A&P Test 2 Study Guide - 10/29/09

1. Histology
Histology is the study of tissues. Tissues are groups of cells
with a common structure, that perform a common function.
There are four tissue types:
1. Muscle
2. Epithelial
3. Nervous
4. Connective
Cells are held together by:
1. Extra-cellular fibers
2. Sticky substances on cell coats.

2. Epithelial Functions
Epithelial cells have four primary functions.
1. Protection (skin)
2. Absorption (intestinal wall)
3. Secretion (kidney tubule)
4. Filtration (kidney glomerulus)
3. Muscle cell types and properties.
There are three types of muscle tissue.
1. Skeletal
a. located near/attached to the bones, shaped like long
cylinders. b. they are striated, moved voluntarily, and
multi-nucleated.
2. Cardiac
a. located in the heart, shaped like long, branched
cylinders.
b. they are striated, moved voluntarily, and have only 1
nucleus.
3. Smooth
a. located in and around organs, shaped like spindles.
b. they are not striated, move involuntarily, and have
only 1 nucleus.

4. Bone Matrix Anatomy

Bone (osseus tissue) structure is a matrix of many collagen
fibers with organic salts such as Ca3(PO4)2 [calcium
phosphate]. Osteoblasts produce the organic portion of the
matrix; then bone salts are deposited on and between them.
Mature bone cells (osteocytes) hang out in there too. Refer to
page 62 in the lab manual for a cross sectional picture of bone.
5. Types of Glands
A gland is one more cells that secrete a product.
Secretion is an active process - cells require material from the
blood to make the product.

There are 2 types of glands:

1. Endocrine - ductless glands that secrete hormones into

blood or lymph.
(examples include thyroid gland, pituitary, and adrenal
glands).
*Endocrine glands may or may not be made of
epithelial cells.

2. Exocrine - these glands secrete whatever they make via

ducts into the body cavity or onto the body.
a. Merocrine glands: use exocryons, no change in cells
examples: pancreas, sweat & salivary glands,
mammaries.
b. Holocrine glands: rupture when product accumulates
- cells die.
 examples: sebaceous oil glands
c. Apocrine glands: the ends of the cell pinch off, as a
result, cytoplasm is lost .
(debatable) examples: lips, products of mammary
glands.

6. Matching **refer to lab manual pg. 53-57

Pseudostratified: epithelial tissue is a single layer but looks like
more than one. Each cell touches the basement membrane and
eminates outward. They overlap each other but there is only one
true layer. Found in respiratory tract.

Simple Squamous: Thin layer of epithelial tissue found in blood

vessels and air sacs of the lungs. Single, squashed layer.

Simple Cuboidal: Cube shaped epithelial tissue, single layer -

found in areas that need to secrete and absorb products. Found
in kidney tubules.

Stratified Cuboidal: Generally only 2 cell layers thick, found in

glands, used for protection.
 Stratified Squamous: Thick tissue with several layers of
flattened cells. It protects underlying tissues in areas subject to
abrasion such as the skin.

7. Exocrine Vs. Endocrine

Endocrine: ductless glands that secrete hormones into the

blood and lymph.

Exocrine: secrete products into body cavity or onto body

surface via ducts.

8. General Anatomy of Epithelia

Epithelia are generally tightly packed sheets of cells held
together by:
a. tight junctions - cells next to each other fuse membranes
b. desmosomes - interlocking membrane proteins.

All epithelia have an apical surface (free surface that is

exposed).
All epithelia have a basal surface (attaches to the basement
membrane).

The basement membrane is always connective tissue.

Epithelial tissue chills out on the basement membrane.

The basement membrane is comprised of two layers:

(note: this is definitely on the test)
a. basal lamina
1. The basal lamina is non-cellular; it is a supportive sheet
made of glycoproteins produced by epithelial cells.

b. reticular lamina
1. The reticular lamina is comprised of collagen and
reticular fibers.
it's primary function is support.

9. Inflammatory Chemicals:
1. Histamines: Prompt vasodilation, which brings a shitload
more blood (and more importantly, the nutrients & cells in it) to
the affected area. This increase in blood also brings more
white blood cells to the area to eliminate the issue.
Furthermore, the increase of our own cells dilutes the enemy
cells, making them easier for us to manage.

