pursue a strategy within the continuum indicated by those two models. Subsequent to our theory-building study further research following a quantitative approach is necessary to validate the normative model developed. Such validation on a greater scale might also allow a generalization and might indicate to which magnitude companies follow either a rather compact or extensive endorser selection process. 10. Implications for marketing theory and practice As for the implications of our study, we believe that the results provide marketing literature and practitioners likewise with new insights that may have consequences for prospective marketing research and endorsement campaigns, respectively. As to the implication for academic knowledge we believe that our study provides primary research in the area of endorser selection processes. Since the degree to which candidates are subject to a formal evaluation process has significance to the required accuracy of developed models, further research on frameworks to better matchup brand and endorser may also want to consider our findings. The ten case studies conducted indicate that there are multiple ways in practise how a brand ends up launching a celebrity-led endorsement campaign and how its ambassador is chosen. However, we could not detect a prevailing selection process which could be considered state-of-the-art or best practise. Practitioners may therefore either have a suitable candidate suggested and vetted by a skilled creative agency or nominated based on marketing officers experience and intuition. The conclusion which approach suits best, however, is individual and needs to be left to companys decision makers who at the end of the day know their brand best.
References Carroll, A. (2008), Brand communications in fashion categories using celebrity endorsement, brand management, Journal of Brand Management, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 146-58. Eisenhardt, K.M. and Graebner, M.E. (2008), Theory building from cases: opportunities and challenges, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 50 No. 1, pp. 25-32. Erdogan, Z. (1999), Celebrity endorsement: a literature review, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 291-314. Erdogan, Z. and Drollinger, T. (2008), Endorsement practice: how agencies select spokespeople, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 48 No. 4, pp. 573-82.

Glaister, D. (2006), Whos in, whos out: new index measures celebrity appeal, The Guardian, 17 February, available at: www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/feb/17/media.advertising Halonen-Knight, E. and Hurmerinta, L. (2010), Who endorses whom? Meaning transfer in celebrity endorsement, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 19 No. 6, pp. 452-60. Hollensen, S. (2010), Global Marketing: A Decision-Oriented Approach, Prentice Hall, Essex. Keller, K. (1998), Strategic Brand Management, Pearson, London. ria, T. and Georgson, M. (2008), Strategic Brand Management A European Keller, K., Ape Perspective, Pearson, London. Kotler, P. and Keller, K.L. (2006), Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, Essex. Majumdar, R. (2010), Consumer Behaviour Insights from Indian Market, Phi Learning Private Ltd, New Delhi. Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis, Sage Publications, CA. Roll, M. (2005), Asian Brand Strategy: How Asia Builds Strong Brands, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. Shimp, T. (2008), Advertising Promotion, and Other Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications, South-Western, Mason, OH. Solomon, M., Bamossy, G., Askegaard, S. and Hogg, M.K. (2006), Consumer Behaviour, Prentice Hall, Essex. Yin, R.K. (1981), The case study crisis: some answers, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 26 No. 1, pp. 58-65. Yin, R.K. (1994), Case Study Research, Sage Publications, CA. Yin, R.K. (2003), Case Study Research, Sage Publications, CA. Further reading De Pelsmacker, P., Geuens, M. and Van den Bergh, J. (2007), Marketing Communications: A European Perpective, Prentice Hall, Essex. Ellram, L.M. (1996), The use of the case study method in logistics research, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 93-138. Hunter, E (2009), Celebrity Entrepreneurship and Celebrity Endorsement, ARK Tryckaren AB, nko ping. Jo Patra, S. and Datta, S.K. (2010), Celebrity endorsement in India emerging trends and challenges, Journal of Marketing & Communication, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 16-23. ngli droht der Federer-Overkill, 20m Online, 2 February, available Rizzi, E. (2010), Lindt & Spru at: www.20min.ch/finance/news/story/17225706 White, E. (2004), Found in translation?, Wall Street Journal, 20 September, available at: http:// online.wsj.com/article/0,,SB109563985267321977,00.html

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About the authors Svend Hollensen received his PhD from Copenhagen Business School (CBS) in 1992, after working in industry. He has published articles in international recognized journals and is the author of the globally published textbooks at Pearson, e.g. Marketing Management, 2nd ed., and Global Marketing, 5th ed., which was published in July 2010. Indian and Spanish editions have been developed in co-operation with co-authors. The textbook Global Marketing has also been translated into Chinese, Russian, Spanish and Dutch. His research interests are within relationship marketing, globalization, global branding and internationalization of companies. Svend Hollensen is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: svend@sam.sdu.dk

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Christian Schimmelpfennig worked in product management with a French electronic company, after his traineeship in business within the industry. After this first practical experience he studied business administration at Georg-Simon-Ohm Hochschule in Nuremberg (Germany) while working part-time in product development of DATEV eG. He carried out further studies in Malta before gaining postgraduate work experience with PricewaterhouseCoopers dl & Partner (Germany). His MSc he obtained at University of Southern (Luxembourg) and Ro diz (Spain). Before joining HSG as Program Manager Denmark (Denmark) and Universidad de Ca for the Executive MBA and Global Executive MBA he was engaged with the Marketing Department of University of Southern Denmark for two years.

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