The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

by Dr. Muhammad Iqbal

PREFACE
The Qurn is a book which emphasizes deed rather than idea. There are, however, men to whom it is not possible organically to assimilate an alien universe by re-living, as a vital process, that special type o inner e!perience on which religious aith ultimately rests. "oreover, the modern man, by developing habits o concrete thought - habits which #slam itsel ostered at least in the earlier stages o its cultural career - has rendered himsel less capable o that e!perience which he urther suspects because o its liability to illusion. The more genuine schools o $u ism have, no doubt, done good work in shaping and directing the evolution o religious e!perience in #slam% but their latter-day representatives, owing to their ignorance o the modern mind, have become absolutely incapable o receiving any resh inspiration rom modern thought and e!perience. They are perpetuating methods which were created or generations possessing a cultural outlook di ering, in important respects, rom our own. &our creation and resurrection, says the Qurn, are like the creation and resurrection o a single soul. ' living e!perience o the kind o biological unity, embodied in this verse, re(uires today a method physiologically less violent and psychologically more suitable to a concrete type o mind. #n the absence o such a method the demand or a scienti ic orm o religious knowledge is only natural. #n these )ectures, which were undertaken at the re(uest o the "adras "uslim 'ssociation and delivered at "adras, *yderabad, and 'ligarh, # have tried to meet, even though partially, this urgent demand by attempting to reconstruct "uslim religious philosophy with due regard to the philosophical traditions o #slam and the more recent developments in the various domains o human knowledge. 'nd the present moment is (uite avourable or such an undertaking. +lassical ,hysics has learned to criticize its own oundations. 's a result o this criticism the kind o materialism, which it originally necessitated, is rapidly disappearing% and the day is not ar o when -eligion and $cience may discover hitherto unsuspected mutual harmonies. #t must, however, be remembered that there is no such thing as inality in philosophical thinking. 's knowledge advances and resh avenues o thought are opened, other views, and probably sounder views than those set orth in these )ectures, are possible. .ur duty is care ully to watch the progress o human thought, and to maintain an independent critical attitude towards it. ".#

Knowledge and Religious Experience

/hat is the character and general structure o the universe in which we live0 #s there a permanent element in the constitution o this universe0 *ow are we related to it0 /hat place do we occupy in it, and what is the kind o conduct that be its the place we occupy0 These (uestions are common to religion, philosophy, and higher poetry. 1ut the kind o knowledge that poetic inspiration brings is essentially individual in its character% it is igurative, vague, and inde inite. -eligion, in its more advanced orms, rises higher than poetry. #t moves rom individual to society. #n its attitude towards the 2ltimate -eality it is opposed to the limitations o man% it enlarges his claims and holds out the prospect o nothing less than a direct vision o -eality. #s it then possible to apply the purely rational method o philosophy to religion0 The spirit o philosophy is one o ree in(uiry. #t suspects all authority. #ts unction is to trace the uncritical assumptions o human thought to their hiding places, and in this pursuit it may inally end in denial or a rank admission o the incapacity o pure reason to reach the 2ltimate -eality. The essence o religion, on the other hand, is aith% and aith, like the bird, sees its trackless way unattended by intellect which, in the words o the great mystic poet o #slam, only waylays the living heart o man and robs it o the invisible wealth o li e that lies within.3 &et it cannot be denied that aith is more than mere eeling. #t has something like a cognitive content, and the e!istence o rival parties4 scholastics and mystics4 in the history o religion shows that idea is a vital element in religion. 'part rom this, religion on its doctrinal side, as de ined by ,ro essor /hitehead, is a system o general truths which have the e ect o trans orming character when they are sincerely held and vividly apprehended. 5 6ow, since the trans ormation and guidance o mans inner and outer li e is the essential aim o religion, it is obvious that the general truths which it embodies must not remain unsettled. 6o one would hazard action on the basis o a doubt ul principle o conduct. #ndeed, in view o its unction, religion stands in greater need o a rational oundation o its ultimate principles than even the dogmas o science. $cience may ignore a rational metaphysics% indeed, it has ignored it so ar. -eligion can hardly a ord to ignore the search or a reconciliation o the oppositions o e!perience and a 7usti ication o the environment in which humanity inds itsel . That is why ,ro essor /hitehead has acutely remarked that the ages o aith are the ages o rationalism. 8 1ut to rationalize aith is not to admit the superiority o philosophy over religion. ,hilosophy, no doubt, has 7urisdiction to 7udge religion, but what is to be 7udged is o such a nature that it will not submit to the 7urisdiction o philosophy e!cept on its own terms. /hile sitting in 7udgement on religion, philosophy cannot give religion an in erior place among its data. -eligion is not a departmental a air% it is neither mere thought, nor mere eeling, nor mere action% it is an e!pression o the whole man. Thus, in the evaluation o religion, philosophy must recognize the central position o religion and has no other alternative but to admit it as something ocal in the process o re lective synthesis. 6or is there any reason to suppose that thought and intuition are essentially opposed to each other. They spring up rom the same root and complement each other. The one grasps -eality piecemeal, the other grasps it in its wholeness. The one i!es its gaze on the eternal, the other on the temporal aspect o -eality. The one is present en7oyment o the whole o -eality% the other aims at traversing the whole by slowly speci ying and closing up the various regions o the whole or e!clusive observation. 1oth are in need o each other or mutual re7uvenation. 1oth seek visions o the same -eality which reveals itsel to them in accordance with their unction in li e. #n act, intuition, as 1ergson rightly says, is only a higher kind o intellect.9 The search or rational oundations in #slam may be regarded to have begun with the ,rophet himsel . *is constant prayer was: ;od< grant me knowledge o the ultimate nature o things< = The work o later mystics and non-mystic rationalists orms an e!ceedingly instructive chapter in the history o our culture, inasmuch as it reveals a longing or a coherent system o ideas, a spirit o whole-hearted devotion to truth, as well as the limitations o the age, which rendered the various theological movements in #slam less ruit ul than they might have been in a di erent age. 's we all know, ;reek philosophy has been a great cultural orce in the history o #slam. &et a care ul study o the Qurn and the various schools o scholastic theology that arose under the inspiration o ;reek thought disclose the remarkable act that while ;reek philosophy very much broadened the outlook o "uslim thinkers, it, on the whole, obscured their vision o the Qurn. $ocrates concentrated his attention on the human world alone. To him the proper study o man was man and not the world o plants, insects, and stars. *ow unlike the spirit o the Qurn, which sees in the humble bee a recipient o >ivine inspiration? and constantly calls upon the reader to observe the perpetual change o the winds, the alternation o day and night, the clouds, @ the starry heavens,A and the

planets swimming through in inite space< B 's a true disciple o $ocrates, ,lato despised senseC perception which, in his view, yielded mere opinion and no real knowledge. 3D *ow unlike the Qurn, which regards hearing and sight as the most valuable >ivine gi ts 33 and declares them to be accountable to ;od or their activity in this world. 35 This is what the earlier "uslim students o the Qurn completely missed under the spell o classical speculation. They read the Qurn in the light o ;reek thought. #t took them over two hundred years to perceive - though not (uite clearly that the spirit o the Qurn was essentially anti-classical, 38 and the result o this perception was a kind o intellectual revolt, the ull signi icance o which has not been realized even up to the present day. #t was partly owing to this revolt and partly to his personal history that ;hazlE based religion on philosophical scepticism - a rather unsa e basis or religion and not wholly 7usti ied by the spirit o the Qurn. ;hazlEs chie opponent, #bn -ushd, who de ended ;reek philosophy against the rebels, was led, through 'ristotle, to what is known as the doctrine o #mmortality o 'ctive #ntellect,39 a doctrine which once wielded enormous in luence on the intellectual li e o France and #taly,3= but which, to my mind, is entirely opposed to the view that the Qurn takes o the value and destiny o the human ego.3? Thus #bn -ushd lost sight o a great and ruit ul idea in #slam and unwittingly helped the growth o that enervating philosophy o li e which obscures mans vision o himsel , his ;od, and his world. The more constructive among the 'sharite thinkers were no doubt on the right path and anticipated some o the more modern orms o #dealism% yet, on the whole, the ob7ect o the 'sharite movement was simply to de end orthodo! opinion with the weapons o ;reek dialectic. The "utazilah, conceiving religion merely as a body o doctrines and ignoring it as a vital act, took no notice o non-conceptual modes o approaching -eality and reduced religion to a mere system o logical concepts ending in a purely negative attitude. They ailed to see that in the domain o knowledge - scienti ic or religious - complete independence o thought rom concrete e!perience is not possible. #t cannot, however, be denied that ;hazlEs mission was almost apostolic like that o Gant in ;ermany o the eighteenth century. #n ;ermany rationalism appeared as an ally o religion, but she soon realized that the dogmatic side o religion was incapable o demonstration. The only course open to her was to eliminate dogma rom the sacred record. /ith the elimination o dogma came the utilitarian view o morality, and thus rationalism completed the reign o unbelie . $uch was the state o theological thought in ;ermany when Gant appeared. *is Critique of Pure Reason revealed the limitations o human reason and reduced the whole work o the rationalists to a heap o ruins. 'nd 7ustly has he been described as ;ods greatest gi t to his country. ;hazlEs philosophical scepticism which, however, went a little too ar, virtually did the same kind o work in the world o #slam in breaking the back o that proud but shallow rationalism which moved in the same direction as pre-Gantian rationalism in ;ermany. There is, however, one important di erence between ;hazlEs and Gant. Gant, consistently with his principles, could not a irm the possibility o a knowledge o ;od. ;hazlEs, inding no hope in analytic thought, moved to mystic e!perience, and there ound an independent content or religion. #n this way he succeeded in securing or religion the right to e!ist independently o science and metaphysics. 1ut the revelation o the total #n inite in mystic e!perience convinced him o the initude and inconclusiveness o thought and drove him to draw a line o cleavage between thought and intuition. *e ailed to see that thought and intuition are organically related and that thought must necessarily simulate initude and inconclusiveness because o its alliance with serial time. The idea that thought is essentially inite, and or this reason unable to capture the #n inite, is based on a mistaken notion o the movement o thought in knowledge. #t is the inade(uacy o the logical understanding which inds a multiplicity o mutually repellent individualities with no prospect o their ultimate reduction to a unity that makes us sceptical about the conclusiveness o thought. #n act, the logical understanding is incapable o seeing this multiplicity as a coherent universe. #ts only method is generalization based on resemblances, but its generalizations are only ictitious unities which do not a ect the reality o concrete things. #n its deeper movement, however, thought is capable o reaching an immanent #n inite in whose sel -un olding movement the various inite concepts are merely moments. #n its essential nature, then, thought is not static% it is dynamic and un olds its internal in initude in time like the seed which, rom the very beginning, carries within itsel the organic unity o the tree as a present act. Thought is, there ore, the whole in its dynamic sel -e!pression, appearing to the temporal vision as a series o de inite speci ications which cannot be understood e!cept by a reciprocal re erence. Their meaning lies not in their sel -identity, but in the larger whole o which they are the speci ic aspects. This larger whole is to use a Quranic metaphor, a kind o ,reserved Tablet,3@ which holds up the entire undetermined possibilities o knowledge as a present reality, revealing itsel in serial time as a succession o inite concepts appearing to reach a unity which is already present in them. #t is in act the presence o the total #n inite in the movement o knowledge that makes inite thinking possible. 1oth Gant and ;hazlEs ailed to see that thought, in the very act o knowledge, passes beyond its own initude. The initudes o 6ature are reciprocally e!clusive.

6ot so the initudes o thought which is, in its essential nature, incapable o limitation and cannot remain imprisoned in the narrow circuit o its own individuality. #n the wide world beyond itsel nothing is alien to it. #t is in its progressive participation in the li e o the apparently alien that thought demolishes the walls o its initude and en7oys its potential in initude. #ts movement becomes possible only because o the implicit presence in its inite individuality o the in inite, which keeps alive within it the lame o aspiration and sustains it in its endless pursuit. #t is a mistake to regard thought as inconclusive, or it too, in its own way, is a greeting o the inite with the in inite. >uring the last ive hundred years religious thought in #slam has been practically stationary. There was a time when Huropean thought received inspiration rom the world o #slam. The most remarkable phenomenon o modern history, however, is the enormous rapidity with which the world o #slam is spiritually moving towards the /est. There is nothing wrong in this movement, or Huropean culture, on its intellectual side, is only a urther development o some o the most important phases o the culture o #slam. .ur only ear is that the dazzling e!terior o Huropean culture may arrest our movement and we may ail to reach the true inwardness o that culture. >uring all the centuries o our intellectual stupor Hurope has been seriously thinking on the great problems in which the philosophers and scientists o #slam were so keenly interested. $ince the "iddle 'ges, when the schools o "uslim theology were completed, in inite advance has taken place in the domain o human thought and e!perience. The e!tension o mans power over 6ature has given him a new aith and a resh sense o superiority over the orces that constitute his environment. 6ew points o view have been suggested, old problems have been re-stated in the light o resh e!perience, and new problems have arisen. #t seems as i the intellect o man is outgrowing its own most undamental categories - time, space, and causality. /ith the advance o scienti ic thought even our concept o intelligibility is undergoing a change. 3A The theory o Hinstein has brought a new vision o the universe and suggests new ways o looking at the problems common to both religion and philosophy. 6o wonder then that the younger generation o #slam in 'sia and ' rica demand a resh orientation o their aith. /ith the reawakening o #slam, there ore, it is necessary to e!amine, in an independent spirit, what Hurope has thought and how ar the conclusions reached by her can help us in the revision and, i necessary, reconstruction, o theological thought in #slam. 1esides this it is not possible to ignore generally anti-religious and especially anti-#slamic propaganda in +entral 'sia which has already crossed the #ndian rontier. $ome o the apostles o this movement are born "uslims, and one o them, Tew Ek Fikret, the Turkish poet, who died only a short time ago,3B has gone to the e!tent o using our great poetthinker, "irz 'bd al-Qdir 1edil o 'kbarbd, or the purposes o this movement. $urely, it is high time to look to the essentials o #slam. #n these lectures # propose to undertake a philosophical discussion o some o the basic o ideas o #slam, in the hope that this may, at least, be help ul towards a proper understanding o the meaning o #slam as a message to humanity. 'lso with a view to give a kind o ground-outline or urther discussion, # propose, in this preliminary lecture, to consider the character o knowledge and religious e!perience. The main purpose o the Qurn is to awaken in man the higher consciousness o his mani old relations with ;od and the universe. #t is in view o this essential aspect o the Quranic teaching that ;oethe, while making a general review o #slam as an educational orce, said to Hckermann: &ou see this teaching never ails% with all our systems, we cannot go, and generally speaking no man can go, arther than that.5D The problem o #slam was really suggested by the mutual con lict, and at the same time mutual attraction, presented by the two orces o religion and civilization. The same problem con ronted early +hristianity. The great point in +hristianity is the search or an independent content or spiritual li e which, according to the insight o its ounder, could be elevated, not by the orces o a world e!ternal to the soul o man, but by the revelation o a new world within his soul. #slam ully agrees with this insight and supplements it by the urther insight that the illumination o the new world thus revealed is not something oreign to the world o matter but permeates it through and through. Thus the a irmation o spirit sought by +hristianity would come not by the renunciation o e!ternal orces which are already permeated by the illumination o spirit, but by a proper ad7ustment o mans relation to these orces in view o the light received rom the world within. #t is the mysterious touch o the ideal that animates and sustains the real, and through it alone we can discover and a irm the ideal. /ith #slam the ideal and the real are not two opposing orces which cannot be reconciled. The li e o the ideal consists, not in a total breach with the real which would tend to shatter the organic wholeness o li e into pain ul oppositions, but in the perpetual endeavour o the ideal to appropriate the real with a view eventually to absorb it, to convert it into itsel and illuminate its whole being. #t is the sharp opposition between the sub7ect and the ob7ect, the mathematical without and the biological within, that impressed +hristianity. #slam, however, aces the opposition with a view to overcome it. This essential di erence in looking at a

undamental relation determines the respective attitudes o these great religions towards the problem o human li e in its present surroundings. 1oth demand the a irmation o the spiritual sel in man, with this di erence only that #slam, recognizing the contact o the ideal with the real, says yes to the world o matter53 and points the way to master it with a view to discover a basis or a realistic regulation o li e. /hat, then, according to the Qurn, is the character o the universe which we inhabit0 #n the irst place, it is not the result o a mere creative sport:

/e have not created the *eavens and the earth and whatever is between them in sport. /e have
not created them but or a serious end: but the greater part o them understand it not I99:8A8BJ.55 #t is a reality to be reckoned with:

Kerily in the creation o the *eavens and o the earth, and in the succession o the night and o the
day, are signs or men o understanding% who, standing and sitting and reclining, bear ;od in mind and re lect on the creation o the *eavens and o the earth, and say: L.h, our )ord< Thou hast not created this in vainL I8:3BD-B3J. 'gain the universe is so constituted that it is capable o e!tension:

*e I;odJ adds to *is creation what *e wills I8=:3J.58

#t is not a block universe, a inished product, immobile and incapable o change. >eep in its inner being lies, perhaps, the dream o a new birth:

$ay - go through the earth and see how ;od hath brought orth all creation% herea ter will *e give it
another birth I5B:5DJ. #n act, this mysterious swing and impulse o the universe, this noiseless swim o time which appears to us, human beings, as the movement o day and night, is regarded by the Qurn as one o the greatest signs o ;od:

;od causeth the day and the night to take their turn. Kerily in this is teaching or men o insight
I59:99J. This is why the ,rophet said: >o not vili y time, or time is ;od. 59 'nd this immensity o time and space carries in it the promise o a complete sub7ugation by man whose duty is to re lect on the signs o ;od, and thus discover the means o realizing his con(uest o 6ature as an actual act:

$ee ye not how ;od hath put under you all that is in the *eavens, and all that is on the earth, and
hath been bounteous to you o *is avours both in relation to the seen and the unseen0 I83:5DJ.

'nd *e hath sub7ected to you the night and the day, the sun and the moon, and the stars too are
sub7ect to you by *is behest% verily in this are signs or those who understand I3?:35J. $uch being the nature and promise o the universe, what is the nature o man whom it con ronts on all sides0 Hndowed with a most suitable mutual ad7ustment o aculties he discovers himsel down below in the scale o li e, surrounded on all sides by the orces o obstruction:

That o goodliest abric /e created man, then brought him down to the lowest o the low IB=:9-=J.
'nd how do we ind him in this environment0 ' restless 5= being engrossed in his ideals to the point o orgetting everything else, capable o in licting pain on himsel in his ceaseless (uest a ter resh scopes or sel -e!pression. /ith all his ailings he is superior to 6ature, inasmuch as he carries within him a great trust which, in the words o the Qurn, the heavens and the earth and the mountains re used to carry:

Kerily /e proposed to the *eavens and to the earth and to the mountains to receive the trust Io
personalityJ, but they re used the burden and they eared to receive it. "an alone undertook to bear it, but hath proved un7ust, senseless< I88:@5J. *is career, no doubt, has a beginning, but he is destined, perhaps, to become a permanent element in the constitution o being.

Thinketh man that he shall be thrown away as an ob7ect o no use0 /as he not a mere embryo0
Then he became thick blood o which ;od ormed him and ashioned him, and made him twain, male and emale. #s not *e power ul enough to (uicken the dead0 I@=:8?-9DJ. /hen attracted by the orces around him, man has the power to shape and direct them% when

thwarted by them, he has the capacity to build a much vaster world in the depths o his own inner being, wherein he discovers sources o in inite 7oy and inspiration. *ard his lot and rail his being, like a rose-lea , yet no orm o reality is so power ul, so inspiring, and so beauti ul as the spirit o man< Thus in his inmost being man, as conceived by the Qurn, is a creative activity, an ascending spirit who, in his onward march, rises rom one state o being to another:

1ut 6ay< # swear by the sunsets redness and by the night and its gatherings and by the moon
when at her ull, that rom state to state shall ye be surely carried onward IA9:3?-3BJ. #t is the lot o man to share in the deeper aspirations o the universe around him and to shape his own destiny as well as that o the universe, now by ad7usting himsel to its orces, now by putting the whole o his energy to mould its orces to his own ends and purposes. 'nd in this process o progressive change ;od becomes a co-worker with him, provided man takes the initiative:

Kerily ;od will not change the condition o men, till they change what is in themselves I38:33J.
# he does not take the initiative, i he does not evolve the inner richness o his being, i he ceases to eel the inward push o advancing li e, then the spirit within him hardens into stone and he is reduced to the level o dead matter. 1ut his li e and the onward march o his spirit depend on the establishment o conne!ions with the reality that con ronts him. 5? #t is knowledge that establishes these conne!ions, and knowledge is sense-perception elaborated by understanding.

/hen thy )ord said to the 'ngels, LKerily # am about to place one in my stead on earth,L they said,
L/ilt Thou place there one who will do ill and shed blood, when we celebrate Thy praise and e!tol Thy holiness0L ;od said, LKerily # know what ye know not<L 'nd *e taught 'dam the names o all things, and then set them be ore the 'ngels, and said, LTell me the names o these i ye are endowed with wisdom.L They said, L,raise be to Thee< /e have no knowledge but what Thou hast given us to know. Thou art the Gnowing, the /iseL. *e said, L. 'dam, in orm them o the names.L 'nd when he had in ormed them o the names, ;od said, L>id # not say to you that # know the hidden things o the *eavens and o the earth, and that # know what ye bring to light and what ye hide0L I5:8D-88J. The point o these verses is that man is endowed with the aculty o naming things, that is to say, orming concepts o them, and orming concepts o them is capturing them. Thus the character o mans knowledge is conceptual, and it is with the weapon o this conceptual knowledge that man approaches the observable aspect o -eality. The one noteworthy eature o the Qurn is the emphasis that it lays on this observable aspect o -eality. )et me (uote here a ew verses:

'ssuredly, in the creation o the *eavens and o the earth% and in the alternation o night and day%
and in the ships which pass through the sea with what is use ul to man% and in the rain which ;od sendeth down rom *eaven, giving li e to the earth a ter its death, and scattering over it all kinds o cattle% and in the change o the winds, and in the clouds that are made to do service between the *eavens and the earth - are signs or those who understand I5:3?9J.

'nd it is *e /ho hath ordained or you that ye may be guided thereby in the darkness o the land
and o the sea< +lear have /e made .ur signs to men o knowledge. 'nd it is *e /ho hath created you o one breath, and hath provided you an abode and resting place Iin the wombJ. +lear have /e made .ur signs or men o insight< 'nd it is *e /ho sendeth down rain rom *eaven: and /e bring orth by it the buds o all the plants and rom them bring /e orth the green oliage, and the closegrowing grain, and palm trees with sheaths o clustering dates, and gardens o grapes, and the olive, and the pomegranate, like and unlike. )ook you on their ruits when they ripen. Truly herein are signs unto people who believe I?:B@-BBJ.

*ast thou not seen how thy )ord lengthens out the shadow0 *ad *e pleased *e had made it
motionless. 1ut /e made the sun to be its guide% then draw it in unto 2s with easy in drawing I5=:9=-9?J.

+an they not look up to the clouds, how they are created% and to the *eaven how it is upraised%
and to the mountains how they are rooted, and to the earth how it is outspread0 IAA:3@-5DJ.

'nd among *is signs are the creation o the *eavens and o the earth, and your variety o tongues
and colours. *erein truly are signs or all men I8D:55J. 6o doubt, the immediate purpose o the Qurn in this re lective observation o 6ature is to awaken in man the consciousness o that o which 6ature is regarded a symbol. 1ut the point to note is the general empirical attitude o the Qurn which engendered in its ollowers a eeling o reverence or the actual and ultimately made them the ounders o modern science. #t was a great point to awaken the empirical spirit in an age which renounced the visible as o no value in mens search

a ter ;od. 'ccording to the Qurn, as we have seen be ore, the universe has a serious end. #ts shi ting actualities orce our being into resh ormations. The intellectual e ort to overcome the obstruction o ered by it, besides enriching and ampli ying our li e, sharpens our insight, and thus prepares us or a more master ul insertion into subtler aspects o human e!perience. #t is our re lective contact with the temporal lu! o things which trains us or an intellectual vision o the non-temporal. -eality lives in its own appearances% and such a being as man, who has to maintain his li e in an obstructing environment, cannot a ord to ignore the visible. The Qurn opens our eyes to the great act o change, through the appreciation and control o which alone it is possible to build a durable civilization. The cultures o 'sia and, in act, o the whole ancient world ailed, because they approached -eality e!clusively rom within and moved rom within outwards. This procedure gave them theory without power, and on mere theory no durable civilization can be based. There is no doubt that the treatment o religious e!perience, as a source o >ivine knowledge, is historically prior to the treatment o other regions o human e!perience or the same purpose. The Qurn, recognizing that the empirical attitude is an indispensable stage in the spiritual li e o humanity, attaches e(ual importance to all the regions o human e!perience as yielding knowledge o the 2ltimate -eality which reveals its symbols both within and without. 5@ .ne indirect way o establishing conne!ions with the reality that con ronts us is re lective observation and control o its symbols as they reveal themselves to sense-perception% the other way is direct association with that reality as it reveals itsel within. The naturalism o the Qurn is only a recognition o the act that man is related to nature, and this relation, in view o its possibility as a means o controlling her orces, must be e!ploited not in the interest o unrighteous desire or domination, but in the nobler interest o a ree upward movement o spiritual li e. #n the interests o securing a complete vision o -eality, there ore, sense-perception must be supplemented by the perception o what the Qurn describes as Fud or Qalb, i.e. heart:

;od hath made everything which *e hath created most good% and began the creation o man with
clay% then ordained his progeny rom germs o li e, rom sorry water% then shaped him, and breathed o *is spirit unto him, and gave you hearing and seeing and heart: what little thanks do ye return0 I85:@-BJ. The heart is a kind o inner intuition or insight which, in the beauti ul words o -MmE, eeds on the rays o the sun and brings us into contact with aspects o -eality other than those open to senseperception.5A #t is, according to the Qurn, something which sees, and its reports, i properly interpreted, are never alse.5B /e must not, however, regard it as a mysterious special aculty% it is rather a mode o dealing with -eality in which sensation, in the physiological sense o the word, does not play any part.8D &et the vista o e!perience thus opened to us is as real and concrete as any other e!perience. To describe it as psychic, mystical, or super-natural does not detract rom its value as e!perience. To the primitive man all e!perience was super-natural. ,rompted by the immediate necessities o li e he was driven to interpret his e!perience, and out o this interpretation gradually emerged 6ature in our sense o the word. The total--eality, which enters our awareness and appears on interpretation as an empirical act, has other ways o invading our consciousness and o ers urther opportunities o interpretation. The revealed and mystic literature o mankind bears ample testimony to the act that religious e!perience has been too enduring and dominant in the history o mankind to be re7ected as mere illusion. There seems to be no reason, then, to accept the normal level o human e!perience as act and re7ect its other levels as mystical and emotional. The act o religious e!perience are acts among other acts o human e!perience and, in the capacity o yielding knowledge by interpretation, one act is as good as another. 6or is there anything irreverent in critically e!amining this region o human e!perience. The ,rophet o #slam was the irst critical observer o psychic phenomena. 1ukhaNriNand other traditionists have given us a ull account o his observation o the psychic Oewish youth, #bn $ayyd, whose ecstatic moods attracted the ,rophets notice.83 *e tested him, (uestioned him, and e!amined him in his various moods. .nce he hid himsel behind the stem o a tree to listen to his mutterings. The boys mother, however, warned him o the approach o the ,rophet. Thereupon the boy immediately shook o his mood and the ,rophet remarked: # she had let him alone the thing would have been cleared up. 85 The ,rophets companions, some o whom were present during the course o this irst psychological observation in the history o #slam, and even later traditionists, who took good care to record this important act, entirely misunderstood the signi icance o his attitude and interpreted it in their own innocent manner. ,ro essor "acdonald, who seems to have no idea o the undamental psychological di erence between the mystic and the prophetic consciousness, inds humour enough in this picture o one prophet trying to investigate another a ter the method o the $ociety or ,sychical -esearch.88 ' better appreciation o the spirit o the Qurn which, as # will show in a subse(uent lecture,89 initiated the cultural movement terminating in the birth o the modern

empirical attitude, would have led the ,ro essor to see something remarkably suggestive in the ,rophets observation o the psychic Oew. *owever, the irst "uslim to see the meaning and value o the ,rophets attitude was #bn GhaldMn, who approached the contents o mystic consciousness in a more critical spirit and very nearly reached the modern hypothesis o subliminal selves. 8= 's ,ro essor "acdonald says, #bn GhaldMn had some most interesting psychological ideas, and that he would probably have been in close sympathy with "r. /illiam OamesPs Varieties of Religious Experience.8? "odern psychology has only recently begun to realize the importance o a care ul study o the contents o mystic consciousness, and we are not yet in possession o a really e ective scienti ic method to analyse the contents o non-rational modes o consciousness. /ith the time at my disposal it is not possible to undertake an e!tensive in(uiry into the history and the various degrees o mystic consciousness in point o richness and vividness. 'll that # can do is to o er a ew general observations only on the main characteristics o mystic e!perience. 3. The irst point to note is the immediacy o this e!perience. #n this respect it does not di er rom other levels o human e!perience which supply data or knowledge. 'll e!perience is immediate. 's regions o normal e!perience are sub7ect to interpretation o sense-data or our knowledge o the e!ternal world, so the region o mystic e!perience is sub7ect to interpretation or our knowledge o ;od. The immediacy o mystic e!perience simply means that we know ;od 7ust as we know other ob7ects. ;od is not a mathematical entity or a system o concepts mutually related to one another and having no re erence to e!perience.8@ 5. The second point is the unanalysable wholeness o mystic e!perience. /hen # e!perience the table be ore me, innumerable data o e!perience merge into the single e!perience o the table. .ut o this wealth o data # select those that all into a certain order o space and time and round them o in re erence to the table. #n the mystic state, however, vivid and rich it may be, thought is reduced to a minimum and such an analysis is not possible. 1ut this di erence o the mystic state rom the ordinary rational consciousness does not mean discontinuance with the normal consciousness, as ,ro essor /illiam Oames erroneously thought. #n either case it is the same -eality which is operating on us. The ordinary rational consciousness, in view o our practical need o adaptation to our environment, takes that -eality piecemeal, selecting successively isolated sets o stimuli or response. The mystic state brings us into contact with the total passage o -eality in which all the diverse stimuli merge into one another and orm a single unanalysable unity in which the ordinary distinction o sub7ect and ob7ect does not e!ist. 8. The third point to note is that to the mystic the mystic state is a moment o intimate association with a 2ni(ue .ther $el , transcending, encompassing, and momentarily suppressing the private personality o the sub7ect o e!perience. +onsidering its content the mystic state is highly ob7ective and cannot be regarded as a mere retirement into the mists o pure sub7ectivity. 1ut you will ask me how immediate e!perience o ;od, as an #ndependent .ther $el , is at all possible. The mere act that the mystic state is passive does not inally prove the veritable otherness o the $el e!perienced. This (uestion arises in the mind because we assume, without criticism, that our knowledge o the e!ternal world through sense-perception is the type o all knowledge. # this were so, we could never be sure o the reality o our own sel . *owever, in reply to it # suggest the analogy o our daily social e!perience. *ow do we know other minds in our social intercourse0 #t is obvious that we know our own sel and 6ature by inner re lection and sense-perception respectively. /e possess no sense or the e!perience o other minds. The only ground o my knowledge o a conscious being be ore me is the physical movements similar to my own rom which # in er the presence o another conscious being. .r we may say, a ter ,ro essor -oyce, that our ellows are known to be real because they respond to our signals and thus constantly supply the necessary supplement to our own ragmentary meanings. -esponse, no doubt, is the test o the presence o a conscious sel , and the Qurn also takes the same view:

'nd your )ord saith, call "e and # respond to your call I9D:?DJ. 'nd when "y servants ask thee concerning "e, then # am nigh unto them and answer the cry o
him that crieth unto "e I5:3A?J. #t is clear that whether we apply the physical criterion or the non-physical and more ade(uate criterion o -oyce, in either case our knowledge o other minds remains something like in erential only. &et we eel that our e!perience o other minds is immediate and never entertain any doubt as to the reality o our social e!perience. # do not, however, mean, at the present stage o our in(uiry, to build on the implications o our knowledge o other minds, an idealistic argument in avour o the reality o a +omprehensive $el . 'll that # mean to suggest is that the immediacy o our e!perience in the mystic state is not without a parallel. #t has some sort o resemblance to our normal e!perience and probably belongs to the same category.

9. $ince the (uality o mystic e!perience is to be directly e!perienced, it is obvious that it cannot be communicated.8A "ystic states are more like eeling than thought. The interpretation which the mystic or the prophet puts on the content o his religious consciousness can be conveyed to others in the orm o propositions, but the content itsel cannot be so transmitted. Thus in the ollowing verses o the Qurn it is the psychology and not the content o the e!perience that is given:

#t is not or man that ;od should speak to him, but by vision or rom behind a veil% or *e sendeth a
messenger to reveal by *is permission what *e will: or *e is H!alted, /ise I95:=3J.

1y the star when it setteth,

&our compatriot erreth not, nor is he led astray. 6either speaketh he rom mere impulse. The Qurn is no other than the revelation revealed to him: .ne strong in power taught it him, Hndowed with wisdom with even balance stood he #n the highest part o the horizon: Then came he nearer and approached, 'nd was at the distance o two bows or even closer 'nd he revealed to the servant o ;od what he revealed: *is heart alsi ied not what he saw: /hat< will ye then dispute with him as to what he saw0 *e had seen him also another time 6ear the Sidrah tree which marks the boundary: 6ear which is the garden o repose: /hen the Sidrah tree was covered with what covered it: *is eye turned not aside, nor did it wander: For he saw the greatest o the signs o the )ord I=8:3-3AJ. The incommunicability o mystic e!perience is due to the act that it is essentially a matter o inarticulate eeling, untouched by discursive intellect. #t must, however, be noted that mystic eeling, like all eeling, has a cognitive element also% and it is, # believe, because o this cognitive element that it lends itsel to the orm o idea. #n act, it is the nature o eeling to seek e!pression in thought. #t would seem that the two - eeling and idea - are the non-temporal and temporal aspects o the same unit o inner e!perience. 1ut on this point # cannot do better than (uote ,ro essor *ocking who has made a remarkably keen study o eeling in 7usti ication o an intellectual view o the content o religious consciousness:

/hat is that other-than- eeling in which eeling may end0 # answer, consciousness o an ob7ect.
Feeling is instability o an entire conscious sel : and that which will restore the stability o this sel lies not within its own border but beyond it. Feeling is outward-pushing, as idea is outwardreporting: and no eeling is so blind as to have no idea o its own ob7ect. 's a eeling possesses the mind, there also possesses the mind, as an integral part o that eeling, some idea o the kind o thing which will bring it to rest. ' eeling without a direction is as impossible as an activity without a direction: and a direction implies some ob7ective. There are vague states o consciousness in which we seem to be wholly without direction% but in such cases it is remarkable that eeling is likewise in abeyance. For e!ample, # may be dazed by a blow, neither realizing what has happened nor su ering any pain, and yet (uite conscious that something has occurred: the e!perience waits an instant in the vestibule o consciousness, not as eeling but purely as act, until idea has touched it and de ined a course o response. 't that same moment, it is elt as pain ul. # we are right, eeling is (uite as much an ob7ective consciousness as is idea: it re ers always to something beyond the present sel and has no e!istence save in directing the sel toward that ob7ect in whose presence its own career must end<8B Thus you will see that it is because o this essential nature o eeling that while religion starts with eeling, it has never, in its history, taken itsel as a matter o eeling alone and has constantly striven a ter metaphysics. The mystics condemnation o intellect as an organ o knowledge does

not really ind any 7usti ication in the history o religion. 1ut ,ro essor *ockings passage 7ust (uoted has a wider scope than mere 7usti ication o idea in religion. The organic relation o eeling and idea throws light on the old theological controversy about verbal revelation which once gave so much trouble to "uslim religious thinkers.9D #narticulate eeling seeks to ul il its destiny in idea which, in its turn, tends to develop out o itsel its own visible garment. #t is no mere metaphor to say that idea and word both simultaneously emerge out o the womb o eeling, though logical understanding cannot but take them in a temporal order and thus create its own di iculty by regarding them as mutually isolated. There is a sense in which the word is also revealed. =. The mystics intimate association with the eternal which gives him a sense o the unreality o serial time does not mean a complete break with serial time. The mystic state in respect o its uni(ueness remains in some way related to common e!perience. This is clear rom the act that the mystic state soon ades away, though it leaves a deep sense o authority a ter it has passed away. 1oth the mystic and the prophet return to the normal levels o e!perience, but with this di erence that the return o the prophet, as # will show later, may be raught with in inite meaning or mankind. For the purposes o knowledge, then, the region o mystic e!perience is as real as any other region o human e!perience and cannot be ignored merely because it cannot be traced back to senseperception. 6or is it possible to undo the spiritual value o the mystic state by speci ying the organic conditions which appear to determine it. Hven i the postulate o modern psychology as to the interrelation o body and mind is assumed to be true, it is illogical to discredit the value o the mystic state as a revelation o truth. ,sychologically speaking, all states, whether their content is religious or non-religious, are organically determined. 93 The scienti ic orm o mind is as much organically determined as the religious. .ur 7udgement as to the creations o genius is not at all determined or even remotely a ected by what our psychologists may say regarding its organic conditions. ' certain kind o temperament may be a necessary condition or a certain kind o receptivity% but the antecedent condition cannot be regarded as the whole truth about the character o what is received. The truth is that the organic causation o our mental states has nothing to do with the criteria by which we 7udge them to be superior or in erior in point o value. 'mong the visions and messages, says ,ro essor /illiam Oames,

some have always been too patently silly, among the trances and convulsive seizures some have
been too ruitless or conduct and character, to pass themselves o as signi icant, still less as divine. #n the history o +hristian mysticism the problem how to discriminate between such messages and e!periences as were really divine miracles, and such others as the demon in his malice was able to counter eit, thus making the religious person two old more the child o hell he was be ore, has always been a di icult one to solve, needing all the sagacity and e!perience o the best directors o conscience. #n the end it had come to our empiricist criterion: 1y their ruits ye shall know them, not by their roots.95 The problem o +hristian mysticism alluded to by ,ro essor Oames has been in act the problem o all mysticism. The demon in his malice does counter eit e!periences which creep into the circuit o the mystic state. 's we read in the Qurn:

/e have not sent any 'postle or ,rophet 98 be ore thee among whose desires $atan in7ected not
some wrong desire, but ;od shall bring to nought that which $atan had suggested. Thus shall ;od a irm *is revelations, or ;od is Gnowing and /ise I55:=5J. 'nd it is in the elimination o the satanic rom the >ivine that the ollowers o Freud have done inestimable service to religion% though # cannot help saying that the main theory o this newer psychology does not appear to me to be supported by any ade(uate evidence. # our vagrant impulses assert themselves in our dreams, or at other times we are not strictly ourselves, it does not ollow that they remain imprisoned in a kind o lumber room behind the normal sel . The occasional invasion o these suppressed impulses on the region o our normal sel tends more to show the temporary disruption o our habitual system o responses rather than their perpetual presence in some dark corner o the mind. *owever, the theory is brie ly this. >uring the process o our ad7ustment to our environment we are e!posed to all sorts o stimuli. .ur habitual responses to these stimuli gradually all into a relatively i!ed system, constantly growing in comple!ity by absorbing some and re7ecting other impulses which do not it in with our permanent system o responses. The re7ected impulses recede into what is called the unconscious region o the mind, and there wait or a suitable opportunity to assert themselves and take their revenge on the ocal sel . They may disturb our plans o action, distort our thought, build our dreams and phantasies, or carry us back to orms o primitive behaviour which the evolutionary process has le t ar behind. -eligion, it is said, is a pure iction created by these repudiated impulses o mankind with a view to ind a kind o airyland or ree unobstructed movement. -eligious beliefs and dogmas, according to

the theory, are no more than merely primitive theories o 6ature, whereby mankind has tried to redeem -eality rom its elemental ugliness and to show it o as something nearer to the hearts desire than the acts o li e would warrant. That there are religions and orms o art, which provide a kind o cowardly escape rom the acts o li e, # do not deny. 'll that # contend is that this is not true o all religions. 6o doubt, religious belie s and dogmas have a metaphysical signi icance% but it is obvious that they are not interpretations o those data o e!perience which are the sub7ect o the science o 6ature. -eligion is not physics or chemistry seeking an e!planation o 6ature in terms o causation% it really aims at interpreting a totally di erent region o human e!perience - religious e!perience - the data o which cannot be reduced to the data o any other science. #n act, it must be said in 7ustice to religion that it insisted on the necessity o concrete e!perience in religious li e long be ore science learnt to do so.99 The con lict between the two is due not to the act that the one is, and the other is not, based on concrete e!perience. 1oth seek concrete e!perience as a point o departure. Their con lict is due to the misapprehension that both interpret the same data o e!perience. /e orget that religion aims at reaching the real signi icance o a special variety o human e!perience. 6or is it possible to e!plain away the content o religious consciousness by attributing the whole thing to the working o the se!-impulse. The two orms o consciousness - se!ual and religious - are o ten hostile or, at any rate, completely di erent to each other in point o their character, their aim, and the kind o conduct they generate. The truth is that in a state o religious passion we know a actual reality in some sense outside the narrow circuit o our personality. To the psychologist religious passion necessarily appears as the work o the subconscious because o the intensity with which it shakes up the depths o our being. #n all knowledge there is an element o passion, and the ob7ect o knowledge gains or loses in ob7ectivity with the rise and all in the intensity o passion. That is most real to us which stirs up the entire abric o our personality. 's ,ro essor *ocking pointedly puts it:

# ever upon the stupid day-length time-span o any sel or saint either, some vision breaks to roll
his li e and ours into new channels, it can only be because that vision admits into his soul some trooping invasion o the concrete ullness o eternity. $uch vision doubtless means subconscious readiness and subconscious resonance too, - but the e!pansion o the unused air-cells does not argue that we have ceased to breathe the outer air: - the very opposite< 9= ' purely psychological method, there ore, cannot e!plain religious passion as a orm o knowledge. #t is bound to ail in the case o our newer psychologists as it did ail in the case o )ocke and *ume. The oregoing discussion, however, is sure to raise an important (uestion in your mind. -eligious e!perience, # have tried to maintain, is essentially a state o eeling with a cognitive aspect, the content o which cannot be communicated to others, e!cept in the orm o a 7udgement. 6ow when a 7udgement which claims to be the interpretation o a certain region o human e!perience, not accessible to me, is placed be ore me or my assent, # am entitled to ask, what is the guarantee o its truth0 're we in possession o a test which would reveal its validity0 # personal e!perience had been the only ground or acceptance o a 7udgement o this kind, religion would have been the possession o a ew individuals only. *appily we are in possession o tests which do not di er rom those applicable to other orms o knowledge. These # call the intellectual test and the pragmatic test. 1y the intellectual test # mean critical interpretation, without any presuppositions o human e!perience, generally with a view to discover whether our interpretation leads us ultimately to a reality o the same character as is revealed by religious e!perience. The pragmatic test 7udges it by its ruits. The ormer is applied by the philosopher, the latter by the prophet. #n the lecture that ollows, # will apply the intellectual test.

The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience

$cholastic philosophy has put orward three arguments or the e!istence o ;od. These arguments, known as the +osmological, the Teleological, and the .ntological, embody a real movement o thought in its (uest a ter the 'bsolute. 1ut regarded as logical proo s, # am a raid, they are open to serious criticism and urther betray a rather super icial interpretation o e!perience. The cosmological argument views the world as a inite e ect, and passing through a series o dependent se(uences, related as causes and e ects, stops at an uncaused irst cause, because o the unthinkability o an in inite regress. #t is, however, obvious that a inite e ect can give only a inite cause, or at most an in inite series o such causes. To inish the series at a certain point, and to elevate one member o the series to the dignity o an uncaused irst cause, is to set at naught the very law o causation on which the whole argument proceeds. Further, the irst cause reached by the argument necessarily e!cludes its e ect. 'nd this means that the e ect, constituting a limit

to its own cause, reduces it to something inite. 'gain, the cause reached by the argument cannot be regarded as a necessary being or the obvious reason that in the relation o cause and e ect the two terms o the relation are e(ually necessary to each other. 6or is the necessity o e!istence identical with the conceptual necessity o causation which is the utmost that this argument can prove. The argument really tries to reach the in inite by merely negating the inite. 1ut the in inite reached by contradicting the inite is a alse in inite, which neither e!plains itsel nor the inite which is thus made to stand in opposition to the in inite. The true in inite does not e!clude the inite% it embraces the inite without e acing its initude, and e!plains and 7usti ies its being. )ogically speaking, then, the movement rom the inite to the in inite as embodied in the cosmological argument is (uite illegitimate% and the argument ails in toto. The teleological argument is no better. #t scrutinizes the e ect with a view to discover the character o its cause. From the traces o oresight, purpose, and adaptation in nature, it in ers the e!istence o a sel conscious being o in inite intelligence and power. 't best, it gives us a skil ul e!ternal contriver working on a pre-e!isting dead and intractable material the elements o which are, by their own nature, incapable o orderly structures and combinations. The argument gives us a contriver only and not a creator% and even i we suppose him to be also the creator o his material, it does no credit to his wisdom to create his own di iculties by irst creating intractable material, and then overcoming its resistance by the application o methods alien to its original nature. The designer regarded as e!ternal to his material must always remain limited by his material, and hence a inite designer whose limited resources compel him to overcome his di iculties a ter the ashion o a human mechanician. The truth is that the analogy on which the argument proceeds is o no value at all. There is really no analogy between the work o the human arti icer and the phenomena o 6ature. The human arti icer cannot work out his plan e!cept by selecting and isolating his materials rom their natural relations and situations. 6ature, however, constitutes a system o wholly interdependent members% her processes present no analogy to the architects work which, depending on a progressive isolation and integration o its material, can o er no resemblance to the evolution o organic wholes in 6ature. The ontological argument which has been presented in various orms by various thinkers has always appealed most to the speculative mind. The +artesian orm o the argument runs thus:

To say that an attribute is contained in the nature or in the concept o a thing is the same as to say
that the attribute is true o this thing and that it may be a irmed to be in it. 1ut necessary e!istence is contained in the nature or the concept o ;od. *ence it may be with truth a irmed that necessary e!istence is in ;od, or that ;od e!ists.3 >escartes supplements this argument by another. /e have the idea o a per ect being in our mind. /hat is the source o the idea0 #t cannot come rom 6ature, or 6ature e!hibits nothing but change. #t cannot create the idea o a per ect being. There ore corresponding to the idea in our mind there must be an ob7ective counterpart which is the cause o the idea o a per ect being in our mind. This argument is somewhat o the nature o the cosmological argument which # have already criticized. 1ut whatever may be the orm o the argument, it is clear that the conception o e!istence is no proo o ob7ective e!istence. 's in Gants criticism o this argument the notion o three hundred dollars in my mind cannot prove that # have them in my pocket. 5 'll that the argument proves is that the idea o a per ect being includes the idea o his e!istence. 1etween the idea o a per ect being in my mind and the ob7ective reality o that being there is a gul which cannot be bridged over by a transcendental act o thought. The argument, as stated, is in act a petitio principii: 8 or it takes or granted the very point in (uestion, i.e. the transition rom the logical to the real. # hope # have made it clear to you that the ontological and the teleological arguments, as ordinarily stated, carry us nowhere. 'nd the reason o their ailure is that they look upon thought as an agency working on things rom without. This view o thought gives us a mere mechanician in the one case, and creates an unbridgeable gul between the ideal and the real in the other. #t is, however, possible to take thought not as a principle which organizes and integrates its material rom the outside, but as a potency which is ormative o the very being o its material. Thus regarded thought or idea is not alien to the original nature o things% it is their ultimate ground and constitutes the very essence o their being, in using itsel in them rom the very beginning o their career and inspiring their onward march to a sel -determined end. 1ut our present situation necessitates the dualism o thought and being. Hvery act o human knowledge bi urcates what might on proper in(uiry turn out to be a unity into a sel that knows and a con ronting other that is known. That is why we are orced to regard the ob7ect that con ronts the sel as something e!isting in its own right, e!ternal to and independent o the sel whose act o knowledge makes no di erence to the ob7ect known. The true signi icance o the ontological and the teleological arguments will appear only i we are able to show that the human situation is not inal and that thought and being are ultimately one. This is possible only i we care ully e!amine and interpret e!perience, ollowing the clue urnished by the Qurn which regards e!perience within and without

as symbolic o a reality described by it, 9 as the First and the )ast, the Kisible and the #nvisible. = This # propose to do in the present lecture. 6ow e!perience, as un olding itsel in time, presents three main levels - the level o matter, the level o li e, and the level o mind and consciousness - the sub7ect-matter o physics, biology, and psychology, respectively. )et us irst turn our attention to matter. #n order e!actly to appreciate the position o modern physics it is necessary to understand clearly what we mean by matter. ,hysics, as an empirical science, deals with the acts o e!perience, i.e. sense-e!perience. The physicist begins and ends with sensible phenomena, without which it is impossible or him to veri y his theories. *e may postulate imperceptible entities, such as atoms% but he does so because he cannot otherwise e!plain his sense-e!perience. Thus physics studies the material world, that is to say, the world revealed by the senses. The mental processes involved in this study, and similarly religious and aesthetic e!perience, though part o the total range o e!perience, are e!cluded rom the scope o physics or the obvious reason that physics is restricted to the study o the material world, by which we mean the world o things we perceive. 1ut when # ask you what are the things you perceive in the material world, you will, o course, mention the amiliar things around you, e.g. earth, sky, mountains, chairs, tables, etc. /hen # urther ask you what e!actly you perceive o these things, you will answer - their (ualities. #t is clear that in answering such a (uestion we are really putting an interpretation on the evidence o our senses. The interpretation consists in making a distinction between the thing and its (ualities. This really amounts to a theory o matter, i.e. o the nature o sense-data, their relation to the perceiving mind and their ultimate causes. The substance o this theory is as ollows:

The sense ob7ects Icolours, sounds, etc.J are states o the perceivers mind, and as such e!cluded
rom nature regarded as something ob7ective. For this reason they cannot be in any proper sense (ualities o physical things. /hen # say LThe sky is blue,L it can only mean that the sky produces a blue sensation in my mind, and not that the colour blue is a (uality ound in the sky. 's mental states they are impressions, that is to say, they are e ects produced in us. The cause o these e ects is matter, or material things acting through our sense organs, nerves, and brain on our mind. This physical cause acts by contact or impact% hence it must possess the (ualities o shape, size, solidity and resistance.? #t was the philosopher 1erkeley who irst undertook to re ute the theory o matter as the unknown cause o our sensations.@ #n our own times ,ro essor /hitehead - an eminent mathematician and scientist - has conclusively shown that the traditional theory o materialism is wholly untenable. #t is obvious that, on the theory, colours, sounds, etc., are sub7ective states only, and orm no part o 6ature. /hat enters the eye and the ear is not colour or sound, but invisible ether waves and inaudible air waves. 6ature is not what we know her to be% our perceptions are illusions and cannot be regarded as genuine disclosures o 6ature, which, according to the theory, is bi urcated into mental impressions, on the one hand, and the unveri iable, imperceptible entities producing these impressions, on the other. # physics constitutes a really coherent and genuine knowledge o perceptively known ob7ects, the traditional theory o matter must be re7ected or the obvious reason that it reduces the evidence o our senses, on which alone the physicist, as observer and e!perimenter, must rely, to the mere impressions o the observers mind. 1etween 6ature and the observer o 6ature, the theory creates a gul which he is compelled to bridge over by resorting to the doubt ul hypothesis o an imperceptible something, occupying an absolute space like a thing in a receptacle and causing our sensation by some kind o impact. #n the words o ,ro essor /hitehead, the theory reduces one-hal o 6ature to a dream and the other hal to a con7ecture. A Thus physics, inding it necessary to criticize its own oundations, has eventually ound reason to break its own idol, and the empirical attitude which appeared to necessitate scienti ic materialism has inally ended in a revolt against matter. $ince ob7ects, then, are not sub7ective states caused by something imperceptible called matter, they are genuine phenomena which constitute the very substance o 6ature and which we know as they are in 6ature. 1ut the concept o matter has received the greatest blow rom the hand o Hinstein - another eminent physicist, whose discoveries have laid the oundation o a ar-reaching revolution in the entire domain o human thought. The theory o -elativity by merging time into spacetime, says "r. -ussell,

has damaged the traditional notion o substance more than all the arguments o the philosophers.
"atter, or common sense, is something which persists in time and moves in space. 1ut or modern relativity-physics this view is no longer tenable. ' piece o matter has become not a persistent thing with varying states, but a system o inter-related events. The old solidity is gone, and with it the characteristics that to the materialist made matter seem more real than leeting thoughts. 'ccording to ,ro essor /hitehead, there ore, 6ature is not a static act situated in an a-dynamic void, but a structure o events possessing the character o a continuous creative low which thought

cuts up into isolated immobilities out o whose mutual relations arise the concepts o space and time. Thus we see how modern science utters its agreement with 1erkeleys criticism which it once regarded as an attack on its very oundation. The scienti ic view o 6ature as pure materiality is associated with the 6ewtonian view o space as an absolute void in which things are situated. This attitude o science has, no doubt, ensured its speedy progress% but the bi urcation o a total e!perience into two opposite domains o mind and matter has today orced it, in view o its own domestic di iculties, to consider the problems which, in the beginning o its career, it completely ignored. The criticism o the oundations o the mathematical sciences has ully disclosed that the hypothesis o a pure materiality, an enduring stu situated in an absolute space, is unworkable. #s space an independent void in which things are situated and which would remain intact i all things were withdrawn0 The ancient ;reek philosopher Qeno approached the problem o space through the (uestion o movement in space. *is arguments or the unreality o movement are well known to the students o philosophy, and ever since his days the problem has persisted in the history o thought and received the keenest attention rom successive generations o thinkers. Two o these arguments may be noted here.B Qeno, who took space to be in initely divisible, argued that movement in space is impossible. 1e ore the moving body can reach the point o its destination it must pass through hal the space intervening between the point o start and the point o destination% and be ore it can pass through that hal it must travel through the hal o the hal , and so on to in inity. /e cannot move rom one point o space to another without passing through an in inite number o points in the intervening space. 1ut it is impossible to pass through an in inity o points in a inite time. *e urther argued that the lying arrow does not move, because at any time during the course o its light it is at rest in some point o space. Thus Qeno held that movement is only a deceptive appearance and that -eality is one and immutable. The unreality o movement means the unreality o an independent space. "uslim thinkers o the school o al-'sharEdid not believe in the in inite divisibility o space and time. /ith them space, time, and motion are made up o points and instants which cannot be urther subdivided. Thus they proved the possibility o movement on the assumption that in initesimals do e!ist% or i there is a limit to the divisibility o space and time, movement rom one point o space to another point is possible in a inite time. 3D #bn Razm, however, re7ected the 'sharite notion o in initesimals, 33 and modern mathematics has con irmed his view. The 'sharite argument, there ore, cannot logically resolve the parado! o Qeno. . modern thinkers the French philosopher 1ergson and the 1ritish mathematician 1ertrand -ussell have tried to re ute Qenos arguments rom their respective standpoints. To 1ergson movement, as true change, is the undamental -eality. The parado! o Qeno is due to a wrong apprehension o space and time which are regarded by 1ergson only as intellectual views o movement. #t is not possible to develop here the argument o 1ergson without a uller treatment o the metaphysical concept o li e on which the whole argument is based. 35 1ertrand -ussells argument proceeds on +antors theory o mathematical continuity38 which he looks upon as one o the most important discoveries o modern mathematics.39 Qenos argument is obviously based on the assumption that space and time consist o in inite number o points and instants. .n this assumption it is easy to argue that since between two points the moving body will be out o place, motion is impossible, or there is no place or it to take place. +antors discovery shows that space and time are continuous. 1etween any two points in space there is an in inite number o points, and in an in inite series no two points are ne!t to each other. The in inite divisibility o space and time means the compactness o the points in the series% it does not mean that points are mutually isolated in the sense o having a gap between one another. -ussells answer to Qeno, then, is as ollows:

Qeno asks how can you go rom one position at one moment to the ne!t position at the ne!t
moment without in the transition being at no position at no moment0 The answer is that there is no ne!t position to any position, no ne!t moment to any moment because between any two there is always another. # there were in initesimals movement would be impossible, but there are none. Qeno there ore is right in saying that the arrow is at rest at every moment o its light, wrong in in erring that there ore it does not move, or there is a one-one correspondence in a movement between the in inite series o positions and the in inite series o instants. 'ccording to this doctrine, then it is possible to a irm the reality o space, time, and movement, and yet avoid the parado! in Qenos arguments.3= Thus 1ertrand -ussell proves the reality o movement on the basis o +antors theory o continuity. The reality o movement means the independent reality o space and the ob7ectivity o 6ature. 1ut the identity o continuity and the in inite divisibility o space is no solution o the di iculty. 'ssuming that there is a one-one correspondence between the in inite multiplicity o instants in a inite interval o time and an in inite multiplicity o points in a inite portion o space, the di iculty arising rom the divisibility remains the same. The mathematical conception o continuity as in inite series applies not to movement regarded as an act, but rather to the picture o movement as viewed rom the outside. The act o movement, i.e. movement as lived and not as thought, does not admit o

any divisibility. The light o the arrow observed as a passage in space is divisible, but its light regarded as an act, apart rom its realization in space, is one and incapable o partition into a multiplicity. #n partition lies its destruction. /ith Hinstein space is real, but relative to the observer. *e re7ects the 6ewtonian concept o an absolute space. The ob7ect observed is variable% it is relative to the observer% its mass, shape, and size change as the observers position and speed change. "ovement and rest, too, are relative to the observer. There is, there ore, no such thing as a sel -subsistent materiality o classical physics. #t is, however, necessary here to guard against a misunderstanding. The use o the word observer in this conne!ion has misled /ildon +arr into the view that the theory o -elativity inevitably leads to "onadistic #dealism. #t is true that according to the theory the shapes, sizes, and durations o phenomena are not absolute. 1ut as ,ro essor 6unn points out, the space-time rame does not depend on the observers mind% it depends on the point o the material universe to which his body is attached. #n act, the observer can be easily replaced by a recording apparatus. 3? ,ersonally, # believe that the ultimate character o -eality is spiritual: but in order to avoid a widespread misunderstanding it is necessary to point out that Hinsteins theory, which, as a scienti ic theory, deals only with the structure o things, throws no light on the ultimate nature o things which possess that structure. The philosophical value o the theory is two old. First, it destroys, not the ob7ectivity o 6ature, but the view o substance as simple location in space - a view which led to materialism in +lassical ,hysics. $ubstance or modern -elativity-,hysics is not a persistent thing with variable states, but a system o interrelated events. #n /hiteheads presentation o the theory the notion o matter is entirely replaced by the notion o organism. $econdly, the theory makes space dependent on matter. The universe, according to Hinstein, is not a kind o island in an in inite space% it is inite but boundless% beyond it there is no empty space. #n the absence o matter the universe would shrink to a point. )ooking, however, at the theory rom the standpoint that # have taken in these lectures, Hinsteins -elativity presents one great di iculty, i.e. the unreality o time. ' theory which takes time to be a kind o ourth dimension o space must, it seems, regard the uture as something already given, as indubitably i!ed as the past. 3@ Time as a ree creative movement has no meaning or the theory. #t does not pass. Hvents do not happen% we simply meet them. #t must not, however, be orgotten that the theory neglects certain characteristics o time as e!perienced by us% and it is not possible to say that the nature o time is e!hausted by the characteristics which the theory does note in the interests o a systematic account o those aspects o 6ature which can be mathematically treated. 6or is it possible or us laymen to understand what the real nature o Hinsteins time is. #t is obvious that Hinsteins time is not 1ergsons pure duration. 6or can we regard it as serial time. $erial time is the essence o causality as de ined by Gant. The cause and its e ect are mutually so related that the ormer is chronologically prior to the latter, so that i the ormer is not, the latter cannot be. # mathematical time is serial time, then on the basis o the theory it is possible, by a care ul choice o the velocities o the observer and the system in which a given set o events is happening, to make the e ect precede its cause. 3A #t appears to me that time regarded as a ourth dimension o space really ceases to be time. ' modern -ussian writer, .uspensky, in his book called Tertium .rganum, conceives the ourth dimension to be the movement o a three-dimensional igure in a direction not contained in itsel . 3B Oust as the movement o the point, the line and the sur ace in a direction not contained in them gives us the ordinary three dimensions o space, in the same way the movement o the three-dimensional igure in a direction not contained in itsel must give us the ourth dimension o space. 'nd since time is the distance separating events in order o succession and binding them in di erent wholes, it is obviously a distance lying in a direction not contained in the three-dimensional space. 's a new dimension this distance, separating events in the order o succession, is incommensurable with the dimensions o three-dimensional space, as a year is incommensurable with $t. ,etersburg. #t is perpendicular to all directions o three-dimensional space, and is not parallel to any o them. Hlsewhere in the same book .uspensky describes our time-sense as a misty space-sense and argues, on the basis o our psychic constitution, that to one-, two- or three-dimensional beings the higher dimension must always appear as succession in time. This obviously means that what appears to us three-dimensional beings as time is in reality an imper ectly sensed space-dimension which in its own nature does not di er rom the per ectly sensed dimensions o Huclidean space. #n other words, time is not a genuine creative movement% and that what we call uture events are not resh happenings, but things already given and located in an unknown space. &et in his search or a resh direction, other than the three Huclidean dimensions, .uspensky needs a real serial time, i.e. a distance separating events in the order o succession. Thus time which was needed and conse(uently viewed as succession or the purposes o one stage o the argument is (uietly divested, at a later stage, o its serial character and reduced to what does not di er in anything rom the other lines and dimensions o space. #t is because o the serial character o time that .uspensky was able to regard it as a genuinely new direction in space. # this characteristic is in reality an illusion, how can it ul il .uspenskys re(uirements o an original dimension0

,assing now to other levels o e!perience - li e and consciousness. +onsciousness may be imagined as a de lection rom li e. #ts unction is to provide a luminous point in order to enlighten the orward rush o li e.5D #t is a case o tension, a state o sel -concentration, by means o which li e manages to shut out all memories and associations which have no bearing on a present action. #t has no wellde ined ringes% it shrinks and e!pands as the occasion demands. To describe it as an epiphenomenon o the processes o matter is to deny it as an independent activity, and to deny it as an independent activity is to deny the validity o all knowledge which is only a systematized e!pression o consciousness. Thus consciousness is a variety o the purely spiritual principle o li e which is not a substance, but an organizing principle, a speci ic mode o behaviour essentially di erent to the behaviour o an e!ternally worked machine. $ince, however, we cannot conceive o a purely spiritual energy, e!cept in association with a de inite combination o sensible elements through which it reveals itsel , we are apt to take this combination as the ultimate ground o spiritual energy. The discoveries o 6ewton in the sphere o matter and those o >arwin in the sphere o 6atural *istory reveal a mechanism. 'll problems, it was believed, were really the problems o physics. Hnergy and atoms, with the properties sel -e!isting in them, could e!plain everything including li e, thought, will, and eeling. The concept o mechanism - a purely physical concept - claimed to be the all-embracing e!planation o 6ature. 'nd the battle or and against mechanism is still being iercely ought in the domain o 1iology. The (uestion, then, is whether the passage to -eality through the revelations o sense-perception necessarily leads to a view o -eality essentially opposed to the view that religion takes o its ultimate character. #s 6atural $cience inally committed to materialism0 There is no doubt that the theories o science constitute trustworthy knowledge, because they are veri iable and enable us to predict and control the events o 6ature. 1ut we must not orget that what is called science is not a single systematic view o -eality. #t is a mass o sectional views o -eality - ragments o a total e!perience which do not seem to it together. 6atural $cience deals with matter, with li e, and with mind% but the moment you ask the (uestion how matter, li e, and mind are mutually related, you begin to see the sectional character o the various sciences that deal with them and the inability o these sciences, taken singly, to urnish a complete answer to your (uestion. #n act, the various natural sciences are like so many vultures alling on the dead body o 6ature, and each running away with a piece o its lesh. 6ature as the sub7ect o science is a highly arti icial a air, and this arti iciality is the result o that selective process to which science must sub7ect her in the interests o precision. The moment you put the sub7ect o science in the total o human e!perience it begins to disclose a di erent character. Thus religion, which demands the whole o -eality and or this reason must occupy a central place in any synthesis o all the data o human e!perience, has no reason to be a raid o any sectional views o -eality. 6atural $cience is by nature sectional% it cannot, i it is true to its own nature and unction, set up its theory as a complete view o -eality. The concepts we use in the organization o knowledge are, there ore, sectional in character, and their application is relative to the level o e!perience to which they are applied. The concept o cause, or instance, the essential eature o which is priority to the e ect, is relative to the sub7ect-matter o physical science which studies one special kind o activity to the e!clusion o other orms o activity observed by others. /hen we rise to the level o li e and mind the concept o cause ails us, and we stand in need o concepts o a di erent order o thought. The action o living organisms, initiated and planned in view o an end, is totally di erent to causal action. The sub7ect-matter o our in(uiry, there ore, demands the concepts o end and purpose, which act rom within unlike the concept o cause which is e!ternal to the e ect and acts rom without. 6o doubt, there are aspects o the activity o a living organism which it shares with other ob7ects o 6ature. #n the observation o these aspects the concepts o physics and chemistry would be needed% but the behaviour o the organism is essentially a matter o inheritance and incapable o su icient e!planation in terms o molecular physics. *owever, the concept o mechanism has been applied to li e and we have to see how ar the attempt has succeeded. 2n ortunately, # am not a biologist and must turn to biologists themselves or support. ' ter telling us that the main di erence between a living organism and a machine is that the ormer is sel -maintaining and sel -reproducing, O.$. *aldane says:

#t is thus evident that although we ind within the living body many phenomena which, so long as
we do not look closely, can be interpreted satis actorily as physical and chemical mechanism, there are side by side other phenomena Si.e. sel -maintenance and reproductionT or which the possibility o such interpretation seems to be absent. The mechanists assume that the bodily mechanisms are so constructed as to maintain, repair, and reproduce themselves. #n the long process o natural selection, mechanisms o this sort have, they suggest, been evolved gradually.