2. Heparin: All he wrote in the notes was that heparin is rat

poison. It is a blood thinner and anticoagulant (it prevents blood
clotting).

***Freebie!: Select the correct statement regarding tissue repair:

a. Granulation tissue is not very susceptible to infection.
b. Inflammation causes capillaries to constrict and become less
permeable.
c. Granulation tissue is another name for a blood clot.
d. Scar tissue is formed from dried blood and transposed collagen
fibers.

10. Macrophage & Fibroblast Roles in Inflammation:

1. Macrophage:
Basically this motherfucker shows up after about 12 hours
and starts munching down foreign things that are hanging out
in our bodies. (Remember phagocytosis from the last test?
That's what they do.)

2. Fibroblasts:
These guys are the fixer-uppers. They show up and replace
the fucked up old tissue with fibrous connective tissue
(scars). First, they lay down a network of collagen fibers,
which turns into granulation tissue. Then,
capillaries show up and the area is basically hooked up.
Mitosis occurs on the network and the area returns to normal.

***Freebie!. Which of the following statements are true about the

immune response to invaders.
I. Antibodies carry out phagocytosis of antigen of the antigens.
II: Macrophages carry out pinocytosis on the antigens.
III: Fibroblasts lay down a network of fibers in regeneration
IV: Smooth muscle tissue has good regeneration ability in
regeneration.

11. Granulation Tissue:

Granulation tissue is scar tissue that develops after we fuck

ourselves up.
It is infection resistant but non-functional and generally not
useful otherwise.

12. Antibody roles in inflammation:

Antibodies do a few radical things when fighting an infection.
They can specifically target certain invaders and seek them
out.
Some antibodies coat antigens (invaders) so macrophages can
attach easily.
 This process is called "opsonization".

13. Chemicals of Connective Tissue Matrix:

I was confused by what Dr. D meant by this section, as there are
several types of connective tissue which are all pretty different.

Freebie!: Which substance within the matrix most maintains

viscosity? glycosaminoglycans (GAGS)
Connective Tissue Proper
Areolar Tissue: loose arrangement of fibers, lots of
hyaluronic acid.
a. function is cushioning other shit like organs.

Adipose Tissue: Fat cells make up 90% of this issue.

a. function is nutrient storage (white) and making heat
(brown).

Reticular C.T.: A shitload of reticular fibers.

a. function is holding blood cells in.
b. found in lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow.

Dense Regular: Parallel bundles of collagen fibers.

a. high tensile strength makes this shit extra stretchy.
b. not a lot of blood vessels here.
c. tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses are made of
this tissue type.

Dense Irregular: Irregular arrangement of collagen fibers.

a. found in body areas with many planes of tension (shit
that moves and stretches a lot) such as the skin and
joints.

Cartilage
Rubbery protein.
No blood vessels here, no nerve fibers either.
Approximately 80% water (think shark skeleton)
Nourished via diffusion.

There are three types of cartilage

Hyaline: most common, firm matrix, high strength.
a. found in nose, trachea, embryonic skeleton
Elastic: made of elastin, high tensile strength.
a. found in pinna (ear) and epiglottis
Fibrocartilage: Doesn't say what the shit is made out
of.
a. found in inter-vertebral discs.

Bone (Osseus Tissue)

Matrix of many collagen fibers with organic salts such as
calcium phosphate. Osteoblasts make the matrix. MAD
BLOOD VESSELS.
**See #4 for a more thorough explanation of the bone
matrix.

Blood:
Comprised of "ground substance" (water & fluid plasma)
and fibers (soluble proteins which are seen only in clotting).

14. Suffixes - blast, cyte, and clast:

-Blast: Immature cells; mitotic.

a. Make ground substance & fibers for matrix.
b. ex: fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts.

-Cyte: Mature cells; non-dividing.

a. Maintain homeostasis.
b. ex: osteocyte, chondrocyte.

-Clast: Destroyer.
a. ex: osteoclast.

15. Matching Cartilage:

*refer to pages 60-61 in lab manual for pictures.

Hyaline: Found in the nose, embryonic skeleton, trach, etc.

