Material of Construction

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
A vast range of materials are available. Materials can be classified as follows.
Engineering Materials Metallic
Ferrous Non-Ferrous Cast Iron Carbon Steels Alloy Steels Aluminum Copper & Alloy Titanium Nickel & Alloys Zirconium Glass FRP HDPE Concrete Ceramics

Non-Metallic

CLASSIFICATION OF IRON (Contd)

Iron is classified based on the method of manufacturing & the alloying elements used to enhance its physical & mechanical properties.
Cast Iron Malleable Cast Iron Iron Ingot Iron Wrought Iron Grey Cast Iron Pig Iron White Cast Iron Alloy Steel Carbon Steel
Puddled Iron

CLASSIFICATION OF IRON
Iron has 3 phases when it is heated from lower temperature to high temperature. Alpha Iron:

Occurs from normal temperature to 910C. Crystals are of b.c.c lattice structure.

Gamma Iron:

Occurs from 910C to 1400C. Crystals are of f.c.c lattice structure.

Delta Iron:

Occurs from 1400C to 1539C. Crystals are of b.c.c lattice structure.

TYPES OF SPACE LATTICE

The mechanical properties of a particular metal are related to the patterns found in its lattice structure. Types of lattice structures are: Body centered cubic (b.c.c.) structure: Atoms are arranged at each corner of cube & one on centre of body of cube. This arrangement is found in iron.

TYPES OF SPACE LATTICE (Contd)

Face centered cubic (f.c.c.) structure:
Atoms are arranged at each corner of cube & centre of each

face of the cube. Aluminum, Copper, nickel & most ductile metals have f.c.c. structure.

TYPES OF SPACE LATTICE (Contd)

Closed packed hexagonal (c.p.h.) structure:
Atoms are arranged in 3 layers. Top & bottom layers consist of 6 atoms in a hexagon with 1

atom at the centre. Middle layer has 3 atoms in the form of triangle. Least ductile metals like zinc & magnesium have this structure.

IRON-IRON CARBIDE (Fe-Fe3C) DIAGRAM

IRON-IRON CARBIDE (Fe-Fe3C) DIAGRAM (Contd)

There are 5 main phases of steel, viz., ferrite, cementite, austenite, pearlite and martensite. Ferrite:

Solid solution with up to 0.025% Carbon. It is soft, weak and ductile. Hardness is as low as 50 to 100 BHN. Also known as alpha iron.

Cementite:

It is a compound of carbon and iron carbides. It is hard and strong. Hardness is in the range of 1400 BHN.

IRON-IRON CARBIDE (Fe-Fe3C) DIAGRAM

Austenite:

(Contd)

Solid solution with up to 1.7% Carbon in gamma iron. Occurs due to interface reaction of ferrite & cementite. Unstable at room temperature. The addition of certain other metals, such as manganese and nickel, can stabilize the austenitic structure even at room temperature. Soft, ductile, malleable and non-magnetic. Also known as gamma iron.

Pearlite:

When steel with 0.83% Carbon is cooled from austenite phase, the metal
starts transforming into pearlite from 723 C. When steel with 1.2% Carbon is cooled, cementite precipitates first from the grain boundaries up to 723 C & the remaining metal transforms to pearlite.

IRON-IRON CARBIDE (Fe-Fe3C) DIAGRAM

Martensite:

(Contd)

Formed in carbon steels by fast and continuous cooling of austenite to

temperatures 205 C to 315 C or even lower. It has tetragonal crystal structure. Hardness varies from 500 to 1000 BHN depending upon carbon content.

STEEL
Steel is an alloy of iron and iron-carbide. Steels are classified into carbon steel, alloy steel & stainless steel. Carbon steel (CS): CS is an alloy of iron & carbon with varying quantities of phosphorus & sulphur. Alloy steel: A steel is called alloy steel when alloying elements exceeds the limit given below:

Manganese - 1.65% Silicon & Copper - 0.6%

STEEL (Contd)
The effects of elements added into CS are as under: Carbon: Tensile strength increases with an increase in carbon content up to
0.83% & drops beyond this. m8 Hardness increases. Ductility & weldability decreases.