)et us e!amine this hypothesis. /hen we state an event in mechanical terms we state it as a
necessary result o certain simple properties o separate parts which interact in the event. . . . The essence o the e!planation or re-statement o the event is that a ter due investigation we have assumed that the parts interacting in the event have certain simple and de inite properties, so that

they always react in the same way under the same conditions. For a mechanical e!planation the reacting parts must irst be given. 2nless an arrangement o parts with de inite properties is given, it is meaningless to speak o mechanical e!planation.

To postulate the e!istence o a sel -producing or sel -maintaining mechanism is, thus, to postulate
something to which no meaning can be attached. "eaningless terms are sometimes used by physiologists% but there is none so absolutely meaningless as the e!pression Lmechanism o reproductionL. 'ny mechanism there may be in the parent organism is absent in the process o reproduction, and must reconstitute itsel at each generation, since the parent organism is reproduced rom a mere tiny speck o its own body. There can be no mechanism o reproduction. The idea o a mechanism which is constantly maintaining or reproducing its own structure is sel contradictory. ' mechanism which reproduced itsel would be a mechanism without parts, and, there ore, not a mechanism.53 )i e is, then, a uni(ue phenomenon and the concept o mechanism is inade(uate or its analysis. #ts actual wholeness, to use an e!pression o >riesch - another notable biologist - is a kind o unity which, looked at rom another point o view, is also a plurality. #n all the purposive processes o growth and adaptation to its environment, whether this adaptation is secured by the ormation o resh or the modi ication o old habits, it possesses a career which is unthinkable in the case o a machine. 'nd the possession o a career means that the sources o its activity cannot be e!plained e!cept in re erence to a remote past, the origin o which, there ore, must be sought in a spiritual reality revealable in, but non-discoverable by, any analysis o spatial e!perience. #t would, there ore, seem that li e is oundational and anterior to the routine o physical and chemical processes which must be regarded as a kind o i!ed behaviour ormed during a long course o evolution. Further, the application o the mechanistic concepts to li e, necessitating the view that the intellect itsel is a product o evolution, brings science into con lict with its own ob7ective principle o investigation. .n this point # will (uote a passage rom /ildon +arr, who has given a very pointed e!pression to this con lict:

# intellect is a product o evolution the whole mechanistic concept o the nature and origin o li e is
absurd, and the principle which science has adopted must clearly be revised. /e have only to state it to see the sel -contradiction. *ow can the intellect, a mode o apprehending reality, be itsel an evolution o something which only e!ists as an abstraction o that mode o apprehending, which is the intellect0 # intellect is an evolution o li e, then the concept o the li e which can evolve intellect as a particular mode o apprehending reality must be the concept o a more concrete activity than that o any abstract mechanical movement which the intellect can present to itsel by analysing its apprehended content. 'nd yet urther, i the intellect be a product o the evolution o li e, it is not absolute but relative to the activity o the li e which has evolved it% how then, in such case, can science e!clude the sub7ective aspect o the knowing and build on the ob7ective presentation as an absolute0 +learly the biological sciences necessitate a reconsideration o the scienti ic principle. 55 # will now try to reach the primacy o li e and thought by another route, and carry you a step arther in our e!amination o e!perience. This will throw some urther light on the primacy o li e and will also give us an insight into the nature o li e as a psychic activity. /e have seen that ,ro essor /hitehead describes the universe, not as something static, but as a structure o events possessing the character o a continuous creative low. This (uality o 6atures passage in time is perhaps the most signi icant aspect o e!perience which the Qurn especially emphasizes and which, as # hope to be able to show in the se(uel, o ers the best clue to the ultimate nature o -eality. To some o the verses I8:3BD-B3% 5:3?9% 59:99J58 bearing on the point # have already drawn your attention. #n view o the great importance o the sub7ect # will add here a ew more:

Kerily, in the alternations o night and o day and in all that ;od hath created in the *eavens and in
the earth are signs to those who ear *im I3D:?J.

'nd it is *e /ho hath ordained the night and the day to succeed one another or those who desire
to think on ;od or desire to be thank ul I5=:?5J.

$eest though not that ;od causeth the night to come in upon the day, and the day to come in
upon the night% and that *e hath sub7ected the sun and the moon to laws by which each speedeth along to an appointed goal0 I83:5BJ.

#t is o *im that the night returneth on the day, and that the day returneth on the night I8B:=J. 'nd o *im is the change o the night and o the day I58:ADJ.
There is another set o verses which, indicating the relativity o our reckoning o time, suggests the possibility o unknown levels o consciousness% 59 but # will content mysel with a discussion o the

amiliar, yet deeply signi icant, aspect o e!perience alluded to in the verses (uoted above. 'mong the representatives o contemporary thought 1ergson is the only thinker who has made a keen study o the phenomenon o duration in time. # will irst brie ly e!plain to you his view o duration and then point out the inade(uacy o his analysis in order ully to bring out the implications o a completer view o the temporal aspect o e!istence. The ontological problem be ore us is how to de ine the ultimate nature o e!istence. That the universe persists in time is not open to doubt. &et, since it is e!ternal to us, it is possible to be sceptical about its e!istence. #n order completely to grasp the meaning o this persistence in time we must be in a position to study some privileged case o e!istence which is absolutely un(uestionable and gives us the urther assurance o a direct vision o duration. 6ow my perception o things that con ront me is super icial and e!ternal% but my perception o my own sel is internal, intimate, and pro ound. #t ollows, there ore, that conscious e!perience is that privileged case o e!istence in which we are in absolute contact with -eality, and an analysis o this privileged case is likely to throw a lood o light on the ultimate meaning o e!istence. /hat do # ind when # i! my gaze on my own conscious e!perience0 #n the words o 1ergson:

# pass rom state to state. # am warm or cold. # am merry or sad, # work or # do nothing, # look at
what is around me or # think o something else. $ensations, eelings, volitions, ideas - such are the changes into which my e!istence is divided and which colour it in turns. # change then, without ceasing.5= Thus, there is nothing static in my inner li e% all is a constant mobility, an unceasing lu! o states, a perpetual low in which there is no halt or resting place. +onstant change, however, is unthinkable without time. .n the analogy o our inner e!perience, then, conscious e!istence means li e in time. ' keener insight into the nature o conscious e!perience, however, reveals that the sel in its inner li e moves rom the centre outwards. #t has, so to speak, two sides which may be described as appreciative and e icient. .n its e icient side it enters into relation with what we call the world o space. The e icient sel is the sub7ect o associationist psychology - the practical sel o daily li e in its dealing with the e!ternal order o things which determine our passing states o consciousness and stamp on these states their own spatial eature o mutual isolation. The sel here lives outside itsel as it were, and, while retaining its unity as a totality, discloses itsel as nothing more than a series o speci ic and conse(uently numberable states. The time in which the e icient sel lives is, there ore, the time o which we predicate long and short. #t is hardly distinguishable rom space. /e can conceive it only as a straight line composed o spatial points which are e!ternal to one another like so many stages in a 7ourney. 1ut time thus regarded is not true time, according to 1ergson. H!istence in spatialized time is spurious e!istence. ' deeper analysis o conscious e!perience reveals to us what # have called the appreciative side o the sel . /ith our absorption in the e!ternal order o things, necessitated by our present situation, it is e!tremely di icult to catch a glimpse o the appreciative sel . #n our constant pursuit a ter e!ternal things we weave a kind o veil round the appreciative sel which thus becomes completely alien to us. #t is only in the moments o pro ound meditation, when the e icient sel is in abeyance, that we sink into our deeper sel and reach the inner centre o e!perience. #n the li e-process o this deeper ego the states o consciousness melt into each other. The unity o the appreciative ego is like the unity o the germ in which the e!periences o its individual ancestors e!ist, not as a plurality, but as a unity in which every e!perience permeates the whole. There is no numerical distinctness o states in the totality o the ego, the multiplicity o whose elements is, unlike that o the e icient sel , wholly (ualitative. There is change and movement, but change and movement are indivisible% their elements interpenetrate and are wholly non-serial in character. #t appears that the time o the appreciative-sel is a single now which the e icient sel , in its tra ic with the world o space, pulverizes into a series o nows like pearl beads in a thread. *ere is, then, pure duration unadulterated by space. The Qurn with its characteristic simplicity alludes to the serial and non-serial aspects o duration in the ollowing verses:

'nd put thou thy trust in *im that liveth and dieth not, and celebrate *is praise /ho in si! days
created the *eavens and the earth, and what is between them, then mounted *is Throne% the ;od o mercy I5=:=A-=BJ.

'll things /e have created with a i!ed destiny: .ur command was but one, swi t as the twinkling
o an eye I=9:9B-=DJ. # we look at the movement embodied in creation rom the outside, that is to say, i we apprehend it intellectually, it is a process lasting through thousands o years% or one >ivine day, in the terminology o the Qurn, as o the .ld Testament, is e(ual to one thousand years. 5? From another point o view, the process o creation, lasting through thousands o years, is a single indivisible act, swi t as the twinkling o an eye. #t is, however, impossible to e!press this inner e!perience o pure duration in words, or language is shaped on the serial time o our daily e icient sel . ,erhaps an

illustration will urther elucidate the point. 'ccording to physical science, the cause o your sensation o red is the rapidity o wave motion the re(uency o which is 9DD billions per second. # you could observe this tremendous re(uency rom the outside, and count it at the rate o 5,DDD per second, which is supposed to be the limit o the perceptibility o light, it will take you more than si! thousand years to inish the enumeration. 5@ &et in the single momentary mental act o perception you hold together a re(uency o wave motion which is practically incalculable. That is how the mental act trans orms succession into duration. The appreciative sel , then, is more or less corrective o the e icient sel , inasmuch as it synthesizes all the heres and nows - the small changes o space and time, indispensable to the e icient sel - into the coherent wholeness o personality. ,ure time, then, as revealed by a deeper analysis o our conscious e!perience, is not a string o separate, reversible instants% it is an organic whole in which the past is not le t behind, but is moving along with, and operating in, the present. 'nd the uture is given to it not as lying be ore, yet to be traversed% it is given only in the sense that it is present in its nature as an open possibility.5A #t is time regarded as an organic whole that the Qurn describes as Taqd r or the destiny - a word which has been so much misunderstood both in and outside the world o #slam. >estiny is time regarded as prior to the disclosure o its possibilities. #t is time reed rom the net o causal se(uence - the diagrammatic character which the logical understanding imposes on it. #n one word, it is time as elt and not as thought and calculated. # you ask me why the Hmperor *umayMn and $hh Tahmsp o ,ersia were contemporaries, # can give you no causal e!planation. The only answer that can possibly be given is that the nature o -eality is such that among its in inite possibilities o becoming, the two possibilities known as the lives o *umyMn and $hh Tahmsp should realize themselves together. Time regarded as destiny orms the very essence o things. 's the Qurn says: ;od created all things and assigned to each its destiny. 5B The destiny o a thing then is not an unrelenting ate working rom without like a task master% it is the inward reach o a thing, its realizable possibilities which lie within the depths o its nature, and serially actualize themselves without any eeling o e!ternal compulsion. Thus the organic wholeness o duration does not mean that ull- ledged events are lying, as it were, in the womb o -eality, and drop one by one like the grains o sand rom the hour-glass. # time is real, and not a mere repetition o homogeneous moments which make conscious e!perience a delusion, then every moment in the li e o -eality is original, giving birth to what is absolutely novel and un oreseeable. Hveryday doth some new work employ *im,8D says the Qurn. To e!ist in real time is not to be bound by the etters o serial time, but to create it rom moment to moment and to be absolutely ree and original in creation. #n act, all creative activity is ree activity. +reation is opposed to repetition which is a characteristic o mechanical action. That is why it is impossible to e!plain the creative activity o li e in terms o mechanism. $cience seeks to establish uni ormities o e!perience, i.e. the laws o mechanical repetition. )i e with its intense eeling o spontaneity constitutes a centre o indetermination, and thus alls outside the domain o necessity. *ence science cannot comprehend li e. The biologist who seeks a mechanical e!planation o li e is led to do so because he con ines his study to the lower orms o li e whose behaviour discloses resemblances to mechanical action. # he studies li e as mani ested in himsel , i.e. his own mind reely choosing, re7ecting, re lecting, surveying the past and the present, and dynamically imagining the uture, he is sure to be convinced o the inade(uacy o his mechanical concepts. .n the analogy o our conscious e!perience, then, the universe is a ree creative movement. 1ut how can we conceive a movement independent o a concrete thing that moves0 The answer is that the notion o things is derivative. /e can derive things rom movement% we cannot derive movement rom immobile things. # , or instance, we suppose material atoms, such as the atoms o >emocritus, to be the original -eality, we must import movement into them rom the outside as something alien to their nature. /hereas i we take movement as original, static things may be derived rom it. #n act, physical science has reduced all things to movement. The essential nature o the atom in modern science is electricity and not something electri ied. 'part rom this, things are not given in immediate e!perience as things already possessing de inite contours, or immediate e!perience is a continuity without any distinctions in it. /hat we call things are events in the continuity o 6ature which thought spatializes and thus regards as mutually isolated or purposes o action. The universe which seems to us to be a collection o things is not a solid stu occupying a void. #t is not a thing but an act. The nature o thought according to 1ergson is serial% it cannot deal with movement, e!cept by viewing it as a series o stationary points. #t is, there ore, the operation o thought, working with static concepts, that gives the appearance o a series o immobilities to what is essentially dynamic in its nature. The co-e!istence and succession o these immobilities is the source o what we call space and time. 'ccording to 1ergson, then, -eality is a ree unpredictable, creative, vital impetus o the nature o volition which thought spatializes and views as a plurality o things. ' ull criticism o this view cannot be undertaken here. $u ice it to say that the vitalism o 1ergson ends in an insurmountable

dualism o will and thought. This is really due to the partial view o intelligence that he takes. #ntelligence, according to him, is a spatializing activity% it is shaped on matter alone, and has only mechanical categories at its disposal. 1ut, as # pointed out in my irst lecture, thought has a deeper movement also.83 /hile it appears to break up -eality into static ragments, its real unction is to synthesize the elements o e!perience by employing categories suitable to the various levels which e!perience presents. #t is as much organic as li e. The movement o li e, as an organic growth, involves a progressive synthesis o its various stages. /ithout this synthesis it will cease to be organic growth. #t is determined by ends, and the presence o ends means that it is permeated by intelligence. 6or is the activity o intelligence possible without the presence o ends. #n conscious e!perience li e and thought permeate each other. They orm a unity. Thought, there ore, in its true nature, is identical with li e. 'gain, in 1ergsons view the orward rush o the vital impulse in its creative reedom is unilluminated by the light o an immediate or a remote purpose. #t is not aiming at a result% it is wholly arbitrary, undirected, chaotic, and un oreseeable in its behaviour. #t is mainly here that 1ergsons analysis o our conscious e!perience reveals its inade(uacy. *e regards conscious e!perience as the past moving along with and operating in the present. *e ignores that the unity o consciousness has a orward looking aspect also. )i e is only a series o acts o attention, and an act o attention is ine!plicable without re erence to a purpose, conscious or unconscious. Hven our acts o perception are determined by our immediate interests and purposes. The ,ersian poet ur E has given a beauti ul e!pression to this aspect o human perception. *e says:85

# your heart is not deceived by the mirage, be not proud o the sharpness o your understanding%
or your reedom rom this optical illusion is due to your imper ect thirst. The poet means to say that i you had a vehement desire or drink, the sands o the desert would have given you the impression o a lake. &our reedom rom the illusion is due to the absence o a keen desire or water. &ou have perceived the thing as it is because you were not interested in perceiving it as it is not. Thus ends and purposes, whether they e!ist as conscious or subconscious tendencies, orm the warp and woo o our conscious e!perience. 'nd the notion o purpose cannot be understood e!cept in re erence to the uture. The past, no doubt, abides and operates in the present% but this operation o the past in the present is not the whole o consciousness. The element o purpose discloses a kind o orward look in consciousness. ,urposes not only colour our present states o consciousness, but also reveal its uture direction. #n act, they constitute the orward push o our li e, and thus in a way anticipate and in luence the states that are yet to be. To be determined by an end is to be determined by what ought to be. Thus past and uture both operate in the present state o consciousness, and the uture is not wholly undetermined as 1ergsons analysis o our conscious e!perience shows. ' state o attentive consciousness involves both memory and imagination as operating actors. .n the analogy o our conscious e!perience, there ore, -eality is not a blind vital impulse wholly unilluminated by idea. #ts nature is through and through teleological. 1ergson, however, denies the teleological character o -eality on the ground that teleology makes time unreal. 'ccording to him the portals o the uture must remain wide open to -eality. .therwise, it will not be ree and creative. 6o doubt, i teleology means the working out o a plan in view o a predetermined end or goal, it does make time unreal. #t reduces the universe to a mere temporal reproduction o a pre-e!isting eternal scheme or structure in which individual events have already ound their proper places, waiting, as it were, or their respective turns to enter into the temporal sweep o history. 'll is already given somewhere in eternity% the temporal order o events is nothing more than a mere imitation o the eternal mould. $uch a view is hardly distinguishable rom mechanism which we have already re7ected. 88 #n act, it is a kind o veiled materialism in which ate or destiny takes the place o rigid determinism, leaving no scope or human or even >ivine reedom. The world regarded as a process realizing a preordained goal is not a world o ree, responsible moral agents% it is only a stage on which puppets are made to move by a kind o pull rom behind. There is, however, another sense o teleology. From our conscious e!perience we have seen that to live is to shape and change ends and purposes and to be governed by them. "ental li e is teleological in the sense that, while there is no ar-o distant goal towards which we are moving, there is a progressive ormation o resh ends, purposes, and ideal scales o value as the process o li e grows and e!pands. /e become by ceasing to be what we are. )i e is a passage through a series o deaths. 1ut there is a system in the continuity o this passage. #ts various stages, in spite o the apparently abrupt changes in our evaluation o things, are organically related to one another. The li e-history o the individual is, on the whole, a unity and not a mere series o mutually illadapted events. The world-process, or the movement o the universe in time, is certainly devoid o purpose, i by purpose we mean a oreseen end - a ar-o i!ed destination to which the whole creation moves. To endow the world-process with purpose in this sense is to rob it o its originality and its creative character. #ts ends are terminations o a career% they are ends to come and not

necessarily premeditated. ' time-process cannot be conceived as a line already drawn. #t is a line in the drawing - an actualization o open possibilities. #t is purposive only in this sense that it is selective in character, and brings itsel to some sort o a present ul ilment by actively preserving and supplementing the past. To my mind nothing is more alien to the Quranic outlook than the idea that the universe is the temporal working out o a preconceived plan. 's # have already pointed out, the universe, according to the Qurn, is liable to increase. 89 #t is a growing universe and not an already completed product which le t the hand o its maker ages ago, and is now lying stretched in space as a dead mass o matter to which time does nothing, and conse(uently is nothing. /e are now, # hope, in a position to see the meaning o the verse - 'nd it is *e /ho hath ordained the night and the day to succeed one another or those who desire to think on ;od or desire to be thank ul.8= ' critical interpretation o the se(uence o time as revealed in ourselves has led us to a notion o the 2ltimate -eality as pure duration in which thought, li e, and purpose interpenetrate to orm an organic unity. /e cannot conceive this unity e!cept as the unity o a sel - an all-embracing concrete sel - the ultimate source o all individual li e and thought. # venture to think that the error o 1ergson consists in regarding pure time as prior to sel , to which alone pure duration is predicable. 6either pure space nor pure time can hold together the multiplicity o ob7ects and events. #t is the appreciative act o an enduring sel only which can seize the multiplicity o duration - broken up into an in inity o instants - and trans orm it to the organic wholeness o a synthesis. To e!ist in pure duration is to be a sel , and to be a sel is to be able to say # am. .nly that truly e!ists which can say # am. #t is the degree o the intuition o #-amness that determines the place o a thing in the scale o being. /e too say # am. 1ut our #-amness is dependent and arises out o the distinction between the sel and the not-sel . The 2ltimate $el , in the words o the Qurn, can a ord to dispense with all the worlds.8? To *im the not-sel does not present itsel as a con ronting other, or else it would have to be, like our inite sel , in spatial relation with the con ronting other. /hat we call 6ature or the not-sel is only a leeting moment in the li e o ;od. *is #-amness is independent, elemental, absolute.8@ . such a sel it is impossible or us to orm an ade(uate conception. 's the Qurn says, 6aught is like *im% yet *e hears and sees. 8A 6ow a sel is unthinkable without a character, i.e. a uni orm mode o behaviour. 6ature, as we have seen, is not a mass o pure materiality occupying a void. #t is a structure o events, a systematic mode o behaviour, and as such organic to the 2ltimate $el . 6ature is to the >ivine $el as character is to the human sel . #n the pictures(ue phrase o the Qurn it is the habit o 'llah. 8B From the human point o view it is an interpretation which, in our present situation, we put on the creative activity o the 'bsolute Hgo. 't a particular moment in its orward movement it is inite% but since the sel to which it is organic is creative, it is liable to increase, and is conse(uently boundless in the sense that no limit to its e!tension is inal. #ts boundlessness is potential, not actual. 6ature, then, must be understood as a living, ever-growing organism whose growth has no inal e!ternal limits. #ts only limit is internal, i.e. the immanent sel which animates and sustains the whole. 's the Qurn says: 'nd verily unto thy )ord is the limit I=8:95J. Thus the view that we have taken gives a resh spiritual meaning to physical science. The knowledge o 6ature is the knowledge o ;ods behaviour. #n our observation o 6ature we are virtually seeking a kind o intimacy with the 'bsolute Hgo% and this is only another orm o worship.9D The above discussion takes time as an essential element in the 2ltimate -eality. The ne!t point be ore us, there ore, is to consider the late >octor "cTaggarts argument relating to the unreality o time.93 Time, according to >octor "cTaggart, is unreal because every event is past, present, and uture. Queen 'nnes death, or instance, is past to us% it was present to her contemporaries and uture to /illiam ###. Thus the event o 'nnes death combines characteristics which are incompatible with each other. #t is obvious that the argument proceeds on the assumption that the serial nature o time is inal. # we regard past, present, and uture as essential to time, then we picture time as a straight line, part o which we have travelled and le t behind, and part lies yet untravelled be ore us. This is taking time, not as a living creative moment, but as a static absolute, holding the ordered multiplicity o ully-shaped cosmic events, revealed serially, like the pictures o a ilm, to the outside observer. /e can indeed say that Queen 'nnes death was uture to /illiam ###, i this event is regarded as already ully shaped, and lying in the uture, waiting or its happening. 1ut a uture event, as 1road 7ustly points out, cannot be characterized as an event. 95 1e ore the death o 'nne the event o her death did not e!ist at all. >uring 'nnes li e the event o her death e!isted only as an unrealized possibility in the nature o -eality which included it as an event only when, in the course o its becoming, it reached the point o the actual happening o that event. The answer to >octor "cTaggarts argument is that the uture e!ists only as an open possibility, and not as a reality. 6or can it be said that an event combines incompatible characteristics when it is described both as past and present. /hen an event U does happen it enters into an unalterable relation with all the events that have happened be ore it. These relations are not at all a ected by

the relations o U with other events which happen a ter U by the urther becoming o -eality. 6o true or alse proposition about these relations will ever become alse or true. *ence there is no logical di iculty in regarding an event as both past and present. #t must be con essed, however, that the point is not ree rom di iculty and re(uires much urther thinking. #t is not easy to solve the mystery o time.98 'ugustines pro ound words are as true today as they were when they were uttered: # no one (uestions me o time, # know it: i # would e!plain to a (uestioner # know it not. 99 ,ersonally, # am inclined to think that time is an essential element in -eality. 1ut real time is not serial time to which the distinction o past, present, and uture is essential% it is pure duration, i.e. change without succession, which "cTaggarts argument does not touch. $erial time is pure duration pulverized by thought - a kind o device by which -eality e!poses its ceaseless creative activity to (uantitative measurement. #t is in this sense that the Qurn says: 'nd o *im is the change o the night and o the day.9= 1ut the (uestion you are likely to ask is - +an change be predicated o the 2ltimate Hgo0 /e, as human beings, are unctionally related to an independent world-process. The conditions o our li e are mainly e!ternal to us. The only kind o li e known to us is desire, pursuit, ailure, or attainment a continuous change rom one situation to another. From our point o view li e is change, and change is essentially imper ection. 't the same time, since our conscious e!perience is the only point o departure or all knowledge, we cannot avoid the limitation o interpreting acts in the light o our own inner e!perience. 'n anthropomorphic conception is especially unavoidable in the apprehension o li e% or li e can be apprehended rom within only. 's the poet 6sir 'lE o $irhind imagines the idol saying to the 1rahmin:

Thou hast made me a ter Thine own image< ' ter all what hast Thou seen beyond Thysel 0 9?
#t was the ear o conceiving >ivine li e a ter the image o human li e that the $panish "uslim theologian #bn Razm hesitated to predicate li e o ;od, and ingeniously suggested that ;od should be described as living, not because *e is living in the sense o our e!perience o li e, but only because *e is so described in the Qurn. 9@ +on ining himsel to the sur ace o our conscious e!perience and ignoring its deeper phases, #bn Razm must have taken li e as a serial change, a succession o attitudes towards an obstructing environment. $erial change is obviously a mark o imper ection% and, i we con ine ourselves to this view o change, the di iculty o reconciling >ivine per ection with >ivine li e becomes insuperable. #bn Razm must have elt that the per ection o ;od can be retained only at the cost o *is li e. There is, however, a way out o the di iculty. The 'bsolute Hgo, as we have seen, is the whole o -eality. *e is not so situated as to take a perspective view o an alien universe% conse(uently, the phases o *is li e are wholly determined rom within. +hange, there ore, in the sense o a movement rom an imper ect to a relatively per ect state, or vice versa, is obviously inapplicable to *is li e. 1ut change in this sense is not the only possible orm o li e. ' deeper insight into our conscious e!perience shows that beneath the appearance o serial duration there is true duration. The 2ltimate Hgo e!ists in pure duration wherein change ceases to be a succession o varying attitudes, and reveals its true character as continuous creation, untouched by weariness9A and unseizable by slumber or sleep. 9B To conceive the 2ltimate Hgo as changeless in this sense o change is to conceive *im as utter inaction, a motiveless, stagnant neutrality, an absolute nothing. To the +reative $el change cannot mean imper ection. The per ection o the +reative $el consists, not in a mechanistically conceived immobility, as 'ristotle might have led #bn Razm to think. #t consists in the vaster basis o *is creative activity and the in inite scope o *is creative vision. ;ods li e is sel -revelation, not the pursuit o an ideal to be reached. The not-yet o man does mean pursuit and may mean ailure% the not-yet o ;od means un ailing realization o the in inite creative possibilities o *is being which retains its wholeness throughout the entire process. #n the Hndless, sel -repeating lows or evermore The $ame. "yriad arches, springing, meeting, hold at rest the mighty rame. $treams rom all things love o living, grandest star and humblest clod. 'll the straining, all the striving is eternal peace in ;od.=D I;.HT*HJ Thus a comprehensive philosophical criticism o all the acts o e!perience on its e icient as well as appreciative side brings us to the conclusion that the 2ltimate -eality is a rationally directed creative li e. To interpret this li e as an ego is not to ashion ;od a ter the image o man. #t is only to accept the simple act o e!perience that li e is not a ormless luid, but an organizing principle o unity, a synthetic activity which holds together and ocalizes the dispersing dispositions o the living

organism or a constructive purpose. The operation o thought which is essentially symbolic in character veils the true nature o li e, and can picture it only as a kind o universal current lowing through all things. The result o an intellectual view o li e, there ore, is necessarily pantheistic. 1ut we have a irst-hand knowledge o the appreciative aspect o li e rom within. #ntuition reveals li e as a centralizing ego. This knowledge, however imper ect as giving us only a point o departure, is a direct revelation o the ultimate nature o -eality. Thus the acts o e!perience 7usti y the in erence that the ultimate nature o -eality is spiritual, and must be conceived as an ego. 1ut the aspiration o religion soars higher than that o philosophy. ,hilosophy is an intellectual view o things% and, as such, does not care to go beyond a concept which can reduce all the rich variety o e!perience to a system. #t sees -eality rom a distance as it were. -eligion seeks a closer contact with -eality. The one is theory% the other is living e!perience, association, intimacy. #n order to achieve this intimacy thought must rise higher than itsel , and ind its ul ilment in an attitude o mind which religion describes as prayer - one o the last words on the lips o the ,rophet o #slam. =3

The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer

/e have seen that the 7udgement based upon religious e!perience ully satis ies the intellectual test. The more important regions o e!perience, e!amined with an eye on a synthetic view, reveal, as the ultimate ground o all e!perience, a rationally directed creative will which we have ound reasons to describe as an ego. #n order to emphasize the individuality o the 2ltimate Hgo the Qurn gives *im the proper name o 'llah, and urther de ines *im as ollows:

$ay: 'llah is .ne:

'll things depend on *im%

*e begetteth not, and *e is not begotten% 'nd there is none like unto *im I335:3-9J. 1ut it is hard to understand what e!actly is an individual. 's 1ergson has taught us in his +reative Hvolution, individuality is a matter o degrees and is not ully realized even in the case o the apparently closed o unity o the human being. 3 #n particular, it may be said o individuality, says 1ergson:

that while the tendency to individuate is everywhere present in the organized world, it is
everywhere opposed by the tendency towards reproduction. For the individuality to be per ect, it would be necessary that no detached part o the organism could live separately. 1ut then reproduction would be impossible. For what is reproduction but the building up o a new organism with a detached ragment o the old0 #ndividuality, there ore, harbours its own enemy at home. 5 #n the light o this passage it is clear that the per ect individual, closed o as an ego, peerless and uni(ue, cannot be conceived as harbouring its own enemy at home. #t must be conceived as superior to the antagonistic tendency o reproduction. This characteristic o the per ect ego is one o the most essential elements in the Quranic conception o ;od% and the Qurn mentions it over and over again, not so much with a view to attack the current +hristian conception as to accentuate its own view o a per ect individual. 8 #t may, however, be said that the history o religious thought discloses various ways o escape rom an individualistic conception o the 2ltimate -eality which is conceived as some vague, vast, and pervasive cosmic element, 9 such as light. This is the view that Farnell has taken in his ;i ord )ectures on the 'ttributes o ;od. # agree that the history o religion reveals modes o thought that tend towards pantheism% but # venture to think that in so ar as the Quranic identi ication o ;od with light is concerned Farnells view is incorrect. The ull te!t o the verse o which he (uotes a portion only is as ollows:

;od is the light o the *eavens and o the earth. *is light is like a niche in which is a lamp - the
encased in a glass, - the glass, as it were, a star= I59:8=J. 6o doubt, the opening sentence o the verse gives the impression o an escape rom an individualistic conception o ;od. 1ut when we ollow the metaphor o light in the rest o the verse, it gives 7ust the opposite impression. The development o the metaphor is meant rather to e!clude the suggestion o a ormless cosmic element by centralizing the light in a lame which is urther individualized by its encasement in a glass likened unto a well-de ined star. ,ersonally, # think the description o ;od as light, in the revealed literature o Oudaism, +hristianity, and #slam, must now be interpreted di erently. The teaching o modern physics is that the velocity o light cannot be e!ceeded and is the same or all observers whatever their own system o movement. Thus, in the world o change, light is the nearest approach to the 'bsolute. The metaphor o light as applied to ;od, there ore, must, in view o modern knowledge, be taken to suggest the 'bsoluteness o ;od and not *is .mnipresence which easily lends itsel to a pantheistic interpretation. There is, however, one (uestion which will be raised in this conne!ion. >oes not individuality imply initude0 # ;od is an ego and as such an individual, how can we conceive *im as in inite0 The answer to this (uestion is that ;od cannot be conceived as in inite in the sense o spatial in inity. #n matters o spiritual valuation mere immensity counts or nothing. "oreover, as we have seen be ore, temporal and spatial in inities are not absolute. "odern science regards 6ature not as something static, situated in an in inite void, but a structure o interrelated events out o whose mutual relations arise the concepts o space and time. 'nd this is only another way o saying that space and time are interpretations which thought puts upon the creative activity o the 2ltimate Hgo. $pace and time are possibilities o the Hgo, only partially realized in the shape o our mathematical space and time. 1eyond *im and apart rom *is creative activity, there is neither time nor space to close *im o in re erence to other egos. The 2ltimate Hgo is, there ore, neither in inite in the sense o spatial in inity nor inite in the sense o the space-bound human ego whose body closes him o in re erence to other egos. The in inity o the 2ltimate Hgo consists in the in inite inner possibilities o *is creative activity o which the universe, as known to us, is only a partial e!pression. #n one word ;ods in inity is intensive, not e!tensive. ? #t involves an in inite series, but is not that series. The other important elements in the Quranic conception o ;od, rom a purely intellectual point o view, are +reativeness, Gnowledge, .mnipotence, and Hternity. # shall deal with them serially. Finite minds regard nature as a con ronting other e!isting per se, which the mind knows but does not make. /e are thus apt to regard the act o creation as a speci ic past event, and the universe appears to us as a manu actured article which has no organic relation to the li e o its maker, and o which the maker is nothing more than a mere spectator. 'll the meaningless theological

controversies about the idea o creation arise rom this narrow vision o the inite mind. @ Thus regarded the universe is a mere accident in the li e o ;od and might not have been created. The real (uestion which we are called upon to answer is this: >oes the universe con ront ;od as *is other, with space intervening between *im and it0 The answer is that, rom the >ivine point o view, there is no creation in the sense o a speci ic event having a be ore and an a ter. The universe cannot be regarded as an independent reality standing in opposition to *im. This view o the matter will reduce both ;od and the world to two separate entities con ronting each other in the empty receptacle o an in inite space. /e have seen be ore that space, time, and matter are interpretations which thought puts on the ree creative energy o ;od. A They are not independent realities e!isting per se, but only intellectual modes o apprehending the li e o ;od. The (uestion o creation once arose among the disciples o the well-known saint 1&azEd o 1istm. .ne o the disciples very pointedly put the common-sense view saying: There was a moment o time when ;od e!isted and nothing else e!isted beside *im. The saints reply was e(ually pointed. #t is 7ust the same now, said he, as it was then. The world o matter, there ore, is not a stu co-eternal with ;od, operated upon by *im rom a distance as it were. #t is, in its real nature, one continuous act which thought breaks up into a plurality o mutually e!clusive things. ,ro essor Hddington has thrown urther light on this important point, and # take the liberty to (uote rom his book, $pace, Time and ;ravitation:

/e have a world o point-events with their primary interval-relations. .ut o these an unlimited
number o more complicated relations and (ualities can be built up mathematically, describing various eatures o the state o the world. These e!ist in nature in the same sense as an unlimited number o walks e!ist on an open moor. 1ut the e!istence is, as it were, latent unless some one gives a signi icance to the walk by ollowing it% and in the same way the e!istence o any one o these (ualities o the world only ac(uires signi icance above its ellows i a mind singles it out or recognition. "ind ilters out matter rom the meaningless 7umble o (ualities, as the prism ilters out the colours o the rainbow rom the chaotic pulsations o white light. "ind e!alts the permanent and ignores the transitory% and it appears rom the mathematical study o relations that the only way in which mind can achieve her ob7ect is by picking out one particular (uality as the permanent substance o the perceptual world, partitioning a perceptual time and space or it to be permanent in, and, as a necessary conse(uence o this *obsons choice, the laws o gravitation and mechanics and geometry have to be obeyed. #s it too much to say that the minds search or permanence has created the world o physics0B The last sentence in this passage is one o the deepest things in ,ro essor Hddingtons book. The physicist has yet to discover by his own methods that the passing show o the apparently permanent world o physics which the mind has created in its search or permanence is rooted in something more permanent, conceivable only as a sel which alone combines the opposite attributes o change and permanence, and can thus be regarded as both constant and variable. There is, however, one (uestion which we must answer be ore we proceed urther. #n what manner does the creative activity o ;od proceed to the work o creation0 The most orthodo! and still popular school o "uslim theology, # mean the 'sharite, hold that the creative method o >ivine energy is atomic% and they appear to have based their doctrine on the ollowing verse o the Qurn:

'nd no one thing is here, but with 2s are its store-houses% and /e send it not down but in i!ed
(uantities I3=:53J. The rise and growth o atomism in #slam - the irst important indication o an intellectual revolt against the 'ristotelian idea o a i!ed universe - orms one o the most interesting chapters in the history o "uslim thought. The views o the school o 1aVrah were irst shaped by 'bM*shim 3D I'.>. B88J and those o the school o 1aghdad by that most e!act and daring theological thinker, 'bM1akr 1(ilnE33 I'.>.3D38J. )ater in the beginning o the thirteenth century we ind a thoroughly systematic description in a book called the ;uide o the ,erple!ed by "oses "aimonidesC a Oewish theologian who was educated in the "uslim universities o $pain. 35 ' French translation o this book was made by "unk in 3A??, and recently ,ro essor "acdonald o 'merica has given an e!cellent account o its contents in the !sis rom which >r. Qwemer has reprinted it in The "osle# $orld o Oanuary 3B5A.38 ,ro essor "acdonald, however, has made no attempt to discover the psychological orces that determined the growth o atomistic kalm in #slam. *e admits that there is nothing like the atomism o #slam in ;reek thought, but, unwilling as he is to give any credit or original thought to "uslim thinkers,39 and inding a sur ace resemblance between the #slamic theory and the views o a certain sect o 1uddhism, he 7umps to the conclusion that the origin o the theory is due to 1uddhistic in luences on the thought o #slam. 3= 2n ortunately, a ull

discussion o the sources o this purely speculative theory is not possible in this lecture. # propose only to give you some o its more salient eatures, indicating at the same time the lines on which the work o reconstruction in the light o modern physics ought, in my opinion, to proceed. 'ccording to the 'sharite school o thinkers, then, the world is compounded o what they call %a&hir' in initely small parts or atoms which cannot be urther divided. $ince the creative activity o ;od is ceaseless the number o the atoms cannot be inite. Fresh atoms are coming into being every moment, and the universe is there ore constantly growing. 's the Qurn says: ;od adds to *is creation what *e wills.3? The essence o the atom is independent o its e!istence. This means that e!istence is a (uality imposed on the atom by ;od. 1e ore receiving this (uality the atom lies dormant, as it were, in the creative energy o ;od, and its e!istence means nothing more than >ivine energy become visible. The atom in its essence, there ore, has no magnitude% it has its position which does not involve space. #t is by their aggregation that atoms become e!tended and generate space.3@ #bn Razm, the critic o atomism, acutely remarks that the language o the Qurn makes no di erence in the act o creation and the thing created. /hat we call a thing, then, is in its essential nature an aggregation o atomic acts. . the concept o atomic act, however, it is di icult to orm a mental picture. "odern physics too conceives as action the actual atom o a certain physical (uantity. 1ut, as ,ro essor Hddington has pointed out, the precise ormulation o the Theory o Quanta o action has not been possible so ar% though it is vaguely believed that the atomicity o action is the general law and that the appearance o electrons is in some way dependent on it. 3A 'gain we have seen that each atom occupies a position which does not involve space. That being so, what is the nature o motion which we cannot conceive e!cept as the atoms passage through space0 $ince the 'sharite regarded space as generated by the aggregation o atoms, they could not e!plain movement as a bodys passage through all the points o space intervening between the point o its start and destination. $uch an e!planation must necessarily assume the e!istence o void as an independent reality. #n order, there ore, to get over the di iculty o empty space, 6aWWm resorted to the notion o (afrah or 7ump% and imagined the moving body, not as passing through all the discrete positions in space, but as 7umping over the void between one position and another. Thus, according to him, a (uick motion and a slow motion possess the same speed% but the latter has more points o rest.3B # con ess # do not (uite understand this solution o the di iculty. #t may, however, be pointed out that modern atomism has ound a similar di iculty and a similar solution has been suggested. #n view o the e!periments relating to ,lancks Theory o Quanta, we cannot imagine the moving atom as continuously traversing its path in space. .ne o the most hope ul lines o e!planation, says ,ro essor /hitehead in his Science and the "odern $orld,

is to assume that an electron does not continuously traverse its path in space. The alternative
notion as to its mode o e!istence is that it appears at a series o discrete positions in space which it occupies or successive durations o time. #t is as though an automobile, moving at the average rate o thirty miles an hour along a road, did not traverse the road continuously, but appeared successively at the successive milestones remaining or two minutes at each milestone. 5D 'nother eature o this theory o creation is the doctrine o accident, on the perpetual creation o which depends the continuity o the atom as an e!istent. # ;od ceases to create the accidents, the atom ceases to e!ist as an atom. 53 The atom possesses inseparable positive or negative (ualities. These e!ist in opposed couples, as li e and death, motion and rest, and possess practically no duration. Two propositions ollow rom this: IiJ 6othing has a stable nature. IiiJ There is a single order o atoms, i.e. what we call the soul is either a iner kind o matter, or only an accident. # am inclined to think that in view o the idea o continuous creation which the 'sharite intended to establish there is an element o truth in the irst proposition. # have said be ore that in my opinion the spirit o the Qurn is on the whole anti-classical. 55 # regard the 'sharite thought on this point as a genuine e ort to develop on the basis o an 2ltimate /ill or Hnergy a theory o creation which, with all its shortcomings, is ar more true to the spirit o the Qurn than the 'ristotelian idea o a i!ed universe.58 The duty o the uture theologians o #slam is to reconstruct this purely speculative theory, and to bring it into closer contact with modern science which appears to be moving in the same direction. The second proposition looks like pure materialism. #t is my belie that the 'sharite view that the )afs is an accident is opposed to the real trend o their own theory which makes the continuous e!istence o the atom dependent on the continuous creation o accidents in it. #t is obvious that motion is inconceivable without time. 'nd since time comes rom psychic li e, the latter is more undamental than motion. 6o psychic li e, no time: no time, no motion. Thus it is really what the 'sharites call the accident which is responsible or the continuity o the atom as such. The atom becomes or rather looks spatialized when it receives the (uality o e!istence. -egarded as a phase

o >ivine energy, it is essentially spiritual. The )afs is the pure act% the body is only the act become visible and hence measurable. #n act the 'sharite vaguely anticipated the modern notion o pointinstant% but they ailed rightly to see the nature o the mutual relation between the point and the instant. The instant is the more undamental o the two% but the point is inseparable rom the instant as being a necessary mode o its mani estation. The point is not a thing, it is only a sort o looking at the instant. -MmE is ar more true to the spirit o #slam than ;hazlE when he says: 59 -eality is, there ore, essentially spirit. 1ut, o course, there are degrees o spirit. #n the history o "uslim thought the idea o degrees o -eality appears in the writings o $hihbuddEn $uhrawardE "a(tMl. #n modern times we ind it worked out on a much larger scale in *egel and, more recently, in the late )ord *aldanes Reign of Relati*it+, which he published shortly be ore his death. 5= # have conceived the 2ltimate -eality as an Hgo% and # must add now that rom the 2ltimate Hgo only egos proceed. The creative energy o the 2ltimate Hgo, in whom deed and thought are identical, unctions as ego-unities. The world, in all its details, rom the mechanical movement o what we call the atom o matter to the ree movement o thought in the human ego, is the sel -revelation o the ;reat # am.5? Hvery atom o >ivine energy, however low in the scale o e!istence, is an ego. 1ut there are degrees in the e!pression o egohood. Throughout the entire gamut o being runs the gradually rising note o egohood until it reaches its per ection in man. That is why the Qurn declares the 2ltimate Hgo to be nearer to man than his own neck-vein. 5@ )ike pearls do we live and move and have our being in the perpetual low o >ivine li e. Thus a criticism, inspired by the best traditions o "uslim thought, tends to turn the 'sharite scheme o atomism into a spiritual pluralism, the details o which will have to be worked out by the uture theologians o #slam. #t may, however, be asked whether atomicity has a real seat in the creative energy o ;od, or presents itsel to us as such only because o our inite mode o apprehension. From a purely scienti ic point o view # cannot say what the inal answer to this (uestion will be. From the psychological point o view one thing appears to me to be certain. .nly that is, strictly speaking, real which is directly conscious o its own reality. The degree o reality varies with the degree o the eeling o egohood. The nature o the ego is such that, in spite o its capacity to respond to other egos, it is sel -centred and possesses a private circuit o individuality e!cluding all egos other than itsel .5A #n this alone consists its reality as an ego. "an, there ore, in whom egohood has reached its relative per ection, occupies a genuine place in the heart o >ivine creative energy, and thus possesses a much higher degree o reality than things around him. . all the creations o ;od he alone is capable o consciously participating in the creative li e o his "aker.5B Hndowed with the power to imagine a better world, and to mould what is into what ought to be, the ego in him, aspires, in the interests o an increasingly uni(ue and comprehensive individuality, to e!ploit all the various environments on which he may be called upon to operate during the course o an endless career. 1ut # would ask you to wait or a uller treatment o this point till my lecture on the #mmortality and Freedom o the Hgo. #n the meantime, # want to say a ew words about the doctrine o atomic time which # think is the weakest part o the 'sharite theory o creation. #t is necessary to do so or a reasonable view o the >ivine attribute o Hternity. The problem o time has always drawn the attention o "uslim thinkers and mystics. This seems to be due partly to the act that, according to the Qurn, the alternation o day and night is one o the greatest signs o ;od, and partly to the ,rophets identi ication o ;od with ,ahr ItimeJ in a wellknown tradition re erred to be ore. 8D #ndeed, some o the greatest "uslim $u is believed in the mystic properties o the word ,ahr. 'ccording to "uXyuddEn #bn al-'rabE, ,ahr is one o the beauti ul names o ;od, and -zE tells us in his commentary on the Qurn that some o the "uslim saints had taught him to repeat the word ,ahr- ,aihur, or ,aihar. The 'sharite theory o time is perhaps the irst attempt in the history o "uslim thought to understand it philosophically. Time, according to the 'sharite, is a succession o individual nows. From this view it obviously ollows that between every two individual nows or moments o time, there is an unoccupied moment o time, that is to say, a void o time. The absurdity o this conclusion is due to the act that they looked at the sub7ect o their in(uiry rom a wholly ob7ective point o view. They took no lesson rom the history o ;reek thought, which had adopted the same point o view and had reached no results. #n our own time 6ewton described time as something which in itsel and rom its own nature lows e(ually.83 The metaphor o stream implied in this description suggests serious ob7ections to 6ewtons e(ually ob7ective view o time. /e cannot understand how a thing is a ected on its immersion in this stream, and how it di ers rom things that do not participate in its low. 6or can we orm any idea o the beginning, the end, and the boundaries o time i we try to understand it on the analogy o a stream. "oreover, i low, movement, or passage is the last word as to the nature o time, there must be another time to time the movement o the irst time, and another which times the second time, and so on to in inity. Thus the notion o time as something

wholly ob7ective is beset with di iculties. #t must, however, be admitted that the practical 'rab mind could not regard time as something unreal like the ;reeks. 6or can it be denied that, even though we possess no sense-organ to perceive time, it is a kind o low and has, as such, a genuine ob7ective, that is to say, atomic aspect. #n act, the verdict o modern science is e!actly the same as that o the 'sharite% or recent discoveries in physics regarding the nature o time assume the discontinuity o matter. The ollowing passage rom ,ro essor -ougiers Philosoph+ and )e& Ph+sics is noteworthy in this conne!ion:

+ontrary to the ancient adage, natura non acit saltus, it becomes apparent that the universe
varies by sudden 7umps and not by imperceptible degrees. ' physical system is capable o only a inite number o distinct states . . . . $ince between two di erent and immediately consecutive states the world remains motionless, time is suspended, so that time itsel is discontinuous: there is an atom o time.85 The point, however, is that the constructive endeavour o the 'sharite, as o the moderns, was wholly lacking in psychological analysis, and the result o this shortcoming was that they altogether ailed to perceive the sub7ective aspect o time. #t is due to this ailure that in their theory the systems o material atoms and time-atoms lie apart, with no organic relation between them. #t is clear that i we look at time rom a purely ob7ective point o view serious di iculties arise% or we cannot apply atomic time to ;od and conceive *im as a li e in the making, as ,ro essor 'le!ander appears to have done in his )ectures on $pace, Time, and >eity. 88 )ater "uslim theologians ully realized these di iculties. "ull OalluddEn >awnE in a passage o his .aur, which reminds the modern student o ,ro essor -oyces view o time, tells us that i we take time to be a kind o span which makes possible the appearance o events as a moving procession and conceive this span to be a unity, then we cannot but describe it as an original state o >ivine activity, encompassing all the succeeding states o that activity. 1ut the "ull takes good care to add that a deeper insight into the nature o succession reveals its relativity, so that it disappears in the case o ;od to /hom all events are present in a single act o perception. The $u i poet #r(E 89 has a similar way o looking at the matter. *e conceives in inite varieties o time, relative to the varying grades o being, intervening between materiality and pure spirituality. The time o gross bodies which arises rom the revolution o the heavens is divisible into past, present, and uture% and its nature is such that as long as one day does not pass away the succeeding day does not come. The time o immaterial beings is also serial in character, but its passage is such that a whole year in the time o gross bodies is not more than a day in the time o an immaterial being. -ising higher and higher in the scale o immaterial beings we reach >ivine time - time which is absolutely ree rom the (uality o passage, and conse(uently does not admit o divisibility, se(uence, and change. #t is above eternity% it has neither beginning nor end. The eye o ;od sees all the visibles, and *is ear hears all the audibles in one indivisible act o perception. The priority o ;od is not due to the priority o time% on the other hand, the priority o time is due to ;ods priority. 8= Thus >ivine time is what the Qurn describes as the "other o 1ooks8? in which the whole o history, reed rom the net o causal se(uence, is gathered up in a single super-eternal now. . all the "uslim theologians, however, it is FakhruddEn -zE who appears to have given his most serious attention to the problem o time. #n his LHastern >iscussions,L -zE sub7ects to a searching e!amination all the contemporary theories o time. *e too is, in the main, ob7ective in his method and inds himsel unable to reach any de inite conclusions. 2ntil now, he says,

# have not been able to discover anything really true with regard to the nature o time% and the
main purpose o my book is to e!plain what can possibly be said or or against each theory without any spirit o partisanship, which # generally avoid, especially in conne!ion with the problem o time.8@ The above discussion makes it per ectly clear that a purely ob7ective point o view is only partially help ul in our understanding o the nature o time. The right course is a care ul psychological analysis o our conscious e!perience which alone reveals the true nature o time. # suppose you remember the distinction that # drew in the two aspects o the sel , appreciative and e icient. The appreciative sel lives in pure duration, i.e. change without succession. The li e o the sel consists in its movement rom appreciation to e iciency, rom intuition to intellect, and atomic time is born out o this movement. Thus the character o our conscious e!perience - our point o departure in all knowledge - gives us a clue to the concept which reconciles the opposition o permanence and change, o time regarded as an organic whole or eternity, and time regarded as atomic. # then we accept the guidance o our conscious e!perience, and conceive the li e o the all-inclusive Hgo on the analogy o the inite ego, the time o the 2ltimate Hgo is revealed as change without succession, i.e. an organic whole which appears atomic because o the creative movement o the ego. This is what "Er >md and "ull1(ir mean when they say that time is born with the act o

creation by which the 2ltimate Hgo realizes and measures, so to speak, the in inite wealth o *is own undetermined creative possibilities. .n the one hand, there ore, the ego lives in eternity, by which term # mean non-successional change% on the other, it lives in serial time, which # conceive as organically related to eternity in the sense that it is a measure o non-successional change. #n this sense alone it is possible to understand the Quranic verse: To ;od belongs the alternation o day and night.8A 1ut on this di icult side o the problem # have said enough in my preceding lecture. #t is now time to pass on to the >ivine attributes o Gnowledge and .mnipotence. The word knowledge, as applied to the inite ego, always means discursive knowledge - a temporal process which moves round a veritable other, supposed to e!ist per se and con ronting the knowing ego. #n this sense knowledge, even i we e!tend it to the point o omniscience, must always remain relative to its con ronting other, and cannot, there ore, be predicated o the 2ltimate Hgo who, being all-inclusive, cannot be conceived as having a perspective like the inite ego. The universe, as we have seen be ore, is not an other e!isting per se in opposition to ;od. #t is only when we look at the act o creation as a speci ic event in the li e-history o ;od that the universe appears as an independent other. From the standpoint o the all-inclusive Hgo there is no other. #n *im thought and deed, the act o knowing and the act o creating, are identical. #t may be argued that the ego, whether inite or in inite, is inconceivable without a con ronting non-ego, and i there is nothing outside the 2ltimate Hgo, the 2ltimate Hgo cannot be conceived as an ego. The answer to this argument is that logical negations are o no use in orming a positive concept which must be based on the character o -eality as revealed in e!perience. .ur criticism o e!perience reveals the 2ltimate -eality to be a rationally directed li e which, in view o our e!perience o li e, cannot be conceived e!cept as an organic whole, a something closely knit together and possessing a central point o re erence.8B This being the character o li e, the ultimate li e can be conceived only as an ego. Gnowledge, in the sense o discursive knowledge, however in inite, cannot, there ore, be predicated o an ego who knows, and, at the same time, orms the ground o the ob7ect known. 2n ortunately, language does not help us here. /e possess no word to e!press the kind o knowledge which is also creative o its ob7ect. The alternative concept o >ivine knowledge is omniscience in the sense o a single indivisible act o perception which makes ;od immediately aware o the entire sweep o history, regarded as an order o speci ic events, in an eternal now. This is how OalluddEn >awnE, #r(E, and ,ro essor -oyce in our own times conceived ;ods knowledge.9D There is an element o truth in this conception. 1ut it suggests a closed universe, a i!ed uturity, a predetermined, unalterable order o speci ic events which, like a superior ate, has once or all determined the directions o ;ods creative activity. #n act, >ivine knowledge regarded as a kind o passive omniscience is nothing more than the inert void o pre-Hinsteinian physics, which con ers a semblance o unity on things by holding them together, a sort o mirror passively re lecting the details o an already inished structure o things which the inite consciousness re lects in ragments only. >ivine knowledge must be conceived as a living creative activity to which the ob7ects that appear to e!ist in their own right are organically related. 1y conceiving ;ods knowledge as a kind o re lecting mirror, we no doubt save *is ore-knowledge o uture events% but it is obvious that we do so at the e!pense o *is reedom. The uture certainly pre-e!ists in the organic whole o ;ods creative li e, but it pre-e!ists as an open possibility, not as a i!ed order o events with de inite outlines. 'n illustration will perhaps help us in understanding what # mean. $uppose, as sometimes happens in the history o human thought, a ruit ul idea with a great inner wealth o applications emerges into the light o your consciousness. &ou are immediately aware o the idea as a comple! whole% but the intellectual working out o its numerous bearings is a matter o time. #ntuitively all the possibilities o the idea are present in your mind. # a speci ic possibility, as such, is not intellectually known to you at a certain moment o time, it is not because your knowledge is de ective, but because there is yet no possibility to become known. The idea reveals the possibilities o its application with advancing e!perience, and sometimes it takes more than one generation o thinkers be ore these possibilities are e!hausted. 6or is it possible, on the view o >ivine knowledge as a kind o passive omniscience, to reach the idea o a creator. # history is regarded merely as a gradually revealed photo o a predetermined order o events, then there is no room in it or novelty and initiation. +onse(uently, we can attach no meaning to the word creation, which has a meaning or us only in view o our own capacity or original action. The truth is that the whole theological controversy relating to predestination is due to pure speculation with no eye on the spontaneity o li e, which is a act o actual e!perience. 6o doubt, the emergence o egos endowed with the power o spontaneous and hence un oreseeable action is, in a sense, a limitation on the reedom o the all-inclusive Hgo. 1ut this limitation is not e!ternally imposed. #t is born out o *is own creative reedom whereby *e has chosen inite egos to be participators o *is li e, power, and reedom. 1ut how, it may be asked, is it possible to reconcile limitation with .mnipotence0 The word limitation need not righten us. The Qurn has no liking or abstract universals. #t always i!es its

gaze on the concrete which the theory o -elativity has only recently taught modern philosophy to see. 'll activity, creational or otherwise, is a kind o limitation without which it is impossible to conceive ;od as a concrete operative Hgo. .mnipotence, abstractly conceived, is merely a blind, capricious power without limits. The Qurn has a clear and de inite conception o 6ature as a cosmos o mutually related orces.93 #t, there ore, views >ivine omnipotence as intimately related to >ivine wisdom, and inds the in inite power o ;od revealed, not in the arbitrary and the capricious, but in the recurrent, the regular, and the orderly. 't the same time, the Qurn conceives ;od as holding all goodness in *is hands. 95 # , then, the rationally directed >ivine will is good, a very serious problem arises. The course o evolution, as revealed by modern science, involves almost universal su ering and wrongdoing. 6o doubt, wrongdoing is con ined to man only. 1ut the act o pain is almost universal, thought it is e(ually true that men can su er and have su ered the most e!cruciating pain or the sake o what they have believed to be good. Thus the two acts o moral and physical evil stand out prominent in the li e o 6ature. 6or can the relativity o evil and the presence o orces that tend to transmute it be a source o consolation to us% or, in spite o all this relativity and transmutation, there is something terribly positive about it. *ow is it, then, possible to reconcile the goodness and omnipotence o ;od with the immense volume o evil in *is creation0 This pain ul problem is really the cru! o Theism. 6o modern writer has put it more accurately than 6aumann in his /riefe 0 ber Religion. /e possess, he says:

a knowledge o the world which teaches us a ;od o power and strength, who sends out li e and
death as simultaneously as shadow and light, and a revelation, a aith as to salvation which declares the same ;od to be ather. The ollowing o the world-;od produces the morality o the struggle or e!istence, and the service o the Father o Oesus +hrist produces the morality o compassion. 'nd yet they are not two gods, but one ;od. $omehow or other, their arms intertwine. .nly no mortal can say where and how this occurs.98 To the optimist 1rowning all is well with the world% 99 to the pessimist $chopenhauer the world is one perpetual winter wherein a blind will e!presses itsel in an in inite variety o living things which bemoan their emergence or a moment and then disappear or ever. 9= The issue thus raised between optimism and pessimism cannot be inally decided at the present stage o our knowledge o the universe. .ur intellectual constitution is such that we can take only a piecemeal view o things. /e cannot understand the ull import o the great cosmic orces which work havoc, and at the same time sustain and ampli y li e. The teaching o the Qurn, which believes in the possibility o improvement in the behaviour o man and his control over natural orces, is neither optimism nor pessimism. #t is meliorism, which recognizes a growing universe and is animated by the hope o mans eventual victory over evil. 1ut the clue to a better understanding o our di iculty is given in the legend relating to what is called the Fall o "an. #n this legend the Qurn partly retains the ancient symbols, but the legend is materially trans ormed with a view to put an entirely resh meaning into it. The Quranic method o complete or partial trans ormation o legends in order to besoul them with new ideas, and thus to adapt them to the advancing spirit o time, is an important point which has nearly always been overlooked both by "uslim and non-"uslim students o #slam. The ob7ect o the Qurn in dealing with these legends is seldom historical% it nearly always aims at giving them a universal moral or philosophical import. 'nd it achieves this ob7ect by omitting the names o persons and localities which tend to limit the meaning o a legend by giving it the colour o a speci ic historical event, and also by deleting details which appear to belong to a di erent order o eeling. This is not an uncommon method o dealing with legends. #t is common in non-religious literature. 'n instance in point is the legend o Faust,9? to which the touch o ;oethes genius has given a wholly new meaning. Turning to the legend o the Fall we ind it in a variety o orms in the literatures o the ancient world. #t is, indeed, impossible to demarcate the stages o its growth, and to set out clearly the various human motives which must have worked in its slow trans ormation. 1ut con ining ourselves to the $emitic orm o the myth, it is highly probable that it arose out o the primitive mans desire to e!plain to himsel the in inite misery o his plight in an uncongenial environment, which abounded in disease and death and obstructed him on all sides in his endeavour to maintain himsel . *aving no control over the orces o 6ature, a pessimistic view o li e was per ectly natural to him. Thus, in an old 1abylonian inscription, we ind the serpent Iphallic symbolJ, the tree, and the woman o ering an apple Isymbol o virginityJ to the man. The meaning o the myth is clear - the all o man rom a supposed state o bliss was due to the original se!ual act o the human pair. The way in which the Qurn handles this legend becomes clear when we compare it with the narration o the 1ook o ;enesis.9@ The remarkable points o di erence between the Quranic and the 1iblical narrations suggest unmistakably the purpose o the Quranic narration.