Resists compressive forces. Has a clear, extracellular matrix
surrounding it's lacuna.

Elastic Cartilage: Found in the pinna of the ear and epiglottis.

Maintains shape but also resists tensile forces. It has an
extracellular matrix with randomly scattered fibers surrounding
it's lacuna.

Fibrocartilage: is found between the vertebrae and in the

pubic symphysis. It is able to resist both compressive and tensile
forces. It has an extracellular matrix with relatively parallel
fibers surrounding it's lacuna.

16. Cancer & Tissues:

I had no information on this in my notes.

17. Tissue Repair Process:

Fibrosis = replacement of normal tissue with fibrous connective
tissue. (Scar) Regeneration = replacement with same tissue.

a. fibroblasts lay down a network of collagen fibers (strong protein)

b. granulation tissue forms -> capillaries invade area, becomes scar
tissue.
pro: infection resistant con: non-functional
c. mitosis occurs on network and returns area to normal
d. regeneration depends on: extent of damage & type of tissue
damaged

18. Types of Connective Tissue and Functions.

See question 13.

19. Functions of the Integument:

A. Protection
1. chemical barrier - acidic : bacterial reproduction slowed
2. melanin pigment shield : protects nucleus from UV
3. physical barrier: keratin layer (waterless), provides microbe
protection
B. Excretion
1. nitrogen-containing wastes
2. sweat (urea, uric acid, ammonia)
C. Body Temp Regulation
1. we sweat 500ml a day (up to 12 L)
2. vasodilation / vasoconstriction
D. Sensations
1. sensory receptors for touch, temp, pain, pressure.
E. Vitamin D Synthesis
1. cholesterol in epidermis changed to vitamin D by UV rays.
F. Blood reservoir - 5% blood
1. after eating or exercise we send it to other places

20. Structure of the Epidermis by Layer.

 1. Stratum Corneum (horny layer)
a. outermost layer ( 20-30 cells thick) - 3/4 epidermis
b. water- repellant (keratin filled)
c. dead cells: flake off (e.g. dandruff)

2. Stratum Lucidum (clear layer)

a. only in thick skin (e.g. feet, hands)
b. dead keratinocytes only.

3. Stratum Granulosum
a. keratinization occurs here.
b. nuclei disintegrate.

4. Stratum Spinosum
a. cells have projections (spines)
not natural - upon preparation shrink, but desmosomes hold
together.
b. from this layer out, cells die.
c. langerhans cells (macrophages)

5. Stratum Basale ( a.k.a. stratum germinativium)

a. deepest layer of epidermis; on the basement membrane
b. mitotic
c. keratinocytes, melanocytes, merkel cells
21. Skin Cancers

1. Basal Cell Carcinoma

a. least malignant
b. most common (30% of white folk get it in their lifetime)
c. Stratum Basale cells proliferate and invade dermis &
hypodermis
d. slow as fuck, 99% of cases cured by surgical excision.

2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma

a. arises from keratinocytes in stratum spinosum.
b. usually shows up somewhere on your head - appears as
red papule
c. can grow rapidly and metastasize if not removed.

3. Melanoma
a. this is some deadly shit. chemo resistant, loves to spread
around.
b. only about 5% of skin cancers but prevalence increases
each year.
c. usually develops spontaneously, key is early detection
d. The ABCD(E) rule. Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Color,
Diameter and evolving.
22. Apocrine vs. Eccrine:
1. Eccrine ( merocrine)
- most numerous
- palms, soles for feet, forehead
- sweat = 99% H2O, salt, antibodies, vit C, ph 4-6, metabolic
wastes (urea, ammonia and uric acid) lactic acid
- function : thermoregulation

2. Apocrine
- axillary and anogenital regions
- larger than eccrine
- physiology unknown but
- ducts end in hair follicles, give off a milky secretion (sweat +
fatty acid and proteins) which is decomposed by bacteria and
therefore disgusting.

23. Male Pattern Baldness

1. Genetically determined, sex-influenced (no shit), condition.

2. It is thought to be caused by a delyed-action gene that "switches
on" in adulthood. 3. The gene changes the response of hair follicles to
DHT (dihydrotestosterone). a. As a result, the follicular-growth cycle
becomes super short, and many hairs don't even emerge from
their follicles before they fall out. The ones that do make it
out of the follicle are thin and peach-fuzzy and basically useless.
4. We're slowly figuring out how to fix this shit.

