Chapter 2: Research Aptitude (Topics 1-5)

1. What is research
An attitude of inquiry. An attempt to elicit facts A systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method A state of mind

2. Characteristics of Research
Its a scientific investigation It helps in developing and evaluating concepts and theories Expands the limits of knowledge Findings through research cannot be implemented immediately Its an essential tool for good decision making

3. Aims and Objectives of Research

Main aim : To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet Gain familiarity with a phenomenon and to achieve new insights Portray accurately the characteristics (description) Determine the frequency with which something occurs (diagnosic) Test hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

4. Types of Research
i. Classification - I a. Fundamental research - Used when developing theories, generalizations and principles - Methods: Sampling, Hypothesizing and laboratories b. Applied Research - Utilizes principles made by fundamental research to know the problems with best possible manner - Undertaken to solve an immediate problem

c. Action Research - Immediate application but not any development of theory ii. Classification - II

Descriptive Description of the state of affairs as it exists Also known as Ex post facto research Researcher has no control over the variables Used to discover causes when variables cannot be controlled Fact finding enquires and field surveys Method of research: Survey Applied Find solution for immediate problem Research is aimed at a solution Solution to some pressing practical problem

Analytical Has to use facts that are readily available Facts analyzed to make a critical evaluation

Fundamental Generalizations and formulation of a theory Concerns natural phenomenon or math Finding information that has a broad base of application Adds to the existing body of scientific knowledge Qualititative Used in behavioural sciences Used when studying human behaviour Projective techniques used Phenomena involves quality or kind Empirical Relies on experience or observation Data based research Experimental research

Quantitative Phenomena that can be quantified

Conceptual Based on some ideas on theory Used by philosophers and thinkers

One time research: Confined to a single time period Longititudinal research: Research carried over several time periods Field Setting Research or Laboratory research: Depending on the environment Clinical or Diagnostic Research: Goes deep into the causes of events or things Exploratory or Formalized: Development of hypothesis/ Testing hypothesis

Historical : Uses historical resources to study events or ideas of the past Problem oriented research: To look for solutions to the problem Decision oriented: Done for the need of the decision maker. Operational: Example of decision making research. Provides a quantitative basis for taking up a decision

5. Research requirements
i. Planning - Definition and Classification or purpose and scope of operations - Analysis to determine the meaning of facts - Planning helps in bringing a good result in the conclusion ii. Guidance Helps researcher concentrate on problems Concerned with the selection of problems iii. Experts Knowledge in the area being studied Must be able to guide properly and formulate a well planned project for research iv. Training They know how to plan, organize and maximize educational output v. Finance - Problems taken for study require financial help from the state vi. References Well planned project Preliminary work done helps while investigating the problem vii. Library Provides materials through books which enhances the quality and quantity of the research viii. Research Journals Provides studies and research done nationally and internationally

Chapter 2: Research Aptitude (Topic 6)

6. Steps of Research
1. Formulating the research problem Maybe related to states of nature or relationships between variables A researcher must single out problem to be study and must decide the aura of interest Feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before working on the problem Two steps in formulating a research problem: Understanding the problem thoroughly and Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms Discuss the problem with experts Examine available literature both conceptual and empirical Reevaluate the problem and focus on its specifics Make sure the problem can be defined unambiguously State the objective Pertinent terms in relation to the problem must be defined

2. Extensive Literature Survey

Brief summary of the problem after the problem is formulated Write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the committee or research board Literature survey by abstracting journals and reading up bibliography

3. Development of working Hypothesis

Its made so as to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences Discuss with work colleagues and experts about the problem Examine past data and records

Review similar studies in that area Personally investigate the problem with interested parties

4. Preparing the research design - Means of obtaining the information - Ability and skill of the researcher and staff - Explaining the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the reasoning leading to selection - Time available for research - Cost factor relating to research 5. Determining Sample Design - the items selected constitute what is called a sample - Sample design is a plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population - Samples can either be: Probability Sample - Each have an element of being included in the sample and are based on Random, Systematic,Stratified, Cluster/Area Sampling. Non Probabilty Sample - Based on Consciences Sampling, Judgement Sampling and Quota Sampling - Some of the important sample designs are: (i) Deliberate Sampling

Purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample that represents the universe. When population elements are selected based on access it's known as convenience sampling Judgement sampling is when a researchers judgement is used to select items he considers to be representative of the population (ii) Simple Random Sampling Each and every item in the population has equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one has the probability of being selected. (iii) Systematic Sampling

An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. Useful when sample frame is in form of a list Selection process starts by picking some random point on the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured (iv) Stratified Sampling If the population from which a sample is to be drawn doesn't constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample The population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling, the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling is known as stratified random sampling. (v) Quota Sampling When interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, tge actual selection of the items for sample being left to the individual's judgement Size of quota is proportionate to size of stratum in the population Form of non probability sampling. (vi) Cluster sampling Grouping of population and then selecting the groups or the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample Sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure same level of accuracy as in cluster sampling there is a chance of various biases and error However this procedure is relatively easier than others and can be used in the case of personal interviews (vii) Area Sampling Area is divided into smaller non overlapping areas = geograpical clusters and a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected Field interviewing is made more efficient through this technique and when there's no list of the population (viii) Multi stage Sampling Meant for large geographical areas like an entire country (ix) Sequential Sampling Ultimate size of the sample is determined as the survey progresses

6. Collecting the data

Various ways - experiment or survey

Survey methods include - observation, personal interviews, telephone interviews, mailing of questionnaires, schedules 7. Execution of the project Its necessary to collect adequate and dependable data in a systematic manner and in time Careful watch on uncontrollable factors Survey must be under statistical control Must deal with non respondents 8. Analysis of Data Categorize raw data Coding to transform categorized data to symbols - editing can also be done at this stage Tabulation is done to put classified data in form of tables Statistical inferences are drawn through the assistance of computers 9. Hypothesis testing Chi-square, t-test, f-test Either accepts the hypothesis or rejects it 10. Generalization and Interpretation If hypothesis is tested and upheld its easy to build a theory Triggers new questions in the hypothesis 11. Preparation of the report/ thesis Introduction Summary Main Report Conclusion Bibliography