3. The Qurn omits the serpent and the rib-story altogether. The ormer omission is obviously meant to ree the story rom its phallic setting and its original suggestion o a pessimistic view o li e. The latter omission is meant to suggest that the purpose o the Quranic narration is not historical, as in the case o the .ld Testament, which gives us an account o the origin o the irst human pair by way o a prelude to the history o #srael. #ndeed, in the verses which deal with the origin o man as a living being, the Qurn uses the words /ashar or !nsn, not Ydam, which it reserves or man in his capacity o ;ods vicegerent on earth. 9A The purpose o the Qurn is urther secured by the omission o proper names mentioned in the 1iblical narration - 'dam and Hve. 9B The word 'dam is retained and used more as a concept than as the name o a concrete human individual. This use o the word is not without authority in the Qurn itsel . The ollowing verse is clear on the point:

/e created you% then ashioned you% then said /e to the angels, Lprostrate yoursel unto 'damL
I@:33J. 5. The Qurn splits up the legend into two distinct episodesC the one relating to what it describes simply as the tree=D and the other relating to the tree o eternity and the kingdom that aileth not.=3 The irst episode is mentioned in the @th and the second in the 5Dth $Mrah o the Qurn. 'ccording to the Qurn, 'dam and his wi e, led astray by $atan whose unction is to create doubts in the minds o men, tasted the ruit o both the trees, whereas according to the .ld Testament man was driven out o the ;arden o Hden immediately a ter his irst act o disobedience, and ;od placed, at the eastern side o the garden, angels and a laming sword, turning on all sides, to keep the way to the tree o li e.=5 8. The .ld Testament curses the earth or 'dams act o disobedience% =8 the Qurn declares the earth to be the dwelling place o man and a source o pro it to him =9 or the possession o which he ought to be grate ul to ;od. 'nd /e have established you on the earth and given you therein the supports o li e. *ow little do ye give thanks< I@:3DJ. == 6or is there any reason to suppose that the word 1annat I;ardenJ as used here means the supersensual paradise rom which man is supposed to have allen on this earth. 'ccording to the Qurn, man is not a stranger on this earth. 'nd /e have caused you to grow rom the earth, says the Qurn. =? The 1annat, mentioned in the legend, cannot mean the eternal abode o the righteous. #n the sense o the eternal abode o the righteous, 1annat is described by the Qurn to be the place wherein the righteous will pass to one another the cup which shall engender no light discourse, no motive to sin. =@ #t is urther described to be the place wherein no weariness shall reach the righteous, nor orth rom it shall they be cast.=A #n the 1annat mentioned in the legend, however, the very irst event that took place was mans sin o disobedience ollowed by his e!pulsion. #n act, the Qurn itsel e!plains the meaning o the word as used in its own narration. #n the second episode o the legend the garden is described as a place where there is neither hunger, nor thirst, neither heat nor nakedness. =B # am, there ore, inclined to think that the 1annat in the Quranic narration is the conception o a primitive state in which man is practically unrelated to his environment and conse(uently does not eel the sting o human wants the birth o which alone marks the beginning o human culture. Thus we see that the Quranic legend o the Fall has nothing to do with the irst appearance o man on this planet. #ts purpose is rather to indicate mans rise rom a primitive state o instinctive appetite to the conscious possession o a ree sel , capable o doubt and disobedience. The Fall does not mean any moral depravity% it is mans transition rom simple consciousness to the irst lash o sel -consciousness, a kind o waking rom the dream o nature with a throb o personal causality in ones own being. 6or does the Qurn regard the earth as a torture-hall where an elementally wicked humanity is imprisoned or an original act o sin. "ans irst act o disobedience was also his irst act o ree choice% and that is why, according to the Quranic narration, 'dams irst transgression was orgiven.?D 6ow goodness is not a matter o compulsion% it is the sel s ree surrender to the moral ideal and arises out o a willing co-operation o ree egos. ' being whose movements are wholly determined like a machine cannot produce goodness. Freedom is thus a condition o goodness. 1ut to permit the emergence o a inite ego who has the power to choose, a ter considering the relative values o several courses o action open to him, is really to take a great risk% or the reedom to choose good involves also the reedom to choose what is the opposite o good. That ;od has taken this risk shows *is immense aith in man% it is or man now to 7usti y this aith. ,erhaps such a risk alone makes it possible to test and develop the potentialities o a being who was created o the goodliest abric and then brought down to be the lowest o the low.?3 's the Qurn says: 'nd or trial will /e test you with evil and with good I53:8=J. ?5 ;ood and evil, there ore, though opposites, must all within the same whole. There is no such thing as an isolated act% or acts are systematic wholes the elements o which must be understood by mutual

re erence. )ogical 7udgement separates the elements o a act only to reveal their interdependence. Further, it is the nature o the sel to maintain itsel as a sel . For this purpose it seeks knowledge, sel -multiplication, and power, or, in the words o the Qurn, the kingdom that never aileth. The irst episode in the Quranic legend relates to mans desire or knowledge, the second to his desire or sel -multiplication and power. #n conne!ion with the irst episode it is necessary to point out two things. Firstly, the episode is mentioned immediately a ter the verses describing 'dams superiority over the angels in remembering and reproducing the names o things. ?8 The purpose o these verses, as # have shown be ore, is to bring out the conceptual character o human knowledge. ?9 $econdly, "adame 1lavatsky?= who possessed a remarkable knowledge o ancient symbolism, tells us in her book, called Secret ,octrine, that with the ancients the tree was a cryptic symbol or occult knowledge. 'dam was orbidden to taste the ruit o this tree obviously because his initude as a sel , his sense-e(uipment, and his intellectual aculties were, on the whole, attuned to a di erent type o knowledge, i.e. the type o knowledge which necessitates the toil o patient observation and admits only o slow accumulation. $atan, however, persuaded him to eat the orbidden ruit o occult knowledge and 'dam yielded, not because he was elementally wicked, but because being hasty Ia7MlJ?? by nature he sought a short cut to knowledge. The only way to correct this tendency was to place him in an environment which, however pain ul, was better suited to the un olding o his intellectual aculties. Thus 'dams insertion into a pain ul physical environment was not meant as a punishment% it was meant rather to de eat the ob7ect o $atan who, as an enemy o man, diplomatically tried to keep him ignorant o the 7oy o perpetual growth and e!pansion. 1ut the li e o a inite ego in an obstructing environment depends on the perpetual e!pansion o knowledge based on actual e!perience. 'nd the e!perience o a inite ego to whom several possibilities are open e!pands only by method o trial and error. There ore, error which may be described as a kind o intellectual evil is an indispensable actor in the building up o e!perience. The second episode o the Quranic legend is as ollows:

1ut $atan whispered him I'damJ: said he, . 'dam< shall # show thee the tree o Hternity and the
Gingdom that aileth not0 'nd they both ate thereo , and their nakedness appeared to them, and they began to sew o the leaves o the garden to cover them, and 'dam disobeyed his )ord, and went astray. ' terwards his )ord chose him or *imsel , and was turned towards him, and guided him. I5D:35D-55J. The central idea here is to suggest li es irresistible desire or a lasting dominion, an in inite career as a concrete individual. 's a temporal being, earing the termination o its career by death, the only course open to it is to achieve a kind o collective immortality by sel -multiplication. The eating o the orbidden ruit o the tree o eternity is li es resort to se!-di erentiation by which it multiplies itsel with a view to circumvent total e!tinction. #t is as i li e says to death: # you sweep away one generation o living things, # will produce another. The Qurn re7ects the phallic symbolism o ancient art, but suggests the original se!ual act by the birth o the sense o shame disclosed in 'dams an!iety to cover the nakedness o his body. 6ow to live is to possess a de inite outline, a concrete individuality. #t is in the concrete individuality, mani ested in the countless varieties o living orms that the 2ltimate Hgo reveals the in inite wealth o *is 1eing. &et the emergence and multiplication o individualities, each i!ing its gaze on the revelation o its own possibilities and seeking its own dominion, inevitably brings in its wake the aw ul struggle o ages. >escend ye as enemies o one another, says the Qurn. ?@ This mutual con lict o opposing individualities is the world-pain which both illuminates and darkens the temporal career o li e. #n the case o man in whom individuality deepens into personality, opening up possibilities o wrongdoing, the sense o the tragedy o li e becomes much more acute. 1ut the acceptance o sel hood as a orm o li e involves the acceptance o all the imper ections that low rom the initude o sel hood. The Qurn represents man as having accepted at his peril the trust o personality which the heavens, the earth, and the mountains re used to bear:

Kerily /e proposed to the heavens and to the earth and to the mountains to receive the LtrustL but
they re used the burden and they eared to receive it. "an undertook to bear it, but hath proved un7ust, senseless< I88:@5J. $hall we, then, say no or yes to the trust o personality with all its attendant ills0 True manhood, according to the Qurn, consists in patience under ills and hardships. ?A 't the present stage o the evolution o sel hood, however, we cannot understand the ull import o the discipline which the driving power o pain brings. ,erhaps it hardens the sel against a possible dissolution. 1ut in asking the above (uestion we are passing the boundaries o pure thought. This is the point where aith in the eventual triumph o goodness emerges as a religious doctrine. ;od is e(ual to *is purpose, but most men know it not I35:53J.

# have now e!plained to you how it is possible philosophically to 7usti y the #slamic conception o ;od. 1ut as # have said be ore, religious ambition soars higher than the ambition o philosophy. ?B -eligion is not satis ied with mere conception% it seeks a more intimate knowledge o and association with the ob7ect o its pursuit. The agency through which this association is achieved is the act o worship or prayer ending in spiritual illumination. The act o worship, however, a ects di erent varieties o consciousness di erently. #n the case o the prophetic consciousness it is in the main creative, i.e. it tends to create a resh ethical world wherein the ,rophet, so to speak, applies the pragmatic test to his revelations. # shall urther develop this point in my lecture on the meaning o "uslim +ulture.@D #n the case o the mystic consciousness it is in the main cognitive. #t is rom this cognitive point o view that # will try to discover the meaning o prayer. 'nd this point o view is per ectly 7usti iable in view o the ultimate motive o prayer. # would draw your attention to the ollowing passage rom the great 'merican psychologist, ,ro essor /illiam Oames:

#t seems to probable that in spite o all that LscienceL may do to the contrary, men will continue to
pray to the end o time, unless their mental nature changes in a manner which nothing we know should lead us to e!pect. The impulse to pray is a necessary conse(uence o the act that whilst the innermost o the empirical selves o a man is a $el o the social sort, it yet can ind its only ade(uate $ocius Sits Lgreat companionLT in an ideal world.

. . . most men, either continually or occasionally, carry a re erence to it in their breast. The
humblest outcast on this earth can eel himsel to be real and valid by means o this higher recognition. 'nd, on the other hand, or most o us, a world with no such inner re uge when the outer social sel ailed and dropped rom us would be the abyss o horror. # say L or most o usL, because it is probable that individuals di er a good deal in the degree in which they are haunted by this sense o an ideal spectator. #t is a much more essential part o the consciousness o some men than o others. Those who have the most o it are possibly the most religious men. 1ut # am sure that even those who say they are altogether without it deceive themselves, and really have it in some degree.@3 Thus you will see that, psychologically speaking, prayer is instinctive in its origin. The act o prayer as aiming at knowledge resembles re lection. &et prayer at its highest is much more than abstract re lection. )ike re lection it too is a process o assimilation, but the assimilative process in the case o prayer draws itsel closely together and thereby ac(uires a power unknown to pure thought. #n thought the mind observes and ollows the working o -eality% in the act o prayer it gives up its career as a seeker o slow- ooted universality and rises higher than thought to capture -eality itsel with a view to become a conscious participator in its li e. There is nothing mystical about it. ,rayer as a means o spiritual illumination is a normal vital act by which the little island o our personality suddenly discovers its situation in a larger whole o li e. >o not think # am talking o autosuggestion. 'uto-suggestion has nothing to do with the opening up o the sources o li e that lie in the depths o the human ego. 2nlike spiritual illumination which brings resh power by shaping human personality, it leaves no permanent li e-e ects behind. 6or am # speaking o some occult and special way o knowledge. 'll that # mean is to i! your attention on a real human e!perience which has a history behind it and a uture be ore it. "ysticism has, no doubt, revealed resh regions o the sel by making a special study o this e!perience. #ts literature is illuminating% yet its set phraseology shaped by the thought- orms o a worn-out metaphysics has rather a deadening e ect on the modern mind. The (uest a ter a nameless nothing, as disclosed in 6eo-,latonic mysticism be it +hristian or "uslim - cannot satis y the modern mind which, with its habits o concrete thinking, demands a concrete living e!perience o ;od. 'nd the history o the race shows that the attitude o the mind embodied in the act o worship is a condition or such an e!perience. #n act, prayer must be regarded as a necessary complement to the intellectual activity o the observer o 6ature. The scienti ic observation o 6ature keeps us in close contact with the behaviour o -eality, and thus sharpens our inner perception or a deeper vision o it. # cannot help (uoting here a beauti ul passage rom the mystic poet -MmE in which he describes the mystic (uest a ter -eality: @5 The $M is book is not composed o ink and letters: it is not but a heart white as snow. The scholars possession is pen-marks. /hat is the $M is possession0 - oot-marks. The $M i stalks the game like a hunter: he sees the musk-deers track and ollows the ootprints. For some while the track o the deer is the proper clue or him, but a terwards it is the musk-gland o the deer that is his guide. To go one stage guided by the scent o the musk-gland is better than a hundred stages o ollowing the track and roaming about.@8 The truth is that all search or knowledge is essentially a orm o prayer. The scienti ic observer o 6ature is a kind o mystic seeker in the act o prayer. 'lthough at present he ollows only the ootprints o the musk-deer, and thus modestly limits the method o his (uest, his thirst or

knowledge is eventually sure to lead him to the point where the scent o the musk-gland is a better guide than the ootprints o the deer. This alone will add to his power over 6ature and give him that vision o the total-in inite which philosophy seeks but cannot ind. Kision without power does bring moral elevation but cannot give a lasting culture. ,ower without vision tends to become destructive and inhuman. 1oth must combine or the spiritual e!pansion o humanity. The real ob7ect o prayer, however, is better achieved when the act o prayer becomes congregational. The spirit o all true prayer is social. Hven the hermit abandons the society o men in the hope o inding, in a solitary abode, the ellowship o ;od. ' congregation is an association o men who, animated by the same aspiration, concentrate themselves on a single ob7ect and open up their inner selves to the working o a single impulse. #t is a psychological truth that association multiplies the normal mans power o perception, deepens his emotion, and dynamizes his will to a degree unknown to him in the privacy o his individuality. #ndeed, regarded as a psychological phenomenon, prayer is still a mystery% or psychology has not yet discovered the laws relating to the enhancement o human sensibility in a state o association. /ith #slam, however, this socialization o spiritual illumination through associative prayer is a special point o interest. 's we pass rom the daily congregational prayer to the annual ceremony round the central mos(ue o "ecca, you can easily see how the #slamic institution o worship gradually enlarges the sphere o human association. ,rayer, then, whether individual or associative, is an e!pression o mans inner yearning or a response in the aw ul silence o the universe. #t is a uni(ue process o discovery whereby the searching ego a irms itsel in the very moment o sel -negation, and thus discovers its own worth and 7usti ication as a dynamic actor in the li e o the universe. True to the psychology o mental attitude in prayer, the orm o worship in #slam symbolizes both a irmation and negation. &et, in view o the act borne out by the e!perience o the race that prayer, as an inner act, has ound e!pression in a variety o orms, the Qurn says:

To every people have /e appointed ways o worship which they observe. There ore let them not
dispute this matter with thee, but bid them to thy )ord or thou art on the right way: but i they debate with thee, then say: ;od best knoweth what ye do< *e will 7udge between you on the >ay o -esurrection, as to the matters wherein ye di er I55:?@-?BJ. The orm o prayer ought not to become a matter o dispute. @9 /hich side you turn your ace is certainly not essential to the spirit o prayer. The Qurn is per ectly clear on this point:

The Hast and /est is ;ods: there ore whichever way ye turn, there is the ace o ;od I5:33=J. There is no piety in turning your aces towards the Hast or the /est, but he is pious who believeth
in ;od, and the )ast >ay, and the angels, and the scriptures, and the prophets% who or the love o ;od disburseth his wealth to his kindred, and to the orphans, and the needy, and the way arer, and those who ask, and or ransoming% who observeth prayer, and payeth the legal alms, and who is o those who are aith ul to their engagements when they have engaged in them% and patient under ills and hardships, in time o trouble: those are they who are 7ust, and those are they who ear the )ord I5:3@@J. &et we cannot ignore the important consideration that the posture o the body is a real actor in determining the attitude o the mind. The choice o one particular direction in #slamic worship is meant to secure the unity o eeling in the congregation, and its orm in general creates and osters the sense o social e(uality inasmuch as it tends to destroy the eeling o rank or race superiority in the worshippers. /hat a tremendous spiritual revolution will take place, practically in no time, i the proud aristocratic 1rahmin o $outh #ndia is daily made to stand shoulder to shoulder with the untouchable< From the unity o the all-inclusive Hgo who creates and sustains all egos ollows the essential unity o all mankind.@= The division o mankind into races, nations, and tribes, according to the Qurn, is or purposes o identi ication only. @? The #slamic orm o association in prayer, there ore, besides its cognitive value, is urther indicative o the aspiration to realize this essential unity o mankind as a act in li e by demolishing all barriers which stand between man and man.

The

u!an Ego "

is Freedo! and #!!ortality

T*H Qurn in its simple, orce ul manner emphasizes the individuality and uni(ueness o man, and has, # think, a de inite view o his destiny as a unity o li e. 3 #t is in conse(uence o this view o man as a uni(ue individuality which makes it impossible or one individual to bear the burden o another,5 and entitles him only to what is due to his own personal e ort, 8 that the Qurn is led to re7ect the idea o redemption. Three things are per ectly clear rom the Qurn: IiJ That man is the chosen o ;od:

' terwards his )ord chose him S'damT or himsel and turned towards, him, and guided him,
I5D:355J. IiiJ That man, with all his aults, is meant to be the representative o ;od on earth:

/hen thy )ord said to the angels, LKerily # am about to place one in my stead on HarthL, they said,
/ilt Thou place there one who will do ill therein and shed blood, when we celebrate Thy praise and e!tol Thy holiness0 ;od said, LKerily # know what you know notL, I5:8DJ.

'nd it is *e /ho hath made you *is representatives on the Harth, and hath raised some o you
above others by various grades, that *e may prove you by *is gi ts I?:3?=J. IiiiJ That man is the trustee o a ree personality which he accepted at his peril:

Kerily /e proposed to the *eavens, and to the Harth, and to the mountains to receive the LtrustL,
but they re used the burden and they eared to receive it. "an undertook to bear it, but hath proved

un7ust, senseless< I88:@5J. &et it is surprising to see that the unity o human consciousness which constitutes the centre o human personality never really became a point o interest in the history o "uslim thought. The "uta2alli#3n regarded the soul as a iner kind o matter or a mere accident which dies with the body and is re-created on the >ay o Oudgement. The philosophers o #slam received inspiration rom ;reek thought. #n the case o other schools, it must be remembered that the e!pansion o #slam brought within its old peoples belonging to di erent creed-communities, such as 6estorians, Oews, Qoroastrians, whose intellectual outlook had been ormed by the concepts o a culture which had long dominated the whole o middle and western 'sia. This culture, on the whole "agian in its origin and development, has a structurally dualistic soul-picture which we ind more or less re lected in the theological thought o #slam. 9 >evotional $u ism alone tried to understand the meaning o the unity o inner e!perience which the Qurn declares to be one o the three sources o knowledge,= the other two being *istory and 6ature. The development o this e!perience in the religious li e o #slam reached its culmination in the well-known words o *all7 - # am the creative truth. The contemporaries o *all7, as well as his successors, interpreted these words pantheistically% but the ragments o *all7, collected and published by the French .rientalist, ). "assignon, leave no doubt that the martyr-saint could not have meant to deny the transcendence o ;od.? The true interpretation o his e!perience, there ore, is not the drop slipping into the sea, but the realization and bold a irmation in an undying phrase o the reality and permanence o the human ego in a pro ounder personality. The phrase o *all7 seems almost a challenge lung against the "uta2alli#3n. The di iculty o modern students o religion, however, is that this type o e!perience, though perhaps per ectly normal in its beginnings, points, in its maturity, to unknown levels o consciousness. #bn GhaldMn, long ago, elt the necessity o an e ective scienti ic method to investigate these levels.@ "odern psychology has only recently realized the necessity o such a method, but has not yet been able to go beyond the discovery o the characteristic eatures o the mystic levels o consciousness.A 6ot being yet in possession o a scienti ic method to deal with the type o e!perience on which such 7udgements as that o *all7 are based, we cannot avail ourselves o its possible capacity as a knowledge-yielding e!perience. 6or can the concepts o theological systems, draped in the terminology o a practically dead metaphysics, be o any help to those who happen to possess a di erent intellectual background. The task be ore the modern "uslim is, there ore, immense. *e has to rethink the whole system o #slam without completely breaking with the past. ,erhaps the irst "uslim who elt the urge o a new spirit in him was $hh /alE'llh o >elhi. The man, however, who ully realized the importance and immensity o the task, and whose deep insight into the inner meaning o the history o "uslim thought and li e, combined with a broad vision engendered by his wide e!perience o men and manners, would have made him a living link between the past and the uture, was OamluddEn ' ghnE. # his inde atigable but divided energy could have devoted itsel entirely to #slam as a system o human belie and conduct, the world o #slam, intellectually speaking, would have been on a much more solid ground today. The only course open to us is to approach modern knowledge with a respect ul but independent attitude and to appreciate the teachings o #slam in the light o that knowledge, even though we may be led to di er rom those who have gone be ore us. This # propose to do in regard to the sub7ect o the present lecture. #n the history o modern thought it is 1radley who urnishes the best evidence or the impossibility o denying reality to the ego. #n his Ethical StudiesB he assumes the reality o the sel % in his )ogic 3D he takes it only as a working hypothesis. #t is in his 4ppearance and Realit+ that he sub7ects the ego to a searching e!amination.33 #ndeed, his two chapters on the meaning and reality o the sel may be regarded as a kind o modern 2panishad on the unreality o the 1 *t#535 'ccording to him, the test o reality is reedom rom contradiction and since his criticism discovers the inite centre o e!perience to be in ected with irreconcilable oppositions o change and permanence, unity and diversity, the ego is a mere illusion. /hatever may be our view o the sel - eeling, sel -identity, soul, will - it can be e!amined only by the canons o thought which in its nature is relational, and all relations involve contradictions. &et, in spite o the act that his ruthless logic has shown the ego to be a mass o con usion, 1radley has to admit that the sel must be in some sense real, in some sense an indubitable act.38 /e may easily grant that the ego, in its initude, is imper ect as a unity o li e. #ndeed, its nature is wholly aspiration a ter a unity more inclusive, more e ective, more balanced, and uni(ue. /ho knows how many di erent kinds o environment it needs or its organization as a per ect unity0 't the present stage o its organization it is unable to maintain the continuity o its tension without constant rela!ation o sleep. 'n insigni icant stimulus may sometimes disrupt its unity and nulli y it as a controlling energy. &et, however thought may dissect and analyse, our eeling o egohood is ultimate and is power ul enough to e!tract rom ,ro essor 1radley the reluctant admission o its reality.

The inite centre o e!perience, there ore, is real, even though its reality is too pro ound to be intellectualized. /hat then is the characteristic eature o the ego0 The ego reveals itsel as a unity o what we call mental states. "ental states do not e!ist in mutual isolation. They mean and involve one another. They e!ist as phases o a comple! whole, called mind. The organic unity, however, o these interrelated states or, let us say, events is a special kind o unity. #t undamentally di ers rom the unity o a material thing% or the parts o a material thing can e!ist in mutual isolation. "ental unity is absolutely uni(ue. /e cannot say that one o my belie s is situated on the right or le t o my other belie . 6or is it possible to say that my appreciation o the beauty o the T7 varies with my distance rom Ygra. "y thought o space is not spatially related to space. #ndeed, the ego can think o more than one space-order. The space o waking consciousness and dream-space have no mutual relation. They do not inter ere with or overlap each other. For the body there can be but a single space. The ego, there ore, is not space-bound in the sense in which the body is space-bound. 'gain, mental and physical events are both in time, but the time-span o the ego is undamentally di erent to the time-span o the physical event. The duration o the physical event is stretched out in space as a present act% the egos duration is concentrated within it and linked with its present and uture in a uni(ue manner. The ormation o a physical event discloses certain present marks which show that it has passed through a time-duration% but these marks are merely emblematic o its time duration% not time-duration itsel . True timeCduration belongs to the ego alone. 'nother important characteristic o the unity o the ego is its essential privacy which reveals the uni(ueness o every ego. #n order to reach a certain conclusion all the premisses o a syllogism must be believed in by one and the same mind. # # believe in the proposition all men are mortal, and another mind believes in the proposition $ocrates is a man, no in erence is possible. #t is possible only i both the propositions are believed in by me. 'gain, my desire or a certain thing is essentially mine. #ts satis action means my private en7oyment. # all mankind happen to desire the same thing, the satis action o their desire will not mean the satis action o my desire when # do not get the thing desired. The dentist may sympathize with my toothache, but cannot e!perience the eeling o my toothache. "y pleasures, pains, and desires are e!clusively mine, orming a part and parcel o my private ego alone. "y eelings, hates and loves, 7udgements and resolutions, are e!clusively mine. ;od *imsel cannot eel, 7udge, and choose or me when more than one course o action are open to me. $imilarly, in order to recognize you, # must have known you in the past. "y recognition o a place or person means re erence to my past e!perience, and not the past e!perience o another ego. #t is this uni(ue interrelation o our mental states 39 that we e!press by the word #, and it is here that the great problem o psychology begins to appear. /hat is the nature o this #0 To the "uslim school o theology o which ;hazzlE is the chie e!ponent, 3= the ego is a simple, indivisible, and immutable soul-substance, entirely di erent rom the group o our mental states and una ected by the passage o time. .ur conscious e!perience is a unity, because our mental states are related as so many (ualities to this simple substance which persists unchanged during the lu! o its (ualities. "y recognition o you is possible only i # persist unchanged between the original perception and the present act o memory. The interest o this school, however, was not so much psychological as metaphysical. 1ut whether we take the soul-entity as an e!planation o the acts o our conscious e!perience, or as a basis or immortality, # am a raid it serves neither psychological nor metaphysical interest. Gants allacies o pure reason are well known to the student o modern philosophy.3? The # think, which accompanies every thought is, according to Gant, a purely ormal condition o thought, and the transition rom a purely ormal condition o thought to ontological substance is logically illegitimate. 3@ Hven apart rom Gants way o looking at the sub7ect o e!perience, the indivisibility o a substance does not prove its indestructibility% or the indivisible substance, as Gant himsel remarks, may gradually disappear into nothingness like an intensive (uality or cease to e!ist all o a sudden. 3A 6or can this static view o substance serve any psychological interest. #n the irst place, it is di icult to regard the elements o our conscious e!perience as (ualities o a soul-substance in the sense in which, or instance, the weight o a physical body is the (uality o that body. .bservation reveals e!perience to be particular acts o re erence, and as such they possess a speci ic being o their own. They constitute, as )aird acutely remarks, a new world and not merely new eatures in an old world. $econdly, even i we regard e!periences as (ualities, we cannot discover how they inhere in the soul-substance. Thus we see that our conscious e!perience can give us no clue to the ego regarded as a soul-substance% or by hypothesis the soul-substance does not reveal itsel in e!perience. 'nd it may urther be pointed out that in view o the improbability o di erent soul-substances controlling the same body at di erent times, the theory can o er no ade(uate e!planation o phenomena such as alternating personality, ormerly e!plained by the temporary possession o the body by evil spirits. &et the interpretation o our conscious e!perience is the only road by which we can reach the ego, i at all. )et us, there ore, turn to modern psychology and see what light it throws on the nature o the

ego. /illiam Oames conceives consciousness as a stream o thought - a conscious low o changes with a elt continuity.3B *e inds a kind o gregarious principle working in our e!periences which have, as it were, hooks on them, and thereby catch up one another in the low o mental li e. 5D The ego consists o the eelings o personal li e, and is, as such, part o the system o thought. Hvery pulse o thought, present or perishing, is an indivisible unity which knows and recollects. The appropriation o the passing pulse by the present pulse o thought, and that o the present by its successor, is the ego.53 This description o our mental li e is e!tremely ingenious% but not, # venture to think, true to consciousness as we ind it in ourselves. +onsciousness is something single, presupposed in all mental li e, and not bits o consciousness, mutually reporting to one another. This view o consciousness, ar rom giving us any clue to the ego, entirely ignores the relatively permanent element in e!perience. There is no continuity o being between the passing thoughts. /hen one o these is present, the other has totally disappeared% and how can the passing thought, which is irrevocably lost, be known and appropriated by the present thought0 # do not mean to say that the ego is over and above the mutually penetrating multiplicity we call e!perience. #nner e!perience is the ego at work. /e appreciate the ego itsel in the act o perceiving, 7udging, and willing. The li e o the ego is a kind o tension caused by the ego invading the environment and the environment invading the ego. The ego does not stand outside this arena o mutual invasion. #t is present in it as a directive energy and is ormed and disciplined by its own e!perience. The Qurn is clear on this directive unction o the ego:

'nd they ask thee o the soul. $ay: the soul proceedeth rom my )ords 4#r S+ommandT: but o
knowledge, only a little to you is given I3@:A=J. #n order to understand the meaning o the word 'mr, we must remember the distinction which the Qurn draws between 4#r and 6halq. ,ringle-,attison deplores that the Hnglish language possesses only one word - creation - to e!press the relation o ;od and the universe o e!tension on the one hand, and the relation o ;od and the human ego on the other. The 'rabic language is, however, more ortunate in this respect. #t has two words: 6halq and 4#r to e!press the two ways in which the creative activity o ;od reveals itsel to us. 6halq is creation% 4#r is direction. 's the Qurn says: To *im belong creation and direction. 55 The verse (uoted above means that the essential nature o the soul is directive, as it proceeds rom the directive energy o ;od, though we do not know how >ivine 4#r unctions as ego-unities. The personal pronoun used in the e!pression Rabb Imy )ordJ throws urther light on the nature and behaviour o the ego. #t is meant to suggest that the soul must be taken as something individual and speci ic, with all the variations in the range, balance, and e ectiveness o its unity. Hvery man acteth a ter his own manner: but your )ord well knoweth who is best guided in his path I3@:A9J. Thus my real personality is not a thing% it is an act. "y e!perience is only a series o acts, mutually re erring to one another, and held together by the unity o a directive purpose. "y whole reality lies in my directive attitude. &ou cannot perceive me like a thing in space, or a set o e!periences in temporal order% you must interpret, understand, and appreciate me in my 7udgements, in my will-attitudes, aims, and aspirations. The ne!t (uestion is: how does the ego emerge within the spatio-temporal order0 58 The teaching o the Qurn is per ectly clear on this point:

6ow o ine clay /e have created man: Then /e placed him, a moist germ, in a sa e abode% then
made /e the moist germ a clot o blood: then made the clotted blood into a piece o lesh% then made the piece o lesh into bones: and /e clothed the bones with lesh% then brought orth man o yet another make.

1lessed, there ore, be ;od - the most e!cellent o makers I58:35-39J.

The yet another make o man develops on the basis o physical organism - that colony o sub-egos through which a pro ounder Hgo constantly acts on me, and thus permits me to build up a systematic unity o e!perience. 're then the soul and its organism two things in the sense o >escartes, independent o each other, though somehow mysteriously united0 # am inclined to think that the hypothesis o matter as an independent e!istence is per ectly gratuitous. #t can be 7usti ied only on the ground o our sensation o which matter is supposed to be at least a part cause, other than mysel . This something other than mysel is supposed to possess certain (ualities, called primary which correspond to certain sensations in me% and # 7usti y my belie in those (ualities on the ground that the cause must have some resemblance with the e ect. 1ut there need be no resemblance between cause and e ect. # my success in li e causes misery to another man, my success and his misery have no resemblance with each other. &et everyday e!perience and physical science proceed on the assumption o an independent e!istence o matter. )et us, there ore, provisionally assume that body and soul are two mutually independent, yet in some mysterious way

united, things. #t was >escartes who irst stated the problem, and # believe his statement and inal view o the problem were largely in luenced by the "anichaean inheritance o early +hristianity. *owever, i they are mutually independent and do not a ect each other, then the changes o both run on e!actly parallel lines, owing to some kind o pre-established harmony, as )eibniz thought. This reduces the soul to a merely passive spectator o the happenings o the body. # , on the other hand, we suppose them to a ect each other, then we cannot ind any observable acts to show how and where e!actly their interaction takes place, and which o the two takes the initiative. The soul is an organ o the body which e!ploits it or physiological purposes, or the body is an instrument o the soul, are e(ually true propositions on the theory o interaction. )anges theory o emotion tends to show that the body takes the initiative in the act o interaction. 59 There are, however, acts to contradict this theory, and it is not possible to detail these acts here. $u ice it to indicate that even i the body takes the initiative, the mind does enter as a consenting actor at a de inite stage in the development o emotion, and this is e(ually true o other e!ternal stimuli which are constantly working on the mind. /hether an emotion will grow urther, or that a stimulus will continue to work, depends on my attending to it. #t is the minds consent which eventually decides the ate o an emotion or a stimulus. Thus parallelism and interaction are both unsatis actory. &et mind and body become one in action. /hen # take up a book rom my table, my act is single and indivisible. #t is impossible to draw a line o cleavage between the share o the body and that o the mind in this act. $omehow they must belong to the same system, and according to the Qurn they do belong to the same system. 5= To *im belong 6halq IcreationJ and 4#r IdirectionJ,5? how is such a thing conceivable0 /e have seen that the body is not a thing situated in an absolute void% it is a system o events or acts. 5@ The system o e!periences we call soul or ego is also a system o acts. This does not obliterate the distinction o soul and body% it only brings them closer to each other. The characteristic o the ego is spontaneity% the acts composing the body repeat themselves. The body is accumulated action or habit o the soul% and as such undetachable rom it. #t is a permanent element o consciousness which, in view o this permanent element, appears rom the outside as something stable. /hat then is matter0 ' colony o egos o a low order out o which emerges the ego o a higher order, when their association and interaction reach a certain degree o coordination. #t is the world reaching the point o sel -guidance wherein the 2ltimate -eality, perhaps, reveals its secret, and urnishes a clue to its ultimate nature. The act that the higher emerges out o the lower does not rob the higher o its worth and dignity. #t is not the origin o a thing that matters, it is the capacity, the signi icance, and the inal reach o the emergent that matter. Hven i we regard the basis o soul-li e as purely physical, it by no means ollows that the emergent can be resolved into what has conditioned its birth and growth. The emergent, as the advocates o the Hmergent Hvolution teach us, is an un oreseeable and novel act on its own plane o being, and cannot be e!plained mechanistically. #ndeed the evolution o li e shows that, though in the beginning the mental is dominated by the physical, the mental, as it grows in power, tends to dominate the physical and may eventually rise to a position o complete independence. 6or is there such a thing as a purely physical level in the sense o possessing a materiality, elementally incapable o evolving the creative synthesis we call li e and mind, and needing a transcendental >eity to impregnate it with the sentient and the mental. The 2ltimate Hgo that makes the emergent emerge is immanent in 6ature, and is described by the Qurn, as the First and the )ast, the Kisible and the #nvisible. 5A This view o the matter raises a very important (uestion. /e have seen that the ego is not something rigid. #t organizes itsel in time, and is ormed and disciplined by its own e!perience. #t is urther clear that streams o causality low into it rom 6ature and rom it to 6ature. >oes the ego then determine its own activity0 # so, how is the sel -determination o the ego related to the determinism o the spatio-temporal order0 #s personal causality a special kind o causality, or only a disguised orm o the mechanism o 6ature0 #t is claimed that the two kinds o determinism are not mutually e!clusive and that the scienti ic method is e(ually applicable to human action. The human act o deliberation is understood to be a con lict o motives which are conceived, not as the egos own present or inherited tendencies o action or inaction, but as so many e!ternal orces ighting one another, gladiator-like, on the arena o the mind. &et the inal choice is regarded as a act determined by the strongest orce, and not by the resultant o contending motives, like a purely physical e ect.5B # am, however, irmly o the opinion that the controversy between the advocates o "echanism and Freedom arises rom a wrong view o intelligent action which modern psychology, unmind ul o its own independence as a science, possessing a special set o acts to observe, was bound to take on account o its slavish imitation o physical sciences. The view that ego-activity is a succession o thoughts and ideas, ultimately resolvable to units o sensations, is only another orm o atomic materialism which orms the basis o modern science. $uch a view could not but raise a strong presumption in avour o a mechanistic interpretation o consciousness. There is, however, some relie in thinking that the new ;erman psychology, known as +on iguration ,sychology, 8D may

succeed in securing the independence o ,sychology as a science, 7ust as the theory o Hmergent Hvolution may eventually bring about the independence o 1iology. This newer ;erman psychology teaches us that a care ul study o intelligent behaviour discloses the act o insight over and above the mere succession o sensations.83 This insight is the egos appreciation o temporal, spatial, and causal relation o things - the choice, that is to say o data, in a comple! whole, in view o the goal or purpose which the ego has set be ore itsel or the time being. #t is this sense o striving in the e!perience o purposive action and the success which # actually achieve in reaching my ends that convince me o my e iciency as a personal cause. The essential eature o a purposive act is its vision o a uture situation which does not appear to admit any e!planation in terms o ,hysiology. The truth is that the causal chain wherein we try to ind a place or the ego is itsel an arti icial construction o the ego or its own purposes. The ego is called upon to live in a comple! environment, and he cannot maintain his li e in it without reducing it to a system which would give him some kind o assurance as to the behaviour o things around him. The view o his environment as a system o cause and e ect is thus an indispensable instrument o the ego, and not a inal e!pression o the nature o -eality. #ndeed in interpreting 6ature in this way the ego understands and masters its environment, and thereby ac(uires and ampli ies its reedom. 85 Thus the element o guidance and directive control in the egos activity clearly shows that the ego is a ree personal causality. *e shares in the li e and reedom o the 2ltimate Hgo who, by permitting the emergence o a inite ego, capable o private initiative, has limited this reedom o *is own ree will. This reedom o conscious behaviour ollows rom the view o ego-activity which the Qurn takes. There are verses which are unmistakably clear on this point:

'nd say: The truth is rom your )ord: )et him, then, who will, believe: and let him who will, be an
unbeliever I3A:5BJ.

# ye do well to your own behoo will ye do well: and i ye do evil against yourselves will ye do it
I3@:@J. #ndeed #slam recognizes a very important act o human psychology, i.e. the rise and all o the power to act reely, and is an!ious to retain the power to act reely as a constant and undiminished actor in the li e o the ego. The timing o the daily prayer which, according to the Qurn, restores sel -possession to the ego by bringing it into closer touch with the ultimate source o li e and reedom, is intended to save the ego rom the mechanizing e ects o sleep and business. ,rayer in #slam is the egos escape rom mechanism to reedom. #t cannot, however, be denied that the idea o destiny runs throughout the Qurn. This point is worth considering, more especially because $pengler in his ,ecline of the $est seems to think that #slam amounts to a complete negation o the ego. 88 # have already e!plained to you my view o Taqd r IdestinyJ as we ind it in the Qurn. 89 's $pengler himsel points out, there are two ways o making the world our own. The one is intellectual% the other, or want o a better e!pression, we may call vital. The intellectual way consists in understanding the world as a rigid system o cause and e ect. The vital is the absolute acceptance o the inevitable necessity o li e, regarded as a whole which in evolving its inner richness creates serial time. This vital way o appropriating the universe is what the Qurn describes as #mn. #mn is not merely a passive belie in one or more propositions o a certain kind% it is living assurance begotten o a rare e!perience. $trong personalities alone are capable o rising to this e!perience and the higher Fatalism implied in it. 6apoleon is reported to have said: # am a thing, not a person. This is one way in which unitive e!perience e!presses itsel . #n the history o religious e!perience in #slam which, according to the ,rophet, consists in the creation o >ivine attributes in man, this e!perience has ound e!pression in such phrases as # am the creative truth IRall7J, # am Time I"uhammadJ, # am the speaking Qurn I'lEJ, ;lory to me I1&azEdJ. #n the higher $u ism o #slam unitive e!perience is not the inite ego e acing its own identity by some sort o absorption into the in inite Hgo% it is rather the #n inite passing into the loving embrace o the inite.8= 's -MmE says:

>ivine knowledge is lost in the knowledge o the saint< 'nd how is it possible or people to believe
in such a thing0 The atalism implied in this attitude is not negation o the ego as $pengler seems to think% it is li e and boundless power which recognizes no obstruction, and can make a man calmly o er his prayers when bullets are showering around him. 1ut is it not true, you will say, that a most degrading type o Fatalism has prevailed in the world o #slam or many centuries0 This is true, and has a history behind it which re(uires separate treatment. #t is su icient here to indicate that the kind o Fatalism which the Huropean critics o #slam sum up in the word Qis#at was due partly to philosophical thought, partly to political

e!pediency, and partly to the gradually diminishing orce o the li e-impulse, which #slam originally imparted to its ollowers. ,hilosophy, searching or the meaning o cause as applied to ;od, and taking time as the essence o the relation between cause and e ect, could not but reach the notion o a transcendent ;od, prior to the universe, and operating upon it rom without. ;od was thus conceived as the last link in the chain o causation, and, conse(uently, the real author o all that happens in the universe. 6ow the practical materialism o the opportunist 2mayyad rulers o >amascus needed a peg on which to hang their misdeeds at Garbal, and to secure the ruits o 'mEr "uwEyyhs revolt against the possibilities o a popular rebellion. "abad is reported to have said to Rasan o 1aVra that the 2mayyads killed "uslims, and attributed their acts to the decrees o ;od. These enemies o ;od, replied Rasan, are liars. 8? Thus arose, in spite o open protests by "uslim divines, a morally degrading Fatalism, and the constitutional theory known as the accomplished act8@ in order to support vested interests. This is not at all surprising. #n our own times philosophers have urnished a kind o intellectual 7usti ication or the inality o the present capitalistic structure o society. *egels view o -eality as an in initude o reason rom which ollows the essential rationality o the real, and 'uguste +omtes society as an organism in which speci ic unctions are eternally assigned to each organ, are instances in point. The same thing appears to have happened in #slam. 1ut since "uslims have always sought the 7usti ication o their varying attitudes in the Qurn, even though at the e!pense o its plain meaning the atalistic interpretation has had very ar-reaching e ects on "uslim peoples. # could, in this conne!ion, (uote several instances o obvious misinterpretation% but the sub7ect re(uires special treatment, and it is time now to turn to the (uestion o immortality. 6o age has produced so much literature on the (uestion o immortality as our own, and this literature is continually increasing in spite o the victories o modern "aterialism. ,urely metaphysical arguments, however, cannot give us a positive belie in personal immortality. #n the history o "uslim thought #bn -ushd approached the (uestion o immortality rom a purely metaphysical point o view, and, # venture to think, achieved no results. *e drew a distinction between sense and intelligence probably because o the e!pressions, )afs and R3h, used in the Qurn. These e!pressions, apparently suggesting a con lict between two opposing principles in man, have misled many a thinker in #slam. *owever, i #bn -ushds dualism was based on the Qurn, then # am a raid he was mistaken% or the word )afs does not seem to have been used in the Qurn in any technical sense o the kind imagined by "uslim theologians. #ntelligence, according to #bn -ushd, is not a orm o the body% it belongs to a di erent order o being, and transcends individuality. #t is, there ore, one, universal, and eternal. This obviously means that, since unitary intellect transcends individuality, its appearance as so many unities in the multiplicity o human persons is a mere illusion. The eternal unity o intellect may mean, as -enan thinks, the everlastingness o humanity and civilization% it does not surely mean personal immortality. 8A #n act #bn -ushds view looks like /illiam Oamess suggestion o a transcendental mechanism o consciousness which operates on a physical medium or a while, and then gives it up in pure sport.8B #n modern times the line o argument or personal immortality is on the whole ethical. 1ut ethical arguments, such as that o Gant, and the modern revisions o his arguments, depend on a kind o aith in the ul ilment o the claims o 7ustice, or in the irreplaceable and uni(ue work o man as an individual pursuer o in inite ideals. /ith Gant immortality is beyond the scope o speculative reason% it is a postulate o practical reason, an a!iom o mans moral consciousness. "an demands and pursues the supreme good which comprises both virtue and happiness. 1ut virtue and happiness, duty and inclination, are, according to Gant, heterogeneous notions. Their unity cannot be achieved within the narrow span o the pursuers li e in this sensible world. /e are, there ore, driven to postulate immortal li e or the persons progressive completion o the unity o the mutually e!clusive notions o virtue and happiness, and the e!istence o ;od eventually to e ectuate this con luence. #t is not clear, however, why the consummation o virtue and happiness should take in inite time, and how ;od can e ectuate the con luence between mutually e!clusive notions. This inconclusiveness o metaphysical arguments has led many thinkers to con ine themselves to meeting the ob7ections o modern "aterialism which re7ects immortality, holding that consciousness is merely a unction o the brain, and there ore ceases with the cessation o the brain-process. /illiam Oames thinks that this ob7ection to immortality is valid only i the unction in (uestion is taken to be productive. 9D The mere act that certain mental changes vary concomitantly with certain bodily changes, does not warrant the in erence that mental changes are produced by bodily changes. The unction is not necessarily productive% it may be permissive or transmissive like the unction o the trigger o a crossbow or that o a re lecting lens. 93 This view which suggests that our inner li e is due to the operation in us o a kind o transcendental mechanism o consciousness, somehow choosing a physical medium or a short period o sport, does not give us any assurance o the continuance o the content o our actual e!perience. # have already indicated in these lectures

the proper way to meet "aterialism. 95 $cience must necessarily select or study certain speci ic aspects o -eality only and e!clude others. #t is pure dogmatism on the part o science to claim that the aspects o -eality selected by it are the only aspects to be studied. 6o doubt man has a spatial aspect% but this is not the only aspect o man. There are other aspects o man, such as evaluation, the unitary character o purposive e!perience, and the pursuit o truth which science must necessarily e!clude rom its study, and the understanding o which re(uires categories other than those employed by science.98 There is, however, in the history o modern thought one positive view o immortality - # mean 6ietzsches doctrine o Hternal -ecurrence. 99 This view deserves some consideration, not only because 6ietzsche has maintained it with a prophetical ervour, but also because it reveals a real tendency in the modern mind. The idea occurred to several minds about the time when it came to 6ietzsche like a poetic inspiration, and the germs o its are also ound in *erbert $pencer. 9= #t was really the power o the idea rather than its logical demonstration that appealed to this modern prophet. This, in itsel , is some evidence o the act that positive views o ultimate things are the work rather o #nspiration than "etaphysics. *owever, 6ietzsche has given his doctrine the orm o a reasoned out theory, and as such # think we are entitled to e!amine it. The doctrine proceeds on the assumption that the (uantity o energy in the universe is constant and conse(uently inite. $pace is only a sub7ective orm% there is no meaning in saying that the world is in space in the sense that it is situated in an absolute empty void. #n his view o time, however, 6ietzsche parts company with Gant and $chopenhauer. Time is not a sub7ective orm% it is a real and in inite process which can be conceived only as ,eriodic. 9? Thus it is clear that there can be no dissipation o energy in an in inite empty space. The centres o this energy are limited in number, and their combination per ectly calculable. There is no beginning or end o this ever-active energy, no e(uilibrium, no irst or last change. $ince time is in inite, there ore all possible combinations o energy-centres have already been e!hausted. There is no new happening in the universe% whatever happens now has happened be ore an in inite number o times, and will continue to happen an in inite number o times in the uture. .n 6ietzsches view the order o happenings in the universe must be i!ed and unalterable% or since an in inite time has passed, the energy-centres must have, by this time, ormed certain de inite modes o behaviour. The very word -ecurrence implies this i!ity. Further, we must conclude that a combination o energy-centres which has once taken place must always return% otherwise there would be no guarantee or the return even o the superman.

Hverything has returned: $irius and the spider, and thy thoughts at this moment and this last
thought o thine that all things will return . . . . Fellow-man< your whole li e, like a sand-glass, will always be reversed, and will ever run out again. This ring in which you are but a gain will glitter a resh or ever.9@ $uch is 6ietzsches Hternal -ecurrence. #t is only a more rigid kind o mechanism, based not on an ascertained act but only on a working hypothesis o science. 6or does 6ietzsche seriously grapple with the (uestion o time. *e takes it ob7ectively and regards it merely as an in inite series o events returning to itsel over and over again. 6ow time, regarded as a perpetual circular movement, makes immortality absolutely intolerable. 6ietzsche himsel eels this, and describes his doctrine, not as one o immortality, but rather as a view o li e which would make immortality endurable. 9A 'nd what makes immortality bearable, according to 6ietzsche0 #t is the e!pectation that a recurrence o the combination o energy-centres which constitutes my personal e!istence is a necessary actor in the birth o that ideal combination which he calls superman. 1ut the superman has been an in inite number o times be ore. *is birth is inevitable% how can the prospect give me any aspiration0 /e can aspire only or what is absolutely new, and the absolutely new is unthinkable on 6ietzsches view which is nothing more than a Fatalism worse than the one summed up in the word Qis#at. $uch a doctrine, ar rom keying up the human organism or the ight o li e, tends to destroy its action-tendencies and rela!es the tension o the ego. 9B ,assing now to the teaching o the Qurn. The Quranic view o the destiny o man is partly ethical, partly biological. # say partly biological because the Qurn makes in this conne!ion certain statements o a biological nature which we cannot understand without a deeper insight into the nature o li e. #t mentions, or instance, the act o /ar7a2h=D - a state, perhaps o some kind o suspense between >eath and -esurrection. -esurrection, too, appears to have been di erently conceived. The Qurn does not base its possibility, like +hristianity, on the evidence o the actual resurrection o an historic person. #t seems to take and argue resurrection as a universal phenomenon o li e, in some sense, true even o birds and animals I?:8AJ. 1e ore, however, we take the details o the Quranic doctrine o personal immortality we must note three things which are per ectly clear rom the Qurn and regarding which there is, or ought to be, no di erence o opinion:

IiJ That the ego has a beginning in time, and did not pre-e!ist its emergence in the spatio-temporal order. This is clear rom the verse which # cited a ew minutes ago. =3 IiiJ That according to the Quranic view, there is no possibility o return to this earth. This is clear rom the ollowing verses:

/hen death overtaketh one o them, he saith, L)ord< send me back again, that # may do the good
that # have le t undone<L 1y no means These are the very words which he shall speak. 1ut behind them is a barrier I/ar7a2hJ, until the day when they shall be raised again I58:BB-3DDJ.

'nd by the moon when at her ull, that rom state to state shall ye be surely carried onward
IA9:3A-3BJ.

The germs o li e - #s it ye who create them0 .r are /e their +reator0 #t is /e /ho have decreed
that death should be among you% yet /e are not thereby hindered rom replacing you with others, your likes, or rom creating you again in orms which ye know not< I=?:=A-?3J. IiiiJ That initude is not a mis ortune:

Kerily there is none in the heavens and in the earth but shall approach the ;od o "ercy as a
servant. *e hath taken note o them and numbered them with e!act numbering: and each o them shall come to *im on the >ay o -esurrection as a single individual I3B:B8-B=J. =5 This is a very important point and must be properly understood with a view to secure a clear insight into the #slamic theory o salvation. #t is with the irreplaceable singleness o his idividuality that the inite ego will approach the in inite ego to see or himsel the conse(uences o his past action and to 7udge the possibilities o his uture.

'nd every mans ate have /e astened about his neck: and on the >ay o -esurrection will /e
bring orthwith to him a book which shall be pro ered to him wide open: L-ead thy book: there needeth none but thysel to make out an account against thee this dayL I3@:38-39J. /hatever may be the inal ate o man it does not mean the loss o individuality. The Qurn does not contemplate complete liberation rom initude as the highest state o human bliss. The unceasing reward=8 o man consists in his gradual growth in sel -possession, in uni(ueness, and intensity o his activity as an ego. Hven the scene o 2niversal >estruction immediately preceding the >ay o Oudgement=9 cannot a ect the per ect calm o a ull-grown ego:

'nd there shall be a blast on the trumpet, and all who are in the heavens and all who are in the
earth shall aint away, save those in whose case ;od wills otherwise I8B:?AJ. == /ho can be the sub7ect o this e!ception but those in whom the ego has reached the very highest point o intensity0 'nd the clima! o this development is reached when the ego is able to retain ull sel -possession, even in the case o a direct contact with the all-embracing Hgo. 's the Qurn says o the ,rophets vision o the 2ltimate Hgo:

*is eye turned not aside, nor did it wander I=8:3@J.