24. Where is Keratin Found?

1. Epidermis
2. Hair
3. Nails

25. Structures and Functions of Hair:

1. Hairs are flexible strands produced by hair follicles that consist
largely of dead keratinized cells. *Hard Keratin* dominates hair (and
nails too!)

2. The two regions are the shaft (part that projects from the skin)
and the root (the part that is embedded in the skin.

3. Comprised of 3 concentric layers of keratinzied cells.

a. The core of the hair is called the medulla.
b. The next layer is called the cortex.
c. The outer layer is called the cuticle and it is formed by a
single layer of cells
that overlap each other from below, kinda like roof shingles.
 * See textbook page 160 for a good image.

4. Main function is to sense insects on the skin before they bite or

sting us.
a. hair on the scalp guards the head against physical trauma,
heat loss and sunlight.
b. eyelashes shield the eyes, and nose hairs filter large particles
like lint and insects from the air we inhale.

26. Aging and the Integumentary System:

1.When babies are born they are covered with this nasty shit called
"vernix caseosa" that shields them from the water in the amnionic
sac. Newborn skin is pretty thin and often has white spots on it.

2. During childhood the skin thickens slowly.

3. During adolescence the skin and hair becomes oilier as

sebaceous glands are activated, and acne may appear. It generally
peaces out by the 20s-30s but after that happens we become
progressively more susceptible to environmental damage.

4. As old age approaches our cells start slowing down and cant
replace themselves quickly enough. As a result, our skin gets thin
and our risk for bruises and other injuries increase. Our glands stop
cranking out so much oil and shit so we also dry out. The fat under
our skin diminishes as we get older so we get less tolerant of cold.
Elasticity also decreases so we get wrinkly and shit. Our skin cancer risk
increases because our melanocytes and langerhans cells are dying.

5. By age 50 we have 2/3 less active hair follicles than we did when
we were younger. Sounds pretty lame.

27. Burns:
A burn is tissue damage inflicted by intense heat, electricity,
radiation, or certain chemicals - all of which denature cell proteins
and cause cell death in affected areas.

The immediate threat to life resulting from severe burns is a

catastrophic loss of body fluids containing proteins and electrolytes
(you get dehydrated & your electrolyte balance gets fucked up). This
shit can lead to kidney failure and circulatory shock.

1. First degree burn:

a. only the epidermis is damaged.
 b. symptoms include pain, redness, swelling.
c. sunburn is usually a first degree burn.

2. Second degree burn:

a. injury to the epidermis and upper region of the dermis.
b. symptoms just like 1st degree, except you also get
blisters (fun!)
c. takes about 3 to 4 weeks to hear without scarring.

**First and second degree burns are known as partial thickness

burns.

3. Third degree burn:

a. full thickness burns involving the entire thickness of the
skin.
b. appears grey-white, cherry read, or charred.
c. it doesnt hurt cause your nerves are all burnt up.
d. usually requires a skin graft.

28. Dermal Tears:

Extreme stretching of the skin, such as occurs during pregnancy,
can tear the dermis. Dermal tearing is indicated by "stretch marks".
A dermal tear is a stretch mark. What more is there to say?

29. Skin Coloration and Disease:

A. Jaundice = yellowing of the skin indicates issues with liver
function.
B. Addison’s disease = ~*bronze*~ (adrenal gland issues)
C. Rosacea = red marks
D. Port wine stain = dermal vessels collect - birthmark type of deal.

30. Layers of the Dermis:

Papillary Layer - 20% of dermis, areaolar connective tissue.
Reticular Layer - 80% of dermis, dense irregular connective tissue.

31. Rate of Hair Growth:

The rate of hair growth varies from person to person, and changes
with sex and age but averages to 2.5mm per week. Each follicle goes
through a growth cycle. In each cycle, an active growth phase
(weeks to years) is followed by a regressive phase where cells die. The
follicle then goes into a resting phase for 1-3 mos. and then the
matrix makes a new hair to replace to one that either fell out or is
just hanging out there being dead.