Manganese:
Tensile strength & hardness increases. Weldability decreases. Content varies from 0.2% to 0.8%. Phosphorus: Tensile strength increases. Content varies from 0.005% to 0.12%.

STEEL (Contd)
Sulphur:
Lowers the toughness & ductility. Maximum permitted content in steel is 0.035%. Silicon: Principal deoxidizer used in carbon steel Presence of Silicon promotes increase in grain size & deep
hardening properties. Silicon varies from 0.1% to 0.35% in carbon steel.

Copper:
Copper is added up to 0.2% to increase the resistance to
atmospheric corrosion.

Other elements such as nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, cobalt,

etc. are present in carbon steel in residual quantities.

STEEL (Contd)
Effects of various alloying elements in steel are as follows: Nickel: It imparts toughness, elasticity, hardness and fatigue resistance to
steel. Improves corrosion resistance. Certain heat resisting steels are produced by adding about 8% Ni with Cr, because these two elements prevent breakdown of austenite during cooling to room temp.

Chromium:
It increases resistance to wear. Increases strength at high temperature. Chromium tends to promote coarse-grain structure & increases
difficulty of heat treatment, this counteracted by nickel which refines grain size.

STEEL (Contd)
Molybdenum:
Steels containing Cr & Ni become brittle if held at a temperature
between 250-500 C. This can be overcome by adding 0.25% of Molybdenum. Addition of Mo hampers grain growth at high temperature hence making steel finer grained & tougher.

Manganese:
Increases tensile strength Increases resistance to wear in steels with carbon content 1-1.5%. Counters the effects of sulphur. Silicon: When used up to 2.5%, it increases the strength without decreasing
the ductility.

STEEL (Contd)
Vanadium:
It gives strength & toughness to steel. It is used for providing fine grained structure over a broad range of
temperature.

Boron:
Improves rolling properties of steel. Aluminum: It is used as de-oxidizer. It controls grain growth.

STEEL (Contd)
Stainless steel: A thin, transparent & very tough film forms on the surface of stainless steel which is inert and does not react with many corrosive materials. The property of corrosion resistance is obtained by addition of Cr or by adding Cr & Ni both. Stainless steel are classified into Austenitic, Ferritic & Martensitic stainless steels.

STEEL (Contd)
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Contains at least 24% Cr & Ni both. Individually % is not less
than 8%. Non-magnetic & non-hardenable by heat treatment but hardened by cold working. Carbon in L grades of SS is kept below 0.03%. m3 L grades posses good weldable properties. L grades SS are used for high corrosive service & moderate temperatures. m4 Dual certified grades posses corrosive resistance of L grades & better physical strength at high temperature. Eg. Grade 304L, 316L, etc.

STEEL (Contd)
H grades contain carbon from 0.04% to 0.1%. Used at extremely high temperatures. Eg. Grade 304H, 316H, etc.

Ferritic Stainless Steels

Difference between Cr % & 17 x C % is greater than 12.5%. Resistant to stress corrosion cracking. Magnetic & cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Can be Cold worked & refined by heat treatment. Resistance to corrosion is lesser than Austenitic SS but greater than Martensitic SS. Eg. Grade 436.

STEEL (Contd)
Martensitic Stainless Steels
Difference between Cr % & 17 x C % is less than 12.5%. Magnetic & can be hardened by heat treatment. Typical applications include highly stressed parts needing
corrosion resistance such as fasteners. Eg. Grade 410 & 410S.

Duplex Stainless Steels

2 phase alloys based on Fe-Cr-Ni. Strength, ductility, improved toughness and resistance to pitting. Eg. Grade 329.

MATERIAL SELECTION CRITERIA

What governs the material selection ?

Temperature Service Media Codes & Standards Economy Ease in fabrication Availability

TYPES OF CORROSION
Corrosion occurs in the following 3 ways: Uniform Corrosion Localised Corrosion Environmental Corrosion Uniform Corrosion can be reduced by proper selection of material Localized Corrosion can be reduced by proper design of components. Environmental corrosion can be prevented by external surface treatment, controlling the corrosion environmental parameters and keeping stresses at lower level.