This is the ideal o per ect manhood in #slam. 6owhere has it ound a better literary e!pression than in a ,ersian verse which speaks o the *oly ,rophets e!perience o >ivine illumination:

"oses ainted away by a mere sur ace illumination o -eality. Thou seest the very substance o
-eality with a smile<=? ,antheistic $u ism obviously cannot avour such a view, and suggests di iculties o a philosophical nature. *ow can the #n inite and the inite egos mutually e!clude each other0 +an the inite ego, as such, retain its initude besides the #n inite Hgo0 This di iculty is based on a misunderstanding o the true nature o the #n inite. True in inity does not mean in inite e!tension which cannot be conceived without embracing all available inite e!tensions. #ts nature consists in intensity and not e!tensity% and the moment we i! our gaze on intensity, we begin to see that the inite ego must be distinct, though not isolated, rom the #n inite. H!tensively regarded # am absorbed by the spatiotemporal order to which # belong. #ntensively regarded # consider the same spatio-temporal order as a con ronting other wholly alien to me. # am distinct rom and yet intimately related to that on which # depend or my li e and sustenance. /ith these three points clearly grasped, the rest o the doctrine is easy to conceive. #t is open to man, according to the Qurn, to belong to the meaning o the universe and become immortal.

Thinketh man that he shall be le t as a thing o no use0 /as he not a mere embryo0

Then he became thick blood o which ;od ormed him and ashioned him% and made him twain,
male and emale. #s not ;od power ul enough to (uicken the dead0 I@=:8?-9DJ. #t is highly improbable that a being whose evolution has taken millions o years should be thrown away as a thing o no use. 1ut it is only as an ever-growing ego that he can belong to the meaning o the universe:

1y the soul and *e /ho hath balanced it, and hath shown to it the ways o wickedness and piety,
blessed is he who hath made it grow and undone is he who hath corrupted it IB3:@-BJ. 'nd how to make the soul grow and save it rom corruption0 1y action:

1lessed be *e in /hose hand is the Gingdom< 'nd over all things is *e potent, who hath created
death and li e to test which o you is the best in point o deed% and *e is the "ighty and Forgiving I?@:3-5J.=@ )i e o ers a scope or ego-activity, and death is the irst test o the synthetic activity o the ego. There are no pleasure-giving and pain-giving acts% there are only ego-sustaining and ego-dissolving acts. #t is the deed that prepares the ego or dissolution, or disciplines him or a uture career. The principle o the ego-sustaining deed is respect or the ego in mysel as well as in others. ,ersonal immortality, then, is not ours as o right% it is to be achieved by personal e ort. "an is only a candidate or it. The most depressing error o "aterialism is the supposition that inite consciousness e!hausts its ob7ect. ,hilosophy and science are only one way o approaching that ob7ect. There are other ways o approach open to us% and death, i present action has su iciently orti ied the ego against the shock that physical dissolution brings, is only a kind o passage to what the Qurn describes as /ar7a2h. The records o $u istic e!perience indicate that /ar7a2h is a state o consciousness characterized by a change in the egos attitude towards time and space. There is nothing improbable in it. #t was *elmholtz who irst discovered that nervous e!citation takes time to reach consciousness.=A # this is so, our present physiological structure is at the bottom o our present view o time, and i the ego survives the dissolution o this structure, a change in our attitude towards time and space seems per ectly natural. 6or is such a change wholly unknown to us. The enormous condensation o impressions which occurs in our dream-li e, and the e!altation o memory, which sometimes takes place at the moment o death, disclose the egos capacity or di erent standards o time. The state o /ar7a2h, there ore, does not seem to be merely a passive state o e!pectation% it is a state in which the ego catches a glimpse o resh aspects o -eality, and prepares himsel or ad7ustment to these aspects. #t must be a state o great psychic unhingement, especially in the case o ull-grown egos who have naturally developed i!ed modes o operation on a speci ic spatio-temporal order, and may mean dissolution to less ortunate ones. *owever, the ego must continue to struggle until he is able to gather himsel up, and win his resurrection. The resurrection, there ore, is not an e!ternal event. #t is the consummation o a li e-process within the ego. /hether individual or universal it is nothing more than a kind o stock-taking o the egos past achievements and his uture possibilities. The Qurn argues the phenomenon o re-emergence o the ego on the analogy o his irst emergence:

"an saith: L/hat< ' ter # am dead, shall # in the end be brought orth alive0L >oth not man bear in
mind that /e made him at irst when he was nought0 I3B:??-?@J.

#t is /e /ho have decreed that death should be among you.

&et /e are not thereby hindered rom replacing you with others your likes, or rom producing you in a orm which ye know not< &e have known the irst creation: will you not re lect0 I=?:?D-?5J. *ow did man irst emerge0 This suggestive argument embodied in the last verses o the two passages (uoted above did in act open a new vista to "uslim philosophers. #t was OXiz Id. 5== '.*.J who irst hinted at the changes in animal li e caused by migrations and environment generally.=B The association known as the 1rethren o ,urity urther ampli ied the views o OXiz. ?D #bn "askawaih Id. 953 '.*.J, however, was the irst "uslim thinker to give a clear and in many respects thoroughly modern theory o the origin o man.?3 #t was only natural and per ectly consistent with the spirit o the Qurn, that -MmE regarded the (uestion o immortality as one o biological evolution, and not a problem to be decided by arguments o purely metaphysical nature, as some philosophers o #slam had thought. The theory o evolution, however, has brought despair and an!iety, instead o hope and enthusiasm or li e, to the modern world. The reason is to be ound in the unwarranted modern assumption that mans present structure, mental as well as physiological, is the last word in biological evolution, and that death, regarded as a biological event, has no constructive meaning. The world o today needs a -MmE to create an attitude o hope, and to kindle the ire o enthusiasm or li e. *is inimitable lines may be (uoted here:

First man appeared in the class o inorganic things, 6e!t he passed there rom into that o plants. For years he lived as one o the plants, -emembering naught o his inorganic state so di erent% 'nd when he passed rom the vegetive to the animal state *e had no remembrance o his state as a plant, H!cept the inclination he elt to the world o plants, Hspecially at the time o spring and sweet lowers. )ike the inclination o in ants towards their mothers, /hich know not the cause o their inclination to the breast. 'gain the great +reator, as you know, >rew man out o the animal into the human state. Thus man passed rom one order o nature to another, Till he became wise and knowing and strong as he is now. . his irst souls he has now no remembrance. 'nd he will be again changed rom his present soul.?5 The point, however, which has caused much di erence o opinion among "uslim philosophers and theologians is whether the re-emergence o man involves the re-emergence o his ormer physical medium. "ost o them, including $hh /alE'llh, the last great theologian o #slam, are inclined to think that it does involve at least some kind o physical medium suitable to the egos new environment. #t seems to me that this view is mainly due to the act that the ego, as an individual, is inconceivable without some kind o local re erence or empirical background. The ollowing verses, however, throw some light on the point:

/hat< when dead and turned to dust, shall we rise again0 -emote is such a return. 6ow know /e what the Harth consumeth o them and with 2s is a book in
which account is kept I=D:8-9J.?8 To my mind these verses clearly suggest that the nature o the universe is such that it is open to it to maintain in some other way the kind o individuality necessary or the inal working out o human action, even a ter the disintegration o what appears to speci y his individuality in his present environment. /hat that other way is we do not know. 6or do we gain any urther insight into the nature o the second creation?9 by associating it with some kind o body, however, subtle it may be. The analogies o the Qurn, only suggest it as a act% they are not meant to reveal its nature and character. ,hilosophically speaking, there ore, we cannot go arther than this - that in view o the past history o man it is highly improbable that his career should come to an end with the dissolution o his body. *owever, according to the teaching o the Qurn the egos re-emergence brings him a sharp sight I=D:55J whereby he clearly sees his sel -built ate astened round his neck. ?= *eaven and *ell are states, not localities. Their descriptions in the Qurn are visual representations ?? o an inner act, i.e. character. *ell, in the words o the Qurn, is ;ods kindled ire which mounts above the hearts?@ - the pain ul realization o ones ailure as a man. *eaven is the 7oy o triumph over the orces o disintegration. There is no such thing as eternal damnation in #slam. The word eternity used in certain verses, relating to *ell, is e!plained by the Qurn itsel to mean only a period o time I@A:58J. Time cannot be wholly irrelevant to the development o personality. +haracter tends to become permanent% its reshaping must re(uire time. *ell, there ore, as conceived by the Qurn, is not a pit o everlasting torture?A in licted by a revenge ul ;od% it is a corrective e!perience ?B which may make a hardened ego once more sensitive to the living breeze o >ivine ;race. 6or is heaven a holiday. )i e is one and continuous. "an marches always onward to receive ever resh illuminations rom an #n inite -eality which every moment appears in a new glory. @D 'nd the recipient o >ivine illumination is not merely a passive recipient. Hvery act o a ree ego creates a new situation, and thus o ers urther opportunities o creative un olding.

The $pirit of Musli! Culture "uhammad o 'rabia ascended the highest *eaven and returned. # swear by ;od that i # had
reached that point, # should never have returned. 3 These are the words o a great "uslim saint, 'bdulQuddMs o ;angoh. #n the whole range o $u i literature it will be probably di icult to ind words which, in a single sentence, disclose such an acute perception o the psychological di erence between the prophetic and the mystic types o consciousness. The mystic does not wish to return rom the repose o unitary e!perience% and even when he does return, as he must, his return does not mean much or mankind at large. The prophets return is creative. *e returns to insert himsel into the sweep o time with a view to control the orces o history, and thereby to create a resh world o ideals. For the mystic the repose o unitary e!perience is something inal% or the prophet it is the awakening, within him, o world-shaking psychological orces, calculated to completely trans orm the human world. The desire to see his religious e!perience trans ormed into a living world- orce is supreme in the prophet. Thus his return amounts to a kind o pragmatic test o the value o his religious e!perience. #n its creative act the prophets will 7udges both itsel and the world o concrete act in which it endeavours to ob7ecti y itsel . #n penetrating the impervious material be ore him the prophet discovers himsel or himsel , and unveils himsel to the eye o history. 'nother way o 7udging the value o a prophets religious e!perience, there ore, would be to e!amine the type o manhood that he has created, and the cultural world that has sprung out o the spirit o his message. #n this lecture # want to con ine mysel to the latter alone. The idea is not to give you a description o the achievements o #slam in the domain o knowledge. # want rather to i! your gaze on some o the ruling concepts o the culture o #slam in order to gain an insight into the process o ideation that underlies them, and thus to catch a glimpse o the soul that ound e!pression through them. 1e ore, however, # proceed to do so it is necessary to understand the cultural value o a great idea in #slam - # mean the inality o the institution o prophethood. 5 ' prophet may be de ined as a type o mystic consciousness in which unitary e!perience tends to over low its boundaries, and seeks opportunities o redirecting or re ashioning the orces o collective li e. #n his personality the inite centre o li e sinks into his own in inite depths only to spring up again, with resh vigour, to destroy the old, and to disclose the new directions o li e. This contact with the root o his own being is by no means peculiar to man. #ndeed the way in which the word /aXE IinspirationJ is used in the Qurn shows that the Qurn regards it as a universal property o li e%8 though its nature and character are di erent at di erent stages o the evolution o li e. The plant growing reely in space, the animal developing a new organ to suit a new environment, and a human being receiving light rom the inner depths o li e, are all cases o inspiration varying in character according to the needs o the recipient, or the needs o the species to which the recipient belongs. 6ow during the minority o mankind psychic energy develops what # call prophetic consciousness - a mode o economizing individual thought and choice by providing ready-made 7udgements, choices, and ways o action. /ith the birth o reason and critical aculty, however, li e, in its own interest, inhibits the ormation and growth o non-rational modes o consciousness through which psychic energy lowed at an earlier stage o human evolution. "an is primarily governed by passion and instinct. #nductive reason, which alone makes man master o his environment, is an achievement% and when once born it must be rein orced by inhibiting the growth o other modes o knowledge. There is no doubt that the ancient world produced some great

systems o philosophy at a time when man was comparatively primitive and governed more or less by suggestion. 1ut we must not orget that this system-building in the ancient world was the work o abstract thought which cannot go beyond the systematization o vague religious belie s and traditions, and gives us no hold on the concrete situations o li e. )ooking at the matter rom this point o view, then, the ,rophet o #slam seems to stand between the ancient and the modern world. #n so ar as the source o his revelation is concerned he belongs to the ancient world% in so ar as the spirit o his revelation is concerned he belongs to the modern world. #n him li e discovers other sources o knowledge suitable to its new direction. The birth o #slam, as # hope to be able presently to prove to your satis action, is the birth o inductive intellect. #n #slam prophecy reaches its per ection in discovering the need o its own abolition. 9 This involves the keen perception that li e cannot or ever be kept in leading strings% that, in order to achieve ull sel -consciousness, man must inally be thrown back on his own resources. The abolition o priesthood and hereditary kingship in #slam, the constant appeal to reason and e!perience in the Qurn, and the emphasis that it lays on 6ature and *istory as sources o human knowledge, are all di erent aspects o the same idea o inality. The idea, however, does not mean that mystic e!perience, which (ualitatively does not di er rom the e!perience o the prophet, has now ceased to e!ist as a vital act. #ndeed the Qurn regards both 4nfus Isel J and 8fq IworldJ as sources o knowledge.= ;od reveals *is signs in inner as well as outer e!perience, and it is the duty o man to 7udge the knowledge-yielding capacity o all aspects o e!perience. The idea o inality, there ore, should not be taken to suggest that the ultimate ate o li e is complete displacement o emotion by reason. $uch a thing is neither possible nor desirable. The intellectual value o the idea is that it tends to create an independent critical attitude towards mystic e!perience by generating the belie that all personal authority, claiming a supernatural origin, has come to an end in the history o man. This kind o belie is a psychological orce which inhibits the growth o such authority. The unction o the idea is to open up resh vistas o knowledge in the domain o mans inner e!perience. Oust as the irst hal o the ormula o #slam ? has created and ostered the spirit o a critical observation o mans outer e!perience by divesting the orces o nature o that >ivine character with which earlier cultures had clothed them. "ystic e!perience, then, however unusual and abnormal, must now be regarded by a "uslim as a per ectly natural e!perience, open to critical scrutiny like other aspects o human e!perience. This is clear rom the ,rophets own attitude towards #bn Zayyds psychic e!periences.@ The unction o $u ism in #slam has been to systematize mystic e!perience% though it must be admitted that #bn GhaldMn was the only "uslim who approached it in a thoroughly scienti ic spirit.A 1ut inner e!perience is only one source o human knowledge. 'ccording to the Qurn, there are two other sources o knowledge - 6ature and *istory% and it is in tapping these sources o knowledge that the spirit o #slam is seen at its best. The Qurn sees signs o the 2ltimate -eality in the sun, the moon, the lengthening out o shadows, the alternation o day and night, the variety o human colours and tongues,3D the alternation o the days o success and reverse among peoples - in act in the whole o 6ature as revealed to the sense-perception o man. 'nd the "uslims duty is to re lect on these signs and not to pass by them as i he is dead and blind, or he who does not see these signs in this li e will remain blind to the realities o the li e to come. B This appeal to the concrete combined with the slow realization that, according to the teachings o the Qurn, the universe is dynamic in its origin, inite and capable o increase, eventually brought "uslim thinkers into con lict with ;reek thought which, in the beginning o their intellectual career, they had studied with so much enthusiasm. 6ot realizing that the spirit o the Qurn was essentially anti-classical, and putting ull con idence in ;reek thinkers, their irst impulse was to understand the Qurn in the light o ;reek philosophy. #n view o the concrete spirit o the Qurn, and the speculative nature o ;reek philosophy which en7oyed theory and was neglect ul o act, this attempt was oredoomed to ailure. 'nd it is what ollows their ailure that brings out the real spirit o the culture o #slam, and lays the oundation o modern culture in some o its most important aspects. This intellectual revolt against ;reek philosophy mani ests itsel in all departments o thought. # am a raid # am not competent enough to deal with it as it discloses itsel in "athematics, 'stronomy, and "edicine. #t is clearly visible in the metaphysical thought o the 'sharite, but appears as a most well-de ined phenomenon in the "uslim criticism o ;reek )ogic. This was only natural% or dissatis action with purely speculative philosophy means the search or a surer method o knowledge. #t was, # think, 6aWWm who irst ormulated the principle o doubt as the beginning o all knowledge. ;hazzlE urther ampli ied it in his -evivi ication o the $ciences o -eligion, 3D and prepared the way or >escartes "ethod. 1ut ;hazzlE remained on the whole a ollower o 'ristotle in )ogic. #n his Qists he puts some o the Quranic arguments in the orm o 'ristotelian igures,33 but orgets the Quranic S3rah known as Shuar where the proposition that retribution

ollows the gainsaying o prophets is established by the method o simple enumeration o historical instances. #t was #shr(Eand #bn TaimEyyah who undertook a systematic re utation o ;reek )ogic. 35 'bM 1akr -zE was perhaps the irst to criticize 'ristotles irst igure, 38 and in our own times his ob7ection, conceived in a thoroughly inductive spirit, has been re ormulated by Oohn $tuart "ill. #bn Razm, in his $cope o )ogic, 39 emphasizes sense-perception as a source o knowledge% and #bn TaimEyyah in his -e utation o )ogic, shows that induction is the only orm o reliable argument. Thus arose the method o observation and e!periment. #t was not a merely theoretical a air. 'l1ErMnEs discovery o what we call reaction-time and al-GindEs discovery that sensation is proportionate to the stimulus, are instances o its application in psychology. 3= #t is a mistake to suppose that the e!perimental method is a Huropean discovery. >[ hring tells us that -oger 1acons conceptions o science are more 7ust and clear than those o his celebrated namesake. 'nd where did -oger 1acon receive his scienti ic training0 - #n the "uslim universities o $pain. #ndeed ,art K o his 9pus "a%us which is devoted to ,erspective is practically a copy o #bn *aithams 9ptics.3? 6or is the book, as a whole, lacking in evidences o #bn *azms in luence on its author. 3@ Hurope has been rather slow to recognize the #slamic origin o her scienti ic method. 1ut ull recognition o the act has at last come. )et me (uote one or two passages rom 1ri aults "a2ing of :u#anit+,

. . . it was under their successors at that .! ord school that -oger 1acon learned 'rabic and 'rabic
science. 6either -oger 1acon nor his later namesake has any title to be credited with having introduced the e!perimental method. -oger 1acon was no more than one o the apostles o "uslim science and method to +hristian Hurope% and he never wearied o declaring that a knowledge o 'rabic and 'rabian science was or his contemporaries the only way to true knowledge. >iscussions as to who was the originator o the e!perimental method . . . are part o the colossal misrepresentation o the origins o Huropean civilization. The e!perimental method o the 'rabs was by 1acons time widespread and eagerly cultivated throughout Hurope Ipp. 5DD-D3J. . . .

$cience is the most momentous contribution o 'rab civilization to the modern world, but its ruits
were slow in ripening. 6ot until long a ter "oorish culture had sunk back into darkness did the giant to which it had given birth rise in his might. #t was not science which brought Hurope back to li e. .ther and mani old in luences rom the civilization o #slam communicated its irst glow to Huropean li e Ip. 5D5J.

For although there is not a single aspect o Huropean growth in which the decisive in luence o
#slamic culture is not traceable, nowhere is it so clear and momentous as in the genesis o that power which constitutes the paramount distinctive orce o the modern world, and the supreme source o its victory - natural science and the scienti ic spirit Ip. 3BDJ.

The debt o our science to that o the 'rabs does not consist in startling discoveries or
revolutionary theories% science owes a great deal more to 'rab culture, it owes its e!istence. The ancient world was, as we saw, pre-scienti ic. The astronomy and mathematics o the ;reek were a oreign importation never thoroughly acclimatized in ;reek culture. The ;reeks systematized, generalized, and theorized, but the patient ways o investigation, the accumulation o positive knowledge, the minute methods o science, detailed and prolonged observation, e!perimental in(uiry, were altogether alien to the ;reek temperament. .nly in *ellenistic 'le!andria was any approach to scienti ic work conducted in the ancient classical world. /hat we call science arose in Hurope as a result o a new spirit o in(uiry, o new methods o investigation, o the method o e!periment, observation, measurement, o the development o mathematics in a orm unknown to the ;reeks. That spirit and those methods were introduced into the Huropean world by the 'rabs Ip. 3B3J. The irst important point to note about the spirit o "uslim culture then is that, or purposes o knowledge, it i!es its gaze on the concrete, the inite. #t is urther clear that the birth o the method o observation and e!periment in #slam was due not to a compromise with ;reek thought but to a prolonged intellectual war are with it. #n act, the in luence o the ;reeks who, as 1ri ault says, were interested chie ly in theory, not in act, tended rather to obscure the "uslims vision o the Qurn, and or at least two centuries kept the practical 'rab temperament rom asserting itsel and coming to its own. # want, there ore, de initely to eradicate the misunderstanding that ;reek thought, in any way, determined the character o "uslim culture. ,art o my argument you have seen% part you will see presently. Gnowledge must begin with the concrete. #t is the intellectual capture o and power over the concrete that makes it possible or the intellect o man to pass beyond the concrete. 's the Qurn says:

. company o d7inn and men, i you can overpass the bounds o the heaven and the earth, then

overpass them. 1ut by power alone shall ye overpass them I==:88J. 1ut the universe, as a collection o inite things, presents itsel as a kind o island situated in a pure vacuity to which time, regarded as a series o mutually e!clusive moments, is nothing and does nothing. $uch a vision o the universe leads the re lecting mind nowhere. The thought o a limit to perceptual space and time staggers the mind. The inite, as such, is an idol obstructing the movement o the mind% or, in order to overpass its bounds, the mind must overcome serial time and the pure vacuity o perceptual space. 'nd verily towards thy ;od is the limit, says the Qurn. 3A This verse embodies one o the deepest thoughts in the Qurn% or it de initely suggests that the ultimate limit is to be sought not in the direction o stars, but in an in inite cosmic li e and spirituality. 6ow the intellectual 7ourney towards this ultimate limit is long and arduous% and in this e ort, too, the thought o #slam appears to have moved in a direction entirely di erent to the ;reeks. The ideal o the ;reeks, as $pengler tells us, was proportion, not in inity. The physical presentness o the inite with its well-de ined limits alone absorbed the mind o the ;reeks. #n the history o "uslim culture, on the other hand, we ind that both in the realms o pure intellect and religious psychology, by which term # mean higher $u ism, the ideal revealed is the possession and en7oyment o the #n inite. #n a culture, with such an attitude, the problem o space and time becomes a (uestion o li e and death. #n one o these lectures # have already given you some idea o the way in which the problem o time and space presented itsel to "uslim thinkers, especially the 'sharite. .ne reason why the atomism o >emocritus never became popular in the world o #slam is that it involves the assumption o an absolute space. The 'sharite were, there ore, driven to develop a di erent kind o atomism, and tried to overcome the di iculties o perceptual space in a manner similar to modern atomism. .n the side o "athematics it must be remembered that since the days o ,tolemy I'.>. A@-3?=J till the time o 6aVEr \MsE I'.>. 35D-@9Jnobody gave serious thought to the di iculties o demonstrating the certitude o Huclids parallel postulate on the basis o perceptual space.3B #t was \MsE who irst disturbed the calm which had prevailed in the world o "athematics or a thousand years% and in his e ort to improve the postulate realized the necessity o abandoning perceptual space. *e thus urnished a basis, however slight, or the hyperspace movement o our time.5D #t was, however, al-1ErMnE who, in his approach to the modern mathematical idea o unction saw, rom a purely scienti ic point o view, the insu iciency o a static view o the universe. This again is a clear departure rom the ;reek view. The unction-idea introduces the element o time in our world-picture. #t turns the i!ed into the variable, and sees the universe not as being but as becoming. $pengler thinks that the mathematical idea o unction is the symbol o the /est o which no other culture gives even a hint. 53 #n view o al-1ErMnE, generalizing 6ewtons ormula o interpolation rom trignometrical unction to any unction whatever.55 $penglers claim has no oundation in act. The trans ormation o the ;reek concept o number rom pure magnitude to pure relation really began with GhwrizmEs movement rom 'rithmetic to 'lgebra.58 al-1ErMnE took a de inite step orward towards what $pengler describes as chronological number which signi ies the minds passage rom being to becoming. #ndeed, more recent developments in Huropean mathematics tend rather to deprive time o its living historical character, and to reduce it to a mere representation o space. That is why /hiteheads view o -elativity is likely to appeal to "uslim students more than that o Hinstein in whose theory time loses its character o passage and mysteriously translates itsel into utter space. 59a $ide by side with the progress o mathematical thought in #slam we ind the idea o evolution gradually shaping itsel . #t was OaNhiz who was the irst to note the changes in bird-li e caused by migrations. )ater #bn "askawaih who was a contemporary o al-1ErMnE gave it the shape o a more de inite theory, and adopted it in his theological work - al;Fau7 al;4sghar. # reproduce here the substance o his evolutionary hypothesis, not because o its scienti ic value, but because o the light which it throws on the direction in which "uslim thought was moving. 'ccording to #bn "askawaih plant-li e at the lowest stage o evolution does not need any seed or its birth and growth. 6or does it perpetuate its species by means o the seed. This kind o plant-li e di ers rom minerals only in some little power o movement which grows in higher orms, and reveals itsel urther in that the plant spreads out its branches, and perpetuates its species by means o the seed. The power o movement gradually grows arther until we reach trees which possess a trunk, leaves, and ruit. 't a higher stage o evolution stand orms o plant-li e which need better soil and climate or their growth. The last stage o development is reached in vine and datepalm which stand, as it were, on the threshold o animal li e. #n the date-palm a clear se!-distinction appears. 1esides roots and ibres it develops something which unctions like the animal brain, on the integrity o which depends the li e o the date-palm. This is the highest stage in the development o plant-li e, and a prelude to animal li e. The irst orward step towards animal li e is reedom rom earth-rootedness which is the germ o conscious movement. This is the initial state o animality in which the sense o touch is the irst, and the sense o sight is the last to appear. /ith

the development o the senses o animal ac(uires reedom o movement, as in the case o worms, reptiles, ants, and bees. 'nimality reaches its per ection in the horse among (uadrupeds and the alcon among birds, and inally arrives at the rontier o humanity in the ape which is 7ust a degree below man in the scale o evolution. Further evolution brings physiological changes with a growing power o discrimination and spirituality until humanity passes rom barbarism to civilization. 59b 1ut it is really religious psychology, as in #r(Eand Ghw7ah "uhammad ,rs, 5= which brings us much nearer to our modern ways o looking at the problem o space and time. #r(Es view o timestrati ications # have given you be ore.5? # will now give you the substance o his view o space. 'ccording to #r(E the e!istence o some kind o space in relation to ;od is clear rom the ollowing verses o the Qurn:

>ost thou not see that ;od knoweth all that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth0 Three
persons speak not privately together, but *e is their ourth% nor ive, but *e is their si!th% nor ewer nor more, but wherever they be *e is with them I=A:@J.

&e shall not be employed in a airs, nor shall ye read a te!t out o the Qurn, nor shall ye do any
work, but /e will be witness over you when you are engaged therein% and the weight o an atom on earth or in heaven escapeth not thy )ord% nor is there aught 5@ that is less than this or greater, but it is in the ,erspicuous 1ook I3D:?3J.

/e created man, and /e know what his soul whispereth to him, and /e are closer to him than his
neck-vein I=D:3?J. 1ut we must not orget that the words pro!imity, contact, and mutual separation which apply to material bodies do not apply to ;od. >ivine li e is in touch with the whole universe on the analogy o the souls contact with the body. 5A The soul is neither inside nor outside the body% neither pro!imate to nor separate rom it. &et its contact with every atom o the body is real, and it is impossible to conceive this contact e!cept by positing some kind o space which be its the subtleness o the soul. The e!istence o space in relation to the li e o ;od, there ore, cannot be denied%5B only we should care ully de ine the kind o space which may be predicated o the 'bsoluteness o ;od. 6ow, there are three kinds o space - the space o material bodies, the space o immaterial beings, and the space o ;od. 8D The space o material bodies is urther divided into three kinds. First, the space o gross bodies o which we predicate roominess. #n this space movement takes time, bodies occupy their respective places and resist displacement. $econdly, the space o subtle bodies, e.g. air and sound. #n this space too bodies resist each other, and their movement is measurable in terms o time which, however, appears to be di erent to the time o gross bodies. The air in a tube must be displaced be ore other air can enter into it% and the time o sound-waves is practically nothing compared to the time o gross bodies. Thirdly, we have the space o light. The light o the sun instantly reaches the remotest limits o the earth. Thus in the velocity o light and sound time is reduced almost to zero. #t is, there ore, clear that the space o light is di erent to the space o air and sound. There is, however, a more e ective argument than this. The light o a candle spreads in all directions in a room without displacing the air in the room% and this shows that the space o light is more subtle than the space o air which has no entry into the space o light.83 #n view o the close pro!imity o these spaces, however, it is not possible to distinguish the one rom the other e!cept by purely intellectual analysis and spiritual e!perience. 'gain, in the hot water the two opposites - ire and water - which appear to interpenetrate each other cannot, in view o their respective natures, e!ist in the same space. 85 The act cannot be e!plained e!cept on the supposition that the spaces o the two substances, though closely pro!imate to each other, are nevertheless distinct. 1ut while the element o distance is not entirely absent, there is no possibility o mutual resistance in the space o light. The light o a candle reaches up to a certain point only, and the lights o a hundred candles intermingle in the same room without displacing one another. *aving thus described the spaces o physical bodies possessing various degrees o subtleness #r(E proceeds brie ly to describe the main varieties o space operated upon by the various classes o immaterial beings, e.g. angels. The element o distance is not entirely absent rom these spaces% or immaterial beings, while they can easily pass through stone walls, cannot altogether dispense with motion which, according to #r(E, is evidence o imper ection in spirituality. 88 The highest point in the scale o spatial reedom is reached by the human soul which, in its uni(ue essence, is neither at rest nor in motion.89 Thus passing through the in inite varieties o space we reach the >ivine space which is absolutely ree rom all dimensions and constitutes the meeting point o all in inities.8=

From this summary o #r(Es view you will see how a cultured "uslim $u iNintellectually interpreted his spiritual e!perience o time and space in an age which had no idea o the theories and concepts o modern "athematics and ,hysics. #r(E is really trying to reach the concept o space as a dynamic appearance. *is mind seems to be vaguely struggling with the concept o space as an in inite continuum% yet he was unable to see the ull implications o his thought partly because he was not a mathematician and partly because o his natural pre7udice in avour o the traditional 'ristotelian idea o a i!ed universe. 'gain, the interpenetration o the super-spatial here and super-eternal now in the 2ltimate -eality suggests the modern notion o space-time which ,ro essor 'le!ander, in his lectures on $pace, Time, and >eity, regards as the matri! o all things.8? ' keener insight into the nature o time would have led #r(E to see that time is more undamental o the two% and that it is not a mere metaphor to say, as ,ro essor 'le!ander does say, that time is the mind o space. 8@ #r(E conceives ;ods relation to the universe on the analogy o the relation o the human soul to the body% 8A but, instead o philosophically reaching this position through a criticism o the spatial and temporal aspects o e!perience, he simply postulates it on the basis o his spiritual e!perience. #t is not su icient merely to reduce space and time to a vanishing point-instant. The philosophical path that leads to ;od as the omnipsyche o the universe lies through the discovery o living thought as the ultimate principle o space-time. #r(Es mind, no doubt, moved in the right direction, but his 'ristotelian pre7udices, coupled with a lack o psychological analysis, blocked his progress. /ith his view that >ivine Time is utterly devoid o change8B - a view obviously based on an inade(uate analysis o conscious e!perience - it was not possible or him to discover the relation between >ivine Time and serial time, and to reach, through this discovery, the essentially #slamic idea o continuous creation which means a growing universe. Thus all lines o "uslim thought converge on a dynamic conception o the universe. This view is urther rein orced by #bn "askawaihs theory o li e as an evolutionary movement, and #bn GhaldMns view o history. *istory or, in the language o the Qurn, the days o ;od, is the third source o human knowledge according to the Qurn. #t is one o the most essential teachings o the Qurn that nations are collectively 7udged, and su er or their misdeeds here and now. 9D #n order to establish this proposition, the Qurn constantly cites historical instances, and urges upon the reader to re lect on the past and present e!perience o mankind. L. old did /e send "oses with .ur signs, and said to him: 1ring orth thy people rom the darkness into the light, and remind them o the days o ;od.L Kerily, in this are signs or every patient, grate ul person I39:=J.

'nd among those whom /e had created are a people who guide others with truth, and in
accordance therewith act 7ustly. 1ut as or those who treat .ur signs as lies, /e gradually ring them down by means o which they know not% and though # lengthen their days, verily, "y stratagem is e ectual I@:3A3-A8J.

'lready, be ore your time, have precedents been made. Traverse the Harth then, and see what
hath been the end o those who alsi y the signs o ;od< I8:38@J.

# a wound hath be allen you, a wound like it hath already be allen others% /e alternate the days o
successes and reverses among peoples I8:39DJ.

Hvery nation hath its i!ed period I@:89J.93

The last verse is rather an instance o a more speci ic historical generalization which, in its epigrammatic ormulation, suggests the possibility o a scienti ic treatment o the li e o human societies regarded as organisms. #t is, there ore, a gross error to think that the Qurn has no germs o a historical doctrine. The truth is that the whole spirit o the ,rolegomena o #bn GhaldMn appears to have been mainly due to the inspiration which the author must have received rom the Qurn. Hven in his 7udgements o character he is, in no small degree, indebted to the Qurn. 'n instance in point is his long paragraph devoted to an estimate o the character o the 'rabs as a people. The whole paragraph is a mere ampli ication o the ollowing verses o the Qurn:

The 'rabs o the desert are most stout in unbelie and dissimulation% and likelier it is that they
should be unaware o the laws which ;od hath sent down to *is 'postle% and ;od is Gnowing, /ise.

. the 'rabs o the desert there are some who reckon what they e!pend in the cause o ;od as
tribute, and wait or some change o the *earer, the Gnower IB:B@-BAJ. ortune to be all you: a change or evil shall be all them< ;od is *owever, the interest o the Qurn in history, regarded as a source o human knowledge, e!tends arther than mere indications o historical generalizations. #t has given us one o the most undamental principles o historical criticism: $ince accuracy in recording acts which constitute the

material o history is an indispensable condition o history as a science, and an accurate knowledge o acts ultimately depends on those who report them, the very irst principle o historical criticism is that the reporters personal character is an important actor in 7udging his testimony. The Qurn says:

. believers< i any bad man comes to you with a report, clear it up at once I9B:?J.
#t is the application o the principle embodied in this verse to the reporters o the ,rophets traditions out o which were gradually evolved the canons o historical criticism. The growth o historical sense in #slam is a ascinating sub7ect. 95 The Quranic appeal to e!perience, the necessity to ascertain the e!act sayings o the ,rophet, and the desire to urnish permanent sources o inspiration to posterity - all these orces contributed to produce such men as #bn #sh(, 98 \abarE,99 and "asMdE.9= 1ut history, as an art o iring the readers imagination, is only a stage in the development o history as a genuine science. The possibility o a scienti ic treatment o history means a wider e!perience, a greater maturity o practical reason, and inally a uller realization o certain basic ideas regarding the nature o li e and time. These ideas are in the main two% and both orm the oundation o the Quranic teaching. 3. The 2nity o *uman .rigin. 'nd /e have created you all rom one breath o li e, says the Qurn.9? 1ut the perception o li e as an organic unity is a slow achievement, and depends or its growth on a peoples entry into the main current o world-events. This opportunity was brought to #slam by the rapid development o a vast empire. 6o doubt, +hristianity, long be ore #slam, brought the message o e(uality to mankind% but +hristian -ome did not rise to the ull apprehension o the idea o humanity as a single organism. 's Flint rightly says, 6o +hristian writer and still less, o course, any other in the -oman Hmpire, can be credited with having had more than a general and abstract conception o human unity. 'nd since the days o -ome the idea does not seem to have gained much in depth and rootage in Hurope. .n the other hand, the growth o territorial nationalism, with its emphasis on what is called national characteristics, has tended rather to kill the broad human element in the art and literature o Hurope. #t was (uite otherwise with #slam. *ere the idea was neither a concept o philosophy nor a dream o poetry. 's a social movement the aim o #slam was to make the idea a living actor in the "uslims daily li e, and thus silently and imperceptibly to carry it towards uller ruition. 5. 4 6een Sense of the Realit+ of Ti#e- and the Concept of <ife as a Continuous "o*e#ent in Ti#e . #t is this conception o li e and time which is the main point o interest in #bn GhaldMns view o history, and which 7usti ies Flints eulogy that ,lato, 'ristotle, and 'ugustine were not his peers, and all others were unworthy o being even mentioned along with him. 9@ From the remarks that # have made above # do not mean to throw doubt on the originality o #bn GhaldMn. 'll that # mean to say is that, considering the direction in which the culture o #slam had un olded itsel , only a "uslim could have viewed history as a continuous, collective movement, a real inevitable development in time. The point o interest in this view o history is the way in which #bn GhaldMn conceives the process o change. *is conception is o in inite importance because o the implication that history, as a continuous movement in time, is a genuinely creative movement and not a movement whose path is already determined. #bn GhaldMn was not a metaphysician. #ndeed he was hostile to "etaphysics.9A 1ut in view o the nature o his conception o time he may airly be regarded as a orerunner o 1ergson. # have already discussed the intellectual antecedents o this conception in the cultural history o #slam. The Quranic view o the alternation o day and night 9B as a symbol o the 2ltimate -eality which appears in a resh glory every moment, =D the tendency in "uslim "etaphysics to regard time as ob7ective, #bn "askawaihs view o li e as an evolutionary movement,=3 and lastly al-1ErMnEs de inite approach to the conception o 6ature as a process o becoming=5 - all this constituted the intellectual inheritance o #bn GhaldMn. *is chie merit lies in his acute perception o , and systematic e!pression to, the spirit o the cultural movement o which he was a most brilliant product. #n the work o this genius the anti-classical spirit o the Qurn scores its inal victory over ;reek thought% or with the ;reeks time was either unreal, as in ,lato and Qeno, or moved in a circle, as in *eraclitus and the $toics. =8 /hatever may be the criterion by which to 7udge the orward steps o a creative movement, the movement itsel , i conceived as cyclic, ceases to be creative. Hternal recurrence is not eternal creation% it is eternal repetition. /e are now in a position to see the true signi icance o the intellectual revolt o #slam against ;reek philosophy. The act that this revolt originated in a purely theological interest shows that the anticlassical spirit o the Qurn asserted itsel in spite o those who began with a desire to interpret #slam in the light o ;reek thought. #t now remains to eradicate a grave misunderstanding created by $penglers widely read book, The

,ecline of the $est. *is two chapters devoted to the problem o 'rabian culture =9 constitute a most important contribution to the cultural history o 'sia. They are, however, based on a complete misconception o the nature o #slam as a religious movement, and o the cultural activity which it initiated. $penglers main thesis is that each culture is a speci ic organism, having no point o contact with cultures that historically precede or ollow it. #ndeed, according to him, each culture has its own peculiar way o looking at things which is entirely inaccessible to men belonging to a di erent culture. #n his an!iety to prove this thesis he marshals an overwhelming array o acts and interpretations to show that the spirit o Huropean culture is through and through anti-classical. 'nd this anti-classical spirit o Huropean culture is entirely due to the speci ic genius o Hurope, and not to any inspiration she may have received rom the culture o #slam which, according to $pengler, is thoroughly "agian in spirit and character. $penglers view o the spirit o modern culture is, in my opinion, per ectly correct. # have, however, tried to show in these lectures that the anti-classical spirit o the modern world has really arisen out o the revolt o #slam against ;reek thought. == #t is obvious that such a view cannot be acceptable to $pengler% or, i it is possible to show that the anti-classical spirit o modern culture is due to the inspiration which it received rom the culture immediately preceding it, the whole argument o $pengler regarding the complete mutual independence o cultural growths would collapse. # am a raid $penglers an!iety to establish this thesis has completely perverted his vision o #slam as a cultural movement. 1y the e!pression "agian culture $pengler means the common culture associated with what he calls "agian group o religions, =? i.e. Oudaism, ancient +haldean religion, early +hristianity, Qoroastrianism, and #slam. That a "agian crust has grown over #slam, # do not deny. #ndeed my main purpose in these lectures has been to secure a vision o the spirit o #slam as emancipated rom its "agian overlayings which, in my opinion, have misled $pengler. *is ignorance o "uslim thought on the problem o time, as well as o the way in which the #, as a ree centre o e!perience, has ound e!pression in the religious e!perience o #slam, is simply appalling. =@ #nstead o seeking light rom the history o "uslim thought and e!perience, he pre ers to base his 7udgement on vulgar belie s as to the beginning and end o time. Oust imagine a man o overwhelming learning inding support or the supposed atalism o #slam in such Hastern e!pressions and proverbs as the vault o time,=A and everything has a time<=B *owever, on the origin and growth o the concept o time in #slam, and on the human ego as a ree power, # have said enough in these lectures. #t is obvious that a ull e!amination o $penglers view o #slam, and o the culture that grew out o it, will re(uire a whole volume. #n addition to what # have said be ore, # shall o er here one more observation o a general nature.

The kernel o the prophetic teaching, says $pengler, is already "agian. There is one ;od - be *e
called =ah&eh,?D 4hura#a7da, or "ardu2;/aal - who is the principle o good, and all other deities are either impotent or evil. To this doctrine there attached itsel the hope o a "essiah, very clear in #saiah, but also bursting out everywhere during the ne!t centuries, under pressure o an inner necessity. #t is the basic idea o "agian religion, or it contains implicitly the conception o the world-historical struggle between ;ood and Hvil, with the power o Hvil prevailing in the middle period, and the ;ood inally triumphant on the >ay o Oudgement.?D # this view o the prophetic teaching is meant to apply to #slam it is obviously a misrepresentation. The point to note is that the "agian admitted the e!istence o alse gods% only they did not turn to worship them. #slam denies the very e!istence o alse gods. #n this conne!ion $pengler ails to appreciate the cultural value o the idea o the inality o prophethood in #slam. 6o doubt, one important eature o "agian culture is a perpetual attitude o e!pectation, a constant looking orward to the coming o Qoroasters unborn sons, the "essiah, or the ,araclete o the ourth gospel. # have already indicated the direction in which the student o #slam should seek the cultural meaning o the doctrine o inality in #slam. #t may urther be regarded as a psychological cure or the "agian attitude o constant e!pectation which tends to give a alse view o history. #bn GhaldMn, seeing the spirit o his own view o history, has ully criticized and, # believe, inally demolished the alleged revelational basis in #slam o an idea similar, at least in its psychological e ects, to the original "agian idea which had reappeared in #slam under the pressure o "agian thought.?3

The Principle of Move!ent in the $tructure of #sla!

's a cultural movement #slam re7ects the old static view o the universe, and reaches a dynamic view. 's an emotional system o uni ication it recognizes the worth o the individual as such, and re7ects blood-relationship as a basis o human unity. 1lood-relationship is earth-rootedness. The search or a purely psychological oundation o human unity becomes possible only with the perception that all human li e is spiritual in its origin. 3 $uch a perception is creative o resh loyalties without any ceremonial to keep them alive, and makes it possible or man to emancipate himsel rom the earth. +hristianity which had originally appeared as a monastic order was tried by +onstantine as a system o uni ication. 5 #ts ailure to work as such a system drove the Hmperor Oulian8 to return to the old gods o -ome on which he attempted to put philosophical interpretations. ' modern historian o civilization has thus depicted the state o the civilized world about the time when #slam appeared on the stage o *istory: #t seemed then that the great civilization that it had taken our thousand years to construct was on the verge o disintegration, and that mankind was likely to return to that condition o barbarism where every tribe and sect was against the ne!t, and law and order were unknown . . . The old tribal sanctions had lost their power. *ence the old imperial methods would no longer operate. The new sanctions created by +hristianity were working division and destruction instead o unity and order. #t was a time raught with tragedy. +ivilization, like a gigantic tree whose oliage had overarched the world and whose branches had borne the golden ruits o art and science and literature, stood tottering, its trunk no longer alive with the lowing sap o devotion and reverence, but rotted to the

core, riven by the storms o war, and held together only by the cords o ancient customs and laws, that might snap at any moment. /as there any emotional culture that could be brought in, to gather mankind once more into unity and to save civilization0 This culture must be something o a new type, or the old sanctions and ceremonials were dead, and to build up others o the same kind would be the work o centuries.9 The writer then proceeds to tell us that the world stood in need o a new culture to take the place o the culture o the throne, and the systems o uni ication which were based on blood-relationship. #t is amazing, he adds, that such a culture should have arisen rom 'rabia 7ust at the time when it was most needed. There is, however, nothing amazing in the phenomenon. The world-li e intuitively sees its own needs, and at critical moments de ines its own direction. This is what, in the language o religion, we call prophetic revelation. #t is only natural that #slam should have lashed across the consciousness o a simple people untouched by any o the ancient cultures, and occupying a geographical position where three continents meet together. The new culture inds the oundation o world-unity in the principle o TauhEd. = #slam, as a polity, is only a practical means o making this principle a living actor in the intellectual and emotional li e o mankind. #t demands loyalty to ;od, not to thrones. 'nd since ;od is the ultimate spiritual basis o all li e, loyalty to ;od virtually amounts to mans loyalty to his own ideal nature. The ultimate spiritual basis o all li e, as conceived by #slam, is eternal and reveals itsel in variety and change. ' society based on such a conception o -eality must reconcile, in its li e, the categories o permanence and change. #t must possess eternal principles to regulate its collective li e, or the eternal gives us a oothold in the world o perpetual change. 1ut eternal principles when they are understood to e!clude all possibilities o change which, according to the Qurn, is one o the greatest signs o ;od, tend to immobilize what is essentially mobile in its nature. The ailure o the Hurope in political and social sciences illustrates the ormer principle, the immobility o #slam during the last ive hundred years illustrates the latter. /hat then is the principle o movement in the structure o #slam0 This is known as !%tihd. The word literally means to e!ert. #n the terminology o #slamic law it means to e!ert with a view to orm an independent 7udgement on a legal (uestion. The idea, # believe, has its origin in a wellknown verse o the Qurn - 'nd to those who e!ert /e show .ur path. ? /e ind it more de initely adumbrated in a tradition o the *oly ,rophet. /hen "udh was appointed ruler o &emen, the ,rophet is reported to have asked him as to how he would decide matters coming up be ore him. # will 7udge matters according to the 1ook o ;od, said "udh. 1ut i the 1ook o ;od contains nothing to guide you0 Then # will act on the precedents o the ,rophet o ;od. 1ut i the precedents ail0 Then # will e!ert to orm my own 7udgement. @ The student o the history o #slam, however, is well aware that with the political e!pansion o #slam systematic legal thought became an absolute necessity, and our early doctors o law, both o 'rabian and non-'rabian descent, worked ceaselessly until all the accumulated wealth o legal thought ound a inal e!pression in our recognized schools o )aw. These schools o )aw recognize three degrees o !%tihd: I3J complete authority in legislation which is practically con ined to be ounders o the schools, I5J relative authority which is to be e!ercised within the limits o a particular school, and I8J special authority which relates to the determining o the law applicable to a particular case le t undetermined by the ounders.A #n this paper # am concerned with the irst degree o !%tihd only, i.e. complete authority in legislation. The theoretical possibility o this degree o !%tihd is admitted by the $unniNs, but in practice it has always been denied ever since the establishment o the schools, inasmuch as the idea o complete !%tihd is hedged round by conditions which are well-nigh impossible o realization in a single individual. $uch an attitude seems e!ceedingly strange in a system o law based mainly on the groundwork provided by the Qurn which embodies an essentially dynamic outlook on li e. #t is, there ore, necessary, be ore we proceed arther, to discover the cause o this intellectual attitude which has reduced the )aw o #slam practically to a state o immobility. $ome Huropean writers think that the stationary character o the )aw o #slam is due to the in luence o the Turks. This is an entirely super icial view, or the legal schools o #slam had been inally established long be ore the Turkish in luence began to work in the history o #slam. The real causes are, in my opinion, as ollows: 3. /e are all amiliar with the -ationalist movement which appeared in the church o #slam during the early days o the 'bbasids and the bitter controversies which it raised. Take or instance the one important point o controversy between the two camps - the conservative dogma o the eternity o the Qurn. The -ationalists denied it because they thought that this was only another orm o the +hristian dogma o the eternity o the word% on the other hand, the conservative thinkers whom the later 'bbasids, earing the political implications o -ationalism, gave their ull support, thought that by denying the eternity o the Qurn the -ationalists were undermining the very oundations o "uslim society.B 6aWWm, or instance, practically re7ected the traditions, and openly declared 'bM

*urairah to be an untrustworthy reporter. 3D Thus, partly owing to a misunderstanding o the ultimate motives o -ationalism, and partly owing to the unrestrained thought o particular -ationalists, conservative thinkers regarded this movement as a orce o disintegration, and considered it a danger to the stability o #slam as a social polity. 33 Their main purpose, there ore, was to preserve the social integrity o #slam, and to realize this the only course open to them was to utilize the binding orce o $harEah, and to make the structure o their legal system as rigorous as possible. 5. The rise and growth o ascetic $u ism, which gradually developed under in luences o a non#slamic character, a purely speculative side, is to a large e!tent responsible or this attitude. .n its purely religious side $u ism ostered a kind o revolt against the verbal (uibbles o our early doctors. The case o $u yn ThaurE is an instance in point. *e was one o the acutest legal minds o his time, and was nearly the ounder o a school o law, 35 but being also intensely spiritual, the dryas-dust subtleties o contemporary legists drove him to ascetic $u ism. .n its speculative side which developed later, $u ism is a orm o reethought and in alliance with -ationalism. The emphasis that it laid on the distinction o >hir and b?in I'ppearance and -ealityJ created an attitude o indi erence to all that applies to 'ppearance and not to -eality. 38 This spirit o total other-wordliness in later $u ism obscured mens vision o a very important aspect o #slam as a social polity, and, o ering the prospect o unrestrained thought on its speculative side, it attracted and inally absorbed the best minds in #slam. The "uslim state was thus le t generally in the hands o intellectual mediocrities, and the unthinking masses o #slam, having no personalities o a higher calibre to guide them, ound their security only in blindly ollowing the schools. 8. .n the top o all this came the destruction o 1aghdad - the centre o "uslim intellectual li e - in the middle o the thirteenth century. This was indeed a great blow, and all the contemporary historians o the invasion o Tartars describe the havoc o 1aghdad with a hal -suppressed pessimism about the uture o #slam. For ear o urther disintegration, which is only natural in such a period o political decay, the conservative thinkers o #slam ocused all their e orts on the one point o preserving a uni orm social li e or the people by a 7ealous e!clusion o all innovations in the law o $harEah as e!pounded by the early doctors o #slam. Their leading idea was social order, and there is no doubt that they were partly right, because organization does to a certain e!tent counteract the orces o decay. 1ut they did not see, and our modern 2lem do not see, that the ultimate ate o a people does not depend so much on organization as on the worth and power o individual men. #n an over-organized society the individual is altogether crushed out o e!istence. *e gains the whole wealth o social thought around him and loses his own soul. Thus a alse reverence or past history and its arti icial resurrection constitute no remedy or a peoples decay. The verdict o history, as a modern writer has happily put it, is that worn-out ideas have never risen to power among a people who have worn them out. The only e ective power, there ore, that counteracts the orces o decay in a people is the rearing o sel -concentrated individuals. $uch individuals alone reveal the depth o li e. They disclose new standards in the light o which we begin to see that our environment is not wholly inviolable and re(uires revision. The tendency to overorganization by a alse reverence o the past, as mani ested in the legists o #slam in the thirteenth century and later, was contrary to the inner impulse o #slam, and conse(uently invoked the power ul reaction o #bn TaimEyyah, one o the most inde atigable writers and preachers o #slam, who was born in 35?8, ive years a ter the destruction o 1aghdad. #bn TaimEyyah was brought up in *anbalite tradition. +laiming reedom o !%tihd or himsel he rose in revolt against the inality o the schools, and went back to irst principles in order to make a resh start. )ike #bn Razm - the ounder o ]hirEschool o law 39 - he re7ected the *ana ite principle o reasoning by analogy and !%# as understood by older legists% 3= or he thought agreement was the basis o all superstition.3? 'nd there is no doubt that, considering the moral and intellectual decrepitude o his times, he was right in doing so. #n the si!teenth century $uyMtE claimed the same privilege o !%tihd to which he added the idea o a renovator at the beginning o each century. 3@ 1ut the spirit o #bn TaimEyyahs teaching ound a uller e!pression in a movement o immense potentialities which arose in the eighteenth century, rom the sands o 6e7d, described by "acdonald as the cleanest spot in the decadent world o #slam. #t is really the irst throb o li e in modern #slam. To the inspiration o this movement are traceable, directly or indirectly, nearly all the great modern movements o "uslim 'sia and ' rica, e.g. the $anEsE movement, the ,an-#slamic movement,3A and the 1bE movement, which is only a ,ersian re le! o 'rabian ,rotestantism. The great puritan re ormer, "uhammad #bn 'bd al-/ahhh, who was born in 3@DD, 3B studied in "edina, travelled in ,ersia, and inally succeeded in spreading the ire o his restless soul throughout the whole world o #slam. *e was similar in spirit to ;hazzlEs disciple, "uhammad #bn TMmart 5D - the 1erber puritan re ormer o #slam who appeared amidst the decay o "uslim $pain, and gave her a

resh inspiration. /e are, however, not concerned with the political career o this movement which was terminated by the armies o "uhammad 'lE ,sh. The essential thing to note is the spirit o reedom mani ested in it, though inwardly this movement, too, is conservative in its own ashion. /hile it rises in revolt against the inality o the schools, and vigorously asserts the right o private 7udgement, its vision o the past is wholly uncritical, and in matters o law it mainly alls back on the traditions o the ,rophet. ,assing on to Turkey, we ind that the idea o !%tihd, rein orced and broadened by modern philosophical ideas, has long been working in the religious and political thought o the Turkish nation. This is clear rom Ralim $bits new theory o "uhammadan )aw, grounded on modern sociological concepts. # the renaissance o #slam is a act, and # believe it is a act, we too one day, like the Turks, will have to re-evaluate our intellectual inheritance. 'nd i we cannot make any original contribution to the general thought o #slam, we may, by healthy conservative criticism, serve at least as a check on the rapid movement o liberalism in the world o #slam. # now proceed to give you some idea o religio-political thought in Turkey which will indicate to you how the power o !%tihd is mani ested in recent thought and activity in that country. There were, a short time ago, two main lines o thought in Turkey represented by the 6ationalist ,arty and the ,arty o -eligious -e orm. The point o supreme interest with the 6ationalist ,arty is above all the $tate and not -eligion. /ith these thinkers religion as such has no independent unction. The state is the essential actor in national li e which determines the character and unction o all other actors. They, there ore, re7ect old ideas about the unction o $tate and -eligion, and accentuate the separation o +hurch and $tate. 6ow the structure o #slam as a religio-political system, no doubt, does permit such a view, though personally # think it is a mistake to suppose that the idea o state is more dominant and rules all other ideas embodied in the system o #slam. #n #slam the spiritual and the temporal are not two distinct domains, and the nature o an act, however secular in its import, is determined by the attitude o mind with which the agent does it. #t is the invisible mental background o the act which ultimately determines its character. 53 'n act is temporal or pro ane i it is done in a spirit o detachment rom the in inite comple!ity o li e behind it% it is spiritual i it is inspired by that comple!ity. #n #slam it is the same reality which appears as +hurch looked at rom one point o view and $tate rom another. #t is not true to say that +hurch and $tate are two sides or acets o the same thing. #slam is a single unanalysable reality which is one or the other as your point o view varies. The point is e!tremely ar-reaching and a ull elucidation o it will involve us in a highly philosophical discussion. $u ice it to say that this ancient mistake arose out o the bi urcation o the unity o man into two distinct and separate realities which somehow have a point o contact, but which are in essence opposed to each other. The truth, however, is that matter is spirit in space-time re erence. The unity called man is body when you look at it as acting in regard to what we call the e!ternal world% it is mind or soul when you look at it as acting in regard to the ultimate aim and ideal o such acting. The essence o TauhEd, as a working idea, is e(uality, solidarity, and reedom. The state, rom the #slamic standpoint, is an endeavour to trans orm these ideal principles into space-time orces, an aspiration to realize them in a de inite human organization. #t is in this sense alone that the state in #slam is a theocracy, not in the sense that it is headed by a representative o ;od on earth who can always screen his despotic will behind his supposed in allibility. The critics o #slam have lost sight o this important consideration. The 2ltimate -eality, according to the Qurn, is spiritual, and its li e consists in its temporal activity. The spirit inds its opportunities in the natural, the material, the secular. 'll that is secular is, there ore, sacred in the roots o its being. The greatest service that modern thought has rendered to #slam, and as a matter o act to all religion, consists in its criticism o what we call material or natural - a criticism which discloses that the merely material has no substance until we discover it rooted in the spiritual. There is no such thing as a pro ane world. 'll this immensity o matter constitutes a scope or the sel -realization o spirit. 'll is holy ground. 's the ,rophet so beauti ully puts it: The whole o this earth is a mos(ue. 55 The state, according to #slam, is only an e ort to realize the spiritual in a human organization. 1ut in this sense all state, not based on mere domination and aiming at the realization o ideal principles, is theocratic. The truth is that the Turkish 6ationalists assimilated the idea o the separation o +hurch and $tate rom the history o Huropean political ideas. ,rimitive +hristianity was ounded, not as a political or civil unit, but as a monastic order in a pro ane world, having nothing to do with civil a airs, and obeying the -oman authority practically in all matters. The result o this was that when the $tate became +hristian, $tate and +hurch con ronted each other as distinct powers with interminable boundary disputes between them. $uch a thing could never happen in #slam% or #slam was rom the very beginning a civil society, having received rom the Qurn a set o simple legal principles which, like the twelve tables o the -omans, carried, as e!perience subse(uently proved, great potentialities o e!pansion and development by interpretation. The 6ationalist theory o state, there ore, is misleading inasmuch as it suggests a dualism which does not e!ist in #slam.

