ECE 4310: Energy System II Study Guide Winter 2014

Real Power and Frequency Control

Hydro turbines have a peculiar response due to the fact that the ow rate in the high pressure pipes cannot be changed quickly. This is because of the large inertia of water in the pipe. Hydro turbines need specialized governors to handle this effect. Learn how to derive (given the turbine transfer function) the response of hydro and steam turbines to a step change in valve position. Reheat type turbines respond slower than non-reheat type turbines due to the large time constant associated with the re-heater. Learn how to write down the transfer function, given the percentage power from each stage of the turbine. A disturbance can be (a) a load change, (b) generation loss, or (c) loss of a tie-line between two areas. Primary frequency control alone cannot bring back the frequency to nominal value after a disturbance. Learn how to derive an expression for steady state frequency error (a simple derivation with s=0 for steady state is enough). Learn how to calculate: frequency error.

 turbine power output at steady state subsequent to a disturbance. new load at steady state. When there is no secondary frequency control, the impact of a disturbance is shared by the two areas in proportion to the rating of the area if the droop settings are equal. Prove this and learn how to calculate the contribution coming from the helping area. A smaller droop setting improves the contribution to frequency regulaf tion. R . Secondary frequency control is required to eliminate the frequency error. When two areas are connected through an ac tie-line the frequencies in the two areas will be the same at steady state. Explain why. Integral feedback of only the frequency error will not eliminate tie-line power deviation. Therefore tie-line bias control is necessary. In tie-line bias control, the feedback signal is ACE = Ptie + B f . (Lab #2). For the two areas to share the burden of frequency regulation, both areas must have secondary frequency control. After a sudden change in load (or generation) the initial rate of change of frequency depends mainly on the inertia of the system. The effect of D is seen later, followed by the effect of the turbines. Learn how to show this. When the tie-line is lost due to a fault the two areas are independent and steady state frequencies can be different.

Reactive Power and Voltage Control

Synchronous generators can supply or absorb reactive power depending on whether it is over or under excited. Learn how to calculate E and from given terminal conditions (V, , P and Q). See the example done in the class.

ECE 4310: Energy System II Study Guide Winter 2014

 Increasing E does not increase real power (real power can be increased only by increasing the turbine power). With an increased E, the same real power will be delivered at a reduced . See the example done in the class. Power transfer capability of a transmission line can be improved by supplying reactive power either at the end of the line or somewhere in the middle. Learn how to calculate the maximum power limit. Learn how to calculate the maximum power limit with reactive power supplied at the load end of the line. Learn the functional block diagram of an excitation system. What is the function of (a) Voltage regulator, (b) Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator, (c) Exciter, (d) Excitation System Stabilizer, and (e) Power System Stabilizer. There are three types of excitation systems. DC - a dc generator supplies the dc voltage to the main eld winding. The voltage applied to the main eld winding is controlled by controlling the eld current of the dc generator. AC- and ac generator supplies the main eld winding through a rectier bridge. The voltage applied to the main eld winding is controlled by controlling the ring angle of the main bridge or the auxiliary bridge. ST - a controlled rectier bridge supplied the voltage to the main eld winding, The power source to the rectier bridge can be the generator itself or an outside power supply that feeds the power station. Voltage fed to the eld winding is controlled by controlling the ring angle. High gain is good from steady state point of view. High gain could make the excitation system unstable. In this case a stabilizing circuit is required. Learn how to calculate the steady state voltage error for a given Gain K. Learn how to explain the role of the stabilizing circuit using the Nyquist diagram (Lab #3).

Economic Load Dispatch

When one or more units are switched on to a system, the incremental fuel costs must be equal for optimum operation. Learn how to prove: 1 = 2 = = n .

ECE 4310: Energy System II Study Guide Winter 2014

 Learn how to determine the optimum dispatch using the graphical method. What is meant by the marginal cost when there are several generators supplying a load. Learn how to calculate it. Learn the iterative algorithms iteration and Gradient search (Lab #4 and Assignment #2). Show that for optimum operation, i Li is the same for all machines. Li = 1 1PL /Pi . Learn how to incorporate losses into optimum dispatch. Learn how to stack generation offers and demand bids to form supply and demand curves and determine the MCP and the dispatch of bids/offers (example shown in the class). Extend the above to include a transmission line with a limited capacity (example shown in the class).

Unit Commitment
What is the difference between an ELD and a UC problem? Give examples of constraints that link consecutive time intervals. How does a priority list method differ from searching all possible combinations Give examples of optimization techniques suitable for solving the UC problem

Protection
Criteria for desiging protection systems; primary and back up protection, protection zones. Duties of circuit breakers; types of circuit breakers. Compute maximum and minimum fault currents for a radial power system.

ECE 4310: Energy System II Study Guide Winter 2014

 Choose CT ratios. Determine the current settings of relays. Determine the time setting of Inverse Time Overcurrent relays when the characteristics are given either as a set of curves or as an equation. Derive the operating region of (a) impedance, (b) mho, and (c) offset mho characteristics. Learn how to calculate the impedance seen by a distance relay. Explain the concept of differential protection. What is spill current, what is the problem with it, and what are the solutions to eliminate the problem. How does the saturation of CTs affect the performance of (a) overcurrent, and (b) differential protection systems. Explain the three-zone distance protection scheme Impedance and mho characteristics; Zone 1, Zone 2, and Zone 3 settings; timing diagram; effect of fault resistance; effect of heavy loading. What is the difference between electromechanical, static and numerical (digital) relays.

Power System Reliability and Its Assessment

This section provides a brief introduction to the basic concepts, models and methodologies associated with power system reliability assessment using probabilistic techniques. Particularly the discussions emphasize on HL-I adequacy evaluation ( or generating capacity adequacy evaluation or resource adequacy evaluation): Functional zones of an electric power system can be divided into three hierarchical levels for reliability analysis. Reliability techniques can be divided into the two general categories of probabilistic and deterministic methods. The fundamental approaches used in a probabilistic evaluation can be generally described as being either direct analytical evaluation or

ECE 4310: Energy System II Study Guide Winter 2014

Monte Carlo simulation. The three basic probabilistic indices are probability, expected frequency and expected duration of an adverse event. The main objective in HL-I assessment is the evaluation of the system reserve required to satisfy the system demand. HL-I adequacy evaluation involves the development of a generation model, the development of a load model and the combination of the two models to produce a risk model. The analytical generation model is based on a capacity outage probability table (COPT) which can be created by different ways for example using the state enumeration approach or recursive algorithm. The load model used in the analytical approach is usually either the daily peak load variation curve (DPLVC) or a load duration curve (LDC). Single area reliability analysis concerns calculating various adequacy indices by combining the COPT with different load models without considering any potential assistance from other areas. Interconnected system reliability analysis, however, considers potential assistances. The interconnection assistance from the assisting system can be modeled as an equivalent unit. The equivalent unit model can be combined with the assisted system COPT to form the modied COPT and the reliability indices can be calculated by convolving the modied COPT with appropriate system load model. The generation and the load model can be combined using Monte Carlo simulation. The Monte Carlo method estimates system indices by simulating the actual process and random behavior of the system. These techniques can be broadly divided into two categories of non-sequential (state sampling) and sequential (state duration sampling). In state sampling, the generation model can be obtained by sampling all the component states and load is usually represented by a multi-state model. In state duration sampling, the system capacity model is obtained by combining the operating cycles of units in the system and the load is usually represented by a chronological hourly variation prole.

ECE 4310: Energy System II Study Guide Winter 2014