MATERIAL SELECTION BASED ON TEMPERATURE

Temp ( C) -254 To -196 -196 To -80 Matl. Plate Pipe Forgings Fittings Tube Bolting

Cryogenic Temperature SS SA-240 304, 304L, 347, 316, 316L SA-353/553 A SA-312 304, 304L, 347, 316, 316L SA-333 8 SA-182 F304, F304L, F347, F316, F316L SA-522 SA-403 304, 304L, 347, 316, 316L SA-420 WPL8 SA-213 TP304, TP304L, TP316, TP316L SA-334 8 SA-320 B8 with SA-194 8

9 Ni

Low Temperature -80 To -60 -60 To -45 3 Ni CS SA-203 E SA-333 3 SA-350 LF3 SA-420 WPL3 SA-420 WPL3 SA-334 3 SA-320 L7 with SA-194 4

SA-537 Cl.1

SA-333 3

SA-350 LF3

SA-334 3

MATERIAL SELECTION BASED ON TEMPERATURE

(Contd)
Temp ( C) -45 To -29 -29 To 0 Matl. Plate Pipe Forgings Fittings Tube Bolting

Low Temperature (contd) CS SA-516 All Grds Impact tested SA-516 All Grds SA-333 6 SA-350 LF2 SA-420 WPL6 SA-234 WPB SA-334 6 SA-320 L7 with SA-194 4 SA-193 B7 with SA-194 2H

CS

SA-106 B

SA-105/266

SA-334 6

Intermediate Temperature 0 To 343 CS SA-516 All Grds SA-240 304L, 316, 321 SA-106 B SA-105/266 SA-234 WPB SA-179 SA-193 B7 with SA-194 2H

SS

SA-312 TP304L, 316L, 321

SA-182 F304L, 316L, 321

SA-403 304L, SA-213 316L, 321 TP304L, 316L, 321

MATERIAL SELECTION BASED ON TEMPERATURE

(Contd)
Temp ( C) 343 To 427 Matl. Plate Pipe Forgings Fittings Tube Bolting

Intermediate Temperature (contd) C SA-204 B Mo LAS SA-387 11 Cl.1/Cl.2 SA-240 304L, 316, 321 SA-335 1 SA-182 F1 SA-234 WP1 SA-209 T1 SA-193 B7 with SA-194 4

SA-335 P11

SA-182 F11

SA-234 WP11 SA-213 T11

SS

SA-312 TP304L, 316L, 321

SA-182 F304L, 316L, 321

SA-403 304L, 316L, 321

SA-213 TP304L, 316L, 321

Elevated Temperature 427 To 538 LAS SA-387 11/12 Cl.1/Cl.2 SA-335 P11/12 SA-182 F11/12 SA-234 WP11/12 SA-213 T11/12 SA-193 B16 w SA-194 4

MATERIAL SELECTION BASED ON TEMPERATURE

(Contd)
Temp ( C) 427 To 500 538 To 593 500 To 815 Matl. Plate Pipe Forgings Fittings Tube Bolting

Elevated Temperature (contd) SS SA-240 304, 316, 321 SA-387 22/21 Cl.1/Cl.2 SA-240 304H, 316H, 321H SA-312 TP304, 316, 321 SA-335 P22 SA-182 F304, SA-403 304, 316, 321 316, 321 SA-182 F22 SA-234 WP22 SA-403 304H, 316H, 321H SA-213 TP304, 316, 321 SA-213 T22 SA-193 B16 with SA-194 4 SA-193 B5 with SA-194 3 SA-193 B8 with SA-194 8

LAS

SS

SA-312 TP304H, 316H, 321H

SA-182 F304H, 316H, 321H

SA-213 TP304H, 316H, 321H

CONFIRM SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE MATERIAL

Testing the selected material to confirm the desired properties. The following tests/analysis must be carried out:

Chemical (ladle) analysis Tensile test Impact test Hardness test

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