The -eligious -e orm ,arty, on the other hand, led by $aEd RalEm ,sh, insisted on the undamental act that #slam is a harmony o idealism and positivism% and, as a unity o the eternal verities o reedom, e(uality, and solidarity, has no atherland. 's there is no Hnglish "athematics, ;erman 'stronomy or French +hemistry, says the ;rand Kizier, so there is no Turkish, 'rabian, ,ersian or #ndian #slam. Oust as the universal character o scienti ic truths engenders varieties o scienti ic national cultures which in their totality represent human knowledge, much in the same way the universal character o #slamic verities creates varieties o national, moral and social ideals. "odern culture based as it is on national egoism is, according to this keen-sighted writer, only another orm o barbarism. #t is the result o an over-developed industrialism through which men satis y their primitive instincts and inclinations. *e, however, deplores that during the course o history the moral and social ideals o #slam have been gradually deislamized through the in luence o local character, and pre-#slamic superstitions o "uslim nations. These ideals today are more #ranian, Turkish, or 'rabian than #slamic. The pure brow o the principle o TauhEd has received more or less an impress o heathenism, and the universal and impersonal character o the ethical ideals o #slam has been lost through a process o localization. The only alternative open to us, then, is to tear o rom #slam the hard crust which has immobilized an essentially dynamic outlook on li e, and to rediscover the original verities o reedom, e(uality, and solidarity with a view to rebuild our moral, social, and political ideals out o their original simplicity and universality. $uch are the views o the ;rand Kizier o Turkey. &ou will see that ollowing a line o thought more in tune with the spirit o #slam, he reaches practically the same conclusion as the 6ationalist ,arty, that is to say, the reedom o !%tihd with a view to rebuild the laws o $harEah in the light o modern thought and e!perience. )et us now see how the ;rand 6ational 'ssembly has e!ercised this power o !%tihd in regard to the institution o Ghil at. 'ccording to $unni )aw, the appointment o an #mam or GhalE ah is absolutely indispensable. The irst (uestion that arises in this conne!ion is this - $hould the +aliphate be vested in a single person0 Turkeys !%tihd is that according to the spirit o #slam the +aliphate or #mamate can be vested in a body o persons, or an elected 'ssembly. The religious doctors o #slam in Hgypt and #ndia, as ar as # know, have not yet e!pressed themselves on this point. ,ersonally, # believe the Turkish view is per ectly sound. #t is hardly necessary to argue this point. The republican orm o government is not only thoroughly consistent with the spirit o #slam, but has also become a necessity in view o the new orces that are set ree in the world o #slam. #n order to understand the Turkish view let us seek the guidance o #bn GhaldMn - the irst philosophical historian o #slam. #bn GhaldMn, in his amous ,rolegomena, mentions three distinct views o the idea o 2niversal +aliphate in #slam 58: I3J That 2niversal #mamate is a >ivine institution, and is conse(uently indispensable. I5J That it is merely a matter o e!pediency. I8J That there is no need o such an institution. The last view was taken by the Ghawri7. 59 #t seems that modern Turkey has shi ted rom the irst to the second view, i.e. to the view o the "utazilah who regarded 2niversal #mamate as a matter o e!pediency only. The Turks argue that in our political thinking we must be guided by our past political e!perience which points unmistakably to the act that the idea o 2niversal #mamate has ailed in practice. #t was a workable idea when the Hmpire o #slam was intact. $ince the break-up o this Hmpire independent political units have arisen. The idea has ceased to be operative and cannot work as a living actor in the organization o modern #slam. Far rom serving any use ul purpose it has really stood in the way o a reunion o independent "uslim $tates. ,ersia has stood aloo rom the Turks in view o her doctrinal di erences regarding the Ghil at% "orocco has always looked askance at them, and 'rabia has cherished private ambition. 'nd all these ruptures in #slam or the sake o a mere symbol o a power which departed long ago. /hy should we not, they can urther argue, learn rom e!perience in our political thinking0 >id not QdE 'bM 1akr 1(ilnE drop the condition o QarshEyat in the 6hal fah in view o the acts o e!perience, i.e. the political all o the Quraish and their conse(uent inability to rule the world o #slam0 +enturies ago #bn GhaldMn, who personally believed in the condition o QarshEyat in the 6hali@fah, argued much in the same way. $ince the power o the Quraish, he says, has gone, there is no alternative but to accept the most power ul man as #maNm in the country where he happens to be power ul. Thus #bn GhaldMn, realizing the hard logic o acts, suggests a view which may be regarded as the irst dim vision o an #nternational #slam airly in sight today. $uch is the attitude o the modern Turk, inspired as he is by the realities o e!perience, and not by the scholastic reasoning o 7urists who lived and thought under di erent conditions o li e. To my mind these arguments, i rightly appreciated, indicate the birth o an #nternational ideal which, though orming the very essence o #slam, has been hitherto over-shadowed or rather displaced by 'rabian #mperialism o the earlier centuries o #slam. This new ideal is clearly re lected in the work o the great nationalist poet ]iy whose songs, inspired by the philosophy o 'uguste +omte, have done a great deal in shaping the present thought o Turkey. # reproduce the substance

o one o his poems rom ,ro essor Fischers ;erman translation: #n order to create a really e ective political unity o #slam, all "uslim countries must irst become independent: and then in their totality they should range themselves under one +aliph. #s such a thing possible at the present moment0 # not today, one must wait. #n the meantime the +aliph must reduce his own house to order and lay the oundations o a workable modern $tate.

#n the #nternational world the weak ind no sympathy% power alone deserves respect. 5=
These lines clearly indicate the trend o modern #slam. For the present every "uslim nation must sink into her own deeper sel , temporarily ocus her vision on hersel alone, until all are strong and power ul to orm a living amily o republics. ' true and living unity, according to the nationalist thinkers, is not so easy as to be achieved by a merely symbolical overlordship. #t is truly mani ested in a multiplicity o ree independent units whose racial rivalries are ad7usted and harmonized by the uni ying bond o a common spiritual aspiration. #t seems to me that ;od is slowly bringing home to us the truth that #slam is neither 6ationalism nor #mperialism but a )eague o 6ations which recognizes arti icial boundaries and racial distinctions or acility o re erence only, 5? and not or restricting the social horizon o its members. From the same poet the ollowing passage rom a poem called -eligion and $cience will throw some urther light on the general religious outlook which is being gradually shaped in the world o #slam today: L/ho were the irst spiritual leaders o mankind0 /ithout doubt the prophets and holy men. #n every period religion has led philosophy% From it alone morality and art receive light. 1ut then religion grows weak, and loses her original ardour< *oly men disappear, and spiritual leadership becomes, in name, the heritage o the >octors o )aw< The leading star o the >octors o )aw is tradition% They drag religion with orce on this track% but philosophy says: "y leading star is reason: you go right, # go le t.L

1oth religion and philosophy claim the soul o man and draw it on either side< /hen this struggle is going on pregnant e!perience delivers up positive science, and this young
leader o thought says, LTradition is history and -eason is the method o history< 1oth interpret and desire to reach the same inde inable something<L

1ut what is this something0

#s it a spiritualized heart0

# so, then take my last word - -eligion is positive science, the purpose o which is to spiritualize the
heart o man<5@ #t is clear rom these lines how beauti ully the poet has adopted the +omtian idea o the three stages o mans intellectual development, i.e. theological, metaphysical and scienti ic - to the religious outlook o #slam. 'nd the view o religion embodied in these lines determines the poets attitude towards the position o 'rabic in the educational system o Turkey. *e says:

The land where the call to prayer resounds in Turkish% where those who pray understand the
meaning o their religion% the land where the Qurn is learnt in Turkish% where every man, big or small, knows ull well the command o ;od% .< $on o Turkey< that land is thy atherland< 5A # the aim o religion is the spiritualization o the heart, then it must penetrate the soul o man, and it can best penetrate the inner man, according to the poet, only i its spiritualizing ideas are clothed in his mother tongue. "ost people in #ndia will condemn this displacement o 'rabic by Turkish. For reasons which will appear later the poets !%tihd is open to grave ob7ections, but it must be admitted that the re orm suggested by him is not without a parallel in the past history o #slam. /e ind that when "uhammad #bn TMmart - the "ahdi o "uslim $pain - who was 1erber by nationality, came to power, and established the ponti ical rule o the "uwaXXidMn, he ordered or the sake o the illiterate 1erbers, that the Qurn should be translated and read in the 1erber language% that the call to prayer should be given in 1erber%5B and that all the unctionaries o the +hurch must know the 1erber language. #n another passage the poet gives his ideal o womanhood. #n his zeal or the e(uality o man and woman he wishes to see radical changes in the amily law o #slam as it is understood and practised today:

There is the woman, my mother, my sister, or my daughter% it is she who calls up the most sacred
emotions rom the depths o my li e< There is my beloved, my sun, my moon and my star% it is she who makes me understand the poetry o li e< *ow could the *oly )aw o ;od regard these beauti ul

creatures as despicable beings0 $urely there is an error in the interpretation o the Qurn by the learned08D

The oundation o the nation and the state is the amily<

's long as the ull worth o the woman is not realized, national li e remains incomplete. The upbringing o the amily must correspond with 7ustice% There ore e(uality is necessary in three things - in divorce, in separation, and in inheritance. 's long as the woman is counted hal the man as regards inheritance and one- ourth o man in matrimony, neither the amily nor the country will be elevated. For other rights we have opened national courts o 7ustice% he amily, on the other hand, we have le t in the hands o schools. # do not know why we have le t the woman in the lurch0 >oes she not work or the land0 .r, will she turn her needle into a sharp bayonet to tear o her rights rom our hands through a revolution083 The truth is that among the "uslim nations o today, Turkey alone has shaken o its dogmatic slumber, and attained to sel -consciousness. $he alone has claimed her right o intellectual reedom% she alone has passed rom the ideal to the real - a transition which entails keen intellectual and moral struggle. To her the growing comple!ities o a mobile and broadening li e are sure to bring new situations suggesting new points o view, and necessitating resh interpretations o principles which are only o an academic interest to a people who have never e!perienced the 7oy o spiritual e!pansion. #t is, # think, the Hnglish thinker *obbes who makes this acute observation that to have a succession o identical thoughts and eelings is to have no thoughts and eelings at all. $uch is the lot o most "uslim countries today. They are mechanically repeating old values, whereas the Turk is on the way to creating new values. *e has passed through great e!periences which have revealed his deeper sel to him. #n him li e has begun to move, change, and ampli y, giving birth to new desires, bringing new di iculties and suggesting new interpretations. The (uestion which con ronts him today, and which is likely to con ront other "uslim countries in the near uture is whether the )aw o #slam is capable o evolution - a (uestion which will re(uire great intellectual e ort, and is sure to be answered in the a irmative, provided the world o #slam approaches it in the spirit o 2mar - the irst critical and independent mind in #slam who, at the last moments o the ,rophet, had the moral courage to utter these remarkable words: The 1ook o ;od is su icient or us.85 /e heartily welcome the liberal movement in modern #slam, but it must also be admitted that the appearance o liberal ideas in #slam constitutes also the most critical moment in the history o #slam. )iberalism has a tendency to act as a orce o disintegration, and the race-idea which appears to be working in modern #slam with greater orce than ever may ultimately wipe o the broad human outlook which "uslim people have imbibed rom their religion. Further, our religious and political re ormers in their zeal or liberalism may overstep the proper limits o re orm in the absence o check on their youth ul ervour. /e are today passing through a period similar to that o the ,rotestant revolution in Hurope, and the lesson which the rise and outcome o )uthers movement teaches should not be lost on us. ' care ul reading o history shows that the -e ormation was essentially a political movement, and the net result o it in Hurope was a gradual displacement o the universal ethics o +hristianity by systems o national ethics. 88 The result o this tendency we have seen with our own eyes in the ;reat Huropean /ar which, ar rom bringing any workable synthesis o the two opposing systems o ethics, has made the Huropean situation still more intolerable. #t is the duty o the leaders o the world o #slam today to understand the real meaning o what has happened in Hurope, and then to move orward with sel -control and a clear insight into the ultimate aims o #slam as a social polity. # have given you some idea o the history and working o !%tihd in modern #slam. # now proceed to see whether the history and structure o the )aw o #slam indicate the possibility o any resh interpretation o its principles. #n other words, the (uestion that # want to raise is - #s the )aw o #slam capable o evolution0 *orten, ,ro essor o $emitic ,hilology at the 2niversity o 1onn, raises the same (uestion in conne!ion with the ,hilosophy and Theology o #slam. -eviewing the work o "uslim thinkers in the sphere o purely religious thought he points out that the history o #slam may aptly be described as a gradual interaction, harmony, and mutual deepening o two distinct orces, i.e. the element o 'ryan culture and knowledge on the one hand, and a $emitic religion on the other. The "uslim has always ad7usted his religious outlook to the elements o culture which he assimilated rom the peoples that surrounded him. From ADD to 33DD, says *orten, not less than one hundred systems o theology appeared in #slam, a act which bears ample testimony to the elasticity o #slamic thought as well as to the ceaseless activity o our early thinkers. Thus, in view o

the revelations o a deeper study o "uslim literature and thought, this living Huropean .rientalist has been driven to the ollowing conclusion: The spirit o #slam is so broad that it is practically boundless. /ith the e!ception o atheistic ideas alone it has assimilated all the attainable ideas o surrounding peoples, and given them its own peculiar direction o development. The assimilative spirit o #slam is even more mani est in the sphere o law. $ays ,ro essor *urgron7e - the >utch critic o #slam: /hen we read the history o the development o "ohammadan )aw we ind that, on the one hand, the doctors o every age, on the slightest stimulus, condemn one another to the point o mutual accusations o heresy% and, on the other hand, the very same people, with greater and greater unity o purpose, try to reconcile the similar (uarrels o their predecessors. These views o modern Huropean critics o #slam make it per ectly clear that, with the return o new li e, the inner catholicity o the spirit o #slam is bound to work itsel out in spite o the rigorous conservatism o our doctors. 'nd # have no doubt that a deeper study o the enormous legal literature o #slam is sure to rid the modern critic o the super icial opinion that the )aw o #slam is stationary and incapable o development. 2n ortunately, the conservative "uslim public o this country is not yet (uite ready or a critical discussion o Fiqh, which, i undertaken, is likely to displease most people, and raise sectarian controversies% yet # venture to o er a ew remarks on the point be ore us. 3. #n the irst place, we should bear in mind that rom the earliest times practically up to the rise o the 'bbasids, there was no written law o #slam apart rom the Qurn. 5. $econdly, it is worthy o note that rom about the middle o the irst century up to the beginning o the ourth not less than nineteen schools o law and legal opinion appeared in #slam. 89 This act alone is su icient to show how incessantly our early doctors o law worked in order to meet the necessities o a growing civilization. /ith the e!pansion o con(uest and the conse(uent widening o the outlook o #slam these early legists had to take a wider view o things, and to study local conditions o li e and habits o new peoples that came within the old o #slam. ' care ul study o the various schools o legal opinion, in the light o contemporary social and political history, reveals that they gradually passed rom the deductive to the inductive attitude in their e orts at interpretation.8= 8. Thirdly, when we study the our accepted sources o "uhammadan )aw and the controversies which they invoked, the supposed rigidity o our recognized schools evaporates and the possibility o a urther evolution becomes per ectly clear. )et us brie ly discuss these sources. IaJ The Qurn. The primary source o the )aw o #slam is the Qurn. The Qurn, however, is not a legal code. #ts main purpose, as # have said be ore, is to awaken in man the higher consciousness o his relation with ;od and the universe. 8? 6o doubt, the Qurn does lay down a ew general principles and rules o a legal nature, especially relating to the amily 8@ - the ultimate basis o social li e. 1ut why are these rules made part o a revelation the ultimate aim o which is mans higher li e0 The answer to this (uestion is urnished by the history o +hristianity which appeared as a power ul reaction against the spirit o legality mani ested in Oudaism. 1y setting up an ideal o otherworldliness it no doubt did succeed in spiritualizing li e, but its individualism could see no spiritual value in the comple!ity o human social relations. ,rimitive +hristianity, says 6aumann in his /riefe 0 ber Religion, attached no value to the preservation o the $tate, law, organization, production. #t simply does not re lect on the conditions o human society. 'nd 6aumann concludes: *ence we either dare to aim at being without a state, and thus throwing ourselves deliberately into the arms o anarchy, or we decide to possess, alongside o our religious creed, a political creed as well.8A Thus the Qurn considers it necessary to unite religion and state, ethics and politics in a single revelation much in the same way as ,lato does in his -epublic. The important point to note in this conne!ion, however, is the dynamic outlook o the Qurn. # have ully discussed its origin and history. #t is obvious that with such an outlook the *oly 1ook o #slam cannot be inimical to the idea o evolution. .nly we should not orget that li e is not change, pure and simple. #t has within it elements o conservation also. /hile en7oying his creative activity, and always ocusing his energies o the discovery o new vistas o li e, man has a eeling o uneasiness in the presence o his own un oldment. #n his orward movement he cannot help looking back to his past, and aces his own inward e!pansion with a certain amount o ear. The spirit o man in its orward movement is restrained by orces which seem to be working in the opposite direction. This is only another way o saying that li e moves with the weight o its own past on its back, and that in any view o social change the value and unction o the orces o conservatism cannot be lost sight

o . #t is with this organic insight into the essential teaching o the Qurn that to approach our e!isting institutions. 6o people can a ord to re7ect their past entirely, or it is their past that has made their personal identity. 'nd in a society like #slam the problem o a revision o old institutions becomes still more delicate, and the responsibility o the re ormer assumes a ar more serious aspect. #slam is non-territorial in its character, and its aim is to urnish a model or the inal combination o humanity by drawing its adherents rom a variety o mutually repellent races, and then trans orming this atomic aggregate into a people possessing a sel -consciousness o their own. This was not an easy task to accomplish. &et #slam, by means o its well-conceived institutions, has succeeded to a very great e!tent in creating something like a collective will and conscience in this heterogeneous mass. #n the evolution o such a society even the immutability o socially harmless rules relating to eating and drinking, purity or impurity, has a li e-value o its own, inasmuch as it tends to give such society a speci ic inwardness, and urther secures that e!ternal and internal uni ormity which counteracts the orces o heterogeneity always latent in a society o a composite character. The critic o these institutions must, there ore, try to secure, be ore he undertakes to handle them, a clear insight into the ultimate signi icance o the social e!periment embodied in #slam. *e must look at their structure, not rom the standpoint o social advantage or disadvantage to this or that country, but rom the point o view o the larger purpose which is being gradually worked out in the li e o mankind as a whole. Turning now to the groundwork o legal principles in the Qurn, it is per ectly clear that ar rom leaving no scope or human thought and legislative activity the intensive breadth o these principles virtually acts as an awakener o human thought. .ur early doctors o law taking their clue mainly rom this groundwork evolved a number o legal systems% and the student o "uhammadan history knows very well that nearly hal the triumphs o #slam as a social and political power were due to the legal acuteness o these doctors. 6e!t to the -omans, says von Gremer, there is no other nation besides the 'rabs which could call its own a system o law so care ully worked out. 1ut with all their comprehensiveness these systems are a ter all individual interpretations, and as such cannot claim any inality. # know the Ale# o #slam claim inality or the popular schools o "uhammadan )aw, though they never ound it possible to deny the theoretical possibility o a complete !%tihd. # have tried to e!plain the causes which, in my opinion, determined this attitude o the Ale#% but since things have changed and the world o #slam is con ronted and a ected today by new orces set ree by the e!traordinary development o human thought in all its directions, # see no reason why this attitude should be maintained any longer. >id the ounders o our schools ever claim inality or their reasonings and interpretations0 6ever. The claim o the present generation o "uslim liberals to reinterpret the oundational legal principles, in the light o their own e!perience and the altered conditions o modern li e is, in my opinion, per ectly 7usti ied. The teaching o the Qurn that li e is a process o progressive creation necessitates that each generation, guided but unhampered by the work o its predecessors, should be permitted to solve its own problems. &ou will, # think, remind me here o the Turkish poet ]iy whom # (uoted a moment ago, and ask whether the e(uality o man and woman demanded by him, e(uality, that is to say, in point o divorce, separation, and inheritance, is possible according to "uhammadan )aw. # do not know whether the awakening o women in Turkey has created demands which cannot be met with without a resh interpretation o oundational principles. #n the ,un7ab, as everybody knows, there have been cases in which "uslim women wishing to get rid o undesirable husbands have been driven to apostasy.8B 6othing could be more distant rom the aims o a missionary religion. The )aw o #slam, says the great $panish 7urist #mm $htibEin his al-"uwa i(t, aims at protecting ive things - , n)afs, 4ql- "l, and )asl.9D 'pplying this test # venture to ask: >oes the working o the rule relating to apostasy, as laid down in the :ed+ah tend to protect the interests o the Faith in this country0 93 #n view o the intense conservatism o the "uslims o #ndia, #ndian 7udges cannot but stick to what are called standard works. The result is that while the peoples are moving the law remains stationary. /ith regard to the Turkish poets demand, # am a raid he does not seem to know much about the amily law o #slam. 6or does he seem to understand the economic signi icance o the Quranic rule o inheritance.95 "arriage, according to "uhammadan )aw, is a civil contract. 98 The wi e at the time o marriage is at liberty to get the husbands power o divorce delegated to her on stated conditions, and thus secure e(uality o divorce with her husband. The re orm suggested by the poet relating to the rule o inheritance is based on a misunderstanding. From the ine(uality o their legal shares it must not be supposed that the rule assumes the superiority o males over emales. $uch an assumption would be contrary to the spirit o #slam. The Qurn says: 'nd or women are rights over men similar to those or men over women I5:55AJ. The share o the daughter is determined not by any in eriority inherent in her, but in view o her

economic opportunities, and the place she occupies in the social structure o which she is a part and parcel. Further, according to the poets own theory o society, the rule o inheritance must be regarded not as an isolated actor in the distribution o wealth, but as one actor among others working together or the same end. /hile the daughter, according to "uhammadan )aw, is held to be ull owner o the property given to her by both the ather and the husband at the time o her marriage% while, urther, she absolutely owns her dower-money which may be prompt or de erred according to her own choice, and in lieu o which she can hold possession o the whole o her husbands property till payment, the responsibility o maintaining her throughout her li e is wholly thrown on the husband. # you 7udge the working o the rule o inheritance rom this point o view, you will ind that there is no material di erence between the economic position o sons and daughters, and it is really by this apparent ine(uality o their legal shares that the law secures the e(uality demanded by the Turkish poet. The truth is that the principles underlying the Quranic law o inheritance - this supremely original branch o "uhammadan )aw as von Gremer describes it have not yet received rom "uslim lawyers the attention they deserve. 99 "odern society with its bitter class-struggles ought to set us thinking% and i we study our laws in re erence to the impending revolution in modern economic li e, we are likely to discover, in the oundational principles, hitherto unrevealed aspects which we can work out with a renewed aith in the wisdom o these principles. IbJ The RadEth. The second great source o "uhammadan )aw is the traditions o the *oly ,rophet. These have been the sub7ect o great discussion both in ancient and modern times. 'mong their modern critics ,ro essor ;oldziher has sub7ected them to a searching e!amination in the light o modern canons o historical criticism, and arrives at the conclusion that they are, on the whole, untrustworthy.9= 'nother Huropean writer, a ter e!amining the "uslim methods o determining the genuineness o a tradition, and pointing out the theoretical possibilities o error, arrives at the ollowing conclusion:

#t must be said in conclusion that the preceding considerations represent only theoretical
possibilities and that the (uestion whether and how ar these possibilities have become actualities is largely a matter o how ar the actual circumstances o ered inducements or making use o the possibilities. >oubtless, the latter, relatively speaking, were ew and a ected only a small proportion o the entire $unnah. #t may there ore be said that . . . or the most part the collections o $unnah considered by the "oslems as canonical are genuine records o the rise and early growth o #slam I"oha##edan Theories of FinanceJ.9? For our present purposes, however, we must distinguish traditions o a purely legal import rom those which are o a non-legal character. /ith regard to the ormer, there arises a very important (uestion as to how ar they embody the pre-#slamic usages o 'rabia which were in some cases le t intact, and in others modi ied by the ,rophet. #t is di icult to make this discovery, or our early writers do not always re er to pre-#slamic usages. 6or is it possible to discover that usages, le t intact by e!press or tacit approval o the ,rophet, were intended to be universal in their application. $hh /alE'llh has a very illuminating discussion on the point. # reproduce here the substance o his view. The prophetic method o teaching, according to $hh /alE'llh, is that, generally speaking, the law revealed by a prophet takes especial notice o the habits, ways, and peculiarities o the people to whom he is speci ically sent. The prophet who aims at all-embracing principles, however, can neither reveal di erent principles or di erent peoples, nor leaves them to work out their own rules o conduct. *is method is to train one particular people, and to use them as a nucleus or the building up o a universal $harEah. #n doing so he accentuates the principles underlying the social li e o all mankind, and applies them to concrete cases in the light o the speci ic habits o the people immediately be ore him. The $harEah values I'XkmJ resulting rom this application Ie.g. rules relating to penalties or crimesJ are in a sense speci ic to that people% and since their observance is not an end in itsel they cannot be strictly en orced in the case o uture generations.9@ #t was perhaps in view o this that 'bM RanE ah, who had, a keen insight into the universal character o #slam, made practically no use o these traditions. The act that he introduced the principle o #stiXsn, i.e. 7uristic pre erence, which necessitates a care ul study o actual conditions in legal thinking, throws urther light on the motives which determined his attitude towards this source o "uhammadan )aw. #t is said that 'bM RanE ah made no use o traditions because there were no regular collections in his day. #n the irst place, it is not true to say that there were no collections in his day, as the collections o 'bd al-"lik and QuhrE were made not less than thirty years be ore the death o 'bM RanE ah. 1ut even i we suppose that these collections never reached him, or that they did not contain traditions o a legal import, 'bM RanE ah, like "lik and 'Xmad #bn Ranbal a ter him, could have easily made his own collection i he had deemed such a thing necessary. .n the whole, then, the attitude o 'bM RanE ah towards the traditions o a purely legal import is to my mind per ectly sound% and i modern )iberalism considers it sa er not to make any indiscriminate use o them as a source o law, it will be only ollowing one o the greatest

e!ponents o "uhammadan )aw in $unni #slam. #t is, however, impossible to deny the act that the traditionists, by insisting on the value o the concrete case as against the tendency to abstract thinking in law, have done the greatest service to the )aw o #slam. 'nd a urther intelligent study o the literature o traditions, i used as indicative o the spirit in which the ,rophet himsel interpreted his -evelation, may still be o great help in understanding the li e-value o the legal principles enunciated in the Qurn. ' complete grasp o their li e-value alone can e(uip us in our endeavour to reinterpret the oundational principles. IcJ The !%#N. The third source o "uhammadan )aw is !%# which is, in my opinion, perhaps the most important legal notion in #slam. #t is, however, strange that this important notion, while invoking great academic discussions in early #slam, remained practically a mere idea, and rarely assumed the orm o a permanent institution in any "uhammadan country. ,ossibly its trans ormation into a permanent legislative institution was contrary to the political interests o the kind o absolute monarchy that grew up in #slam immediately a ter the ourth +aliph. #t was, # think, avourable to the interest o the 2mayyad and the 'bbasid +aliphs to leave the power o !%tihd to individual "u%tahids rather than encourage the ormation o a permanent assembly which might become too power ul or them. #t is, however, e!tremely satis actory to note that the pressure o new world- orces and the political e!perience o Huropean nations are impressing on the mind o modern #slam the value and possibilities o the idea o !%#. The growth o republican spirit and the gradual ormation o legislative assemblies in "uslim lands constitute a great step in advance. The trans er o the power o !%tihd rom individual representatives o schools to a "uslim legislative assembly which, in view o the growth o opposing sects, is the only possible orm !%# can take in modern times, will secure contributions to legal discussion rom laymen who happen to possess a keen insight into a airs. #n this way alone can we stir into activity the dormant spirit o li e in our legal system, and give it an evolutionary outlook. #n #ndia, however, di iculties are likely to arise or it is doubt ul whether a non-"uslim legislative assembly can e!ercise the power o !%tihd. 1ut there are one or two (uestions which must be raised and answered in regard to the !%#. +an the !%# repeal the Qurn0 #t is unnecessary to raise this (uestion be ore a "uslim audience, but # consider it necessary to do so in view o a very misleading statement by a Huropean critic in a book called "oha##edan Theories of Finance - published by the +olumbia 2niversity. The author o this book says, without citing any authority, that according to some *ana E and "utazilah writers the !%# can repeal the Qurn.9A There is not the slightest 7usti ication or such a statement in the legal literature o #slam. 6ot even a tradition o the ,rophet can have any such e ect. #t seems to me that the author is misled by the word 6askh in the writings o our early doctors to whom, as #mm $h^ibEM points out in al-"uwa i(t, vol. iii, p. ?=, this word, when used in discussions relating to the !%# o the companions, meant only the power to e!tend or limit the application o a Quranic rule o law, and not the power to repeal or supersede it by another rule o law. 'nd even in the e!ercise o this power the legal theory, as 'mEdE- a $h iE doctor o law who died about the middle o the seventh century, and whose work is recently published in Hgypt - tells us, is that the companions must have been in possession o a $harEah value I Bu2#J entitling them to such a limitation or e!tension.9B 1ut supposing the companions have unanimously decided a certain point, the urther (uestion is whether later generations are bound by their decision. $hauknE has ully discussed this point, and cited the views held by writers belonging to di erent schools. =D # think it is necessary in this conne!ion to discriminate between a decision relating to a (uestion o act and the one relating to a (uestion o law. #n the ormer case, as or instance, when the (uestion arose whether the two small S3rahs known as "uCa&&idhatn =3 ormed part o the Qurn or not, and the companions unanimously decided that they did, we are bound by their decision, obviously because the companions alone were in a position to know the act. #n the latter case the (uestion is one o interpretation only, and # venture to think, on the authority o GarkhE, that later generations are not bound by the decision o the companions. $ays GarkhE: The $unnah o the companions is binding in matters which cannot be cleared up by Qiys, but it is not so in matters which can be established by Qiys.=5 .ne more (uestion may be asked as to the legislative activity o a modern "uslim assembly which must consist, at least or the present, mostly o men possessing no knowledge o the subtleties o "uhammadan )aw. $uch an assembly may make grave mistakes in their interpretation o law. *ow can we e!clude or at least reduce the possibilities o erroneous interpretation0 The ,ersian constitution o 3BD? provided a separate ecclesiastical committee o Ale# - conversant with the a airs o the world - having power to supervise the legislative activity o the "e%lis. This, in my

opinion, dangerous arrangement is probably necessary in view o the ,ersian constitutional theory. 'ccording to that theory, # believe, the king is a mere custodian o the realm which really belongs to the 'bsent !##. The Ale#, as representatives o the !##, consider themselves entitled to supervise the whole li e o the community, though # ail to understand how, in the absence o an apostolic succession, they establish their claim to represent the !##. 1ut whatever may be the ,ersian constitutional theory, the arrangement is not ree rom danger, and may be tried, i at all, only as a temporary measure in $unnE countries. =8 The Ale# should orm a vital part o a "uslim legislative assembly helping and guiding ree discussion on (uestions relating to law. The only e ective remedy or the possibilities o erroneous interpretations is to re orm the present system o legal education in "uhammadan countries, to e!tend its sphere, and to combine it with an intelligent study o modern 7urisprudence.=9 IdJ The Qi+s. The ourth basis o Fiqh is Qi+s, i.e. the use o analogical reasoning in legislation. #n view o di erent social and agricultural conditions prevailing in the countries con(uered by #slam, the school o 'bM RanE ah seem to have ound, on the whole, little or no guidance rom the precedents recorded in the literature o traditions. The only alternative open to them was to resort to speculative reason in their interpretations. The application o 'ristotelian logic, however, though suggested by the discovery o new conditions in #ra(, was likely to prove e!ceedingly harm ul in the preliminary stages o legal development. The intricate behaviour o li e cannot be sub7ected to hard and ast rules logically deducible rom certain general notions. &et, looked at through the spectacles o 'ristotles logic, it appears to be a mechanism pure and simple with no internal principle o movement. Thus, the school o 'bM RanE ah tended to ignore the creative reedom and arbitrariness o li e, and hoped to build a logically per ect legal system on the lines o pure reason. The legists o Ri7z, however, true to the practical genius o their race, raised strong protests against the scholastic subtleties o the legalists o #ra(, and their tendency to imagine unreal cases which they rightly thought would turn the )aw o #slam into a kind o li eless mechanism. These bitter controversies among the early doctors o #slam led to a critical de inition o the limitations, conditions, and correctives o Qi+s which, though originally appeared as a mere disguise or "u%tahids personal opinion, eventually became a source o li e and movement in the )aw o #slam. The spirit o the acute criticism o "lik and $h iE on 'bM RanE ahs principle o Qi+s, as a source o law, constitutes really an e ective $emitic restraint on the 'ryan tendency to seize the abstract in pre erence to the concrete, to en7oy the idea rather than the event. This was really a controversy between the advocates o deductive and inductive methods in legal research. The legists o #ra( originally emphasized the eternal aspect o the notion, while those o Ri7z laid stress on its temporal aspect. The latter, however, did not see the ull signi icance o their own position, and their instinctive partiality to the legal tradition o Ri7z narrowed their vision to the precedents that had actually happened in the days o the ,rophet and his companions. 6o doubt they recognized the value o the concrete, but at the same time they eternalized it, rarely resorting to Qi+s based on the study o the concrete as such. Their criticism o 'bM RanE ah and his school, however, emancipated the concrete as it were, and brought out the necessity o observing the actual movement and variety o li e in the interpretation o 7uristic principles. Thus the school o 'bM RanE ah which ully assimilated the results o this controversy is absolutely ree in its essential principle and possesses much greater power o creative adaptation than any other school o "uhammadan )aw. 1ut, contrary to the spirit o his own school, the modern *ana E legist has eternalized the interpretations o the ounder or his immediate ollowers much in the same way as the early critics o 'bM RanE ah eternalized the decisions given on concrete cases. ,roperly understood and applied, the essential principle o this school, i.e. Qi+s, as $h iE rightly says, is only another name or !%tihd == which, within the limits o the revealed te!ts, is absolutely ree% and its importance as a principle can be seen rom the act that, according to most o the doctors, as QdE $hauknE tells us, it was permitted even in the li etime o the *oly ,rophet. =? The closing o the door o !%tihd is pure iction suggested partly by the crystallization o legal thought in #slam, and partly by that intellectual laziness which, especially in the period o spiritual decay, turns great thinkers into idols. # some o the later doctors have upheld this iction, modern #slam is not bound by this voluntary surrender o intellectual independence. QarkashE writing in the eighth century o the *i7rah rightly observes:

# the upholders o this iction mean that the previous writers had more acilities, while the later
writers had more di iculties, in their way, it is, nonsense% or it does not re(uire much understanding to see that !%tihd or later doctors is easier than or the earlier doctors. #ndeed the commentaries on the Gorn and sunnah have been compiled and multiplied to such an e!tent that the mu7tahid o today has more material or interpretation than he needs. =@

This brie discussion, # hope, will make it clear to you that neither in the oundational principles nor in the structure o our systems, as we ind them today, is there anything to 7usti y the present attitude. H(uipped with penetrative thought and resh e!perience the world o #slam should courageously proceed to the work o reconstruction be ore them. This work o reconstruction, however, has a ar more serious aspect than mere ad7ustment to modern conditions o li e. The ;reat Huropean /ar bringing in its wake the awakening on Turkey - the element o stability in the world o #slam - as a French writer has recently described her, and the new economic e!periment tried in the neighbourhood o "uslim 'sia, must open our eyes to the inner meaning and destiny o #slam.=A *umanity needs three things today - a spiritual interpretation o the universe, spiritual emancipation o the individual, and basic principles o a universal import directing the evolution o human society on a spiritual basis. "odern Hurope has, no doubt, built idealistic systems on these lines, but e!perience shows that truth revealed through pure reason is incapable o bringing that ire o living conviction which personal revelation alone can bring. This is the reason why pure thought has so little in luenced men, while religion has always elevated individuals, and trans ormed whole societies. The idealism o Hurope never became a living actor in her li e, and the result is a perverted ego seeking itsel through mutually intolerant democracies whose sole unction is to e!ploit the poor in the interest o the rich. 1elieve me, Hurope today is the greatest hindrance in the way o mans ethical advancement. The "uslim, on the other hand, is in possession o these ultimate ideas o the basis o a revelation, which, speaking rom the inmost depths o li e, internalizes its own apparent e!ternality. /ith him the spiritual basis o li e is a matter o conviction or which even the least enlightened man among us can easily lay down his li e% and in view o the basic idea o #slam that there can be no urther revelation binding on man, we ought to be spiritually one o the most emancipated peoples on earth. Harly "uslims emerging out o the spiritual slavery o pre-#slamic 'sia were not in a position to realize the true signi icance o this basic idea. )et the "uslim o today appreciate his position, reconstruct his social li e in the light o ultimate principles, and evolve, out o the hitherto partially revealed purpose o #slam, that spiritual democracy which is the ultimate aim o #slam. =B

#s Religion Possi%le&

1roadly speaking religious li e may be divided into three periods. These may be described as the periods o Faith, Thought, and >iscovery. #n the irst period religious li e appears as a orm o discipline which the individual or a whole people must accept as an unconditional command without any rational understanding o the ultimate meaning and purpose o that command. This attitude may be o great conse(uence in the social and political history o a people, but is not o much conse(uence in so ar as the individuals inner growth and e!pansion are concerned. ,er ect submission to discipline is ollowed by a rational understanding o the discipline and the ultimate source o its authority. #n this period religious li e seeks its oundation in a kind o metaphysics - a logically consistent view o the world with ;od as a part o that view. #n the third period metaphysics is displaced by psychology, and religious li e develops the ambition to come into direct contact with the 2ltimate -eality. #t is here that religion becomes a matter o personal assimilation

o li e and power% and the individual achieves a ree personality, not by releasing himsel rom the etters o the law, but by discovering the ultimate source o the law within the depths o his own consciousness. 's in the words o a "uslim $u i - no understanding o the *oly 1ook is possible until it is actually revealed to the believer 7ust as it was revealed to the ,rophet. 3 #t is, then, in the sense o this last phase in the development o religious li e that # use the word religion in the (uestion that # now propose to raise. -eligion in this sense is known by the un ortunate name o "ysticism, which is supposed to be a li e-denying, act-avoiding attitude o mind directly opposed to the radically empirical outlook o our times. &et higher religion, which is only a search or a larger li e, is essentially e!perience and recognized the necessity o e!perience as its oundation long be ore science learnt to do so. #t is a genuine e ort to clari y human consciousness, and is, as such, as critical o its level o e!perience as 6aturalism is o its own level. 's we all know, it was Gant who irst raised the (uestion: #s metaphysics possible0 5 *e answered this (uestion in the negative% and his argument applies with e(ual orce to the realities in which religion is especially interested. The mani old o sense, according to him, must ul il certain ormal conditions in order to constitute knowledge. The thing-in-itsel is only a limiting idea. #ts unction is merely regulative. # there is some actuality corresponding to the idea, it alls outside the boundaries o e!perience, and conse(uently its e!istence cannot be rationally demonstrated. This verdict o Gant cannot be easily accepted. #t may airly be argued that in view o the more recent developments o science, such as the nature o matter as bottled-up light waves, the idea o the universe as an act o thought, initeness o space and time and *eisenbergs principle o indeterminacy8 in 6ature, the case or a system o rational theology is not so bad as Gant was led to think. 1ut or our present purposes it is unnecessary to consider this point in detail. 's to the thingin-itsel , which is inaccessible to pure reason because o its alling beyond the boundaries o e!perience, Gants verdict can be accepted only i we start with the assumption that all e!perience other than the normal level o e!perience is impossible. The only (uestion, there ore, is whether the normal level is the only level o knowledge-yielding e!perience. Gants view o the thing-in-itsel and the thing as it appears to us very much determined the character o his (uestion regarding the possibility o metaphysics. 1ut what i the position, as understood by him, is reversed0 The great "uslim $u i philosopher, "uhyaddin #bn al-'rabE o $pain, has made the acute observation that ;od is a percept% the world is a concept. 9 'nother "uslim $u i thinker and poet, #r(E, insists on the plurality o space-orders and time-orders and speaks o a >ivine Time and a >ivine $pace. = #t may be that what we call the e!ternal world is only an intellectual construction, and that there are other levels o human e!perience capable o being systematized by other orders o space and time - levels in which concept and analysis do not play the same role as they do in the case o our normal e!perience. #t may, however, be said that the level o e!perience to which concepts are inapplicable cannot yield any knowledge o a universal character, or concepts alone are capable o being socialized. The standpoint o the man who relies on religious e!perience or capturing -eality must always remain individual and incommunicable. This ob7ection has some orce i it is meant to insinuate that the mystic is wholly ruled by his traditional ways, attitudes, and e!pectations. +onservatism is as bad in religion as in any other department o human activity. #t destroys the egos creative reedom and closes up the paths o resh spiritual enterprise. This is the main reason why our medieval mystic techni(ues can no longer produce original discoveries o ancient Truth. The act, however, that religious e!perience is incommunicable does not mean that the religious mans pursuit is utile. #ndeed, the incommunicability o religious e!perience gives us a clue to the ultimate nature o the ego. #n our daily social intercourse we live and move in seclusion, as it were. /e do not care to reach the inmost individuality o men. /e treat them as mere unctions, and approach them rom those aspects o their identity which are capable o conceptual treatment. The clima! o religious li e, however, is the discovery o the ego as an individual deeper than his conceptually describable habitual sel hood. #t is in contact with the "ost -eal that the ego discovers its uni(ueness, its metaphysical status, and the possibility o improvement in that status. $trictly speaking, the e!perience which leads to this discovery is not a conceptually manageable intellectual act% it is a vital act, an attitude conse(uent on an inner biological trans ormation which cannot be captured in the net o logical categories. #t can embody itsel only in a world-making or world-shaking act% and in this orm alone the content o this timeless e!perience can di use itsel in the time-movement, and make itsel e ectively visible to the eye o history. #t seems that the method o dealing with -eality by means o concepts is not at all a serious way o dealing with it. $cience does not care whether its electron is a real entity or not. #t may be a mere symbol, a mere convention. -eligion, which is essentially a mode o actual living, is the only serious way o handing -eality. 's a orm o higher e!perience it is corrective o our concepts o philosophical theology or at least makes us suspicious o the purely rational process which orms these concepts. $cience can a ord to ignore metaphysics altogether, and may even believe it to be a 7usti ied orm o poetry ?, as )ange de ined it, or a legitimate play o grown-ups, as 6ietzsche described it. 1ut the religious

e!pert who seeks to discover his personal status in the constitution o things cannot, in view o the inal aim o his struggle, be satis ied with what science may regard as a vital lie, a mere as-i @ to regulate thought and conduct. #n so ar as the ultimate nature o -eality is concerned, nothing is at stake in the venture o science% in the religious venture the whole career o the ego as an assimilative personal centre o li e and e!perience is at stake. +onduct, which involves a decision o the ultimate ate o the agent cannot be based on illusions. ' wrong concept misleads the understanding% a wrong deed degrades the whole man, and may eventually demolish the structure o the human ego. The mere concept a ects li e only partially% the deed is dynamically related to -eality and issues rom a generally constant attitude o the whole man towards reality. 6o doubt the deed, i.e. the control o psychological and physiological processes with a view to tune up the ego or an immediate contact with the 2ltimate -eality is, and cannot but be, individual in orm and content% yet the deed, too, is liable to be socialized when others begin to live though it with a view to discover or themselves its e ectiveness as a method o approaching the -eal. The evidence o religious e!perts in all ages and countries is that there are potential types o consciousness lying close to our normal consciousness. # these types o consciousness open up possibilities o li egiving and knowledge-yielding e!perience, the (uestion o the possibility o religion as a orm o higher e!perience is a per ectly legitimate one and demands our serious attention. 1ut, apart rom the legitimacy o the (uestion, there are important reasons why it should be raised at the present moment o the history o modern culture. #n the irst place, the scienti ic interest o the (uestion. #t seems that every culture has a orm o 6aturalism peculiar to its own world- eeling% and it urther appears that every orm o 6aturalism ends in some sort o 'tomism. /e have #ndian 'tomism, ;reek 'tomism, "uslim 'tomism, and "odern 'tomism. A "odern 'tomism is, however, uni(ue. #ts amazing mathematics which sees the universe as an elaborate di erential e(uation% and its physics which, ollowing its own methods, has been led to smash some o the old gods o its own temple, have already brought us to the point o asking the (uestion whether the casualty-bound aspect o 6ature is the whole truth about it0 #s not the 2ltimate -eality invading our consciousness rom some other direction as well0 #s the purely intellectual method o overcoming 6ature the only method0 /e have acknowledged, says ,ro essor Hddington,

that the entities o physics can rom their very nature orm only a partial aspect o the reality. *ow
are we to deal with the other part0 #t cannot be said that other part concerns us less than the physical entities. Feelings, purpose, values, made up our consciousness as much as senseimpressions. /e ollow up the sense-impressions and ind that they lead into an e!ternal world discussed by science% we ollow up the other elements o our being and ind that they lead - not into a world o space and time, but surely somewhere.B #n the second place we have to look to the great practical importance o the (uestion. The modern man with his philosophies o criticism and scienti ic specialism inds himsel in a strange predicament. *is 6aturalism has given him an unprecedented control over the orces o 6ature, but has robbed him o aith in his own uture. #t is strange how the same idea a ects di erent cultures di erently. The ormulation o the theory o evolution in the world o #slam brought into being -MmEs tremendous enthusiasm or the biological uture o man. 6o cultured "uslim can read such passages as the ollowing without a thrill o 7oy: )ow in the earth # lived in realms o ore and stone% 'nd then # smiled in many-tinted lowers% Then roving with the wild and wandering hours, .er earth and air and oceans zone, #n a new birth, # dived and lew, 'nd crept and ran, 'nd all the secret o my essence drew /ithin a orm that brought them all to view 'nd lo, a "an< 'nd then my goal, 1eyond the clouds, beyond the sky, #n realms where none may change or die #n angel orm% and then away 1eyond the bounds o night and day, 'nd )i e and >eath, unseen or seen, /here all that is hath ever been, 's .ne and /hole. I-MmE: Thadanis TranslationJ3D

.n the other hand, the ormulation o the same view o evolution with ar greater precision in Hurope has led to the belie that there now appears to be no scienti ic basis or the idea that the present rich comple!ity o human endowment will ever be materially e!ceeded. That is how the modern mans secret despair hides itsel behind the screen o scienti ic terminology. 6ietzsche, although he thought that the idea o evolution did not 7usti y the belie that man was unsurpassable, cannot be regarded as an e!ception in this respect. *is enthusiasm or the uture o man ended in the doctrine o eternal recurrence - perhaps the most hopeless idea o immortality ever ormed by man. This eternal repetition is not eternal becoming% it is the same old idea o being mas(uerading as becoming. Thus, wholly overshadowed by the results o his intellectual activity, the modern man has ceased to live soul ully, i.e. rom within. #n the domain o thought he is living in open con lict with himsel % and in the domain o economic and political li e he is living in open con lict with others. *e inds himsel unable to control his ruthless egoism and his in inite gold-hunger which is gradually killing all higher striving in him and bringing him nothing but li e-weariness. 'bsorbed in the act, that is to say, the optically present source o sensation, he is entirely cut o rom the unplumbed depths o his own being. #n the wake o his systematic materialism has at last come that paralysis o energy which *u!ley apprehended and deplored. The condition o things in the Hast is no better. The techni(ue o medieval mysticism by which religious li e, in its higher mani estations, developed itsel both in the Hast and in the /est has now practically ailed. 'nd in the "uslim Hast it has, perhaps, done ar greater havoc than anywhere else. Far rom reintegrating the orces o the average mans inner li e, and thus preparing him or participation in the march o history, it has taught him a alse renunciation and made him per ectly contented with his ignorance and spiritual thraldom. 6o wonder then that the modern "uslim in Turkey, Hgypt, and ,ersia is led to seek resh sources o energy in the creation o new loyalties, such as patriotism and nationalism which 6ietzsche described as sickness and unreason, and the strongest orce against culture 33. >isappointed o a purely religious method o spiritual renewal which alone brings us into touch with the everlasting ountain o li e and power by e!panding our thought and emotion, the modern "uslim ondly hopes to unlock resh sources o energy by narrowing down his thought and emotion. "odern atheistic socialism, which possesses all the ervour o a new religion, has a broader outlook% but having received its philosophical basis rom the *egelians o the le t wing, it rises in revolt against the very source which could have given it strength and purpose. 1oth nationalism and atheistic socialism, at least in the present state o human ad7ustments, must draw upon the psychological orces o hate, suspicion, and resentment which tend to impoverish the soul o man and close up his hidden sources o spiritual energy. 6either the techni(ue o medieval mysticism, nor nationalism, nor atheistic socialism can cure the ills o a despairing humanity. $urely the present moment is one o great crisis in the history o modern culture. The modern world stands in need o biological renewal. 'nd religion, which in its higher mani estations is neither dogma, nor priesthood, nor ritual, can alone ethically prepare the modern man or the burden o the great responsibility which the advancement o modern science necessarily involves, and restore to him that attitude o aith which makes him capable o winning a personality here and retaining it in herea ter. #t is only by rising to a resh vision o his origin and uture, his whence and whither, that man will eventually triumph over a society motivated by an inhuman competition, and a civilization which has lost its spiritual unity by its inner con lict o religious and political values. 's # have indicated be ore,35 religion as a deliberate enterprise to seize the ultimate principle o value and thereby to reintegrate the orces o ones own personality, is a act which cannot be denied. The whole religious literature o the world, including the records o specialists personal e!periences, though perhaps e!pressed in the thought- orms o an out-o -date psychology, is a standing testimony to it. These e!periences are per ectly natural, like our normal e!periences. The evidence is that they possess a cognitive value or the recipient, and, what is much more important, a capacity to centralize the orces o the ego and thereby to endow him with a new personality. The view that such e!periences are neurotic or mystical will not inally settle the (uestion o their meaning or value. # an outlook beyond physics is possible, we must courageously ace the possibility, even though it may disturb or tend to modi y our normal ways o li e and thought. The interests o truth re(uire that we must abandon our present attitude. #t does not matter in the least i the religious attitude is originally determined by some kind o physiological disorder. ;eorge Fo! may be a neurotic% but who can deny his puri ying power in Hnglands religious li e o his day0 "uhammad, we are told, was a psychopath 38. /ell, i a psychopath has the power to give a resh direction to the course o human history, it is a point o the highest psychological interest to search his original e!perience which has turned slaves into leaders o men, and has inspired the conduct and shaped the career o whole races o mankind. Oudging rom the various types o activity that emanated rom the movement initiated by the ,rophet o #slam, his spiritual tension and the kind o

behaviour which issued rom it, cannot be regarded as a response to a mere antasy inside his brain. #t is impossible to understand it e!cept as a response to an ob7ective situation generative o new enthusiasms, new organizations, new starting-points. # we look at the matter rom the standpoint o anthropology it appears that a psychopath is an important actor in the economy o humanitys social organization. *is way is not to classi y acts and discover causes: he thinks in terms o li e and movement with a view to create new patterns o behaviour or mankind. 6o doubt he has his pit alls and illusions 7ust as the scientist who relies on sense-e!perience has his pit alls and illusions. ' care ul study o his method, however, shows that he is not less alert than the scientist in the matter o eliminating the alloy o illusion rom his e!perience. The (uestion or us outsiders is to ind out an e ective method o in(uiry into the nature and signi icance o this e!traordinary e!perience. The 'rab historian #bn GhaldMn, who laid the oundations o modern scienti ic history, was the irst to seriously approach this side o human psychology and reached what we now call the idea o the subliminal sel . )ater, $ir /illiam *amilton in Hngland and )eibniz in ;ermany interested themselves in some o the more unknown phenomena o the mind. Oung, however, is probably right in thinking that the essential nature o religion is beyond the province o analytic psychology. #n his discussion o the relation o analytic psychology to poetic art, he tells us that the process o artistic orm alone can be the ob7ect o psychology. The essential nature o art, according to him, cannot be the ob7ect o a psychological method o approach. ' distinction, says Oung,

must also be made in the realm o religion% there also a psychological consideration is permissible
only in respect o the emotional and symbolical phenomena o a religion, where the essential nature o religion is in no way involved, as indeed it cannot be. For were this possible, not religion alone, but art also could be treated as a mere sub-division o psychology. 39 &et Oung has violated his own principle more than once in his writings. The result o this procedure is that, instead o giving us a real insight into the essential nature o religion and its meaning or human personality, our modern psychology has given us (uite a plethora o new theories which proceed on a complete misunderstanding o the nature o religion as revealed in its higher mani estations, and carry us in an entirely hopeless direction. The implication o these theories, on the whole, is that religion does not relate the human ego to any ob7ective reality beyond himsel % it is merely a kind o well-meaning biological device calculated to build barriers o an ethical nature round human society in order to protect the social abric against the otherwise unrestrainable instincts o the ego. That is why, according to this newer psychology, +hristianity has already ul illed its biological mission, and it is impossible or the modern man to understand its original signi icance. Oung concludes:

"ost certainly we should still understand it, had our customs even a breath o ancient brutality, or
we can hardly realize in this day the whirlwinds o the unchained libido which roared through the ancient -ome o the +aesars. The civilized man o the present day seems very ar removed rom that. *e has become merely neurotic. $o or us the necessities which brought orth +hristianity have actually been lost, since we no longer understand their meaning. /e do not know against what it had to protect us. For enlightened people, the so-called religiousness has already approached very close to a neurosis. #n the past two thousand years +hristianity has done its work and has erected barriers o repression, which protect us rom the sight o our own sin ulness. 3= This is missing the whole point o higher religious li e. $e!ual sel -restraint is only a preliminary stage in the egos evolution. The ultimate purpose o religious li e is to make this evolution move in a direction ar more important to the destiny o the ego than the moral health o the social abric which orms his present environment. The basic perception rom which religious li e moves orward is the present slender unity o the ego, his liability to dissolution, his amenability to re ormation and the capacity or an ampler reedom to create new situations in known and unknown environments. #n view o this undamental perception higher religious li e i!es its gaze on e!periences symbolic o those subtle movements o -eality which seriously a ect the destiny o the ego as a possibly permanent element in the constitution o -eality. # we look at the matter rom this point o view modern psychology has not yet touched even the outer ringe o religious li e, and is still ar rom the richness and variety o what is called religious e!perience. #n order to give you an idea o its richness and variety # (uote here the substance o a passage rom a great religious genius o the seventeenth century - $haikh 'Xmad o $irhind - whose earless analytical criticism o contemporary $u ism resulted in the development o a new techni(ue. 'll the various system o $u i techni(ue in #ndia came rom +entral 'sia and 'rabia% his is the only techni(ue which crossed the #ndian border and is still a living orce in the ,un7ab, ' ghanistan, and 'siatic -ussia. # am a raid it is not possible or me to e!pound the real meaning o this passage in the language o modern psychology% or such language does not yet e!ist. $ince, however, my ob7ect is simply to give you an idea o the in inite wealth o e!perience which the ego in his >ivine (uest has to si t and pass

through, # do hope you will e!cuse me or the apparently outlandish terminology which possesses a real substance o meaning, but which was ormed under the inspiration o a religious psychology developed in the atmosphere o a di erent culture. +oming now to the passage. The e!perience o one 'bd al-"umin was described to the $haikh as ollows:

*eavens and Harth and ;ods Throne and *ell and ,aradise have all ceased to e!ist or me. /hen #
look round # ind them nowhere. /hen # stand in the presence o somebody # see nobody be ore me: nay even my own being is lost to me. ;od is in inite. 6obody can encompass *im% and this is the e!treme limit o spiritual e!perience. 6o saint has been able to go beyond this. .n this the $haikh replied:

The e!perience which is described has its origin in the ever varying li e o the Qalb% and it appears
to me that the recipient o its has not yet passed even one- ourth o the innumerable $tations o the Qalb. The remaining three- ourths must be passed through in order to inish the e!periences o this irst $tation o spiritual li e. 1eyond this $tation there are other $tations know as R3D- Sirr; i;6haf , and Sirr;i;42hf, each o these $tations which together constitute what is technically called 8la#;i 4#r has its own characteristic states and e!periences. ' ter having passed through these $tations the seeker o truth gradually receives the illuminations o >ivine 6ames and >ivine 'ttributes and inally the illuminations o the >ivine Hssence. 3? /hatever may be the psychological ground o the distinctions made in this passage it gives us at least some idea o a whole universe o inner e!perience as seen by a great re ormer o #slamic $u Esm. 'ccording to him this 8la#;i 4#r, i.e. the world o directive energy, must be passed through be ore one reaches that uni(ue e!perience which symbolizes the purely ob7ective. This is the reason why # say that modern psychology has not yet touched even the outer ringe o the sub7ect. ,ersonally, # do not at all eel hope ul o the present state o things in either biology or psychology. "ere analytical criticism with some understanding o the organic conditions o the imagery in which religious li e has sometimes mani ested itsel is not likely to carry us to the living roots o human personality. 'ssuming that se!-imagery has played a role in the history o religion, or that religion has urnished imaginative means o escape rom, or ad7ustment to, an unpleasant reality - these ways o looking at the matter cannot, in the least, a ect the ultimate aim o religious li e, that is to say, the reconstruction o the inite ego by bringing him into contact with an eternal li e-process, and thus giving him a metaphysical status o which we can have only a partial understanding in the hal -choking atmosphere o our present environment. # , there ore, the science o psychology is ever likely to possess a real signi icance or the li e o mankind, it must develop an independent method calculated to discover a new techni(ue better suited to the temper o our times. ,erhaps a psychopath endowed with a great intellect - the combination is not an impossibility - may give us a clue to such a techni(ue. #n modern Hurope, 6ietzsche, whose li e and activity orm, at least to us Hasterns, an e!ceedingly interesting problem in religious psychology, was endowed with some sort o a constitutional e(uipment or such an undertaking. *is mental history is not without a parallel in the history o Hastern $u Esm. That a really imperative vision o the >ivine in man did come to him, cannot be denied. # call his vision imperative because it appears to have given him a kind o prophetic mentality which, by some kind o techni(ue, aims at turning its visions into permanent li e- orces. &et 6ietzsche was a ailure% and his ailure was mainly due to his intellectual progenitors such as $chopenhauer, >arwin, and )ange whose in luence completely blinded him to the real signi icance o his vision. #nstead o looking or a spiritual rule which would develop the >ivine even in a plebeian and thus open up be ore him an in inite uture, 6ietzsche was driven to seek the realization o his vision in such scheme as aristocratic radicalism. 3@ 's # have said o him elsewhere: The # am which he seeketh, )ieth beyond philosophy, beyond knowledge. The plant that groweth only rom the invisible soil o the heart o man, ;roweth not rom a mere heap o clay<3A Thus ailed a genius whose vision was solely determined by his internal orces, and remained unproductive or want o e!pert e!ternal guidance in his spiritual li e, 3B and the irony o ate is that this man, who appeared to his riends as i he had come rom a country where no man lived, was ully conscious o his great spiritual need. # con ront alone, he says, an immense problem: it is as i # am lost in a orest, a primeval one. # need help. # need disciples: # need a master. 5D #t would be so sweet to obey. 'nd again:

/hy do # not ind among the living men who see higher than # do and have to look down on me0 #s

it only that # have made a poor search0 'nd # have so great a longing or such. The truth is that the religious and the scienti ic processes, though involving di erent methods, are identical in their inal aim. 1oth aim at reaching the most real. #n act, religion% or reasons which # have mentioned be ore, is ar more an!ious to reach the ultimately real than science. 53 'nd to both the way to pure ob7ectivity lies through what may be called the puri ication o e!perience. #n order to understand this we must make a distinction between e!perience as a natural act, signi icant o the normally observable behaviour o -eality, and e!perience as signi icant o the inner nature o -eality. 's a natural act it is e!plained in the light o its antecedents, psychological and physiological% as signi icant o the inner nature o -eality we shall have to apply criteria o a di erent kind to clari y its meaning. #n the domain o science we try to understand its meaning in re erence to the e!ternal behaviour o -eality% in the domain o religion we take it as representative o some kind o -eality and try to discover its meanings in re erence mainly to the inner nature o that -eality. The scienti ic and the religious processes are in a sense parallel to each other. 1oth are really descriptions o the same world with this di erence only that in the scienti ic process the egos standpoint is necessarily e!clusive, whereas in the religious process the ego integrates its competing tendencies and develops a single inclusive attitude resulting in a kind o synthetic trans iguration o his e!periences. ' care ul study o the nature and purpose o these really complementary processes shows that both o them are directed to the puri ication o e!perience in their respective spheres. 'n illustration will make my meaning clear. *umes criticism o our notion o cause must be considered as a chapter in the history o science rather than that o philosophy. True to the spirit o scienti ic empiricism we are not entitled to work with any concepts o a sub7ective nature. The point o *umes criticism is to emancipate empirical science rom the concept o orce which, as he urges, has no oundation in sense-e!perience. This was the irst attempt o the modern mind to puri y the scienti ic process. Hinsteins mathematical view o the universe completes the process o puri ication started by *ume, and, true to the spirit o *umes criticism, dispenses with the concept o orce altogether. 55 The passage # have (uoted rom the great #ndian saint shows that the practical student o religious psychology has a similar puri ication in view. *is sense o ob7ectivity is as keen as that o the scientists in his own sphere o ob7ectivity. *e passes rom e!perience to e!perience, not as a mere spectator, but as a critical si ter o e!perience, who by the rules o a peculiar techni(ue, suited to his sphere o in(uiry, endeavours to eliminate all sub7ective elements, psychological or physiological, in the content o his e!perience with a view inally to reach what is absolutely ob7ective. This inal e!perience is the revelation o a new li e-process - original, essential, spontaneous. The eternal secret o the ego is that the moment he reaches this inal revelation he recognizes it as the ultimate root o his being without the slightest hesitation. &et in the e!perience itsel there is no mystery. 6or is there anything emotional in it. #ndeed with a view to secure a wholly non-emotional e!perience the techni(ue o #slamic $u Esm at least takes good care to orbid the use o music in worship, and to emphasize the necessity o daily congregational prayers in order to counteract the possible anti-social e ects o solitary contemplation. Thus the e!perience reached is a per ectly natural e!perience and possesses a biological signi icance o the highest importance to the ego. #t is the human ego rising higher than mere re lection, and mending its transiency by appropriating the eternal. The only danger to which the ego is e!posed in this >ivine (uest is the possible rela!ation o his activity caused by his en7oyment o and absorption in the e!periences that precede the inal e!perience. The history o Hastern $u Esm shows that this is a real danger. This was the whole point o the re orm movement initiated by the great #ndian saint rom whose writings # have already (uoted a passage. 'nd the reason is obvious. The ultimate aim o the ego is not to see something, but to be something. #t is in the egos e ort to be something that he discovers his inal opportunity to sharpen his ob7ectivity and ac(uire a more undamental # am which inds evidence o its reality not in the +artesian # think but in the Gantian # can. The end o the egos (uest is not emancipation rom the limitations o individuality% it is, on the other hand, a more precise de inition o it. The inal act is not an intellectual act, but a vital act which deepens the whole being o the ego, and sharpens his will with the creative assurance that the world is not something to be merely seen or known through concepts, but something to be made and re-made by continuous action. #t is a moment o supreme bliss and also a moment o the greatest trial or the ego: 'rt thou in the stage o li e. death, or death-in-li e. #nvoke the aid o three witnesses to veri y thy $tation. The $ee The $ee The irst witness is thine own consciousness thysel , then, with thine own light. second witness is the consciousness o another ego thysel , then, with the light o an ego other than thee. third witness is ;ods consciousness -

$ee thysel , then, with ;ods light. # thou standest unshaken in ront o this light, +onsider thysel as living and eternal as *e< That man alone is real who dares >ares to see ;od ace to ace< /hat is 'scension0 .nly a search or a witness /ho may inally con irm thy reality ' witness whose con irmation alone makes thee eternal. 6o one can stand unshaken in *is ,resence% 'nd he who can, verily, he is pure gold. 'rt thou a mere particle o dust0 Tighten the knot o thy ego% 'nd hold ast to thy tiny being< *ow glorious to burnish ones ego. 'nd to test its lustre in the presence o the $un< -e-chisel, then, thine ancient rame% 'nd build up a new being. $uch being is real being% .r else thy ego is a mere ring o smoke< 1*id )#ah

'(TE$ A') REFERE'CE$

*ecture #+ 3. -e erence here is to the ollowing verse rom the mystical allegorical work: "an?iq al;(air Ip. 598, v. =J, generally considered the magnum opus, o one o the greatest su i poets and thinkers FarEd al->En '^^r Id.c. ?3A_355DJ: 5. '. 6. /hitehead, -eligion in the "aking, p. =. 8. #bid., p. @8. 9. + . *. ). 1ergson, +reative Hvolution, pp. 3A@-AA% on this intuition-intellect relation see also 'llama #(bals essay: /edil in the light of /ergson, ed. >r Tehsin Fira(i, pp. 55-58. =. 4llahu##arin haqiq al;ash+2a#h +a, a tradition, in one orm or other, to be ound in wellknown $u istic works, or e!ample, 'lEb. 2thmn al-*u7wayrE, 6ashf al;"aD%3b, p. 3??% "awln Oall al->En -MmE, "athna& ;i "ana& , ii, 9??-?@% iv, 8=?@-?A% v, 3@?=% "aXmMd $habistarE Id.

@5D_385DJ, Eulshan;i R7, verse 5DD, and 'bd al--aXmn OmE Id. ABA_39B5J, <a&ih, p. 8. ?. Qurn, 3?:?A-?B. @. #bid., 5:3?9% 59:98-99% 8D:9A% 8=:B% 9=:=. A. #bid., 3=:3?% 5=:?% 8@:?% 93:35% =D:?% ?@:=% A=:3. B. #bid., 53:88% 8?:9D. 3D. + . F. ". +orn ord: Platos Theor+ of 6no&ledge, pp. 5B%3DB% also 1ertrand -ussell: :istor+ of $estern Philosoph+, chapter: Gnowledge and ,erception in ,lato. 33. Qurn, 3?:@A% 58:@A% 85:B% ?@:58. 35. #bid., 3@:8?. -e erences here, as also at other places in the <ectures, to a dozen Quranic verses in two sentences bespeak o what is uppermost in 'llama #(bals mind, i.e. Quranic empiricism which by its very nature gives rise to a $eltanschauung o the highest religious order. *e tells us, or e!ample, that the general empirical attitude o the QuraNn engenders a eeling o reverence or the actual and that one way o entering into relation with -eality is through re lective observation and control o its perceptually revealed symbols Ic . below, pp. 33-35, italics mine% also )ecture K, p. 3D5, not BJ. 38. For anti-classicism o the Qurn c . "azheruddEn Ziddi(E, Concept of "usli# Culture in !qbal, pp. 38-5=% also )ecture K, note 53. 39. $ee -. '. Tsano , The Proble# of !##ortalit+ Ia work listed at $. 6o. 8@ in the ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+ J, pp. @=-@@% c . also 1. *. Qedler, 'verroes and #mmortality, )e& Scholasticis# I3B=9J, pp. 98?-=8. #t is to be noted that Tsano marshals the views o $. "unk I"F langes de philosophie, pp. 9=9 .J, H. -enan I4*erroes et !a*errois#e, pp. 3=5, 3=AJ, ' $tockl IEeschichte der Philosophie des "ittelalters, 33, 33@, 33BJ, de 1oer IEeschichte der Philosophie, p. 3@8J and ". *orten I,ie :auptlehren des 4*erroes, pp. 599 .J as against those o +arra de Kau! as presented by him in his work 'vicenne, pp. 588 ., as well as in the article: 'verroes in Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 5?9-?=, and clinches the matter thus: certainly - and this is more signi icant or our purpose - it was as a denier o personal immortality that scholasticism received and criticised 'verroes Ip. @@, ##, 3?-3BJ. For a recent and more balanced view o #bn -ushds doctrine o immortality, c . -oger 'rnaldez and '. Q. #skander, #bn -ushd, ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, U##, @a-@b. #t is to be noted, however, that ". H. "armura in his article on $oul: #slamic +oncepts in The Enc+clopedia of Religion, U###, 9?= clearly avers that #bn -ushds commentaries on 'ristotle leave no room or a doctrine o individual immortality. 3=. + . Tsano , op. cit., pp. @@-A9, and ". &Mnus Farangi "ahallE, !bn Rushd I2rdu% partly based on -enans 4*erroes et la*errois#eJ, pp. 89@-=B. 3?. $ee )ecture #K, pp. B8-BA, and )ecture K##, pp. 3=?-=@. 3@. -e erence is to the e!pression lawX-in mah Mzin used in the Quranic verse A=:55. For the interpretation this uni(ue e!pression o the Qurn see ". 'sad, The "essage of the Qurn, p. B98, note% and Fazlur -ahman, "a7or Themes o the QuraNn, p. BA - the latter seems to come (uite close to 'llama #(bals generally very keen perception o the meanings o the Qurn. 3A. This comes (uite close to the contemporary French philosopher )ouis -ougiers statement in his Philosoph+ and the )e& Ph+sics p. 39?, ##, 3@-53. This work, listed at $. 6o. 3= in the ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+ , is cited in )ecture ###, p. =B. 3B. -e erence here is to Tev Ek Fikret, pseudonym o "ehmed Tev ik, also known as Tev ik 6azmE, and not to Taw ik Fitrat as it got printed in the previous editions o the present work. Fikret, widely considered the ounder o the modern school o Turkish poetry and remembered among other works or his collection o poems: -ubb-i $hikeste IThe 1roken )uteJ, died in #stanbul on 3A 'ugust 3B3= at the age o orty-eight. For an account o Fikrets literary career and his anti-religious views, c . 6iyazi 1erkes, The ,e*elop#ent of Secularis# in Tur2e+, pp. 8DD-D5 and 88A-8B% also *aydar 'li >iriozs brie paper in Turkish on Fikrets birth-centenary translated by >r ". *. 6ot(i in 1ournal of the Regional Cultural !nstitute, 3_9 I'utumn 3B?AJ, 35-3=. #t is or Turkish-,ersian scholars to determine the e!tent to which Fikret made use o the great poetthinker 1edil Id. 3388_3@53J or the anti-religious and especially anti-#slamic propaganda in +entral 'sia. 'mong very many works on both 1edil and Fikret that have appeared since 'llamas days and

are likely to receive the scholars attention, mention must be made o 'llamas own short perceptive study: 1edil in the )ight o 1ergson, and unpublished essay in 'llamas hand I5D oliosJ preserved in the 'llama #(bal "useum I)ahoreJ% c . >r 'hmad 6abi Ghan, Relics of 4lla#a !qbal GCatalogueH , 3, 5=, with photographic reproduction o the irst sheet. 5D. + . Oohn .!en ord Itr.J, Con*ersations of Eoethe &ith Ec2er#ann and Sorret , p. 93. 53. The Qurn condemns monkery% see =@:5@% 5:5D3% and 5A:@@. + . also Speeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, ed. '. ). $herwani, p. @, or 'llama #(bals observations on the respective attitudes o +hristianity and #slam towards the problems o li e, leading to his keenly pro ound pronouncement: The religious ideal o #slam, there ore, is organically related to the social order which it has created. 55. There are many verses o the Qurn wherein it has been maintained that the universe has not been created in sport Ilib nJ or in vain Ib?il;anJ but or a serious end or with truth Ibil;DhaqqJ. These are respectively: IaJ 53:3?% 99:8A% IbJ 8:3B3% 8A:5@% IcJ ?:@8% 3D:=% 39:3B% 3=:A=% 3?:8% 5B:99% 8D:A% 8B:=% 99:8B% 9=:55% 9?:8% and ?9:8. 58. $ee also the Quranic verse =3:9@ wherein the phrase inna la-muNsiuNn has been interpreted to clearly oreshadow the modern notion o the e!panding universe Ic . ". 'sad, The "essage of the Qura@n, p. AD=, note 83J. 59. -e erence here is in particular to the ,rophetic tradition worded as: ltasubb3al;dahra fa inn 4llh hu&al;dahru, I'Xmad Ranbal, "usnad, K, 5BB and 833J. + . also 1ukhrE, Tafs r: 9=% TauD d: 8=% 4dabN: 3D3% and "usli#, 'l z 5-9% or other variants o the Dad th SaD fa :a###;/in; "unabbih Ied. >r. ". *amidullahJ Dad th 33@, gives one o its earliest recorded te!ts. #n an e!ceedingly important section captioned 4l;$aqtu Saif;un ITime is $wordJ o his celebrated 4srr;i;6hud , 'llama #(bal has re erred to the above haditNh thus: )i e is o Time and Time is o )i e% >o not abuse Time< was the command o the ,rophet. Itrans. 6icholsonJ 5=. -e erence is to the Quranic verse @D:3B which says: "an has been created restless I hal3anJ. 5?. This is very close to the language o the Qurn which speaks o the hardening o the hearts, so that they were like rocks: see 5:@9% =:38% ?:98% 8B:55% and =@:3?. This shows that 'llama #(bal, through his keenly perceptive study o the Qurn, had psychically assimilated both its meanings and its diction so much so that many o his visions, very largely ound in his poetical works, may be said to be born o this rare assimilation% c . >r ;hulm "usta Ghns voluminous !qbl aur Qurn Iin 2rduJ. 5@. Qurn, 93:8=% also =3:5D-53. 5A. -e erence here is to the "athna& , ii, =5: The bodily sense is eating the ood o darkness The spiritual sense is eeding rom a sun Itrans. 6icholsonJ. 5B. Qurn, =8:33-35. 8D. #bid., 55:9?. 83. + . /u2hr , Oaniz, @B% $hahdah 8% Oihd: 3?D, 3@A% and "usli#, Fitan: B=-B?. >. O. *alperins article: The #bn Zayyd Traditions and the )egend o al->a77l, 1ournal of the 4#erican 9riental Societ+, U+##_ii I3B@?J, 538-5=, gives an atomistic analytic account o the ahdEth listed by him. 85. #n 'rabic: lau tara2athu ba++ana, an invariable part o the te!t o a number o ahd th about #bn Zayyd% c . >. 1. "acdonald, The Religious 4ttitude and <ife in !sla#, pp. 8= .% this book, which represents "acdonalds reputed *askell )ectures on +omparative -eligion at +hicago 2niversity in 3BD?, seems to have received 'llamas close attention in the present discussion. 88. !bid., p. 8?. 89. + . )ecture K, pp. 3DD . 8=. The term subliminal sel was coined by F. /. *. "yers in the 3ABDs which soon became

popular in religious psychology to designate what was believed to be the larger portion o the sel lying beyond the level o consciousness, yet constantly in luencing thought and behaviour as in parapsychic phenomena. /ith /illiam Oames the concept o subliminal sel came to stand or the area o human e!perience in which contact with the >ivine )i e may occur Ic . The Varieties of Religious Experience, pp. =33-3=J. 8?. "acdonald, op5 cit., p. 95. 8@. + . "uXyuddEn #bn al-'rabEs observation that ;od is a precept, the world is a concept, re erred to in )ecture K##, p. 399, note 9. 8A. !bid., p. 39=, where it is observed: #ndeed the incommunicability o religious e!perience gives us a clue to the ultimate nature o the human ego. 8B. /. H. *ocking, The "eaning of Eod in :u#an Experience, p. ??. #t is important to note here that according to -ichard +. ;ilman this concept o the ine!tricable union o idea and eeling is the source o strong strain o mysticism is *ockings philosophy, but it is a mysticism which does not abandon the role o intellect in clari ying and correcting intuition% c . his article: *ocking, /illiam Hrnest, Enc+clopedia of Philosoph+, #K, 9@ Iitalics mineJ. 9D. -e erence here perhaps is to the hot and long-drawn controversy between the "utazilites Iearly "uslim rationalistsJ and the 'sharties Ithe orthodo! scholasticsJ on the issue o Ghal( al-Qurn, i.e. the createdness or the eternity o the Qurn% or which see )ecture K#, note B. The conte!t o the passage, however, strongly suggests that 'llama #(bal means to re er here to the common orthodo! belie that the te!t o the Qurn is verbally revealed, i.e. the word is as much revealed as the meaning. This has perhaps never been controverted and rarely i ever discussed in the history o "uslim theology - one notable instance o its discussion is that by $hh /alE 'llh in $atat and Fu+37 al;Bara#ain. 6evertheless, it is signi icant to note that there is some analogical empirical evidence in 'llamas personal li e in support o the orthodo! belie in verbal revelation. .nce asked by ,ro essor )ucas, ,rincipal o a local college, in a private discourse, whether, despite his vast learning, he too subscribed to belie in verbal revelation, 'llama immediately replied that it was not a matter o belie with him but a veritable personal e!perience or it was thus, he added, he composed his poems under the spells o poetic inspiration - surely, ,rophetic revelations are ar more e!alted. + . 'bdul "a7Ed $lik, ,hi2r;i !qbl, pp. 599-9= and Fa(ir $ayyid /aXEd-ud->En, R37gr;i Faq r, pp. 8A-8B. ' ter 'llamas epoch-making #athna&i: 4srr;i 6hud was published in 3B3= and it had given rise to some bitter controversy because o his criti(ue o a%a#i tasa&&uf, and o the great R iz, he in a letter dated 39 'pril 3B3? addressed to "ahr7a Gishen ,arshd con ided strictly in a personal way: # did not compose the mathnawE mysel % # was made to Iguided toJ, to do so% c . ". 'bdullh QuraishE )a&dir;i !qbl IEhair "a?buah 6hut3tJ, Sah fah, )ahore, #(bl 6ambar I.ctober 3B@8J, )etter 6o. 93, p. 3?A. 93. + . /illiam Oames, op. cit., p. 3=. 95. !bid., p. 53. 98. The designation apostle Iras3lJ is applied to bearers o divine revelations which embody a new doctrinal system or dispensation% a prophet Inab J, on the other hand, is said to be one whom ;od has entrusted with enunciation o ethical principles on the basis o an already e!isting dispensation, or o principles common to all dispensations. *ence, every apostle is a prophet as well, but every prophet is not an apostle. 99. + . )ecture K##, pp. 398-399, where this point is reiterated. 9=. H. /. *ocking, op5 cit., pp.3D?-3D@.

*ecture ##+ T E P #*($(P #CA* TE$T (F T E RE,E*AT#('$ (F RE*#G#(-$ E.PER#E'CE 3. + . H.$. *aldane and ;.-.T. -oss Itrs.J, The Philosophical $or2s of ,escartes, ##, =@. 5. + . The Critique of Pure Reason, trans. 6.Gemp $mith, p. =D=. 8. The logical allacy o assuming in the premisses o that which is to be proved in the conclusion. 9. Qurn, 93:=8, also =3:5D-53. =. !bid., =@:8.

?. + . -.F.'. *oernle, "atter- <ife- "ind and Eod, pp. ?B-@D. @. + . *. 1arker, article 1erkeley in Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, especially the section% "etaphysics o #mmaterialism% see also )ecture #K, p. A8, or 'llama #(bals acute observations in re utation o the hypothesis o matter as an independent e!istence. A. + . '.6. /hitehead, The Concept of )ature, p. 8D. This is what /hitehead has called the theory o bi urcation o 6ature based on the dichotomy o simply located material bodies o 6ewtonian physics and the pure sensations o *ume. 'ccording to this theory, 6ature is split up into two disparate or isolated parts% the one known to us through our immediate e!periences o colours, sounds, scents, etc., and the other, the world o unperceived scienti ic entities o molecules, atoms, electrons, ether, etc. - colourless, soundless, unscented - which so act upon the mind through impact as to produce in it the illusions o sensory e!periences in which it delights. The theory thus divides totality o being into a reality which does not appear and is thus a mere con7ecture and appearances which are not real and so are mere dream. /hitehead outright re7ects bi urcation% and insists that the red glow o sunset is as much part o 6ature as the vibrations o molecules and that the scientist cannot dismiss the red glow as a psychic addition i he is to have a coherent +oncept o 6ature. This view o /hitehead, the eminent mathematician, e!pounded by him in 3B5D Ii.e. our years be ore his appointment to the chair o ,hilosophy at *arvard at the age o si!ty-threeJ was widely accepted by the philosophers. )ord -ichard 1urdon *aldane, one o the leading neo-*egelian 1ritish philosophers, said to be the irst philosophical writer on the Theory o -elativity, gave ull support to /hiteheads views on bi urcation as well as on -elativity in his widely-read Reign of Relati*it+ to which 'llama #(bal re ers in )ecture ###, p. =@, and tacitly also perhaps in lecture K. The way )ord *aldane has stated in this work his de ence o /hiteheads views o -elativity Ienunciated by him especially in +oncept o 6atureJ even as against those o Hinstein, one is inclined to surmise that it was perhaps -eign o -elativity Iincidentally also listed at $. 6o. 5@? in the ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#as Personal <ibrar+ J more than any other work that led 'llama #(bal to make the observation: /hiteheads view o -elativity is likely to appeal to "uslim students more than that o Hinstein in whose theory time loses its character o passage and mysteriously translates itsel into utter space I)ecture K, p. 3D?J. B. 'llama #(bal states here Qenos irst and third arguments% or all the our arguments o Qeno on the unreality o motion, see Oohn 1urnet, Eree2 philosoph+I Thales to Plato, p. A9% they generally go by names% the dichotomy% the 'chilles% the arrow% and the stadium. #t may be added that our primary source or Qenos amous and controversial arguments is 'ristotle ,hysics IK#, B, 58BbJ which is generally said to have been irst translated into 'rabic by #sX( b. Runain Ic. A9=-B3D_B33J, the son o the celebrated Runain b. #sX(. 'ristotles ,hysics is also said to have been commented on later by the +hristian 'bM'lEal-Rasan b. al-$amh Ic. B9=-3D5@J% c . $.". $tern, #bn-al-$amh, 1ournal of the Ro+al 4siatic Societ+ I3B=?J, pp. 83-99. Hven so it seems that Qenos arguments as stated by 'ristotle were known to the "uslim thinkers much earlier, maybe through +hristian-$yriac sources, or one inds the brilliant "utazilite 6aWWm Id. 583_A9=J meeting Qenos irst argument in terms o his ingenious idea o ta rah 7ump re erred to by 'llama #(bal in )ecture ###, pp. ?8-?9. 3D. + . T.O. de 1oer, article 'tomic Theory I"uhammadanJ, in Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 5D5-5D8% >.1. "acdonald, ,e*elop#ent of "usli# Theolog+, pp. 5D3 . and "a7id Fakhry, !sla#ic 9ccasionalis#, pp. 88-98. 33. + . 6itb al;FiJal, K, B5-3D5. 35. For 1ergsons criticism o Qenos arguments c . Creati*e E*olution, pp. 85=-8D, and also the earlier work Time and Free /ill, pp.338-3=. 38. + . '.H. Taylor, article +ontinuity in Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, #K, B@-BA. 39. + . 1ertrand -ussell, 9ur 6no&ledge of the External $orld, pp. 3?B-AA% also "+sticis# and <ogic, pp. A9-B3. 3=. This is not -ussells own statement but that o *. /ildon +arr made during the course o his e!position o -ussells views on the sub7ect% see /ildon +arr, The Eeneral Principle of Relati*it+, p. 8?. 3?. Kiews o *. /ildon +arr and especially o $ir T. ,ercy 6unn on relativity in the present conte!t are to be ound in their symposium papers on The #dealistic #nterpretation o Hinsteins Theory published in the Proceedings of the 4ristotelian Societ+, 6.$. UU## I3B53-55J, 358-5@ and 35@-8D. /ildon +arrs, ,octrine of "onadistic !dealis#, however, is to be ound much more ully e!pounded

in his Eeneral Principle of Relati*it+ I3B5DJ and 4 Theor+ of "onadsK 9utlines of the Philosoph+ of the Principle of Relati*it+ I3B55J% passages rom both o these books have been (uoted in the present lecture Ic . notes 3= and 55J. T. ,ercy 6unn, best known as an educationist, wrote little philosophy% but whatever little he wrote, it made him (uite in luential with the leading contemporary 1ritish philosophers: /hitehead, $amuel 'le!ander, -ussell, 1road, and others. *e is said to have irst ormulated the characteristic doctrines o neo--ealism, an important philosophical school o the century which had its zealot and able champions both in Hngland and in the 2nited $tates. *is amous symposium paper: 're $econdary Qualities #ndependent o ,erception0 read in a meeting o the 'ristotelian $ociety in 3BDB was widely studied and discussed and as O. ,assmore puts it: it struck 1ertrand -ussells roving ancy I4 :undred =ears of Philosoph+, p. 5=AJ. #t is signi icant to note that 6unns correction put on /ildon +arrs idealistic interpretation o relativity in the present passage is to be ound almost in the same philosophical diction in -ussells valuable article: -elativity% ,hilosophical +onse(uences, in Enc+clopaedia /ritannica I3B=8J, U#U, BBd, -ussell says: #t is a mistake to suppose that relativity adopts any idealistic picture o the world . . . . The observer who is o ten mentioned in e!positions o relativity need not be a mind, but may be a photographic plate or any kind o recording instrument. 3@. .n this rather debatable interpretation o Hinsteins theory o relativity see >r ". -azi-ud-dEn ZiddE(E, #(bals +onception o Time and $pace in !qbal 4s 4 Thin2er, pp. 5B-83, and ,hilipp Frank, ,hilosophical #nterpretations and "isinterpretations o the Theory o -elativity, in *. Feigel and "ary 1roadbeck Ieds.J, Readings in the Philosoph+ of Science, pp. 555-5?, reprinted rom his valuable work. !nterpretations and "isinterpretations of "odern Ph+sics I3B8AJ. 3A. + . *ans -eichenbach, The ,hilosophical $igni icance o the Theory o -elativity, in ,.'. $chilpp Ied.J, 4lbert;EinsteinK Philosopher;Scientist, section iv. 3B. + . Tertiu# 9rganu#, pp. 88 . 5D. +ompare this with 1ergsons view o consciousness in +reative Hvolution, pp. 3AB . 53. This is a passage rom O.$. *aldanes $ymposium ,aper: 're ,hysical, 1iological and ,sychological +ategories #rreducible0 read in Ouly 3B3A at the 7oint session o the 'ristotelian $ociety, the 1ritish ,sychological $ociety and the "ind 'ssociation% see Proceedings of the 4ristotelian Societ+, UK##, I3B3@-3B3AJ, 958-59, reproduced in *. /ildon +arr Ied.J, <ife and Finite !ndi*idualit+, pp. 3=-3?. 55. 4 Theor+ of "onads, pp. =-?. 58. + . )ecture #, pp. A-33. 59. + . the Quranic verses (uoted on p. 8B% to these may be added 55:9@, 85:=, and @D:9 according to this last verse a day is o the measure o i ty thousand years. 5=. Creati*e E*olution, p. 3. 5?. The Qurn says: 'nd behold a day with thy sustainer is as a thousand years o your reckoning I55:9@J. $o also, according to the .ld Testament: .ne day is with the )ord as a thousand years I,salms, !c.9J. 5@. 'ccording to 1ergson, this period may be as long as 5=,DDD years% c . "atter and "e#or+, pp. 5@5-@8. 5A. For urther elucidation o uture as an open possibility c . )ecture ###, p.?8. 5B. $ee among others the Quranic verses 5=:5% =9:9B and the earliest on this sub7ect in the chronological order o the s3rahs: A@:5-8. These last two short verses speak o our >ivine ways governing all creation and so also man, viz. ;ods creating a thing I2halaqaJ, making it complete Ifa sa&&aJ, assigning a destiny to it or determining its nature IqaddaraJ and guiding it to its ul ilment Ifa hadaJ. 'llama #(bals conception o destiny Itaqd rJ as the inward reach o a thing, its realizable possibilities which lie within the depth o its nature, and serially actualize themselves without any eeling o e!ternal compulsion Sitalics mineT understood in terms o the >ivine ways embodied in the above two short verses, seems to be singularly close to the te!t and the uni(ue thought- orms o the Qurn. There is no place in this conception o destiny or the doctrine o Fatalism as

preached by some "uslim scholastic theologians whose interpretation o the verses o the Qurn or this purpose is more o ten a palpable misinterpretation I)ecture #K, p. ABJ% nor or the doctrine o determinism as e!pounded by the philosophers who, cut o rom the inner li e-impulse given by #slam, think o all things in terms o the ine!orable law o cause and e ect which governs the human ego as much as the environment in which it is placed. They ail to realize that the origin o the law o cause and e ect lies in the depths o the transcendental ego which has devised it or caused it under divine guidance to realize its divinely assigned destiny o understanding and mastering all things Ip. A?J% also 4srr;i 6hud , many verses especially those in the earlier sections. 8D. Qurn, ==:5B. 83. + . )ecture #, p. =. 85. $ee $hiblE 6umnE, $hir al-'7am, ##, 339. 88. This is a re erence to pp. 88-8?. 89. + . )ecture #, p. A and note 58. 8=. The Quranic verse 5=:?5 (uoted on p. 8@. 8?. -e erence is to the Quranic e!pression: Ehan ++;un Canii;la# n ound in verses 8:B@ and 5B:?. 8@. This is a re erence to the Quranic verse 5D:39: Kerily, # - # alone - am ;od% there is no deity save "e. *ence, worship "e alone, and be constant in prayer, so as to remember "e. 8A. Qurn, 95:33. 8B. The re erence is to the Quranic e!pression sunnat 'llah ound in 88:?5% 8=:98% 9D:A9-A=% 9A:58, etc. 9D. + . )ecture ###, p. A8, where 'llama #(bal observes: The scienti ic observer o 6ature is a kind o mystic seeker in the act o prayer. 93. "cTaggarts argument re erred to here was advanced by him in his article% The 2nreality o Time in "ind I6.$.J, UK##_?A I.ctober 3BDAJ, 9=@-@9, reproduced later in )ature of Existence, ##, B83, as well as in the posthumous Philosophical Studies, pp. 33D-83. "cTaggart has been called an outstanding giant in the discussion o the reality or unreality o time and his a oresaid article has been most discussed in recent philosophical literature on Time. . articles in de ence o "cTaggarts position, mention may be made o "ichael >ummett: ' >e ence o "cTaggarts ,roo o the 2nreality o Time in Philosophical Re*ie&, U#U I3B?DJ, 9B@-=D9. 1ut he was criticised by +.>. 1orad, the greatest e!positor o his philosophy Ic . his commentary: Exa#ination of "cTaggarts Philosoph+, Kol. #, 3B88, and Kol. ## in two parts, 3B8AJ, in Scientific Thought, to which 'llama #(bal has re erred in the present discussion, as well as in his valuable article: Time in Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, U##, 88Ba% and earlier than 1road by -eyburn in his article #dealism and the -eality o Time in "ind I.ct.3B38J, pp. 9B8-=DA which has been brie ly summarized by O. 'le!ander ;unn in Proble# of Ti#eK 4 :istorical and Critical Stud+, pp. 89=-9@. 95. + . +.>. 1road, Scientific Thought, p. @B. 98. This is much like 1roads admitting at the conclusion o his e!amination o "cTaggarts argument that time is the hardest knot in the whole o ,hilosophy, ibid., p. A9. 99. The Confessions of St5 4ugustine, !i, 3@% c . .. $pengler, The ,ecline of the $est, #, 39D, where 'ugustines observation is (uoted in connection with destiny. 9=. -e erence is to the Quranic verse 58:AD (uoted on p. 8@ above. 9?. + . ". ' dal $arkhwush, Galimt al-$huar, p. @@, where this verse is given as under: 9@. + . 6itb al;FiJal, ##,3=A% also 3. ;oldziher, The .hir s, pp. 338 . 9A. QurVn, =D:8A. 9B. #bid., 5:5==. =D. ;oethe, 4lters&er2e I*amburg editionJ, #, 8?@, (uoted by $pengler, op5 cit., on ly-lea with translation on p. 39D. For locating this passage in ;oethes 4lters&er2e, # am greatly indebted to ,ro essor >r 'nnemarie $chimmel.

=3. -e erence here is to the ,rophets last words: al;saltu al;saltu &a ##ala2at ai#nu2u# Imeaning: be mind ul o your prayers and be kind to persons sub7ect to your authorityJ reported through three di erent chains o transmitters in 'Xmad b. Ranbals "usnad: K#, 5BD, 833 and 853.

*ecture ###+ T E C('CEPT#(' (F G() A') T E MEA'#'G (F PRA/ER 3. + . Creati*e E*olution, p. 38% also pp. 9=-9?. 5. !bid., p. 39. 8. $ee Qurn, or e!ample, 5:3?8, 9:3@3, =:@8, ?:3B, 38:3?, 39:9A, 53:3DA, 8B:9 and 9D:3?, on the 2nity o 'llah and 9:3@3, ?:3D3, 3D:?A, 3@:333, 3B:AA-B5 emphatically denying the +hristian doctrine o *is sonship. 9. + . ).-. Farnell- The 4ttributes of Eod, p. =?. =. The ull translation here is a glistening star, re(uired by the nass o the Qurn, 6au2ab;un Lurr +;3n. ?. .n this ine distinction o ;ods in inity being intensive and not e!tensive, see urther )ecture #K, p. B9. @. For the long-drawn controversy on the issue o the creation o the universe, see, or instance, ;hazzlE, Tah ut al-Falsi ah, Hnglish translation by $.'. GamlE: !ncoherence of the Philosophers, pp. 38-=8, and #bn -ushd, Tahfut al;Tahfut- English translation by $imon van den 1ergh: The !ncoherence of the !ncoherence, pp. 3-?B% c . also ;.F. *ourani, 'lghazlE and the ,hilosophers on the .rigin o the /orld, The "usli# $orld, U)K##_5I3B=AJ, 3A8-B3, 8DA-39 and ". $aeed $heikh, 'l;hazlE: "etaphysics, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+ ed. ".". $hari , #, =BA-?DA. A. + . <ecture ##, 5A, 9B. B. '.$. Hddington, Space- Ti#e and Era*itation, pp. 3B@-BA Iitalics by 'llama #(balJ. 3D. For 'bu*ashims theory o atomism c . T.O. de 1oer, 'tomic Theory I"uhammadanJ, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 5D5-D8. >e 1oers account is based on 'bM -ashEd $aEds 6itb al;"asil Fil;6hilf, ed. and trans. into ;erman by 'rthur 1iram I)eyden,3BD5J. 33. + . #bn GhaldMn, "uqaddi#ah, Hnglish translation by F. -osenthal, ###, =D-=3, where 1(illnE is said to have introduced the conceptions o atomIal-7awhar al- ardJ, vacuum and accidents into the 'shartie Galm. -. O. "c+arthy, who has edited and also translated some o 1(illnEs te!ts, however, considers this to be unwarranted% see his article al-1kEllnEs in the Enc+clopaedia of !sla# I6ew editionJ, #, B=A-=B. From the account o "uslim atomism given in al-'sharEs "aqlt al; !sl#i+ n, this much has, however, to be conceded that atomism was keenly discussed by the "uslim scholastic theologians long be ore 1(illnE. 35. For the li e and works o "aimonides and his relationship with "uslim philosophy, c . $. ,ines, The Euide of the Perpelexed I6ew Hnglish translation, +hicago 2niversity ,ress, 3B?8J, #ntroduction by the translator and an #ntroductory Hssay by ). $trauss% c . also $arton, !ntroduction to the :istor+ of Science, ##, 8?B-@D and 8@?-@@. 38. >.1. "acdonald, +ontinuous -e-creation and 'tomic Time in "oslem $cholastic Theology, The "osle# $orld, UK##_i I3B5AJ, ?-5A% reprinted rom !sis, #U I3B5@J, 85?-99. This article is ocussed on "aimonides well-known Twelve ,ropositions o the Gatam. 39. "acdonald, +ontinuous -e-creation and 'tomic Time . . . in op5 cit., p.59. 3=. !bid., pp. 5=-5A. $ee also The Religious 4ttitude and <ife in !sla#, p. 85D, where "acdonald traces the pantheistic developments in later su i schools to 1uddhistic and Kedantic in luences. 3?. Qurn, 8=:3. 3@. + . de 1oer, 'tomic Theory I"uhammadanJ, in op. cit., ##, 5D8. 3A. + . Hddington, op5 cit., p. 5DD. 3B. For an account o 6aWWms notion o al;tafrah or 7ump, see 'sharE, "aqlt al;!sl#i+ n, ##, 3A%

#bn Razm, 6itb al;FiJal, K, ?9-?=, and $hahrastnE, 6itb al;"ilal &al;)iDal, pp. 8A-8B% c . also #srEnE, 4l;Tabs r, p. ?A, "a7id Fakhry, !sla#ic 9ccasionalis#, p. 8B, and *.'. /ol son: The Philosoph+ of the 6al#, pp. =39-3@. 5D. '.6. /hitehead, Science and the "odern $orld, p. 9B. 53. ' view, among others held by 1(illnE who bases it on the Quranic verses A:?@ and 9?:59 which speak o the transient nature o the things o this world. + . Gitb al-TamhEd, p. 3A. 55. )ecture #, p. 8% see also )ecture K, p. 3D5, note 53. 58. For 'sharites theory o the perpetual re-creation o the universe basing it on the 'bsolute ,ower and /ill o ;od, c . "a7id Fakhry, !sla#ic 9ccasionalis#, pp. 3=, 33@ . and ". $aeed $heikh, 'l-;hazlE% "etaphysics, in op5 cit., #, ?D8-DA. 59. #n -.'. 6icholsons edition o the "athna& this verse Ii.3A35J reads as under: /ine became into!icated with us, not we with it% The body came into being rom us, not we rom it. 5=. Kiscount -ichard 1urdon *aldane, the elder brother o Oohn $cott *aldane, rom whose $ymposium ,aper 'llama #(bal has (uoted at length in )ecture ##, p. 8=, was a leading neo-*egelian 1ritish philosopher and a distinguished statesman who died on 3B 'ugust 3B5A. 'llamas using the e!pression the late )ord *aldane is indicative o the possible time o his writing the present )ecture which together with the irst two )ectures was delivered in "adras I=-A Oan. 3B5BJ. The idea o degrees o reality and knowledge, is very vigorously e!pounded by *aldane in The Reign of Relati*it+ I3B53J as also in his earlier two-volume ;i ord )ectures: The Path&a+ to Realit+ I3BD8-D9J in which he also e!pounded the ,rinciple o -elativity on purely philosophical grounds even be ore the publication o Hinsteins theory% c . -udol "etz, 4 :undred =ears of /ritish Philosoph+, p. 83=. 5?. This is a re erence to the Quran, 5D:39. 5@. !bid., =D:3?. 5A. For urther elucidation o the privacy o the ego, see )ecture #K, pp. @B-AD. 5B. + . p. ?9 where #(bal says that ;od out o *is own creative reedom . . . . has chosen inite egos to be participators o *is li e, power, and reedom. 8D. The tradition: >o not vili y time, or time is ;od re erred to in )ecture #, p. A. 83. + . The "athe#atical Principles of )atural Philosoph+ , Kol. #, >e inition viii, $cholium i. 85. + . )ouis -ougier, Philosoph+ and the )e& Ph+sics I'n Hssay on the -elativity Theory and the Theory o QuantaJ, p. 398. The work belongs to the earlier phase o -ougiers philosophical output, a phase in which he was seized by the new discoveries o physicists and mathematicians such as *enry ,oincare Icelestial mechanics and new geometryJ, "a! ,lanck I(uantium theoryJ 6icolas ). +arnot IthermodynamicsJ, "adame +urie Iradium and its compoundsJ and Hinstein Iprinciple o relativityJ. This was ollowed by his critical study o theories o knowledge: rationalism and scholasticism, ending in his thesis o the diversity o metaphysical temperaments and the in inite plasticity o the human mind whereby it takes delight in (uite varied orms o intelligibility. To the inal phase o -ougiers philosophical productivity belongs <a "etaph+sique et le langage I3B?DJ in which he elaborated the conception o plurality o language in philosophical discourse. -ougier also wrote on history o ideas Iscienti ic, philosophical, religiousJ and on contemporary political and economical problems - his <es "+stiques politiques et leurs incidences internationales I3B8=J and <es "+stiques econo#iques I3B9BJ are noteworthy. #t is to be noted that both the name )ouis -ougier and the title o his book Philosoph+ and the )e& Ph+sics cited in the passage (uoted by 'llama #(bal are given puzzlingly incorrectly in the previous editions o Reconstruction including the one by .! ord 2niversity ,ress I)ondon, 3B89J% and these were not noticed even by "adame Hva "eyerovitch in her French translation: Reconstruire la pensee religieuse de l!sla# I,aris, 3B==, p. A8J. #t would have been well-nigh impossible or me to ind out the authors name and title o the book correctly had # not received the very kindly help o the >utch scholar the -everend >r. Oan $lomp and "lle "auricette )evasseur o 1iblioth` (ue 6ationale, ,aris, who also supplied me with many use ul particulars about the li e and works o -ougier. The last thing that # heard was that this French philosopher who taught in various universities including the ones in +airo and 6ew &ork and who participated in various +ongresses and was the ,resident

o the ,aris #nternational +ongress o $cienti ic ,hilosophy in 3B8=, passed away on 39 .ctober 3BA5 at the age o ninety-three. 88. + . $pace, Ti#e and ,eit+, ##, 8B?-BA% also 'llama #(bals letter dated 59 Oanuary 3B53 addressed to -.'. 6icholson I<etters of !qbal, ed. 1.'. >ar, pp. 393-95J where, while disagreeing with 'le!anders view o ;od, he observes: # believe there is a >ivine tendency in the universe, but this tendency will eventually ind its complete e!pression in a higher man, not in a ;od sub7ect to Time, as 'le!ander implies in his discussion o the sub7ect. 89. The $u i poet named here as well as in )ectures K and K## as IFakhr al->EnJ #r(E, we are told, is really 'in al-Quat 'bul-"ulE 'bdullah b. "uhammad b. 'lE b. al-Rasan b. 'lE al-"iyn7E al*amadnE whose tractate on space and time: Eh+at al;!#2n fi ,ir+at al;"a2n I=9 pp.J has been edited by -ahim Farmanish ITehran, 388A $_3B=BJ% c . Hnglish translation o the tractate by '.*. Gamali, section captioned: .bservations, pp. i-v% also 1.'. >ar, #(bal aur "asalah-i Qamn-o"akn in Fi2r;i !qbal 2e "una&&ar Eosha+, ed. $alim 'khtar, pp. 39B-=3. 6adhr $birE, however, strongly pleads that the real author o the tractate was $haikh T7 al->En "ahmMd b. Ghud-dd 'shnawE, as also hinted by 'llama #(bal in his ,residential 'ddress delivered at the Fi th #ndian .riental +on erence I3B5AJ I$peeches, /ritings and $tatements o #(bal,p. 38@J. + . $haikh "ahmMd 'shnawEs tractate: Eh+at al !#2n fi "aCrifat al;.a#n &al;"a2n I95 pp.J edited by 6adhr $birE, #ntroduction embodying the editors research about the "$$ o the tractate and the available data o its author% also *7EGhalE ah, 6ashf al;.un3n, ##, 33BD, and '. "onzavi, 4 Catalogue of Persian "anuscripts, vol. ##, ,art #, "$$ @==?-@5. + . also "auln#mtiz 'lEGhn 'rshE, Qamn-o-"akn kE 1ahth ke "utaalla( 'llmah #(bl k aik "akhidh: #r(Eya 'shnawE, "aqltK !qbl C8la# 6ngras I#(bal +entenary ,apers ,resented at the #nternational +ongress on 'llama "ohammad #(bal: 5-A >ecember 3B@@J, #K, 3-3D wherein "auln 'rshE traces a new "$ o the tractate in the -aza )ibrary, -ampur, and suggests the possibility o its being the one used by 'llama #(bal in these )ectures as well as in his 'ddress: ' ,lea or >eeper $tudy o "uslim $cientists. #t may be added that there remains now no doubt as to the particular "$ o this uni(ue $u i tractate on $pace and Time used by 'llama #(bal, or ortunately it is well preserved in the 'llama #(bal "useum, )ahore Iinaugurated by the ,resident o ,akistan on 5? $eptember 3BA9J. The "$, according to a note in 'llamas own hand dated 53 .ctober 3B8=, was transcribed or him by the celebrated religious scholar $ayyid 'nwar $hh GshmErE + . >r 'hmad 6abi Ghan, Relics of 4lla#a !qbal I+atalogueJ, p. 35. For purposes o present annotation we have re erred to -ahiNm Farmanishs edition o *amadnEs Eh+at al;!#2n fi ,ir+at al;"a2n ITehran, 388A_3B=BJ and to '.*. Gamalis Hnglish translation o it IGarachi, 3B@3J where needed. This translation, however, is to be used with caution. 8=. + . 'in al-Quzt *amadnE, op5 cit., p. =3% Hnglish translation, p. 8?. 8?. The Quranic e!pression umm al;2itb occurs in 8:@, 38:8B and 98:9. 8@. + . al;"abhith al;"ashriq gah, #, ?9@% the 'rabic te!t o the passage (uoted in Hnglish is as under: 8A. -e erence here is in particular to the Qurn 58:AD (uoted in )ecture ##, p.8@. 8B. + . )ecture ##, p. 9B, where, summing up his philosophical criticism o e!perience, 'llama #(bal says: acts o e!perience 7usti y the in erence that the ultimate nature o -eality is spiritual and must be conceived as an ego. 9D. + . 'in al-Quzt *amadnE, op5 cit., p. =D% Hnglish translation, p. 8?. For -oyces view o knowledge o all things as a whole at once Itotu# si#ulJ, see his /orld and the #ndividual, ##, 393. 93. 'bout the cosmic harmony and unity o 6ature the Qurn says: Thou seest no incongruity in the creation o the 1ene icent. Then look again. +anst thou see any disorder0 Then turn thy eye again and again - thy look will return to thee concused while it is atigued I?@:8-9J. 95. Qurn, 8:5? and @8: see also =@:5B. 98. + . Ooseph Friedrich 6aumann, /riefe M ber Religion, p. ?A% also )ecture K#, note 8A. The ;erman te!t o the passage (uoted in Hnglish is as under: L/ir haben eine /elterkenntnis, die uns einen ;ott der "acht und $tarke lehrt, der Tod und )eben wie $chatten und )icht gleichzeitig versendet, und eine . enbarung, einen *eilsglauben, der von

demselben ;ott sagt, dass er Kater sei. >ie 6ach olge des /eltgottes ergibt die $ittlichkeit des Gamp es ums >asein, und der >ienst des Katers Oesu +hristi ergibt die $ittlichkeit der 1armherzigkeit. Hs sind aber nicht zwei ;otter, sondern einer. #rgendwie grei en ihre 'rme ineinander. 6ur kann kein $terblicher sagen, wo und wie das geschieht.L 99. -e erence is to 1rownings amous lines in ,ippa ,asses: ;od is in the heaven 'll is right with the world. 9=. + . $chopenhauer, $orld as $ill and !dea, trans. -.1. *aldane and O. Gemp, 1ook iv, section =@. 9?. For the origin and historical growth o the legend o Faust be ore ;oethes masterly work on it, c . "ary 1eares article Faust in +assells Enc+clopaedia of <iterature, 3, 53@-3B. 9@. + . ;enesis, chapter iii. 9A. $trictly speaking, the word 'dam or man in his capacity o ;ods vicegerent on earth has been used in the Qurn only in 5:8D-83. 9B. + . ;enesis, iii, 5D. =D. Qurn, @:3B. =3. !bid., 5D:35D. =5. + . ;enesis, iii, 59. =8. !bid., iii,3@. =9. Qurn, 5:8? and @:59. ==. + . also verses 3=:3B-5D. =?. !bid., @3:3@. =@. !bid., =5:58. =A. !bid., 3=:9A. =B. !bid., 5D:33A-33B. ?D. !bid., 5:8=-8@% also 5D:35D-355. ?3. !bid., B=:9-=. ?5. + . also verses 5:3== and BD:9. ?8. !bid., 5:83-89. ?9. )ecture #, pp. 3D-33. ?=. "adame *elena ,etrovna 1lavatsky I3A83-3AB3J is a noted spiritualist and theosophist o -ussian birth, who in collaboration with +ol. *.$. .lcott and /.'. Oudge ounded Theosophical $ociety in 6ew &ork in 6ovember 3A@8. )ater she trans erred her activities to #ndia where in 3A@B she established the o ice o the $ociety in 1ombay and in 3AA8 in 'dyar near "adras with the ollowing three ob7ects: IiJ to orm a nucleus o the universal brotherhood o humanity% IiiJ to promote the study o comparative religion, philosophy and science, and IiiiJ to investigate the une!plained laws o nature and powers latent in man. The Secret ,octrine I3AAAJ deals, broadly speaking, with +osmogenesis and 'nthropogenesis in a ponderous way% though largely based on Kedantic thought the secret doctrine is claimed to carry in it the essence o all religions. For the mention o tree as a cryptic symbol or occult knowledge in The Secret ,octrine, c . #, 3A@: The $ymbol or $acred and $ecret knowledge in anti(uity was universally a Tree, by which a scripture or a -ecord was also meant% ###, 8A9: .rmzad . . . is also the creator o the Tree Io .ccult and $piritual Gnowledge and /isdomJ rom which the mystic and the mysterious 1aresma is taken, and #K, 3=B: To the Hastern .ccultist the Tree o Gnowledge IleadsJ to the light o the eternal present -eality. #t may be added that 'llama #(bal seems to have a little more than a mere passing interest in the Theosophical $ociety and its activities or, as reported by >r ". 'bdullh +haghatE, he, during his (uite busy stay in "adras I=-A Oan. 3B5BJ in connection with the present )ectures, ound time to pay a visit to the head o ice o the $ociety at 'dyar. .ne may also note in ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in

Persia Ip. 3D, note 5J re erence to a small work Reincarnation by the amous 'nnie 1esant I,resident o the Theosophical $ociety, 3BD@-3B88, and the irst and the only Hnglish woman who served as ,resident o the #ndian 6ational +ongress in 3B3@J and added to this are the two books published by the Theosophical $ociety in 'llamas personal library Ic . ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+, 6o. A3 and Relics of 4lla#a !qbalI Catalogue #K, 33J. 'll this, however, does not enable one to determine the nature o 'llama #(bals interest in the Theosophical $ociety. ??. Qurn, 3@% 33% also 53:8@. The tree which 'dam was orbidden to approach I5:8= and @:3BJ, according to 'llama #(bals remarkably pro ound and rare understanding o the Qurn, is the tree o occult knowledge, to which man in all ages has been tempted to resort in un ruit ul haste. This, in 'llamas view, is opposed to the inductive knowledge which is most characteristic o #slamic teachings. *e indeed, tells us in )ecture K Ip. 3D3J that the birth o #slam is the birth o inductive intellect. True, this second kind o knowledge is so toilsome and pain ully slow: yet this knowledge alone un olds mans creative intellectual aculties and makes him the master o his environment and thus ;ods true vicegerent on earth. # this is the true approach to knowledge, there is little place in it or "me 1lavatskys occult spiritualism or theosophism. 'llama #(bal was in act opposed to all kinds o occultism. #n one o his dialogues, he is reported to have said that the orbidden tree Isha%r;i #a#n3CahJ o the Qurn is no other than the occultistic taJa&&uf which prompts the patient to seek some charm or spell rather than take the advice o a physician. The taJa&&uf, he added, which urges us to close our eyes and ears and instead to concentrate on the inner vision and which teaches us to leave the arduous ways o con(uering 6ature and instead take to some easier spiritual ways, has done the greatest harm to science. S+ . >r 'bul-)aith $iddE(E, "alf37t;i !qbl, pp. 38A-8BT. #t must, however, be added that 'llama #(bal does speak o a genuine or higher kind o taJa&&uf which soars higher than all sciences and all philosophies. #n it the human ego so to say discovers himsel as an individual deeper than his conceptually describable habitual sel hood. This happens in the egos contact with the "ost -eal which brings about in it a kind o biological trans ormation the description o which surpasses all ordinary language and all usual categories o thought. This e!perience can embody itsel only in a world-making or world-shaking act, and in this orm alone, we are told, can this timeless e!perience . . . make itsel visible to the eye o history I)ecture K##, p. 39=J. ?@. Qurn, 5:8?% @:59% 5D:358. ?A. !bid., 5:3@@% 8:5DD. ?B. )ecture ##, p. =A. @D. )ecture K, pp. 33B . @3. The Principles of Ps+cholog+, #, 83?. @5. + . -.'. 6icholson Ied. and tr.J, The "athna&i of 1alal3dd n R3# , Kol. #K I1ooks i and ii - te!tJ, ii, w. 3=B-3?5 and 3?9. @8. + . ibid., Kol. #K, 5 I1ooks i and ii - translationJ, p. 58D. #t is to be noted that (uite a ew minor changes made by 'llama #(bal in 6icholsons Hnglish translation o the verses (uoted here rom the "athna& are due to his dropping 6icholsons parentheses used by him or keeping his translation literally as close to the te!t as it was possible. *appily, 'llamas personal copies o Kolumes 5-= and @ o 6icholsons edition o the "athnawi are preserved in 'llama #(bal "useum I)ahoreJ and it would be rewarding to study his usual marginal marks and 7ottings on these volumes. @9. + . the Quranic verse 8:3B3 where so ar as private prayers are concerned the aith ul ones are spoken o remembering ;od standing and sitting and lying on their sides. @=. The Qurn speaks o all mankind as one community% see verses 5:538, 3D:3B. @?. #bid., 9B:38.

*ecture #,+ T E

-MA' EG( 0

#$ FREE)(M A') #MM(RTA*#T/

3. + . Qurn, ?:B9, 3B:AD and 3B:B8-B=% see also p. B8 where 'llama #(bal, re erring to these last verses, a irms that in the li e herea ter the inite ego will approach the #n inite Hgo with the irreplaceable singleness o his individually. 5. This is, in act translation o the Quranic te!t: &a lta7iru &7irat;un& &i7ra u2hr which appears in verses ?:3?9% 3@:3=% 8=:3A% 8B:@ and =8:8A. +hronologically the last verse =8:8A is the earliest on

the sub7ect. The implication o this supreme ethical principle or law is three- old: a categorical re7ection o the +hristian doctrine o the original sin, re utation o the idea o vicarious atonement or redemption, and denial o the possibility o mediation between the sinner and ;od Ic . ". 'sad, The "essage of the Qurn, p. A3?, note 83J. 8. 'gain, translation o the Quranic verse =8:8B which is in continuation o the verse last re erred to above. 9. + . .. $pengler, The ,ecline of the $est, #, 8D?-D@. 'lso )ecture K, p. 339 where 'llama #(bal makes the important statement: #ndeed my main purpose in these lectures has been to secure a vision o the spirit o #slam as emancipated rom its "agian overlayings Iitalics mineJ. This may be read in con7unction with 'llamas reply to a ,arsi gentlemans letter published in States#an. This reply makes it clear that: "agian thought and religious e!perience very much permeate "uslim theology, philosophy and $u ism. #ndeed, there is evidence to show that certain schools o $u ism known as #slamic have only repeated the "agian type o religious e!perience . . . . There is de inite evidence in the Qurn itsel to show that #slam aimed at opening up new channels not only o thought but the religious e!perience as well. .ur "agian inheritance, however, has sti led the li e o #slam and never allowed the development o its real spirit and aspirations I Speeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, ed. '.). $herwani, p. 3@DJ. #t is important to note that, according to 'llama #(bal, 1ahaism and Qadianism are the two orms which the modern revival o pre-#slamic "agianism has assumed, c . his article Qadianis and .rthodo! "uslims, ibid., p. 3?5. This is reiterated in #ntroduction to the $tudy o #slam, a highly valuable synopsis o a book that 'llama contemplated to write. 2nder section H $ub-section IiiiJ one o the topics o this proposed book is: 1abi, 'hmadiyya, etc. ,rophecies. 'll "ore or )ess "agian I<etters and $ritings of !qbal, p. B8% italics mineJ. Harlier on pp. A@-AA there is an enlightening passage which reads: Hmpire brought men belonging to earlier ascetic cultures, which $pengler describes as "agian, within the old o #slam. The result was the conversion o #slam to a pre-#slamic creed with all the philosophical controversies o these creeds: R3h, )afs% Qurn% Bad th or Qad #. -eal #slam had very little chances. This may be compared with 'llamas impassioned statement in his article: #slam and "ysticism I Speeches$ritings and State#ents of !qbal, p. 355J: The "oslems o $pain, with their 'ristotelian spirit, and away rom the enervating in luences o the thought o /estern and +entral 'sia, were comparatively much closer to the spirit o #slam than the "oslem races o 'sia, who let 'rabian #slam pass through all the solvents o '7am and inally divested it o its original character. The con(uest o ,ersia meant not the conversion o ,ersia to #slam, but the conversion o #slam to ,ersianism. -ead the intellectual history o the "oslems o /estern and +entral 'sia rom the 3Dth century downwards, and you will ind therein veri ied every word that # have written above. 'nd 'llama #(bal wrote this, be it noted, in Ouly 3B3@, i.e. be ore $penglers magnum opus: The ,ecline of the $est was published IKol. #, 3B3A, revised 3B58, Kol. ##, 3B55% Hnglish translation, Kol. #, 58 'pril 3B5?, Kol. ##, B 6ovember 3B5AJ and be ore the e!pressions such as "agian $oul, "agian +ulture and "agian -eligion came to be used by the philosophers o history and culture. =. + . the Quranic verses 93:=8 and =3:5D-53, which make it incumbent on men to study signs o ;od in themselves as much as those in the world around them. ?. + . *usain b. "ansMr al-Rall7, 6itb al;(a&s n, Hnglish translation by 'isha 'bd 'r--ahman, also by ;ilani Gamran, I4na al;:aqq Reconsidered, pp. ==-3DAJ, (s n K#, 58, containing al-Rall7s ecstatic utterance: an al;:aqq, and ). "assignons e!planatory notes on it translated by -.'. 1utler in his article Gitb al-TawsEn o al-*all7 1ournal of the Ani*ersit+ of /aluchistan, 3_5 I'utumn 3BA3J, @B-A=% c . also '. $chimmel, "+stical ,i#ensions of !sla#, pp. ?? . #t may be noted that 'llama #(bal in his, in many ways very valuable, article "cTaggarts ,hilosophy ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, pp. 398-=3J, compares "cTaggart to Rall7 Ipp. 39A-9BJ. #n the system o this philosopher-saint, mystical intuition, as a source o knowledge, is much more marked than in the system o 1radley . . . . #n the case o "cTaggart the mystic -eality came to him as a con irmation o his thought . . . . /hen the mystic $ultan 'bM $aid met the philosopher 'bM 'lE ibn $En, he is reported to have said, # see what he knows. "cTaggart both knew and saw Ipp. 39=-9?J. The key to "cTaggarts system indeed, is his mysticism as is borne out rom the concluding sentence o his irst work $tudies in the *egelian >ialectic: 'll true philosophy must be mystical, not indeed in its methods, but in its inal conclusions. This in-depth article on "cTaggarts ,hilosophy also contains 'llama #(bals own translation o two passages rom his poem The 6ew ;arden o "ystery IEulshan;i R7;i 1ad dJ dealing with Questions K# and K###% the latter Question probes into the mystery o Rall7s ecstatic utterance: # am the

Truth. + . 1.'. >ar Itr.J, !qbals Eulshan;i R7;i 1ad d and /andag )#ah, pp. 95-98, =3-=9. @. + . The "uqaddi#ah, trans. F. -osenthal, ##, @?-3D8. A. 6ote #(bl signi icant observation that modern psychology has not yet touched even the outer ringe o religious li e and is still ar rom the richness and variety o what is called religious e!perience I)ecture K##, p. 3=5J. B. + . Ethical Studies I3A@?J, pp. AD . 3D. + . The Principles of <ogic I3AA8J, Kol. ##, chapter ii. 33. + . 4ppearance and Realit+ I3AB8J, pp. BD-3D8. 35. 1 *t# is the individual mind or consciousness o man or his soul distinguished rom the cosmic mind, cosmic consciousness or world-soul% c . 'tman, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##,3B=, also U##, =B@. 38. + . 4ppearance and Realit+, p. AB% also 'ppendi!, p. 9B@. 39. "isprinted as, mutual, states in the previous editions. 3=. For ;hazlEs concept%ion o the soul, c . ". $aeed $heikh, 'l-;hazlE: "+sticis#- 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ed. ".". $hari , #, ?3B-53. 3?. -e erence here is to what Gant named ,aralogisms o ,ure -eason, i.e. allacious arguments which allege to prove substantiality, simplicity, numerical identity and eternality o the human soul% c . Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 85A-A8. 3@. !bid., pp. 85B-8D. 3A. !bid., pp. 8@5-@8% this is, in act, Gants argument in re utation o the ;erman Oewish philosopher "oses "endelssohns ,roo o the ,ermanence o the $oul% c . Gemp $mith, Co##entar+ to 6ants Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 9@D-@3. 3B. + . Principles of Ps+cholog+, Kol. #, chapter i!, especially pp. 58@-9A. 5D. #bid., p. 89D. 53. #bid., p. 88B% c . Critique of Pure Reason, p. 895, note IaJ where Gant gives an illustration o a series o elastic balls in connection with the third paralogism to establish the numerical identity o the ego. Gemp $mith in his +ommentary p. 9?3, has rightly observed that /illiam Oamess psychological description o sel -consciousness is simply an e!tension o this illustration. 55. Qurn, @:=9. 58. + . pp. A9-A=, where 'llama #(bal gives a philosophical answer to this (uestion in terms o contemporary theory o emergent evolution as e!pounded by $. 'le!ander ISpace- Ti#e and ,eit+, 5 vols., 3B5DJ and +.). "organ IE#ergent E*olution, 3B58J. The theory distinguishes between two kinds o e ects: resultants which are the predictable outcome o previously e!isting conditions and emergents which are speci ically new and not completely predictable. 'ccording to 'le!ander, who in his original conception o emergence was indebted to "organ Ic . Space- Ti#e and ,eit+, ##, 39J, mind is an emergent rom li e, and li e an emergent rom a lower physico-chemical level o e!istence Iibid.J. /hen physico-chemical processes attain a certain degree o ;estalt-like structural comple!ity li e emerges out o it. )i e is not an epiphenomenon, nor is it an entelechy as with *ans >riesch but an emergent - there is no cle t between li e and matter. 't the ne!t stage o con igurations when neural processes in living organisms attain a certain level o structural comple!ity, mind appears as a novel emergent. 1y reasonable e!trapolation it may be assumed that there are emergents Ior (ualitiesJ higher than mind. This is very close to "auln -MmEs biological uture o man, 'bd al-GarEm al-OElEs ,er ect "an and 6ietzsches $uperman. 6o wonder that 'llama #(bal in his letter dated 59 Oanuary 3B53 to -.'. 6icholson I<etters of !qbal, pp. 393-95J, while taking a strict notice o H.". Forsters review o The Secrets of the Self Itranslation o his epoch-making 4srr;i 6hud J and particularly o the 6ietzschean allegation against him Ic . Forsters review in >r -i at *assan, The S&ord and the Sceptre, p. 5A9J writes: 6or does he rightly understand my idea o the ,er ect "an which he con ounds with the ;erman thinkers $uperman. # wrote on the $u i doctrine o the ,er ect "an more than twenty years ago, long be ore # had read or heard anything o 6ietzsche . . . . The Hnglish

reader ought to approach this idea, not through the ;erman thinker, but through an Hnglish thin2er of great #erit Iitalics mineJ - # mean 'le!ander - whose ;i ord )ectures I3B3?-3AJ delivered at ;lasgow were published last year. This is ollowed by a (uotation rom 'le!anders chapter on >eity and ;od Iop. cit., ##, 89@, ##, 3-AJ ending in a signi icant admission: 4lexanders thought is #uch bolder than #ine Iitalics mineJ. 59. "ore generally known as Oames-)ange theory o emotions. This theory was propounded by the >anish physician and psychologist, +arl ;eorge )ange in a pamphlet 9# Sindsbe*aegelser in 3AA=, while /illiam Oames had already set orth similar views in an article published in "ind in 3AA9. For a ull statement o the theory, see /illiam Oames, ,rinciples o ,sychology, ##, 99B . and or its re utation Ias hinted at by 'llama #(balJ, Hncyclopaedia 1ritanica, s.v., U##, AA=-A?. 5=. For #(bals very clear and de initive verdict o body-mind dualism, c . )ecture K#, p. 355. 5?. -e erence is to the Quranic verse I@:=9J (uoted on p. A5. 5@. + . )ecture ##, p. 5A. 5A. Qurn, =@:8. 5B. + . /illiam Oames, op5 cit., ##, =9B. 8D. "ore generally known as ;estalt ,sychology, this ;erman school o psychology was the result o the combined work o ". /ertheimer, G. Go ka and /. Gb hler during 3B35-39. #t came as a reaction against the psychic elements o analytic or associationistic psychology, insisting upon the concept o gestalt, con iguration, or organized whole which, i analyzed, it was averred, would lose its distinctive (uality. Thus it is impossible to consider the phenomenon o perception as in any way made up o a number o isolable elements, sensory or o any other origin, or what we perceive are orms, shapes or con igurations. From perception the gestalt-principle has been e!tended throughout psychology and into biology and physics. #mportant or #(bal scholars are the suggestions recently made to discern some points o contact between the ;estalt and the philosophies o O. +. $muts IholismJ and '.6. /hitehead Iphilosophy o organismJ% c . G. Go ka, ;estalt, Enc+clopaedia of the Social Sciences, K#, ?95-9?% also O. +. $muts, *olism, Enc+clopaedia /ritannica, U#, ?98. 83. The concept o insight was irst elaborately e!pounded by /. Gb hler in his amous work: The "entalit+ of 4pes I irst Hnglish translation in 3B59 o his !ntelligerprufM ngen an "enschenaffen, 3B3@J% c . +.$. ,eyser, Gohler, /ol gang I3AA@-3B?@J, Enc+clopedia of Ps+cholog+, ##, 5@3. 85. #n the history o #slamic thought, this is one o the inest arguments to resolve the age-long controversy between determinism and indeterminism and to establish the soundest basis or sel determinism. 88. + . The ,ecline of the $est, ##, 59D, where $pengler says: 1ut it is precisely the impossibility o an Hgo as a ree power in the ace o the divine that constitutes #slam. Iitalics by $penglerJ% earlier on p. 58= speaking o "agian religions Iand or him #slam is one o themJ $pengler observes: the impossibility o a thinking, believing, and knowing Hgo is the presupposition inherent in all the undamentals o all these religions. 89. + . )ecture ##, p. 9D. 8=. + . #ntroduction to the Secrets of the Self IHnglish translation o 'llama #(bals philosophical poem: 4srr;i 6hud J, pp. !viii-!i!. 8?. $ee #bn Qutaibah, 6itb al;"aCrif, ed. 2kashah, p. 993% c . also .bermann, ,olitical Theology in Harly #slam: Rasan al-1asrEs Treatise on (adar, 1ournal of the 4#erican 9riental Societ+ , )K I3B8=J, 38A-?5. 8@. + . >. 1. "acdonald, ,e*elop#ent of "usli# Theolog+, pp. 358-59, or a brie mention o the origin o the theory o the accomplished act with re erence to the political attitude o the "ur7Eites, and Ghuda 1ukhsh, Politics in !sla#, p. 3=D, or #bn Oamahs view on the sub7ect as contained in his work on constitutional law o #slam: TaDr r al;4h2# f Tadb r 4hl al;!sl# Ied. *ans Go lerJ, p. 8=@. #t may be added that 'llama #(bal did take notice o #bn OamaNahs view Io baiah through orceJ and observed: This opportunist view has no support in the law o #slam: c . his article ,olitical Thought in #slam Sociological Re*ie&, # I3BDAJ, 5=?, ##, 3=-3?% reproduced in Speeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, ed. '. ). $herwani, p. 33=.

8A. + . -enan, 4*errN es et la*errois#e Ipp. 38? .J as (uoted in -.'. Tsano , The Proble# of !##ortalit+, p. @?. 8B. + . /illiam Oames, :u#an !##ortalit+, p. 85. 9D. !bid., p. 5A. 93. !bid., p. 5B. 95. + . )ecture ##, pp. 5?-5A% also p. A8. 98. This passage in its entire import seems to be (uite close to the one (uoted rom Hddingtons widely read )ature of the Ph+sical $orld Ip. 858J in )ecture K##, p. 39@. 99. + . -. '. Tsano , op5 cit., pp. 398-@A, or a commendable account o 6ietzsches doctrine o Hternal -ecurrence. 9=. + . *. $pencer, First Principles, pp. =9B . 9?. + . Tsano , op5 cit., pp. 3?5-?8. 9@. + . .scar )evy Ied.J, Co#plete $or2s of Friedrich )iet7sche, U#K, 59A and 5=D, (uoted in Tsano , op5 cit., p. 3?8. 9A. + . )evy, op5 cit., UK#, 5@9, and Tsano , op5 cit., p. 3@@. 9B. + . )ecture K, p. 338 where #(bal says: /hatever may be the criterion by which to 7udge the orward steps o creative movement, the movement itsel , i conceived as cyclic, ceases to be creative. Hternal recurrence is not eternal creation, it is eternal repetition. =D. /ar7a2h, according to )anes 4rabic;English <exicon, means a thing that intervenes between any two things, or a bar, an obstruction, or a thing that makes a separation between two things. 's signi ying the state between death and resurrection the word barzakh occurs in the Qurn, 58:BB3DD. =3. -e erence is to the Quranic verses 58:35-39 (uoted on p. A8. =5. $ee also verses ?:B9 and 3B:AD. =8. Translation o the Quranic e!pression a%r;un ghairu #a#nun;in ound in verses 93:A% A9:5= and B=:?. =9. -e erence here is among others to the Quranic verses ?B:38-3A% @@:A-33. ==. + . also the Quranic verses 5D:335% 53:3D8% 3D3:?-@. =?. This alludes to the di erence o the ,rophets encounter with ;od as stated in the Quranic verse =8:3@ rom that o ,rophet "oses as given in verses @:398. -e erring to the ,ersian verse Iascribed by some to the $u E poet OamlE o >elhi who died in B95_3=8=J, #(bal in his letter to >r *adi *asan o 'ligarh "uslim 2niversity observes: #n the whole range o "uslim literature there is not one verse like it and these two lines enclose a whole in initude o ideas. $ee 1.'. >ar Ied.J, <etters and $ritings of !qbal, pp. 5-8. =@. $o important is action or deed according to the Qurn that there are more than one hundred verses urging the believers to act righteously - hence, the opening line o 'llama #(bals ,re ace to the )ectures% see ". Fud 'bd al-1(Es al-"u7am al-"u ahras li 'l z al-Qurn al GarEm, verses under the radicals: ml, slh and hsn. =A. This, according to *elmholtz, one o the greatest scientists o the nineteenth century, was about thirty metres per second. 1e ore *elmholtz the conduction o neural impulse was thought to be instantaneous, too ast to be measured. ' ter he had demonstrated its measurement through his e!perimental studies% his researches came to be used in e!periments on reaction time Ic . ;ardner "urphy, :istorical !ntroduction to "odern Ps+cholog+, p. 38A and 6. '. *aynies article: *elmholtz, *ermann von I3A53-3AB9J in Enc+clopedia of Ps+cholog+, ##, 3D8. 'llama #(bals *ypothetical statement with re erence to *elmholtzs discovery: # this is so, our present physiological structure is at the bottom o our present view o time is highly suggestive o new physiological or biological studies o time. #t is to be noted that some use ul research in this direction seems to have been undertaken already% c . articles: Time and Time ,erception in The )e& Enc+clopaedia /ritannica I"acropaediaJ, UK###, 95D-55.

=B. $ee ;eorge $arton, !ntroduction to the :istor+ of Science, #, =B@, where it is said that the Gitb al-*ayawn o al-OXiW contains the germs o many later theories: evolution adaptation, animal psychology. + . also ". ,lessner, 'l-OXiW in ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, K##, ?8-?=. ?D. For a statement o the views o 1rethren o ,urity with regard to the hypothesis o evolution, c . $eyyed *ossein 6asr, 4n !ntroduction to !sla#ic Cos#ological ,octrines, pp. @5-@9. ?3. $ee )ecture K, p. 3D@, or #bn "askawaihs very clear conception o biological evolution, which later ound e!pression in the inimitable lines o the e!cellent -MmE (uoted in the ne!t passage as well as in )ecture K##, pp. 39@-9A. ?5. + . H. *. /hin ield Itr.J, "asna*i, pp. 53?-3@% this is translation o verses 8?8@-93 and 8?9?-9A o 1ook iv o -MmE s "athna& - c . 'llama #(bals observation on these verses in his ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in Persia, p. B3. ?8. For the keeping o a book or record o whatever man does in li e here, there is repeated mention in the QuraNn% see, or e!ample, verses 3A:9B% 53:B9% 98:AD and 9=:5B. ?9. -e erence seems here to be to the Quranic verse 5B:5D though second creation is also alluded to in such verses as 3D:9% 5@:?9% 8D:33. $ee also =?:?3. ?=. Qurn, 3@:38. ??. -e erence here is to the Quranic description o li e herea ter such as is to be ound in verses 8@:93-9B and 99:=3-== or the state o li e promised to the righteous, and 8@:?5-?A and 99:98-9B or the kind o li e to be su ered by the wicked. $ee also 85:3@. ?@. Qurn, 3D9:?-@. ?A. -e erence is to the Quranic e!pression hwEyah I or hellJ in 3D3:B. ?B. $ee the Quranic verse =@:3= where the ire o hell is spoken o as mans riend I #aulJ, i.e. the only thing by which he may hope to be puri ied and redeemed Ic . ". 'sad, The "essage of the Qurn, p. A8A, note 53J. @D. Qurn, ==:5B.

*ecture ,+ T E $P#R#T (F M-$*#M C-*T-RE 3. + . 'bd al-QuddMs ;angchE, <atif;i Qudd3s , ed. $haikh -ukn al->iNn, <a? fah @B% the ,ersian te!t rendered into Hnglish here is: -e erence may also be made here to very pithy and pro ound 7ottings o 'llama #(bal on the back cover o his own copy o /illiam Oamess Varieties of Religious Experience, especially to those under the sub-heading: "ystical and ,rophetic +onsciousness with e!plicit mention o 'bd al-QudduNs ;angoNhiN% see "uhammad $iddi(, ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+ , ,late 6o. A. 5. This great idea is embodied in the Quranic verse 88:9D, i.e. "uhammad... is 'llhs 'postle and the $eal o all ,rophets, I"uha##ad;un ras3l 4llh &a 2hta#;un nab ++ n J. #t has also been variously enunciated in the RadEth literature IiJ + "uha##ad;u anta ras3l Allh;i &a 2hta# al; anbi+ : . "uhammad< you are 'llahs 'postle and the $eal o all ,rophets% this is what other ,rophets would proclaim on the >ay o -esurrection I1ukhrE, Tafs r: 3@J. IiiJ $a Can2hti#;un; nab ++ n: 'nd # am the last o the ,rophets Iibid., "anqib: @% "uslim, O#n: 85@J. IiiiJ <aisa nab ++u bad : There is no ,rophet a ter me I1ukhrE, "agh7 : @@J. IivJ <nab ++a bad : There is no ,rophet a ter me Iibid., 'nbEya: =D% "uslim, !#rah: 99% Fadil al;Sahbah: 8D-83J. IvJ $a lnab ++a badah3: 'nd there is no ,rophet a ter him, said so by 'bM 'w as narrated by #smEl I1ukhrE, 8db: 3DBJ. IviJ <nubu&&ah bad : There is no prophethood a ter me I"uslim, FadC al; Sahbah: 8D-85J. 8. Though &ah+ #atlu&& Irevelation which is recited or worded revelationJ is speci ic to the ,rophets, the Qurn speaks o revelation in connection with earth IBB:=J, heavens I93:35J, honeybee I3?:?A-?BJ, angels IA:35J, mother o "oses I5A:@J and disciples o Oesus I=:333J. 's to the di erent modes o revelation see 95:=3. 9. -e erence here is to the last but one passage o the Quranic verse =:8 which reads: This day

have # per ected your religion or you and completed "y avour unto you and have chosen or you as religion al;!sl#. This passage, according to all available aDd th on the testimony o the ,rophets contemporaries, was revealed at 'ra t in the a ternoon o Friday, the Bth o >hul-Ri77ah 3D '.*., the year o the ,rophets last pilgrimage to "akkah Ic . 1ukhaNriN, O#n: 89, where this act is authenticated by *aarat 2mar b. al-GhattaNbJ. #t is to be noted that the ,rophets death took place eighty-one o eighty-two days a ter the revelation o this verse and as it speaks o the per ection o religion in #slam, no precept o legal import whatsoever was revealed a ter it% c . -zE, al;Tafs r al;6ab r. =. Qurn, 93:=8. ?. The irst hal o the ormula o #slam is: lilh ill 4llh, i.e. there is no god but 'llah, or nothing whatever is worthy o worship e!cept 'llah. The other hal is "uha##ad;un Ras3lullh, i.e. "uhammad is the "essenger o 'llah. The e!pression ormula o #slam signi ies that by bearing witness to the truth o these two simple propositions a man enters the old o #slam. @. + . 1ukhrE, 1ani7: @A% Shahdah: 8% and 1ihd: 3?D and 3@A IHng. trans. ". "uhsin Ghan, ##, 599-9=% ###, 9AA-AB, and #K, 3?A-?B and 3A9-A?J and "uslim: FitanK B=-B? IHng. trans. '.*. $iddi(i, #K, 3=3D-3=J. A. + . "uqaddi#ah, trans. -osenthal, Kol. ###, $ection vi, >iscourse: The $cience o $u ism% >. 1. "acdonald, Religious 4ttitude and <ife in !sla#, pp. 3?=-@9, and ". $yrier, #bn GhalduNn and "ysticism, !sla#ic Culture, UU#_ii I3B9@J, 5?9-8D5. B. -e erence here is to the Quranic verses: 93:8@% 5=:9=% 3D:?% 8D:55 and 8:39D bearing on the phenomena o 6ature which have (uite o ten been named in the Qurn as yt 'llh, i.e. the apparent signs o ;od I-ghib, al;"ufradt, pp. 85-88J% this is ollowed by re erence to verses 5=:@8 and 3@:@5 which in the present conte!t clearly make it as much a religious duty o the true servants o the "ost ;racious ;od #baNd-ur--ahmaNn to ponder over these apparent signs o ;od as revealed to the sense-perception o man as to ponder over the >ivine communications I +t al; QurnJ revealed to the *oly ,rophet - this two-way ;od-consciousness alone ensures mans physical and spiritual prosperity in this li e as well as in the li e herea ter. 3D. + . ;. *. )ewes, The /iographical :istor+ of Philosoph+ I3A=@J, p. 8D?, lines, 9-A, where )ewes says: #t is this work I-evivi ication o the $ciences o -eligionJ which '. $chmb lders has translated% it bears so remarkable a resemblance to the ,iscours de la #F thod o >escartes, that had any translation o it e!isted in the days o >escartes, everyone would have cried against the plagiarism. The second sentence o this passage was (uoted by 'llama #(bal in his doctoral dissertation: The ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in Persia I3BDAJ, p. @8, note I3J, in support o his statement that ;hazzlE anticipated >escartes in his philosophical method. #t is to be noted that $chmb lders Essai sur les F coles philosophiques che7 les 4rabes I,aris, 3A95J was not the French translation o ;hazzlEs voluminous -evivi ication I !h+ CAl3# al;, n in orty booksJ but that o his autobiographical work 4l;"unqidh #in al;,all with its earliest edited 'rabic te!t. #t seems that the remarkable originality and boldness o ;hazzlEs thought in the French version o al;"unqidh led )ewes to con use it with the greater, the more amous -evivi ication I!h+J. For the amazing resemblance between ;hazzlEs 4l;"unqidh #in al;,all I)iberation rom HrrorJ and >escartes ,iscours de la #ethod I>iscourse on "ethodJ, see ,ro essor ". ". $hari , The #n luence o "uslim Thought on the /est, $ection: >, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ##, 38A5-A9. 33. + . al;Qis?s al;"ustaq #, trans. >.,. 1rewster IThe 1ust /alanceJ, chapters ii-vi and translators 'ppendi! ###: 'l-;hazzlE and the $yllogism, pp. 35?-8D% c . also "ichael H. "armura, ;hazaNliNs 'ttitude to the $ecular $ciences and )ogic, Essa+s on !sla#ic Philosoph+ and Science, ed. ;. F. *ourani, $ection ##, pp. 3D5-D8, and $usanna >iwalds detailed review on al;Qis?s in ,er !sla# I3B?3J, pp. 3@3-@9. 35. For an account o #shraN(iNs criticism o ;reek logic contained in his :i2#at al;!shrq, c . $. *ossein 6asr, $hihaNb al->iNn $uhrawardiN"a(tuNl, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, #, 8A9-A=% a uller account o #shraN(iNs logic, according to 6icholas -escher, is to be ound in his e!tant but unpublished I0J 6itb al;Tal& ht and 6itb al;<a#aht Ic . ,e*elop#ent of 4rabic <ogic, p. 3A=J. #t is to be noted that the earliest e!planation o #shraN(iNs disagreement with 'ristotle that logical de inition is genus plus di erentia, in terms o modern I1osan(uetsJ logic, was given by 'llama #(bal in his ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in Persia, pp. B@-BA.

For an e!pose o #bn TaimEyyahs logical masterpiece al;Radd Calal;"ant q +in I-e utation o the )ogiciansJ c . $era7ul *a(ue, #bn TaimiNyyah in 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ##, AD=-35% also "a7id Fakhry, 4 :istor+ of !sla#ic Philosoph+ Ipp. 8=5-=8J or a lucid summing up. ' valuable study o #bn TaimiNyyahs logical ideas is that by 'lE $mE al-6ashshr in "anhi% al;/ahth Cinda "ufa22iril;!sl# &a )aqd al;"usli# n lil;"antiq al;4ristatl s , chapter ###, sections ii and iii. 'l6ashshr has also edited $uyMtEs 1ahd al;Qarihh fi ta%r d al;)as hah, an abridgment o ibn TaimEyyahs 4l;Radd Calal;"antiqi+ n. 38. 'ristotles irst igure, al;sha2l al;a&&al or al;qi+as al;2#il o the "uslim logicians, is a orm o syllogism in which the middle term occurs as a sub7ect in the irst premiss and as a predicate in the second premiss. #t is the only orm o syllogism in which the conclusion becomes available in the orm o a general Iuniversal - proposition needed or scienti ic purposes% c . ". $aeed $heikh, 4 ,ictionar+ of "usli# Philosoph+, s.v. 's to the criticism o the irst igure re erred to here, it is more rightly to be ascribed to Fakhr al->En -zE, who, besides his own now available logical works, wrote (uite a ew critical commentaries on the works o #bn $En, rather than to the eminent physician o #slam, 'bM 1akr QakarEya -zE, none o whose short treatises on some parts o the 'ristotelian 9rganon seems to have survived% c . 6icholas -escher, The ,e*elop#ent of 4rabic <ogic, pp. 33@-3A. *appily this stands con irmed by 'llama #(bals ,residential comments Ialmost all o which have been incorporated in the present passageJ on Ghwa7ah Gamals )ecture Iin 2rduJ on #slam and "odern $ciences in the third session o the 'll-#ndia "uhammadan Hducational +on erence, 3B33, in >elhi% see $.'.Kahid Ied.J, "a(lti #(bl, pp. 58B-9D% c . also 'llamas letter dated 3st February 3B59 to $ayyid $ulaimn 6advE, #(blnmah, #, 35@-5A% re erence in both cases is to Fakhr al->En al--zE and not to 'bM 1akr -zE. #t is to be noted that o all the writings o 'llama #(bal including his more than 35DD letters 'bM 1akr -ziNis mentioned only in ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in Persia: as a physician and as a thinker who admitted the eternity o matter, space and time and possibly looked upon light as the irst creation Ipp. 59, B?J. #n a signi icant passage on p. B? o this work 'llama has listed about ten "uslim thinkers who were highly critical either o ;reek philosophy in general or ;reek logic in particular C 'bM 1akr -zEs name does not appear in this list. 39. This is #bn *azms Bud3d al;"antiq re erred to in his well-known 6itb al;Fisal I#, 9 and 5D% K, @D and 35AJ under somewhat varied titles% also mentioned by his contemporary and compatriot $aNid b. 'hmad al-'ndalusE in his (abaqt al;A#a# Ip.33AJ and later listed by 1rockelmann in E4<% $upplementbd nde I#, ?B?J. +. van 'rendonk, however, in his article on #bn *azm in The Enc+clopaedia of !sla# I##, 8A=J and #. ;oldziher, s.v. in Hncyclopaedia o -eligion and Hthics, K##, @3 have declared that the work has not survived. 'nd certainly very little was heard o this work until >r #hsan 'bbaNs o the 2niversity o Ghartoum discovered possibly the only "$ and published it under the title: al;(aqr b li;Badd al;"antiq IThe 'pproach to the )imits o )ogicJ in 3B=B. 'llamas comments on #bn Razms $cope o )ogic I:ud3d al;"antiqJ, at a time when it was generally considered to have been lost is a proo o his e!traordinary knowledge o "uslim writers and their works. 3=. + . ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in Persia I3B?9J, p. ?9, where it is stated that 'l-1irMnEand #bn *aitham Id. 3D8AJ . . . anticipated modern empirical psychology in recognizing what is called reaction-time: in the two ootnotes to this statement 'llama #(bl (uotes rom de 1oers :istor+ of Philosoph+ in !sla#, pp. 39? and 3=D, to establish the positivism, i.e. sense-empiricism respectively o both al-1irMnE and #bn *aitham. .n pp. 3=3-=5 o this work is a passage Ipossibly re erred to by 'llama #(bal hereJ which describes reaction-time very much in the modern sense: not only is every sensation attended by a corresponding change localized in the sense-organ, which demands a certain time, but also, between the stimulation o the organ and consciousness o the perception an interval o time must elapse, corresponding to the transmission o stimulus or some distance along the nerves. 's to al-GindEs discovery that sensation is proportionate to stimulus, c . de 1oer, op5 cit., p. 3D3, where he speaks o the proportional relation e!isting between stimulus and sensation in connection with al-GindEs mathematized theory o compound remedies. This is given in al-GindEs celebrated treatise: Rislah fi "aCrifah Qu&&at;4d& +at al;"ura22abah which was at least twice translated into )atin I$arton, !ntroduction to the :istor+ of Science, ##, 895 and AB?J. 3?. + . 9pus "a%us- trans. -obert 1elle 1urke, Kol. ##, ,art K Ipp. 93B-A5J. #t is important to note that

$artons observation on -oger 1acons work on optics is very close to that o 'llama #(bal. *is optics, says $arton, was essentially based upon that o #bn al-*aitham, with small additions and practical applications Iop5 cit., ##, B=@J. 's reported by >r ". $. 6mMs, 'llama #(bal helped him in understanding the rotographs o the only "$ I6o. 59?D in 1iblioth` (ue 6ationale, ,arisJ o #bn *aithams Thr r al;"an7ir or a number o days% c . !bn al;:aitha#K Proceedings of the Celebrations of PQQQth 4nni*ersar+ Iheld in 6ovember 3B?B under the auspices o *amdard 6ational Foundation ,akistan, GarachiJ, p. 35A. $ee, however, ,ro essor '. #. $abras scholarly article: #bn al-*aytham in ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, K#, 3AB-53D, especially p. 5D= where he gives an up-to-date in ormation about the "$$ o #bn *aithams 6itb al;"an7ir. 'ccording to ,ro essor $abra, The re erence in 1rockelmann to a recension o this work in the ,aris "$, ar. 59?D I1rockelmann has 5?9DJ is mistaken% the "$ is a recension o Huclids 9ptics which is attributed on the title page to *asan ibn I"MsibnJ $hkir. 3@. #bn *azm here is a palpable misprint or ibn *aitham - the conte!t o the passage more ittingly demands and latter rather than the ormer name. #bn *azms in luence on -oger 1acons 9pus "a%us, a predominantly science-oriented work, looks somewhat odd. There seems to be no evidence o it in the te!t o 9pus "a%us - #bn *azm is not even so much as mentioned by name in this work. $arton, despite his great praise or #bn *azms scholarship I op5 cit. #, @38J, nowhere hints at his contributions to science or his in luence o -oger 1acon, nor is this to be ound in other standard works, or e!ample, in the si!teen-volume ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+. 3A. Qurn, =8:95. 3B. For \MsEs discussion o the parallel postulate Ialso named a!iom o parallelismJ, see his 4l; Rislat al;Shf +an Can al;Sha22 fil;6hut3t al;"uta&7 +ah in I\MsEsJ Rasil, Kol. ##, ,t. viii, pp. 39D. +ommenting on this work $arton observes Iop5 cit., ##, 3DD8J: 6aVEr al->Ens discussion was remarkably elaborate. + . also +a7ori, 4 :istor+ of Ele#entar+ "athe#atics, p. 35@, Q. R iz \au(Nn, Turth al;C4rab al;C!l# , pp. B@-BA, -. 1onola, )on;Euclidean Eeo#etr+, pp. 35-38 and 8@8A and >r $. *. 6asrs article: 'l-\MsE in ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, U###, =DA-39 especially p. =3D. 5D. This passage may be read in con7unction with 'llama #(bals observation on \MsE in his $ectional ,residential 'ddress Idelivered at the Fi th .riental +on erence, )ahore, on 5D 6ovember 3B5AJ: ' ,lea or the >eeper $tudy o "uslim $cientists: #t is Tusis e ort to improve the parallel postulate o Huclid that is believed to have urnished a basis in Hurope or the problem o space which eventually led to the theories o ;auss and -iemann ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, p. 38AJ. Huclids parallel postulate is ,ostulate K o the irst book o his Ele#ents5 /hat it means to say is that through a given point , there can be only one straight line ) parallel to a given straight line. #t is to be noted that to Huclids successors this postulate had signally ailed to appear sel -evident, and had e(ually ailed to appear indemonstrable - hence, 'llama #(bals generalized statement that since the days o ,tolemy IA@-3?= '.>.J till the time o 6aVEr \MsE nobody gave serious thought to the postulate. >eeper and wider implication o the postulate, however, cannot be denied. The innumerable attempts to prove this i th postulate on the one hand and the development o the non-Huclidean geometries on the other are as many tributes to Huclids wisdom, says $arton Iop5 cit., #, 3=8J. ' long note on the postulate by $pengler - well versed in mathematics - in his ,ecline of the $est, 3, 3@?, admirably brings out its deep philosophical import. These non-Huclidean geometries were developed in the nineteenth century by certain Huropean mathematicians: ;auss I3@@@-3A==J in ;ermany, )obachevski I3@B5-3A=?J in -ussia, 1olyai I3AD53A?DJ in *ungary and -iemann I3A5?-3A??J in ;ermany. They abandoned the attempt to prove Huclids parallel postulate or they discovered that Huclids postulates o geometry were not the only possible postulates and that other sets o postulates could be ormulated arbitrarily and sel consistent geometries based on them. They urther discovered that the space assumed in Huclidean geometry is only a special case o a more general type. These non-Huclidean geometries assumed immense scienti ic signi icance when it was ound that the space-time continuum re(uired by Hinsteins theory o gravitation is non-Huclidean. This in short is the movement o the idea o parallel postulate rom Huclid to Hinstein. 'llama #(bal with his seer-like vision or ideas was very much perceptive o this movement and also o the scienti ic and philosophical signi icance o the non-Huclidean geometries. #t is to be noted that 'llamas keenly perceptive mind took ull notice o the scienti ic developments o his days, or e!ample, o anti-mechanistic biologism Ineo-vitalismJ o *ans >riesch and O. $. *aldane and o

(uantum theory as well as o relativity-physics especially as e!pounded by Hddington, )ouis -ougier, )ord *aldane, /ildon +arr and other philosopher-scientists. 'mong other things, one may notice a score o books on the ,hilosophy o +ontemporary $cience, more than hal o which are on relativity-physics Imostly published between 3B5D and 3B5AJ in his personal library alone. $ee ". $iddi(, ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+ , pp. 9-@ and @3-@?, as well as ,lates 6os. 55 and 58 giving the acsimiles o 'llamas signatures dated Ouly 3B53 and $eptember 3B53 on his own copies o Hinsteins work: Relati*it+K The Special and the Eeneral Theor+ : 4 Popular Exposition I3B5DJ and Hdwin H. $lossons Eas+ <essons in Einstein I3B5DJ% c . also >r 'hmad 6abi Ghan, Relics of 4lla#a !qbal GCatalogueH, books listed at #K. 93 and #K. 9?. The irst book The "+ster+ of Space by -obert T. 1rowne by its very sub-title: ' $tudy o the *yperspace "ovement in the )ight o the Hvolution o 6ew ,sychic Faculties and an #n(uiry into the ;enesis and Hssential 6ature o $pace suggests that it was probably this book which was oremost in 'llamas mind when he spoke o highly mathematical notion o hyperspace movement in connection with Tusis e ort to improve the parallel postulate here as well as in his ,lea or >eeper $tudy I Speeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, p. 393J. 'llamas keen interest in higher mathematics is evinced by his re erences in the present rather compact discussion on 6ewtons interpolation ormula, recent developments in Huropean mathematics and /hiteheads view o relativity as distinguished rom that o Hinstein. For the development o 'llamas interest in certain mathematical key-concepts and in sciences in general see ". $aeed $heikh, 'llama #(bals interest in the $ciences, !qbal Re*ie&, UUU_i I'pril-Oune, 3BABJ, 83-98. 53. + . a airy long passage rom $penglers ,ecline of the $est I#, @=J (uoted in 'llamas 'ddress: ' ,lea or >eeper $tudy o the "uslim $cientists and an account o the way he went into the authentication o al-1ErMnEs view o mathematical unction ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, pp. 38=-8?J. 'llamas interest in mathematical idea o unction seems to be two- old: religiophilosophical and scienti ic. The unction-idea, he says, turns the i!ed into the variable, and sees the universe not as being but as becoming. This is in ull accord with the Quranic view o the universe which ;od has built with power and it is *e /ho is steadily e!panding it Ic . ". 'sad, The "essage of the Qurn, p. AD=, note 83J and again *e adds to his creation whatever *e wills: or verily, ;od has the power to will anything I8=:3J. The Quranic view o the growing universe is thus a clear departure rom the 'ristotelian view o the i!ed universe. 'ristotles doctrine o potentiality passing into actuality ails to resolve the mystery o becoming, in its living historicity and novelty or, as /. >. -oss has put it: The conception o potentiality has o ten been used to cover mere barrenness o thought Ic . his 'ristotle, p. 3@?J. *ence, 'llamas repeated pronouncement, that the spirit o the Qurn is essentially anti-classical. ,hilosophically speaking, time, which in the present conte!t has been linked up with the notion o unctionality and rightly so, is the most indispensable condition or the very possibility and reality o human e!perience, cognitive or moral. This e!plains, partly at least, why Time is the recurring theme in 'llamas works in both prose and verse. #n mathematics unction is a relationship o correspondence between two variables called independent variable and dependent variable and is e!pressed by saying y is a unction o ! which means y change with ! , so that or a certain value o !, y has a certain value Ior valuesJ. #n Hurope though the term unction in its ull mathematical sense was irst used by )eibniz in 3?B9, the theory o unctions had already emerged with the analytic geometry o ,ierce Fermat in 3?5B and that o the ather o modern philosophy -` ne >escartes - >escartes <a Eeo#etrie appeared along with his better 2no&n ,iscours de la #F thode in 3?8@. ' ter that such rapid advances took place in mathematics that within, say, i ty years it was completely metamorphosed into its modern orm or, as $pengler puts it: .nce this immense creation ound wings, its rise was miraculous. 1eing well versed in mathematics, $pengler gives an e!citing account o the new discoveries o the /estern mathematicians and their impact o Huropean science and arts Iop5 cit., #, @9-BDJ. Two o his statements are to be noted. 6ot until the theory o unctions was ully evolved, says $pengler, could this mathematics be unreservedly brought to bear in the parallel sphere o our dynamic /estern physics. ;enerally speaking, this means that 6ature speaks the subtle and comple! language o mathematics and that without the use o this language the breath-taking progress o science in the /est, since the seventeenth century, would have been a sheer impossibility. $pengler, however, did not care to know that the mathematical idea o unction originated, not in the /est, but in the Hast, more particularly with the most brilliant al-1ErMnEs 'l-QnMn al "asMdE in 3D8D, i.e. si! hundred years be ore Fermat and >escartes. The second statement to be noted is that, according to $pengler, The history o /estern knowledge is thus one o progressive emancipation rom classical thought Iibid, p. @?J. 's it is, 'llama #(bal

has the least (uarrel with $pengler on the truth o this statement or he says: The most remarkable phenomenon o modern history, however, is the enormous rapidity with which the world o #slam is spiritually moving towards the /est. There is nothing wrong in this movement, or Huropean culture, on its intellectual side, is only a urther development o some o the most important phases o the culture o #slam I)ecture #, p. ?: italics mineJ. 'nd urther, $penglers view o the spirit o modern culture is, in my opinion, per ectly correct Ip. 339J. /hat 'llama #(bal, however, rightly insists is that the anticlassical spirit o the modern world has really arisen out o the revolt o #slam against ;reek thought IibidJ. This revolt consists in #slams ocusing its vision on the concrete, the particular and the becoming as against the ;reeks search or the ideal the universal and the being. $pengler ailed to see these #slamic ingredients o modern culture because o his sel evolved thesis that each culture is a speci ic organism, having no point o contact with cultures that historically precede or ollow it. $penglers thesis has its roots, not in any scienti ically established dynamics o history, but in his uncompromising theory o cultural holism Inote the sub-title o the irst volume o his work: Eestalt und $ir2lich2eitJ. + . /. *. >rays article, $pengler, .swald, in Enc+clopedia of Philosoph+, K##, =5@-8D or critical evaluation o $penglers philosophical position. 55. + . ". '. Gazim, al-1ErMnE and Trignometry, al-1ErMnE +ommemoration Kolume, esp. pp. 3?@?A, or the Hnglish translation o the passage rom al-1ErMnEs al;Qn3n al;"asC3d wherein al1ErMnE generalizes his interpolation ormula rom trignometrical unction to any unction whatever. This is likely the passage pointedly re erred to by 'llama #(bal in his ' ,lea or >eeper $tudy o the "uslim $cientists ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, p. 38?J. $ee, however, ,ro essor H. $. Gennedys highly commendable article on al-1ErMnE in ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, ##, 39@-=A. *e bases al- 1ErMnEs theory o unction on his Treatise on $hadows already translated by him. 58. + . ". -. $iddi(i, "athematics and 'stronomy, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ed. ". ". $hari , ##, 35AD, and Ouan Kernet, "athematics, 'stronomy, .ptics, The <egac+ of !sla# ed. Ooseph $chacht and +. H. 1osworth, pp. 9??-?A. 'ccording to $arton, al-GhawrizmE may be called one o the ounders o analysis or algebra as distinct rom geometry and that his astronomical and trignometric tables were the irst "uslim tables which contained, not simply the sine unction, but also the tangent Iop5 cit., #, =?8J. 59. + . 4l;Fau7 al;4sghar, pp. @A-A8% also ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in Persia, p. 5B where an account o #bn "askawaihs theory o evolution is given as summed up by $hiblE 6umni in his !l# al;6al#, pp. 393-98. 5=. This is a re erence to the views o Ghw7ah "uhammad ,rsas contained in his short but valuable tractate on time and space: Rislah dar .a#n;o;"a2n, the only e!tant "$ I? oliosJ o which, perhaps, is the one listed by '. "onzavi in his Catalogue of Persian "anuscripts, Kol ##, ,art #, p. ADD. # am greatly indebted to QzE "ahmMd ul *a( o 1ritish )ibrary, )ondon, or the micro ilm o this "$. This resulted as a preliminary in the publication o 2rdu translation o Ghw7ah "uhammad ,rss Rislah dar .a#n;o;"a2n along with a brie account o his li e and works by >r Ghw7a *amEd &azdnE in 4l;"aCrif I)ahoreJ, UK##_vii, Ouly 3BA9J, 83-95, =?. + . 6adhr $birE, Eh+at al; !#2n fi "arifat al;.a#n by $haikh "ahmMd 'shnawE, #ntroduction, p. r where it is alleged that Ghw7ah ,rsmade an e!tensive use o 'shnawEs said tractate on space and time, which is not very unlikely seeing the close resemblance between the two tractates% yet at places Ghw7ah ,rss treatment o the sub7ect is su istically more sophisticated. 5?. + . )ecture ##, pp. ?D-?3. 5@. "isprinted as weight in previous editions% see also the signi icant Quranic te!t repeated in verse 89:8. 5A. + . Eh+at al;!#2n fi ,ira+at al;"a2n, ed. -ahEm FarmanEsh, pp. 3?-3@% Hnglish trans. '. *. Gamali, p. 38. .n the authorship o this su istic tractate on space and time, see note 89 in )ecture ###. 5B. !bid., p. 3@% Hnglish trans., p. 38. 8D. !bid., p. 58% Hnglish trans., p. 3@. 83. !bid., pp. 59-5=% Hnglish trans., pp. 3A-3B. 85. !bid., p. 5=% Hnglish trans., p. 3B.

88. !bid., p. 3@% Hnglish trans., pp. 5D-53. 89. !bid., pp. 5@-5A% Hnglish trans., p. 53. 8=. !bid., pp. 5A-5B% Hnglish trans., pp. 53-55. 8?. + . $pace, Ti#e and ,eit+, ##, 93% also -. "etz, 4 :undred =ears of /ritish Philosoph+, pp. ?89-8A, and article $. 'le!ander in The ,ictionar+ of Philosoph+, ed. >. >. -unes, wherein it is made clear that the term deity is not used by 'le!ander in any theological sense but in terms o his doctrine o emergent evolution: The (uality ne!t above any given level Io evolutionJ is deity to the beings on that level. 8@. 'le!anders metaphor that time is mind o space is to be ound in statements such as this: #t is that Time as a whole and in its parts bears to space as a whole and its corresponding parts a relation analogous to the relation o mind . . . or to put the matter shortly that Time is the mind o $pace and $pace the body o Time ISpace- Ti#e and ,eit+, ##, 8AJ. 'llama #(bals re erences to 'le!anders Space- Ti#e and ,eit+, in the su istic account o space and time in the present )ecture as also in his address earlier: ' ,lea or >eeper $tudy o "uslim $cientists I Speeches- $ritings and State#ents, p. 395J coupled with his commendatory observations on 'le!anders work in his letter dated 59 Oanuary 3B53 addressed to -. '. 6icholson I<etters of !qbal, p. 393J are suggestive o 'llamas keen interest in the metaphysical views o 'le!ander. . all the 1ritish philosophers, contemporaries o 'llama #(bal, 'le!ander can be singled out or laying e(ual emphasis on space and time as central to all philosophy. 'll the vital problems o philosophy, says 'le!ander, depend or their solution on the solution o the problem what $pace and Time are and, more particularly, in how they are related to each other. 'ccording to 'llama #(bal, #n S"uslimT . . . culture the problem o space and time becomes a (uestion o li e and death Ip. 3D=J. $pace and Time in "uslim Thought was the sub7ect selected by 'llama or his proposed -hodes "emorial )ectures at .! ord I3B89-3B8=J Ic . <etters of !qbal, pp.38=-8? and 3A8% also Relics of 4lla#a !qbalK Catalogue, )etter ##, @D dated 5@ "ay 3B8= rom $ecretary, -hodes TrustJ which very un ortunately he could not deliver owing to his increasing ill health. ' letter dated ? "ay 3B8@ addressed to >r $yed Qa arul *asan o 'ligarh "uslim 2niversity Iauthor o the well-known Realis#, 3B5AJ, discovered only recently, shows that 'llama #(bal had already gathered material or his -hodes "emorial )ectures% c . -a Eal->En *aNshimiN, 'llamah #(bal ke +hand ;hair "udawwan Ghu^M^, !qbal Re*ie&, UU###_iv IOanuary 3BA8J, 93-98. 'ttention may be called here also to an obviously un inished two-page dra t on The ,roblem o Time in "uslim ,hilosophy in 'llamas own hand preserved in the 'llama #(bal "useum, )ahore% c . >r 'hmad 6abi Ghan, Relics of 4lla#a !qbalK Catalogue, #, 8@. 8A. + . Eh+at al;!#2n fi ,ir+at al;"a2n, pp. 3?-3@% Hnglish trans., p. 38. 8B. !bid., p. =D% Hnglish trans., p. 8?. 9D. This is a re erence to the Quranic verses: ?:?% B:8B% 3@:3?-3@% 3A:=B% 53:33% 55:9=% 8?:83. ;ods 7udgment on nations, also called 7udgment in history, according to the Qurn is said to be more relentless than ;ods 7udgment on individuals - in the latter case ;od is orgiving and compassionate. 6ations are destroyed only or their transgression and evil doings. 'nd when a nation perishes, its good members meet the same doom as its bad ones or the ormer ailed to check the spread o evil I33:33?J, c . F. -ahman, "a%or The#es of the Qurn, p. =8. 93. $ee also Quranic verses 3=:= and 59:98. 95. For very special circumstances under which a keen sense o history grew in #slam, see #. *. Qureshi, *istoriography, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ##, 33B@-35D8. 98. 'bM 'bdullah "uhammad b. #sh( Id. c. 3=D_@?@J has the distinction o being the irst biographer o the *oly ,rophet. *is work 6itb Sirat Ras3l 4llh IThe )i e o the 'postle o ;odJ has, however, been lost and is now known only through #bn *ishms recension o it. 99. 'bM Oa ar "uhammad b. OarEr al-\abarE is one o the greatest "uslim historians. *is remarkably accurate monumental history 6itb 42hbr al;Rus3l &al;"ul32 I'nnals o the 'postles and the GingsJ, the irst comprehensive work in the 'rabic language, has been edited ". O. de ;oe7e and others in 3= volumes I)eiden, 3A@B-3BD3J. 'l-TabarE is e(ually well known or his commendable commentary on the Qurn: 1#i al;/a+n Can T& l al;Qurn in 8D volumes - a primal work or the later commentators because o its earliest and largest collection o the e!egetical traditions.

9=. 'bMl-*asan 'li b. al-*usain b. 'lE al-"asMdi Id. c. 89?_B=@J, a ter al-TabariN, is the ne!t greatest historian in #slam - rightly named as the *erodotus o the 'rabs. *e inaugurated a new method in the writing o history: instead o grouping events around years Iannalistic methodJ he grouped them around kings, dynasties and topics Itopical methodJ% a method adopted also by #bn GhalduNn. *is historico-geographical work "ur3% al;,hahab &al;"aCdin al;1auhar I"eadows o ;old and "ines o ;emsJ also deals with ,ersian, -oman and Oewish history and religion. 9?. -e erence is to the Quranic verses 9:3% ?:BA% @:3AB% 8B:?. 9@. $ee -obert Flint, :istor+ of the Philosoph+ of :istor+, p. A?. Flints eulogy o #bn GhaldMn, e!pressive o his sentiment o a discovery o a genius, now stands more or less con irmed by the realistic assessments made o #bn GhaldMn by eminent scholars such as '. Toynbee, 4 Stud+ of :istor+, ###, 855% $arton, op5 cit., ###, 35?5% ;aston 1outhoul in his ,re ace to de $lanes <es Prolego#enes d!bn 6haldoun Isecond edition, ,aris, 3B89-8AJ and -. 1runschvig, <a /erberie orientale sous les :afsides, ##, 8B3. 9A. + . "uqaddi#ah, trans. F. -osenthal, ###, 59?-=A, also ". Fakhry, 4 :istor+ of !sla#ic Philosoph+, pp. 8?3-?9. 9B. ,henomenon o the alternation o day and night is spoken o in many verses o the Qurn such as 5:3?9% 8:3BD% 3D:?% 58:AD% 9=:=. =D. #bid., ==:5B. =3. + . p. 3D@. =5. + . p. 3D?. =8. .n the notion o time as held by Qeno, ,lato, *eraclitus and $toics, c . '. O. ;unn, The Proble# of Ti#e, pp. 3B-55. =9. + . .. $pengler, The ,ecline of the $est, ##, 3AB-858. ==. + . )ecture #, p. 8, )ecture ###, p. =? and p. 3D5. =?. + . $pengler, op5 cit., ##, 59A-==. =@. !bid., pp. 58=, 59D% c . also note 88 in )ecture #K. =A. !bid., p. 58A. =B. !bid. ?D. !bid., pp. 5D?-D@. ?3. + . "uqaddi#ah, +hapter ###, section =3: The Fatimid . . . , trans. -osenthal, ##, 3=?-5DD. #bn GhalduNn recounts ormally twenty- our traditions bearing upon the belie in "ahdi Inone o which is rom 1ukhrE or "uslimJ and (uestions the authenticity o them all. + . also the article al-"ahdiN in Shorter Enc+clopaedia of !sla# and ,. G. *itti, :istor+ of the 4rabs, pp. 98B-9B, or the religio-political background o the i#a#;#ahdi idea. -e erence may also be made to 'llama #(bals letter dated @ 'pril 3B85 to "uhammad 'hsan wherein, among other things, he states that, according to his irm belie I aq dahJ, all traditions relating to #ahd , #as h +at and #u%addid +at are the product o ,ersian and non-'rab imagination% and he adds that certainly they have nothing to do with the true spirit o the Qurn I !qbln#ah, ##, 583J. 'nd inally it shall be rewarding to read this last paragraph in con7unction with 'llamas important notes on the back cover o his own copy o $penglers ,ecline of the $est, acsimile o which is reproduced in ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+, ,late 6o. 88.

*ecture ,#+ T E PR#'C#P*E (F M(,EME'T #' T E $TR-CT-RE (F #$*AM 3. The Qurn maintains the divine origin o man by a irming that ;od breathed o *is own spirit unto him as in verses 3=:5B% 85:B% and 8A:@5. 5. +onstantine the ;reat was -oman Hmperor rom 8D? to 88@. *e was converted to +hristianity, it is said, by seeing a luminous cross in the sky. 1y his celebrated Hdict o Toleration in 838 he raised

+hristianity to e(uality with the public pagan cults in the Hmpire. For his attempt at the uni ication o +hristianity, c . /ill >urant, Caesar and Christ, pp. ?==-?3, and The Ca#bridge "edie*al :istor+, vol.3, chapter i. 8. Flavius +laudius Oulianus I883-8?8J, nephew o +onstantine, traditionally known as Oulian the 'postate, ruled the -oman Hmpire rom 8?3 to 8?8. $tudying in 'thens in 8==, he re(uented pagan 6eoplatonist circles. 's emperor, he at once proclaimed himsel a pagan, restored reedom o worship or pagans and began a campaign against the orthodo! church. + . 'lice ;ardner, 1ulian and the <ast Struggle of Paganis# against Christianit+ , and /ill >urant, The 4ge of Faith, pp. 3D-3B. 9. $ee O. *. >enison, E#otion as the /asis of Ci*ili7ation, pp. 5?@-?A. =. The principle o >ivine 2nity as embodied in the Quranic proclamation: lilha illa;4llh: there is no ;od e!cept 'llh. #t is a constant theme o the Qurn and is repeatedly mentioned as the basic principle not only o #slam but o every religion revealed by ;od. ?. -e erence is to the Quranic verse 5B:?B. >uring the course o his conversation with one o his admirers, 'llama #(bal is reported to have made the ollowing general observation with re erence to this verse: 'll e orts in the pursuit o sciences and or attainment o per ections and high goals in li e which in one way or other are bene icial to humanity are mans e!erting in the way o 'llah I"alf37t;i !qbl, ed. and annotated >r 'bMl-)aith $iddE(E, p. ?@J. Translating this verse thus: 1ut as or those who strive hard in .ur cause - /e shall most certainly guide them onto paths that lead unto us, "uhammad 'sad adds in a ootnote that the plural used here is obviously meant to stress the act - alluded to o ten in the Qurn - that there are many paths which lead to a cognizance I#aCrifahJ o ;od IThe "essage of the Qurn, p. ?3?, note ?3J. @. + . 'bM >wMd, 4qd +a: 33% TirmidhE, 4D2#: 8, and >rimE, 6itb al;Sunan, #, ?D% this hadEth is generally regarded as the very basis o !%tihd in #slam. .n the view e!pressed by certain scholars that this had th is to be ranked as al;#ursal, c . 'bd al-Qdir, 6azarah, 8 ##ah fi Tri2h al;Fiqh al; !sl# , #, @D and 53D, and $ayyid "uhammad &Msu 1inorEas (uoted by >r Ghlid "asMd, 6hutubt;i !qbl #en !%tihd 2i TaCr fK !%tihd 2 Tr 2h Pas;i "an7ar, Fi2r;o;)a7ar, UK_vii-viii I#slamabad, Oan-Feb. 3B@AJ, =D-=3. $ee also 'hmad *asan Itr.J, Sunan 4b3 ,&3d, ###, 3DB, note 8D89 based on $hams al-*a((, 4un al;"ab3d li;hall;i "ush2ilt Sunan 4b3 ,&3d, ###, 883. A. These three degrees o legislation in the language o the later 7urists o #slam are: i%tihd fil; shar- i%tihd fil;#adhhab and i%tihd fil;#asil% c . $ubhE "ahmasnE, Falsafat al;Tashr fil;!sla#, Hnglish trans. F. O. Qiadeh, p. B9, and 6. ,. 'ghnides, "oha##eden Theories of Finance, pp. 353-55. For somewhat di erent schemes o gradation o the 7urists I or e!ample the one laid down by the .ttomon scholar and $haikh al-#slaNm Geml ,shazaNdeh Id. B9D_3=89J in his I Tabaqt al;FuqahJ and minor di erences in nomenclature in di erent schools o law I*ana is, $h EEs and othersJ, c . Qhid al-GautharE, :usn al;Taqd f S rat al;!## ab =3suf al;QL , pp. 59-5=. #t is the possibilities anew o the irst degree o !%tihd - complete authority in legislation - that 'llama #(bal proposes to consider in what he calls Iand this is to be notedJ this paper rather than this lecture as everywhere else in the present work. This is a mani est re erence to a paper on !%tihd that he read on 38 >ecember 3B59 at the annual session o 'n7uman-i *imyat-i #slm. + . ". Ghalid "asMd, #(bals )ecture on #7tihd, !qbal Re*ie&, U#U_iii I.ctober 3B@AJ, p. A, (uoting in Hnglish the announcement about this )ecture published in the >aily .a# ndr )ahore, 35 >ecember 3B59% and also $. ". #kram, "odern "usli# !ndia and the /irth of Pa2istan , p. 3A8, note 3B where the worthy author tells us that he was present at this meeting as a young student. 'mong 'llama #(bals letters discovered only recently are the our o them addressed to ,ro essor ". "uhammad $ha i o 2niversity .riental +ollege, )ahore Ilater +hairman: Ardu Enc+clopaedia of !sla#J. These letters dating rom 38 "arch 3B59 to 3 "ay 3B59, reproduced with their acsimiles in >r -ana ". 6. Hhsan Hlahie, #(bal on the Freedom o #7tihaNd, 9riental College "aga7ine I'llama #(bal +entenary 6umberJ, )### I3B@@J, 5B=-8DD, throw light, among other things, on the authors and movements that 'llama #(bal thought it was necessary or him to study anew or the writing o what he calls in one o these letters a paper on the reedom o !%tihd in "odern #slam. ' ew months later when the courts were closed or summer vacation 'llama #(bal in his letter dated 38 'ugust 3B59 to ". $aEd al->En Oa arE in ormed him that he was writing an elaborate paper on The #dea o !%tihd, in the )aw o #slam Ic . 4urq;i Eu#gashtah, ed. -ahEm 1akhsh $haheen, p. 33AJ. This is the paper which when inally written was read in the above-mentioned session o the

'n7uman-i Rimyat-i #slm in >ecember 3B59% the present )ecture, it is now generally believed, is a revised and enlarged orm o this very paper. B. + . ". *anE 6advE, "asalah Ghal(-i Qurn in 4qli+t;i !bn Tai# ++ah I2rduJ, pp. 583-=8, and '. O. 'rberry, Re*elation and Reason in !sla#, pp. 58-5@. -e erences to this hotly debated issue o the eternity or createdness o the Qurn are also to be ound in 'llama #(bals private notes, or e!ample those on the back cover o his own copy o $penglers ,ecline of the $est Ic . ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+ , ,late 6o. 88J or his highly valuable one-page private study notes preserved in 'llama #(bal "useum, )ahore Ic . Relics of 4lla#a !qbalK Catalogue, #, 5?J. #t is, however, in one o his greatest poems #blEs ki "a7lis-i $hMr I$atans ,arliamentJ included in the posthumous 4r#ughn;i :i%7 that one is to ind his inal verdict on this baseless scholastic controversy: 're the words o the Qurn created or uncreated0 #n which belie does lie the salvation o the ummah0 're the idols o )t and "ant chiselled by "uslim theology 6ot su iceint or the "uslims o today0 3D. + . #bn Qutaibah, TawE l "ukhtali al-RadEth, p.3B. 33. + . ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in Persia, p. =9, where it is stated that rationalism tended to disintegrate the solidarity o the #slamic +hurch% also /. ". /att, The ,olitical 'ttitudes o the "utazilah, 1ournal of the Ro+al 4siatic Societ+ I3B?5J, pp. 8A-=9. 35. + . "uhammad al-Ghudari, Tr 2h al;Tashr al;!sl# , 2rdu trans. 'bd al-$alm 6advE, p. 858% #bn Qutaibah, "aCrif, p. 53@, and O. $chacht, The 9rigins of "uha##adan 1urisprudence, p. 595. 'ccording to '. O. 'rberry, $u yn al-ThaurEs school o 7urisprudence survive or about two centuries% c . "usli# Saints and "+stics, p. 35B translators pre atory remarks. 38. .n the distinction o 7hir and btin, see 'llama #(bals article #lm-i QaNhir wa #lm-i 1aNtin I4n&r;i !qbl, ed. 1. '. >ar, pp. 5?A-@@J and also the ollowing passage rom 'llama #(bals article captioned as $el in the )ight o -elativity IThoughts and Reflections of !qbal, ed. $. '. Kahid, pp. 338-39J: The mystic method has attracted some o the best minds in the history o mankind. ,robably there is something in it. 1ut # am inclined to think that it is detrimental to some o the e(ually important interests o li e, and is prompted by a desire to escape rom the arduous task o the con(uest o matter through intellect. The surest way to realise the potentialities o the world is to associate with its shi ting actualities. # believe that Hmpirical $cience - association with the visible - is an indispensable stage in the li e o contemplation. #n the words o the Qurn, the 2niverse that con ronts us is not baNtil. #t has its uses, and the most important use o it is that the e ort to overcome the obstruction o ered by it sharpens our insight and prepared us or an insertion into what lies below the sur ace o phenomena. 39. The ounder o QhirE school o law was >wMd b. 'lEb. Ghala Ic. 5DD-5@D_c. A3=-AA9J who lourished in 1aghdad% #bn *aWm I8A9-9=?_BB9-3D?9J was its ounder in "uslim $pain and its most illustrious representative in #slam. 'ccording to ;oldziher, #bn *azm was the irst to apply the principles o the Qhirite school to dogmatics IThe .hirisK Their ,octrine and Their :istor+ , p. 335J% c . also ;oldzihers articles: >wMd 1. 'lE 1. Ghal and #bn *azm in Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, K, 9D? b and K##, @3 a. 3=. + . $era7ul *a(ue, #bn Taimiyyas +onception o 'nalogy and +onsensus, !sla#ic Culture, UK## I3B98J, @@-@A% 'hmad *asan, The ,octrine of !%#C in !sla#, pp. 3AB-B5, and *. )aoust, #bn Taymiyya, Enc+clopaedia of !sla# I6ew editionJ, ###, B=9. 3?. + . >.1. "acdonald, ,e*elop#ent of "usli# Theolog+, p. 5@=. 3@. $uyMtE, :usn al;"3hdarah 3, 3A8% also 4bd "utal al;Said - 4l;"u%addid3n fil;!sl# , pp. A-35. + . also 'llama #(bals -e7oinder to The )ight ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, pp. 3?@?AJ wherein, commenting on the tradition that mu7addids appear at the head o every century I'bM >awMd, "alhi#: 3J, he observed that the tradition was probably popularised by Oallud->En $uyMti in his own interest and much importance cannot be attached to it. -e erence may also be made here to 'llamas letter dated @ 'pril 3B85 addressed to "uhammad 'hsan wherein, among other things, he observes that, according to his irm belie I aq dhJ, all

traditions relating to #u%addidi+at are the product o ,ersian and non-'rab imagination and they certainly are oreign to the true spirit o the Qurn Ic . !qbln#ah, ##, 583J. 3A. For 'llama #(bals statements issued rom time to time in clari ication on meanings and intentions o pan-#slamic movement or pan-#slamism see: <etters and $ritings of !qbal, pp. ==-=@% Speeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, p. 58@% Euftr;i !qbl, ed. ". -a E( ' aal, pp. 3@@-@B and 55? - the earliest o these statements is contained in 'llamas letter dated 55 'ugust 3B3D to Hditor: Paisa 42hbr reproduced in -iaz *ussain, 3B3D men >uny-i #slm k[ *lt I,olitical +onditions o the #slamic /orld in 3B3DJ, !qbal Re*ie&, U#U_ii IOuly 3B@AJ, AA-BD. #n three o these statements 'llama #(bal has approvingly re erred to ,ro essor H. ;. 1rownes wellgrounded views on ,an-#slamism, the earliest o which were published Is.v.J in )ectures on the :istor+ of the )ineteenth Centur+, ed. F. Girpatrick I+ambridge, 3BD9J. #t may be added that 'llamas article ,olitical Thought in #slam, Sociological Re*ie&, # I3BDAJ, 59B?3 Ireproduced in Speeches- $ritings and State#ents, pp. 3D@-53J, was originally a lecture delivered by him in a meeting o the ,an-#slamic $ociety, )ondon, ounded by 'bdullah $uhrawardy in 3BD8 the $ociety also had its own 7ournal: ,an-#slam. #ncidentally, there is a mention o 'llamas si! lectures on #slamic sub7ects in )ondon by his biographers Ic . 'bdullah 'nwar 1eg, The Poet of the East, p. 5A, and >r 'bdus $alm GhurshEd, Sargudhasht;i !qbl, pp. ?D-?3J which is supported by 'llamas letter dated 3D February 3BDA to GhwaN7ah *asan 6izmE, listing the topics o our o these lectures as IiJ #slamic "ysticism, IiiJ #n luence o "uslim Thought on Huropean +ivilization, IiiiJ "uslim >emocracy, and IivJ #slam and -eason Ic . !qbln#ah, ##, 8=AJ. 'bdullah 'nwar 1eg, however, speaks o 'llamas e!tempore lecture on +ertain 'spects o #slam under the auspices o the ,an-#slamic $ociety, which, it is said, was reported verbatim in a number o leading newspapers the ne!t day Iibid.J. 3B. "uhammad b. 'bd al-/ahhbs date o birth is now more generally given as 333=_3@D8% c ., however, Ghair al->En al-QikriklE, 4l;4l#, K##, 38A InoteJ and 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ed. ". ". $hari , ##, 399?, in support o placing it in 3333_3@DD. #t is signi icant to note that whenever 'llama #(bal thought o modernist movements in #slam, he traced them back to the movement o "uhammad b. 'bd al-/ahhb c . <etters and $ritings of !qbal, pp. A5 and B8. #n his valuable article #slam and 'hmadism 'llama #(bal observes: $yed 'hmad Ghan in #ndia, $yed Oamal-ud->in ' ghani in ' ghanistan and "u ti 'lam Oan in -ussia. These men were probably inspired by "uhammad #bn 'bdul /ahab who was born in 6e7d in 3@DD, the ounder o the so-called /ahabi movement which may itly be described as the irst throb o li e in modern #slam ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents, p. 3BDJ. 'gain, in his letter dated @ 'pril 3B85 to "uhammad 'hsan, 'llama #(bal, e!plaining the pre-eminent position o Oaml al->En ' ghnE in modern #slam, wrote: The uture historian o the "uslims o Hgypt, #ran, Turkey and #ndia will irst o all mention the name o 'bd al-/ahhb 6a7adi and then o Oaml al->En ' ghnE Ic . !qbln#ah, ##, 583J. 5D. + . article #bn TMmart in Hncyclopaedia o #slam I6ew editionJ, ###, B=A-?D, also in Shorter Enc+clopaedia of !sla# and -. )e Tourneau, The 4l#ohad "o*e#ent in )orth 4frica in the T&elfth and Thirteenth Centuries, chapter 9. 53. This is a clear re erence to the well-known saying o the ,rophet: inna#al;a#lu binni++ti, i.e. 'ctions shall be 7udged only by intentions. #t is to be noted that this Dad th o great moral and spiritual import has been (uoted by 1ukhrE in seven places and it is with this that he opens his 4l; 1# al;SaDiD. 55. For this XadEth worded: al;arDu 2ulluh#as%id;an, see TirmidhE, Salt: 33B% 6asE, Ehusl: 5?% "as%id: 8 and 95% #bn "7ah, Tahrah: BD, and >rimE, Si+ar: 5A and Salt: 333. This superb saying o the ,rophet also ound e!pression in 'llamas verse, viz. 6ulli+t;i !qbl IFrisEJ, Ru#37;i /e2hud , p. 339, v. 8, and Pas Chih /+ad 6ard, p. A3@, v. A: Through the bounty o the ruler o our aith, the entire earth became our mos(ue. The Ging o the Faith said to the "uslims: The whole earth is my mos(ue Itrans. 1. '. >arJ. 58. + . The "uqaddi#ah, trans. F. -osenthal, #, 8AA-B5.

59. For the GhawaNri7s view o the +aliphate, see 'llama #(bals article ,olitical Thought in #slam ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, pp. 33B-5DJ% also /. Thomson, Ghari7itism and the Ghari7ites, "acdonald Presentation Volu#e, pp. 8@3-AB, and H. Tyan, !nstitutions du droit public #usul#an, ii, =9?-?3. 5=. + . F. '. Tansel IedJ, Qiya ;b kalp k[ lliyati i: $[ rler ve halk masallar, p. 35B. .n 'llamas translation o the passages rom Qiya ;kalps kulliyati, >r 'nnemarie $chimmel observes: #(bal did not know Turkish, has studied his IQiya ;b kalpsJ work through the ;erman translation o 'ugust Fischer, and it is o interest to see how he I#(balJ sometimes changes or omits some words o the translation when reproducing the verses in the )ecture IEabriels $ing, p. 595J. #t may be added that these changes o omissions are perhaps more due to 'ugust Fischers ;erman translation as given in his 4us der religiN sen Refor#be&egung in der TM r2ei I-eligious -e orm "ovement in TurkeyJ than to 'llama. The term esri, or e!ample, has been used by Qiya ;b kalp or secular and not or modern as Fischer has put it. 'gain, a line rom the original Turkish te!t is missing in the present passage, but this is so in the ;erman translation. For this comparative study o the ;erman and Hnglish translations o passages rom ;b kalps 2M lli+ati, # am very much indebted to ,ro essor $. Qudratullah Fatimi, ormerly >irector: -egional +ooperation or >evelopment, #slamabad. 5?. This is a re erence to the Quranic verse 9B:38. 5@. + . .i+a EN 2alp 2M lli+ati, p. 335. 'ccording to the Turkish original, the second sentence in this passage should more ittingly have begun with in this period rather than with in every period as rendered by '. Fischer. 'gain the ne!t, i.e. the third sentence, may be said to be not so very close to the te!t% yet it is (uite aith ul to its ;erman version. 5A. + . ibid., p. 338% also 2riel *eyd, Foundation of Tur2ish )ationalis#K The <ife and Teachings of .i+a EN 2alp, pp. 3D5-D8, and 'llama #(bals statement .n the #ntroduction o Turkish ,rayers by ;hazi "usta a Gemal ,asha published in the /eekly <ight I)ahoreJ, 3? February 3B85, reproduced in -ahim 1akhsh $haheen Ied.J, "e#ontos of !qbal, pp. =B-?D. 5B. .n #bn Tumarts innovation o introducing the call to prayer in the 1erber language, c . #bn 'bE Qar, Raud al;Qirts, Fr. trans. '. 1eaumier, :istoire des sou*erains du "agreb, p. 5=D% #. ;oldziher, "ateralien zur Genntniss der 'lmohadenbewegung in 6orda rika, .,"E, U)# I3AA@J, @3, and >. 1. "acdonald, ,e*elop#ent of "usli# Theolog+, p. 59B. This practice, according to 'hmad b. Ghlid al$alwE, was stopped and call to prayer in 'rabic restored by o icial orders in ?53_3559% c . his 4l; !stiqsli 42hbr ,u&al al;"aghribl;4qs, ##, 535. 8D. + . .i+a EN 2alp 2M lli+ati, p. 388. The word sun in the second sentence o this passage stands or ;unum in Turkish which, we are told, could as well be translated as day% some allowance, however, is to be made or translation o poetical symbols rom one language into another. 83. + . ibid., p. 3?3. #t is interesting to note how very close is late ,ro essor *. '. -. ;ibbs translation o this passage as well as o the one preceding it I"odern Trends in #slam, pp. B3-B5J, to that o 'llamas even though his irst re erence is to the French version o them in F. Qiyaeddin Fahris .i+a EN 2alpK sa *ie et sa sociologie, p. 59D. 85. + . 1ukhrE, !tis#: 5?% !l#: 8B% 1ani7: 85% "arad: 3@, and "uslim, 1ani7: 58 and $as ++ah: 55% see also last in Sahih "usli#, Hnglish translation by '. *. $iddi(iN, ### A@D, note 5D@@. 88. For urther elucidation o 'llamas observations on )uther and his movement here as also in a passage in his $tatement on #slam and 6ationalism in -eply to a $tatement o "aulana *usain 'hmad ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, p. 5=9J, see his most amous and historical 'll#ndia "uslim )eague ,residential 'ddress o 5B >ecember 3B8D, ibid., pp. 9-=. + . also the closing passages o the article: -e ormation in 4n Enc+clopedia of Religion, ed. Kergilius Ferm, p. ?95. 89. + . $ubhE "ahmasnE, Falsafah;i Shar Cat;i !sl#, 2rdu trans. ". 'hmad -idvE, pp. @D-A8. 8=. This acute observation about the development o legal reasoning in #slam rom the deductive to the inductive attitude in interpretation is urther elaborated by 'llama #(bal on pp. 39D-93. #t may be worthwhile to critically e!amine in the light o this observation the attempts made by some o the well-known /estern writers on #slamic law to analytically trace the historical development o legal theory and practice in early #slam, viz. 6. O. +oulson, 4 :istor+ of !sla#ic <a&, chapters 8-=% O.

$chacht, !ntroduction to !sla#ic <a&, chapters @-B and his earlier pioneer work: 9rigins of "uha##adan 1urisprudence, by ;eneral #nde! especially under "edinese and #ra(ians. 8?. This is a re erence to a passage in )ecture #, p. @. 8@. + . ". K. "erchant, 4 /oo2 of Quranic <a&s, chapters v-vii. 8A. + . /riefe M ber Religion, pp. @5 and A3. The passages translated here are as under: L>as 2rchristentum legte keinen /ert au die Hrhaltung von $taat -echt, .rganisation, ,roduktion. Hs denkt ein ach nicht [ ber die 1edingungen der H!istenz der menschlichen ;esellscha t nach.L 'lso entweder man wagt es, staatslos sein zu wollen, man wir t sich der 'narchie reiwillig in die arme, oder man entschliesst sich, neben seinem religib sen 1ekenntnis ein politisches 1ekenntnis zu haben. Ooseph Friedrich 6aumann I3A?D-3B3BJ, a passage rom whose very widely read /riefe M ber Religion I)etters on -eligionJ has been (uoted above in )ecture ###, pp. ?9-?=, was a ;erman ,rotestant theologian, socialist politician, political 7ournalist and a champion o "itteleuropa plan. *e was one o the ounders and the irst president o ;erman 6ational $ocialist ,arty I3AB?J which both in its name and in its policy o according great importance to the agricultural and working classes in the development o the $tate adumbrated *itlers 6azi ,arty I3B5DJ. *is "itteleuropa published in 3B3= IHnglish translation by +. ". "eredith in 3B3?J stirred up considerable discussion during /orld /ar # as it revived, under the impulse o ,an-;ermanism, the idea o a +entral Huropean +on ederation including Turkey and the 1alkan $tates under ;ermanys cultural and economic control. #t also contemplated the e!pansion o the 1erlin-1aghdad railway into a grandiose scheme o empire e!tending rom 'ntwerp in 1elgium to the ,ersian ;ul . H!cept or the year 3B35-38, 6aumann was the member o -eichstag I;erman ,arliamentJ rom 3BD@ to 3B3B. $hortly be ore his death, he was elected as the leader o >emocratic ,arty. 6aumann known or his wide learning, acumen and personal integrity was very in luential with ;erman liberal intellectuals o his day. For the li e and works o 6aumann, c . the two articles: 6aumann, Friedrich and 6ational $ocialism, ;erman by Theodor *euss in the Enc+clopaedia of Social Sciences, U#, 83D and 55=a% also The )e& Enc+clopaedia /ritannica I"icropaediaJ, K###, =?3. For some in ormation given in the above note # am deeply indebted to the >utch scholar the -everend >r Oan $lomp and his younger colleague "r *arry "int7es. "r "int7es took all the trouble to ind out what he said was the oldest available edition o /riefe M ber Religion I1erlin, ;eorg -eimer, 3B3?, si!th editionJ by making a search or it in all the libraries o 'msterdam. >r Oan $lamp was kind enough to mark the passages in /riefe (uoted by 'llama #(bal in Hnglish and mail these to me or the bene it o all #(balian scholars. 8B. *ence, The #ntroduction o >issolution o "uslim "arriages 'ct or #ndian 'ct K### o 3B8B. + . "auln 'shra 'lE ThnawE, 4l;:ilat al;)%i7ah lil;:al lat al;8%i7ah, p. BB and '. '. '. Fyzee, .utlines o "uhammadan )aw, pp. 3=8-?3. 9D. $ee 4l;"u&fiqt, ##, 9: also ;hazlE, 4l;"ustasf, 3, 39D. 93. + . al-"arghinnE, 4l;:id+ah, ##, 6itb al;)i2h, p. 85A% Hnglish trans. The :eda+a or Euide by +. *amilton, p. ??. 95. + . Speeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, p. 3B9, where, while making an appraisal o 'taturks supposed or real innovations, 'llama #(bal observes: The adoption o the $wiss code with its rule o inheritance is certainly a serious error . . . . The 7oy o emancipation rom the etters o a long-standing priest-cra t sometimes derives a people to untried courses o action. 1ut Turkey as well as the rest o the world o #slam has yet to realize the hitherto unrevealed economic aspects o the #slamic law o inheritance which von Gremer describes as the supremely original branch o "uslim law. For some recent accounts o the economic signi icance o the Quranic rule o inheritance, c . ". '. "annan, !sla#ic Econo#ics, pp. 3@?-A? and $haikh "ahmud 'hmad, Econo#ics of !sla#, pp. 3=9-=A. 98. "arriage has been named in the Qurn as # thq;an ghal 7;an, i.e. a strong covenant I9:53J. 99. + . ". K. "erchant, op. cit., pp. 3@B-A?. 9=. + . #. ;oldziher, "uha##edanische Studien, Hnglish trans. +. -. 1arber and $. ". $tern, "usli# Studies, ##, 3A . This is the view held also by some other orientalists such as >. $. "argoliouth, The Earl+ ,e*elop#ent of "oha##edanis#, pp. @B-AB, and *. )ammens, !sla#K /eliefs and !nstitutions,

pp. ?=-A3. 9?. This is the closing paragraph o chapter ### o "oha##edan Theories of FinanceK $ith an !ntroduction to "oha##edan <a& and a /ibliograph+ by 6icolas ,. 'ghnides published by +olumbia 2niversity I6ew &orkJ in 3B3? as one o its Studies in :istor+, Econo#ics and Public <a&. ' copy o this work as reported by >r ". 'bdullaNh +haghataNi was sent to 'llama #(bal by +haudhry -ahmat 'liNGhaNn I,resident: 'merican "uslim 'ssociationJ rom the 2nited $tates and was presented to him on the conclusion o the thirty-eighth annual session o 'n7uman-i Rimyat-i #slm I)ahoreJ, i.e. on 83 "arch 3B58 or soon a ter. >r +haghatEs essay: GhutubaNt-i "adraNs ka ,as-i "anzar in his !qbl 2 Ruhbat "en and the section: $i! )ectures on the -econstruction o -eligious Thought in #slam with use ul notes in >r. -a E al->En *shimEs TaJn f;i !qbl 2 TaDq q ;o TauL h "u?laah throw light on the immediate impact that 'ghnidess book had on 'llamas mind. #t seems that 'ghnidess book did interest 'llama and did play some part in urging him to seek and study some o the outstanding works on As3l al;Fiqh such as those by YmidE, $h^ibE, $hh /alE 'llh, $hauknE, and others. This is evident rom a number o 'llamas letters to $ayyid $ulaimn 6advEas also rom his letters rom 38 "arch 3B59 to 3 "ay 3B59 to ,ro essor "aulavE ". $ha E S9riental College "aga7ine, )### I3B@@J, 5B=-8DDT. #t is to be noted that besides a pointed re erence to a highly provocative view o !%# alluded to by 'ghnides, three passages rom part # o "oha##edan Theories of Finance are included in the last section o the present )ecture, which in this way may be said to be ne!t only to the poems o Qiya ;b kalp e!(uisitely translated rom Fischers ;erman version o them. 9@. This is remarkable though admittedly a summarized Hnglish version o the ollowing (uite signi icant passage rom $hh /alE 'llhs magnum opus *u77at 'llh al-1lighah I#,33AJ: This is the passage (uoted also in $hiblE 6MmnEs 4l;6al# Ipp. 339-3=J, a pointed re erence to which is made in 'llama #(bals letter dated 55 $eptember 3B5B addressed to $ayyid $ulaimn 6advE. There are in act three more letters to $ayyid $ulaimn 6advE in $eptember 3B5B, which all show 'llamas keen interest in and preceptive study o *u77at 'llh al-1lighah at the time o his inal dra ting o the present )ecture Ic . !qbln#ah, pp. 3?D-?8J. From the study o these letters it appears that 'llama #(bal in his interpretation o at least the above passage rom Bu%%at 4llh al;/ligah was much closer to $hiblE 6MmnE than to $ayyid $ulaimEn 6advE. #t is to be noted that 'llama #(bal was always keen to seek and study the works o $haNh /alE'llh, whom he considered to be the irst "uslim who elt the urge o a new spirit in him I)ecture #K, p. @AJ. $ome o these works have been re erred to by titles in 'llamas more than 35DD letters and it is noteworthy that their number e!ceeds that o the works o any other great "uslim thinker% ;hazzlE, Fakhr al->En -zE, Oall al->En -umE, #bn Taimiyyah, #bn Qayyim% $adr al->En $hErzE, or any other. #n his letter dated 58 $eptember 3B8? to "aulavi 'hmad -id 1i7ncrE, 'llama reports that he had not received his copies o $hh /alE'llhs 4l;6hair al;6ath r and Tafh #t supposed to have been dispatched to him through some dealer in )ahore. *e also e!presses in this letter his keen desire to have the services on suitable terms o some competent "uslim scholar, well-versed in #slamic 7urisprudence and very well-read in the works o $hh /alE 'llh. 9A. + . 'ghnides, op5 cit5, p. B3. This is the statement which, according to >r 'bdullah +haghatE Iop5 cit., pp. 8DD-D9J and >r. -a E al->En *shimE occasioned 'llama #(bals i(hi discussions with a number o renowned religious scholars which inally led to his writing a paper on !%tihd in 3B59% the present )ecture may be said to be only a developed orm o that paper. .n the impossible (uestion o #7ms repealing the Qurn one is to note 'llamas two in(uiring letters to $ayyid $ulaimn 6advE and more importantly a letter also to "auln 'bul Galm 'zd I!qbln#ah, 3, 383-8=J. 9B. YmidE, !h2# fi As3l al;4h2#, 3, 8@8. =D. $hauknE, !rshd al;Fuh3l, pp. ?=-@5. =3. "ua&&idhatn are the last two s3rahs o the Qurn, i.e. 338 and 339% they are called so because they teach man how to seek re uge with ;od and betake himsel to *is protection. =5. This is summing up o GarkhiNs somewhat longer statement as (uoted by 'ghnides, op5 cit., p. 3D?% c . also $arakhsE, 2sul l-$arakhsE, ##, 3D=. =8. For 'llamas views on ,ersian constitutional theory see his articles: ,olitical Thought in #slam and #slam and 'hmadism, Speeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, pp. 33A-3B and 3B=.

=9. For 'llamas practical guidelines to re orm the present system o legal education in the modern "uslim world especially in the subcontinent, see his very valuable letter dated 9 Oune 3B5= to $ahibzadah ' tab 'hmad Ghan I<etters of !qbal, p. 3==J% also the last paragraph o his ,residential 'ddress at the 'll-#ndia "uslim +on erence on 53 "arch 3B85 ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents, p. 98J. ==. For $h EEs identi ication o Qiys and !%tihd, c . ". Ghadduri, !sla#ic 1urisprudence Shfi s Rislah, p. 5AA and O. $chacht, The 9rigins of "uha##adan 1urisprudence, pp. 35@-5A. =?. + . $hauknE, op. cit., p. 3BB% YmidE, op. cit., #K, 95 % and "ahmasnE, op5 cit., 2rdu trans. ". '. -idvE, p. 3AA. =@. + . "oha##edan Theories of Finance, p. 35=. This is the observation, in act, o the $h iE7urist 1adr al->En "uhammad b. 1ahdur b. 'bd 'llh al-QarkashE o eighth century and not o $arkashEo tenth century o the *i7rah, as it got printed in the previous editions o the present work Iincluding the one by .! ord 2niversity ,ress in 3B89J. $arkashE is a palpable misprint or QarkashE% 'ghnides in the above-cited work spells it Qarkashi but places him in the tenth century o the *i7rah. 6one o the QarkashEs, however, given in the well-known biographical dictionaries, say, 2mar -id Gahhalahs i teen-volume "uC%a# al;"uCallif n IK, 3A3% #U, 353% U, 55, 5D=, 58B and U#, 5@8J is reported to have belonged to tenth century - e!cept, o course, "uhammad b. #braNhiNm b. <ulu al;.ar2ash mentioned in K###, 539 who is said to be still living a ter AA5_39@@ or as alQiriklE puts it to have died sometime a ter B85_3=5? Iop5 cit., K, 8D5J% but this QarkashE, though he may be said to have made name as an historian o the "uwahhids and the *a asids, was no 7urist. #t is to be noted that the passage on the uture prospects o !%tihd (uoted by 'llama #(bal is only a more signi icant part o QarkashEs somewhat longer statement which 'ghnides gives as under: # they Si.e., the people entertaining this belie T are thinking o their contemporaries, it is a act that they have had contemporaries like al-Qa l, al-;hazzlE, al--azE, al-- iE, and others, all o whom have been ull mu7tahids, and i they mean by it that their contemporaries are not endowed and blessed by ;od with the same per ection, intellectual ability and power, or understanding, it is absurd and a sign o crass ignorance% inally, i they mean that the previous writers had more acilities, while the later writers has more di iculties, in their way% it is again nonsense, or it does not re(uire much understanding to see that !%tihd or the later doctors I#utaa2hir3nJ is easier than or the earlier doctors. #ndeed the commentaries on the Goran and the sunnah have been compiled and multiplied to such an e!tent that the mu7tahid o today has more material or interpretation than he needs. This statement on i%tihd which 'ghnides ascribes clearly to QarkashE, albeit o the tenth century o *i7rah, is in act, as may be seen, translation o the ollowing passage rom $hauknEs !rshd al; Fuh3l Ip. 558J: From the study o the section o !rshd al;Fuh3l dealing with the possibility o there being a period o time without a mu7tahid, it becomes abundantly clear that the views embodied in the above passage are those o the $h iE 7urist 1adr al->En QarkashE o the eighth century o *i7rah and not o $arkashE, nor o QarkashEo the tenth century. For an account o the li e and works o 1adr al->En QarkashE, c . "uhammad 'bMl-Fadl al--ahEms introduction to QarkashEs well-known, 4l;/urhn fi Cul3# al;Qurn. #t may be added that the ,ersian translator o the present work "r. 'hmad Yrm considers $arkashE to be a misprint or $arakhsE, i.e. the *ana E 7urist $hams al-Yimmah 'bM 1akr "uhammad b. 'bE $ahl al-$arakhsE, the author o the well-known thirty-volume al;"abs3t, who died in near about 9A8_3DBD. -e erring to many errors and laws that have un ortunately crept into the )ahore edition o the present work, "r. Yrm is inclined to think that tenth century is another misprint or i th century Ic . !h+;i Fi2r;i , n dar !sl#, pp. 5D5-D8, noteJ. 'hmad Yrm admittedly takes his clue rom a line in "adame Hva "eyerovitchs French translation: Reconstruire la pensee religieus de l!sla# Ip.3B5J and perhaps also rom the 2rdu translation: Tash2 l;i 1ad d !lhi+t;i !sl# +ah Ip. 5@9J by the late $yed 6adhir 6iyzE who corrects the name I$arakhsEJ but not the date. This is, however, better than the 'rabic translator who retains both the misprints without any comments Ic . 'bbs "ahmMd, Ta%d d al;Taf2 r al;, n fil;!sl# , p. 5D?J. =A. + . article Turkey in Enc+clopaedia /ritannica, I3B=8J UU##, ?D?-DA. The French writer alluded to by 'llama #(bal is 'ndre $ervier whose work <!sla# et la ps+chologie da "usul#an translated under

the intriguing title !sla# and the Ps+cholog+ of a "usul#an by '. $. "oss 1landell I)ondon, 3B59J aroused the curiosity o many. #t is in the last chapter o his work dealing with French oreign policy that $ervier makes some observations on Turkey such as the ollowing: IaJ The Turks constitute an ele#ent of balance . . . they orm a bu er $tate between Hurope and the 'siatic erment Ip. 5?@J. I#talics mine.J IbJ .ur interests, there ore, make it our duty to protect them, to maintain them as an ele#ent of equilibriu# in the "usulman /orld Ip. 5?AJ. I#talics mine.J =B. This may pro itably be compared with the ollowing passage rom 'llamas amous $tatement on #slam and 6ationalism in -eply to a $tatement o "aulana *usain 'hmad: The history o man is an in inite process o mutual con licts, sanguine battles and civil wars. #n these circumstances can we have among mankind a constitution, the social li e o which is based upon peace and security0 The Qurans answer is: &es, provided man takes or his ideal the propagation o the 2nity o ;od in the thoughts and actions o mankind. The search or such an ideal and its maintenance is no miracle o political manoeuvring: it is a peculiar greatness o the *oly ,rophet that the sel -invented distinctions and superiority comple!es o the nations o the world are destroyed and there comes into being a community which can be styled ummat-am muslimat-al laka Ia community submissive to Thee, 5:35AJ and to whose thoughts and actions the divine dictate shuhadaa al-an nas-i Ia community that bears witness to the truth be ore all mankind, 5:398J 7ustly applies I Speeches$ritings and State#ents of !qbal, pp. 5?5-?8J.

*ecture ,##+ #$ RE*#G#(' P($$#1*E& )ecture delivered in a meeting o the i ty- ourth session o the 'ristotelian $ociety, )ondon, held on = >ecember 3B85 with ,ro essor O. "acmurray in the chair, ollowed by a discussion by ,ro essor "acmurray and $ir Francis &ounghusband - c . 'bstract o the "inutes o the ,roceedings o the 'ristotelian $ociety or the Fi ty-Fourth $ession, in Proceedings of the 4ristotelian Societ+ I6ew $eriesJ, UUU### I3B88J, 893. The )ecture was published in the said Proceedings of the 4ristotelian Societ+, pp. 9@-?9, as well as in The "usli# Re*i*al I)ahoreJ, #_iv I>ec. 3B85J, 85B-9B. 3. This is a re erence to 'llama #(bals own ather, who was a devout $u E% c . $. $ulaimn 6advE, $air-i ' ghnistn, p. 3@B% also $. 6adhEr 6iyzE, !qbl 2e B3Lur, pp. ?D-?3. This bold but religiously most signi icant statement, # personally eel, is 'llamas own% it has been attributed here to an unnamed "uslim $u i perhaps only to make it more presentable to the orthodo!y% see ". $aeed $heikh, ,hilosophy o "an, !qbal Re*ie&, U#U_i I'pril-Oune 3BAAJ, 38-3?, ound e!pression in 'llamas verse, viz. 6ulli+t;i !qbl I2rdMJ, /l;i 1ibr l, ,t. ##, ;hazal ?D, v. 9: 2nless the 1ooks each verse and part 1e revealed unto your heart, #nterpreters, though much pro ound, #ts subtle points cannot e!pound. 5. + . Critique of Pure Reason, #ntroduction, section vi, pp. =@-=A% also Gemp $miths Co##entar+ to 6ants CCritique, pp. ?A-@D. "etaphysics, i it means knowledge o the transcendent, or o thingsin-themselves, was re7ected by Gant as dogmatic, because it does not begin with a critical e!amination o human capacity or such knowledge. -e erence may here be made to one o the very signi icant 7ottings by 'llama #(bal on the closing back page o his own copy o +arl -ahns Science and the Religious <ife I)ondon, 3B5AJ, viz. #s religion possible0 Gants problem% c . "uhammad $iddi(, ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+, pp. 53-55 and ,late 6o. @. 8. The principle o indeterminacy was so re-christened by '. $. Hddington in his )ature of the Ph+sical $orld, p. 55D. 6ow more o ten known as principle o uncertainty or uncertainty principle, it was announced by the physicist philosopher *eisenberg in .eitschrift fM r Ph+si2, U)### I3B5@J, 3@5-BA. 1roadly speaking, the principle states that there is an inherent uncertainty in describing sub-microscopic process. For instance, i the position o an electron is determined, there remains a measure o uncertainty about its momentum. 's in a complete casual description o a system both the properties must needs be accurately determined, many physicists and philosophers took this uncertainty to mean that the principle o causality had been overthrown.

9. + . Fus3s al;:i2a# Ied. ' E EJ, #, 3DA, ##, 33-35 - the words o the great "uslim $u E philosopher are: al;2halqu #aq3l;un &al;:aqqu #ahs3s;un #ashh3d;un . #t is noteworthy that this pro ound mystical observation is to be ound in one o 'llama #(bals verses composed as early as 3BD8% c . /q +t;i !qbal, p. 39?, v. 5. =. For the $u iNdoctrine o plurality o time and space stated in )ecture ###, pp. ?D-?3 and )ecture K, pp. 3D@-3D on the basis o the then a rare ,ersian "$: Eh+at al;!#2n fi ,ir+at al;"a2n IThe H!tent o ,ossibility in the $cience o $paceJ ascribed by 'llama #(bal to the eminent $u E poet IFakhr al->EnJ #r(E, see )ecture ###, note 89% c . also 'llamas letter to >r ". 'bdullh +haghatE in #(balnamah, ##, 889. ?. + . Oohn ,assamore, 4 :undred =ears of Philosoph+, p. BA. #n act both these pronouncements on metaphysics are to be ound in *ans Kaihingers work re erred to in the ne!t note. Kaihinger in his chapter on 6ietzsche tells us that )anges theory o metaphysics as a 7usti ied orm o poetry made a deep impression upon 6ietzsche Ip. 893J and he also alludes to 6ietzsches patiently asking himsel : /hy cannot we learn to look upon metaphysics and religion as the legitimate play o grown ups0 Ip. 89?, noteJ. 1oth these passages are underlined in 'llamas personal copy o Kaihingers work Ic . ". $iddi(, op5 cit., p. ?J. @. This is a re erence to the title: The ,hilosophy o 's # I3B59J, translation o ,ie Philosophie des 4ls 9b I3B33J, a work o the ;erman Gantian philosopher *ans Kaihinger I3A=5-3B88J. The as i philosophy known as ictionism is an e!treme orm o Oamess pragmatism or >eweys instrumentalism% it, however, traces its descent rom Gant through F. '. )ange and $chopenhauer. #t holds that as thought was originally an aid and instrument in struggle or e!istence it still is incapable o dealing with purely theoretical problems. 1asic concepts and principles o natural sciences, economic and political theory, 7urisprudence, ethics, etc., are merely convenient ictions devised by the human mind or practical purposes - practical li e and intuition, in act, are higher than speculative thought. .ne meets (uite a ew observations bearing on Kaihingers doctrine in 'llamas writings, or e!ample, the ollowing passage in 6ote on 6ietzsche: 'ccording to 6ietzsche the # is a iction. #t is true that looked at rom a purely intellectual point o view this conclusion is inevitable% Gants Critique of Pure Reason ends in the conclusion that ;od, immoratality and reedom are mere ictions though use ul or practical purposes. 6ietzsche only ollows Gant in this conclusion I Thoughts and Reflections of !qbal, ed. $. '. Kahid, pp. 58B-9DJ. 'lso in "cTaggarts ,hilosophy: 6ot /illiam Oames but Gant was the real ounder o modern pragmatism Iibid., p. 33BJ. A. For a comparative study o #ndian, ;reek, "uslim and modern theories o atomism, c . Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 3B@-53D, and or a more recent account o modern atomism 6iels 1ohrs article: 'tom in Hncyclopaedia 1ritannica, ##, ?93-9@. B. '. Hddington, The )ature of Ph+sical $orld, chapter: $cience and "ysticism, p. 858. 3D. 6nikrm Kasanmal ThadnE The Earden of the East, pp. ?8-?9. + . "athna&i, iii, 8BD3-D?, 8B3539, or -MmEs inimitable lines on the theme o biological uture o man which Thadn has presented here in a condensed orm. ThadaNniNin the ,re ace to his book has made it clear that The poems . . . are not translations o renderings . . .% they are rather intended to recreate the spirit and idea o each master . . . . 33. + . The 1o+ful $isdo#, 1ook K, where 6ietzsche denounces nationalism and race-hatred IasJ a scabies o the heart and blood poisoning, also The Twilight o the #dols, chapter viii where he pronounces nationalism to be the strongest orce against culture. 35. + . pp. 39=-9?. 38. -e erence here is to the misguided observations o the orientalists to be ound in such works as '. $prenger, ,es <eben und die <ehre des "oha##ed I3A?3J, 3, 5D@% >.$. "argoliouth, "oha##ed and the Rise of !sla# I3BD=J, p. 9?% -. '. 6icholson, 4 <iterar+ :istor+ of the 4rabs I3BD@J, pp. 39@9A% and >. 1. "acdonald, Religious 4ttitude and life in !sla# I3BDBJ, p. 9?. 39. +. Oung, Contribution to 4nal+tical Ps+cholog+, p. 55=. 3=. #dem, Ps+cholog+ of the Anconscious, pp. 95-98. 3?. + . $haikh 'hmad $irhindE, "a2t3bt;i Rabbn , vol. #, )etter 5=8, also )etters 89, 5=@ and 5?D.

#n all these letters there is listing o the ive stations, viz. Qalb Ithe heartJ, R3h Ithe spiritJ, Sirr Ithe innerJ, 6hafi+ Ithe hiddenJ, and 42hf% together they have also been named as in )etter 89 1a&hir;i 6ha#sah;i 8la#;i 4#r IFive Hssences o the -ealm o the $piritJ. + . F. -ahman, Selected <etters of Shai2h 4h#ad Sirhindi, chapter iii Ipp. =9-==J. 3@. + . Stra+ Reflections, ed. >r Oavid #(bal, p. 95, where 6ietzsche has been named as a great prophet o aristocracy% also article: "uslim >emocracy ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, pp. 358-59J, where a critical notice o 6ietzsches 'ristocracy o $upremen ends up in a very signi icant rhetorical (uestion: #s not, then, the democracy o early #slam an e!perimental re utation o the ideas o 6ietzsche0 3A. + . 6ulli+t;i !qbl IFrisEJ, 1* d )#ah, p. @93, vv. 9 and 8. +ompare this with 'llama #(bals pronouncement on 6ietzsche in his highly valuable article: "cTaggarts ,hilosophy: ' more serious thing happened to poor 6ietzsche, whose peculiar intellectual environment led him to think that his vision o the 2ltimate Hgo could be realized in a world o space and time. /hat grows only out o the inner depths o the heart o man, he proposed to create by an arti icial biological e!periment ISpeeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal, p. 3=DJ. 'gain in 6ote on 6ietzsche: 6ietzsches $upreman is a biological product. The #slamic per ect man is the product o moral and spiritual orces IThoughts and Reflections of !qbal, ed. $. '. Kahid, p. 595J. 3B. 'llama #(bal wished that 6ietzsche were born in the times o $haikh 'hmad o $irhind to receive spiritual light rom him see 6ulli+t;i !qbl IFrisEJ, 1* d )#ah, p. @93, v. 3D: /ould that he had lived in 'hmads time so that he might have attained eternal 7oy. Itrans. 'rberryJ 'nd he himsel could be 6ietzsches spiritual mentor, were he be in #(bals times% see 6ulli+t;i !qbl I2rdMJ, /l;i 1ibr l, ,t. ##, ;hazal 88, v. =. # that Frankish $age /ere present in this age *im #(bal would teach ;ods high place and reach Itrans. $. 'kbar 'li $hahJ. 5D. + . '. $chimmel, $ome Thoughts about Future $tudies o #(bal, !qbal, UU#K_iv I3B@@J, 9. 53. + . pp. 39=-9?. 55. + . 1ertrand -ussell, -elativity: ,hilosophical +onse(uences, $ection: Force and ;ravitation, Hncyclopaedia 1ritannica, U#U, BBc. 58. + . 6ulli+t;i !qbl IFrisEJ, 1* d )#ah, p. ?D@, vv. 3D-3= and p. ?DA, vv. 3-@. +ommenting on 'llamas translation o this passage '. O. 'rberry in the #ntroduction to his translation o 1* d )a#h observes that this a ords a very air e!ample o how close and how remote #(bal was prepared to make his own version o himsel . 'nd he adds that or comparison, in addition to the translation o this passage o ered by him, the reader may like to consider its verseparaphrase by $haikh "ahmud 'hmad in Pilgri#age of Eternit+, ##, 58D-5=?.

1i%liography I. Works of Allama Iqbal

(A) Works in Prose /edil in the <ight of /ergson, ed. and annotated by >r. Tehsin Fira(i, )ahore, 3BAA.The ,e*elop#ent of "etaph+sics in Persia Ia contribution to the history o "uslim philosophyJ, )ondon, 3BDA. -eprinted )ahore, 3B=9, 3B=B, 3B?9. !l# al;!qtisad, )ahore, 3BD8. -ep. Garachi, 3B?5. Six <ectures on the Reconstruction of Religious Thought in !sla# , )ahore, 3B8D. 5nd edn., with revision at about si! places and (uite a ew proo -reading corrections and changes, and more importantly with the addition o )ecture: #s -eligion ,ossible0 and an #nde!, published under the title: The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in !sla# , )ondon, 3B89. -eprinted )ahore, 3B99, many later edns. -eprinted >elhi, 3B@9. French trans. by de Hva "eyerovitch: Reconstruire la pensF e religieuse de l!sla#- ,aris, 3B==. 'rabic trans. by 'bbs "ahmMd: Ta%d d al;Taf2 r al;, n fil;!sla# ,

+airo, 3B==. 2rdu trans. by $ayyid 6adhEr 6iyzE: Tash2 l;i 1ad d !lh +t;i !sl# +ah, )ahore, 3B=A. ,ersian trans. by 'hmad 'ram, # h+a;i Fi2r;i ,in dar !sla# , Tehran, 3B?@. 'lso translated at least in ive more languages. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in !sla# , ed. and annotated by ". $aeed $heikh, )ahore, 3BA?, reprinted )ahore, 3BAB% $panish trans. by Oose Hsteban +alderon: )a Reconstruction del Pensa#iento Religioso en el !sla#, )ahore 3BAB% Stra+ Reflections- 4 )ote;/oo2 of 4lla#a !qbal I3B3DJ, ed. by Oavid #(bal, )ahore, 3B?3. Tr 2h;i Tasa&&uf I3B3?J, ed. by $bir GalurvE, )ahore, 3BA=. (B) Major Poetical Works (With English Translation) 4srr;i 6hud trans. by -. '. 6icholson: The Secrets of the Self, )ondon, 3B5D% rev. edn., )ahore, 3B9D, many later edns. /l;i 1ibr l I3B8=J, trans. o the earlier two ,arts I3? e ?3 ;hazalsJ by $yed 'kbar 'li $hah: Eabriels $ing, #slamabad, 3B@B% trans. o si! (uatrains and o twenty-three poems rom the last part Ias also o some poems rom other worksJ by K. ;. Giernan: Poe#s fro# !qbal, )ondon, 3B== I,art ##J. 1* d )#h I3B85J, trans. by $haikh "ahmud 'hmad: The Pilgri#age of Eternit+, )ahore, 3B?3, 3B@@% also by 'rthur O. 'rberry: 1a*id;)a#a, )ondon, 3B??% trans. o the concluding section: 6hitb ba 1* d by 1. '. >ar: 4ddress to 1a*id, Garachi, 3B@3. P+#;i "ashriq I3B58J, trans. by ". *adi *ussain: 4 "essage fro# the East, )ahore, 3B@@. Ru#37;i /e2hud , trans. by 'rthur *. 'rberry: The "+steries of Selflessness, )ondon, 3B=8. .ab3r;i C4%a# I3B5@J, trans. by 'rthur O. 'rberry: Persian Psal#s, )ahore, 3B9A% trans. o the all too important mathnawE Eulshan;i R7;i 1ad d I6ew ;arden o "ysteryJ as well as /andag )#h I1ook o $ervitudeJ, the closing parts o this work, by 1ashir 'hmad >ar, )ahore, 3B?9% also by ". *adi *ussain: The )e& Rose Earden of "+ster+ and the /oo2 of Sla*es, )ahore, 3B?B. +omplete poetical works in ,ersian and 2rdu published in 5 vols. 6ulli+t;i !qbl: FrisE f 6ulli+t;i !qbl: 2rdu, )ahore, 3B@8. (C) Addresses, Articles, Letters, etc. (i) Com ilations in English ,iscourses of !qbal, ed. by $hahid *ussain -azza(i, )ahore, 3B@B. !qbal by 'tiya 1egum, 1ombay, 3B9@. <etters and $ritings of !qbal, ed. by 1. '. >ar, Garachi, 3B?@. <etters of !qbal, ed. by 1ashir 'hmad >ar, )ahore, 3B@A. <etters of !qbal to 1innah, with a Foreword by IQuaid-i-'zamJ ". '. Oinnah, )ahore, 3B95. "e#entos of !qbal, compiled by -ahim 1akhsh $haheen, )ahore, n.d. Speeches- $ritings and State#ents of !qbal ed. by )ati 'hmad $herwani I8rd rev. and enlarged edn.J, )ahore, 3B@@. Thoughts and Reflections of !qbal, ed. by $yed 'bdul Kahid, )ahore, 3B?9. (ii) Major Compilations in Urdu 4n&r;i !qbl, ed. by 1ashir 'hmad >ar, Garachi, 3B?@. Euftr;i !qbl, ed. by ". -a E( ' aal, )ahore, 3B?B. !qbln#ah G"a%#3ah;i "a2t b;i !qblH, ed. by $haikh 't 2llh, 5 ,arts, )ahore, 3B9=, 3B=3. 6hut3t;i !qbal, ed. and annotated by -a E-ud->En *shimE, )ahore, 3B@?.

"aqlt;i !qbl, ed. by $ayyid 'bdul Khid "uEnE, )ahore, 3B?8. R3h;i "a2t b;i !qbl, ed. by ". 'bdullh QuraishE, )ahore, 3B@@ Ia use ul compendium o 3588 letters arranged chronologicallyJ. (II) !EC"#$A%& W"%'! A#$ A%TICLE! %E(E%%E$ T. #6 6.TH$ '6> THUT I'J /orks

'bd al-Qdir, 'lE *asan, )a7arah C8##ah fi Tr 2h al;Fiqh al;!sl# , +airo, 3B95. 'bd al-QuddMs ;angohE, <atif;i Qudd3s , ed. by $haikh -ukn al->En, >elhi, 3833 '. *. 'bd al-$alm GhurshEd, >r, Sargudhasht;i !qbl, )ahore, 3B@@. 'bdullah 'nwar 1eg, The Poet of the East, )ahore, 3B8B. 'bdullh +haghatE, >r, !qbl 2i Suhbat "en, )ahore, 3B@@. 'bM >wMd, $ulaiman b. al-'shath al-$i7istnE, 6itb al;Sunan, 9 vols. in 5, +airo, 3B8=% Hnglish
trans. by 'hmad *asan, Sunan C4b3 ,&3d, 8 vols., )ahore, 3BA9. 'bM -ashEd $aEd b. "uhammad b. $aEd al-6aisbMrE, 6itb al;"asil fil;6hilf bain /asri++ n &al;/aghddi++ n ed. and trans. into ;erman by 'rthur 1iram: ,ie ato#istische Substan7enlehre aus de# /uch der Streitfragen /asrensern und /aghdadensern, )eyden, 3BD5. 'ghnides, 6icolas ,., "oha##edan Theories of Finance Iwith an #ntroduction to "ohammedan )aw and a 1ibliographyJ, 6ew &ork, 3B3?% rep. 3B?B. 'hmad b. *anbal, "usnad, ? vols., 1eirut, n.d. 'hmad *asan, The ,octrine of !%#C in !sla#, #slamabad, 3B@?. 'hmad 6abi Ghan, >r Ied.J, Relics of 4lla#a !qbal GCatalogueH, #slamabad, "inistry o +ulture and Tourism, ;overnment o ,akistan, 3BA5. 'hmad $irhindE, $haikh, "a2t3bt;i !##;i Rabbn , Kol. #, )ahore, n.d.

'in al-Qudt *amadnE, Eh+at al;!#2n fi ,ir+at al;"a2n, ed. by -ahEm Farmanish in his
compilation 4h&l;o-4thr C4in al;Qudt, Tehran, 388AI$J% Hng. trans. based on collation with -ampur )ibrary "$ by '. *. Gamali, Garachi, 3B@3. 'le!ander, $amuel, Space- Ti#e and ,eit+ IThe ;i ord )ectures at ;lasgow, 3B3?-3B3AJ, 5 Kols., )ondon, 3B5D. al-'midE, $ai al->En, 4l;!h2# fi AJ3l al 4D2#, 9 Kols., 1eirut, 39DD_3BAD. 'rberry, '. O. Itr.J "usli# Saints and "+sticsK Episodes fro# the Tadh2irat al;4uli+ I"emorial o the $aintsJ by FarEd al->En al- '^^r, )ondon, 3B@B. ---, Re*elation and Reason in !sla# IThe Forwood )ectures or 3B=?J, )ondon, 3B=@. 'sad, "uhammad, The "essage of the Qurn, ;ibralter, 3BAD. al-'sharE, 'bul-*asan 'lEb. #smEl, "aqlt al;!sl#i+ n, ed. by "uhammad "uhy al->En 'bd al*amEd, 5 vols., +airo, 38?B_3B=D. 'shnawiN, $haikh T7 al->En "ahmMd b. Ghuddd, Eh+at al;!#2n fi "arifat al;.a#n &al; "a2n, ed. by 6adhr $birE, +ampbellpur, 39D3 '.*. 'shra 'lE ThnawE, "auln, 4l;: lat al;)%i7ah lil;:al lat al;8%i7ah, >eoband, 38=3 I3B83J. 'tiyeh, ;eorge 6., 4l;6indiK The Philosopher of the 4rabs, -awalpindi, 3B??.

'^^r, FarEd al->En, "an?iq al;(air, #s ahan, 3889I$J.

'ugustine, $aint, The Confessions of St5 4ugustine, trans. by H. 1. ,usey, 6ew &ork, 3B9=. 1econ, -oger, 9pus "a%us, Hng. trans. by -. 1. 1urke, 5 vols., ,hiladelphia, 3B5A.

1ahiy, "uhammad al-, 4l;Fi2r al;!sl#i al;Bad th &a Silat bil;!st #r , +airo. al-1a(illnE, 'bM 1akr "uhammad b. al-Tayyib, 6itb al;Ta#h d, ed. by -ichard O. "c+arthy, 1eyrouth, 3B=@. 1arstrow, -obbins /olcott Ied.J, The "acdonald Presentation Volu#e, ,rinceton, 3B88. 1ergson, *enri )ouis, Creati*e E*olution- trans. by 'rthur "itchell, )ondon, 3B33. ---, "atter and "e#or+, trans. by 6ancy "argaret ,aul f /. $cott ,almer IpseudJ, )ondon, 3B33. ---, Ti#e and Free $illK 4n Essa+ on the !##ediate ,ata of Consciousness , trans. by F. ). ,ogson, )ondon, 3B3D. 1erkes, 6iyazi, The ,e*elop#ent of Secularis# in Tur2e+, "ontreal, 3B?9. al-1ErMnE, 'bM -aihn, 4l;Qan3n al;"asC3d , vol. #, *yderabad I>eccanJ, 38@8_3B=9. 4l;/ r3n Co##e#oration Volu#e I'. *. 8?5-'.*. 38?5J, +alcutta, #ran $ociety, 3B=3. 1lavatsky, *elena ,etrovna, The Secret ,octrineK The S+nthesis of Science- Religion and Philosoph+ , ? vols., 'dyar I"adrasJ, 3B@3. de 1oer, T7itze O., Eeschichte der Philosophie i# !sla# I$tuttgart, 3BD3J, trans. by Hdward -. Oones: The :istor+ of Philosoph+ in !sla#, )ondon, 3BD8. 1onola, -oberto, )on;Euclidean Eeo#etr+K 4 Critical and :istorical- Stud+ of !ts ,e*elop#ent , +hicago, 3B35. 1radley, Francis *erbert, 4ppearance and Realit+K 4 "etaph+sical Essa+ , .! ord, 3B8D. ---, Ethical Studies, .! ord, 3B5@. ---, The Principles of <ogic, 5 vols., .! ord, 3B55. 1ri ault, -obert, The "a2ing of :u#anit+, )ondon, 3B58. 1rockelmann, +arl, Eeschichte der arabischen <itteratur, 5 vols., )eiden, 3B98, 3B9B% $upplementbd nde, 8 vols., )eiden, 3B8@, 3B8A, 3B95. 1rowne, -obert T., The "+ster+ of Space G4 Stud+ of the :+perspace "o*e#ent in the <ight of the E*olution of )e& Ps+chic Faculties and an !nquir+ into the Eenesis and Essential )ature of SpaceH , 6ew &ork f )ondon, 3B3B. 1runschvig, -., <a /erberie orientale sous les :afasides, ,aris, 3B9@. al-1ukharE, 'bM 'bd 'llh "uhammad b. #smEl, RaD D al;/u2hr , 'rabic te!t with Hng. trans. by >r. "uhammad "uhsin Ghan, B vols., )ahore, 3B@B. 1urnet, Oohn, Eree2 Philosoph+: Thales to ,lato, )ondon, 3B?3. +a7ori, F., 4 :istor+ of Ele#entar+ "athe#atics, 6ew &ork, 3B3@. +arr, /. /ildon, The Eeneral Principle of Relati*it+ in !ts Philosophical and :istorical 4spect , )ondon, 3B5D. ---, Ied.J, <ife and Finite !ndi*idualit+, )ondon, 3B3A. ---, 4 Theor+ of "onadsK 9utlines of the Philosoph+ of the Principle of Relati*it+ , )ondon, 3B55. +arra de Kau!, 1aron 1ernard, 4*icenne, ,aris, 3BDD. +orn ord, F. "., Platos Theor+ of 6no&ledge GThe Theaetetus and the Sophist of Plato- trans5 &ith a running co##entar+H, )ondon, 3B9?. +oulson, 6. O., 4 :istor+ of !sla#ic <a&, Hdinburgh, 3B?9. >rimE, 'bM "uhammad 'bd 'llh b. 'bd al--ahmn, Sunan al;,ri# , 5 vols., >amascus, 389B_3B8D. >awnE, Oalal al->En, Rislat al;.aur, +airo, 385?_3BDA.

>enison, Oohn *opkins, E#otion as the /asis of Ci*ili7ation, 6ew &ork f )ondon, 3B5A. >escartes, -ene, The Eeo#etr+, trans. by >. H. $mith f ". ). )atham, +hicago, 3B5=. ---,The Philosophical $or2s of ,escartes, trans. by H. $. *aldane f ;.-.T. -oss, 5 vols., )ondon, 3B33, 3B35. >urant, /ill, The 4ge of Faith, 6ew &ork, 3B=D. ---, Caesar and Christ, 6ew &ork, 3B99. Hddington, 'rthur $tanley, The )ature of the Ph+sical $orld I;i ord )ectures 3B5@J, )ondon, 3B5A. ---, Space- Ti#e and Era*itationK 4n 9utline of the Eeneral Relati*it+ Theor+ , +ambridge, 3B5D. Hliade, "ircea IHditor in +hie J, The Enc+clopedia of Religion, 3? vols, 6ew &ork f )ondon, 3BA@. Enc+clopaedia /ritannica, 59 vols., +hicago, )ondon f Toronto, 3B=8. Enc+clopaedia of !sla#, The, 9 vols., )eiden f )ondon, 3B38-3B89% $upplement Iin = partsJ, 3B893B8A. Enc+clopaedia of !sla#, The, 6ew Hdition, )eiden f )ondon, 3B=9 Iin progressJ. Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 38 vols., Hdinburgh f 6ew &ork, 3BDA-3B5@. Enc+clopaedia of the Social Sciences, 39 vols., in A, 6ew &ork, 3B=D. Enc+clopaedia of Philosoph+, The, A vols. in 9, 6ew &ork f )ondon, 3B?@. Enc+clopedia of Philosoph+, The, 9 vols., 6ew &ork, 3BA9. Enc+clopedia of Religion, 'n, ed. by Kergilius Ferm, 6ew &ork, 3B9=. Fahri, F. Qiyaeddin, .i+a EN 2alpK sa *ie et sa sociologie, ,aris, 3B8=. Fakhry, "a7id, 4 :istor+ of !sla#ic Philosoph+, 6ew &ork f )ondon, 3B@D. ---, !sla#ic 9ccasionalis# and !ts Critique b+ 4*erroes and 4quinas, )ondon, 3B=A. Farnell, )ewis -ichard, The 4ttributes of Eod IThe ;i ord )ectures delivered in the 2niversity o $t. 'ndrews in the year 3B59-5=J, )ondon, 3B5=. Feigel, *erbert f "ay 1rodbeck Ieds.J, Readings in the Philosoph+ of Science, 6ew &ork, 3B=8. Fischer, 'ugust, 4us der religiN sen Refor#be&egung in der TM r2ei, )eipzig, 3B55. Flint, -obert, :istor+ of the Philosoph+ of :istor+ in France , 1elgium and $witzerland, Hdinburgh, 3AB8. Fud 'bd al-1(E, "uhammad, al;"uC%a# al;"ufahras li 4lf7 al;Qurn al;6ar # , +airo, 38?9_3B9=. Fyzee, 'sa '. '., 9utlines of "uha##edan <a&, )ondon, 3B==. al-;haQzlE, 'bM *mid "uhammad b. "uhammad, 4l;"unqidh #in al;,all, trans. by +laud Field: Confessions of al;Eha7ali, )ondon, 3BDB, also in /. "ontgomery /att, The Faith and Practice of al; Eha7.l , )ondon, 3B=8, pp. 3B-A=. ---, 4l;"ustasf#in C!l# al;AJ3l, 5 vols., +airo, 3B8@. ---, 4l;Qists al;"ustaq #, trans. with #ntro. and 6otes by >. ,. 1rewster: The 1ust /alance, )ahore, 3B@A. ---, Tahfut al;Falsifah, trans. by $abih 'hmad Gamali: !ncoherence of the Philosophers, )ahore, 3B=A. ;hulm "usta Ghn, !qbl aur Qurn, )ahore, 3B@@. ;ibb, *. '. -., "odern Trends in !sla# IThe *askell )ectures in +omparative -eligion, 3B9=J, 6ew &ork, 3B9@, reprint 3B@A. ---, f O. *. Gramers IedsJ, Shorter Enc+clopaedia of !sla#, )eiden f )ondon, 3B=8.

;illispie, +harles +oulston Ied.J, ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, 3? vols., 6ew &ork, 3B@D-AD. ;oethe, Oohann /ol gang Kon, Con*ersation of Eoethe &ith Ec2er#ann and Soret, trans. by Oohn .!en ord, )ondon, 3BD3. ;b kalp, Qiya, .i+a EN 2alp 2M lli+atiiK SM rler *e hal2 #asallari , ed. by F. '. Tansel, 'nkara, 3B=5. ---,Tur2ish )ationalis# and $estern Ci*ili7ationK Selected Essa+s of .i+a EN 2alp , trans. f ed. by 6iyazi 1erkes, )ondon f 6ew &ork, 3B=B. ;oldziher, #gnaz, "uha##adanische Studien, 5 vols., I3AAB-BDJ, *ildsheim, 3B?3% trans. by +. -. 1arber f $. ". $tern, "usli# Studies, 5 vols., )ondon, vol. #: 3B?@, vol. ##: 3B@3. ---,The .hir sK Their ,octrine and Their :istor+ , trans. by /ol gang 1ehn, )eiden, 3B@3. ;unn, O. 'le!ander, The Proble# of Ti#eK 4 :istorical and Critical Stud+ , )ondon, 3B5B. ;watkin, *. ". f O. ,. /hitney Ieds.J, The Ca#bridge "edie*al :istor+, 5 vols., )ondon, 3B33, 3B38. R7E GhalE ah, "usta b. 'bd 'llh, 6ashf al;.un3n Can al;4s#il;6utub &al;Fun3n , 5 vols., #stanbul, 3B93-98. al-*a7wE, "uhammad b. al-*asan, 4l;Fi2r al;S# f Tunis, 389=-9B_3B5?-83. Tr 2h al;Fiqh al;!sl# , 9 vols., -abat-Fez-

*aldane, Kiscount -ichard 1urdon, The Reign of Relati*it+, )ondon, 3B53. al-*all7, *usain b. "ansMr, 6itb al;Ta&sin, 'rabic te!t and ,ersian version o 1a(lE, ed. by )ouis "assignon, ,aris, 3B38% French translation by ). "assignon in <a passion dal;Ball%, ##, A8D-B8% Hng. trans. by 'isha 'bd 'r--ahman, 1erkeley f )ondon, 3B@9% also in ;ilani Gamran: 4na al;:aqq Reconsidered, )ahore, 38BA '. *., pp. ==-3DA. *amidullah, >r ". Ied.J, Sahifa :a##a#;/in;"unabbih I'rabic te!t with 2rdu trans.J, *yderabad I>eccanJ, 3B=?. *anE 6advE, "uhammad, 4qli+t;i !bn;i Tai# ++ah, )ahore, 3BA3. *assan, -i at, The S&ord and the Sceptre I' collection o writings on #(balJ, )ahore, 3B@@. *eath, $ir Thomas )ittle Itr.J, The Thirteen /oo2s of Euclids Ele#ents, vol. #, +ambridge, 3B5?. *eyd, 2riel, Foundations of Tur2ish )ationalis#K The <ife and Teachings of .i+a EN 2alp , )ondon, 3B=D. *itti, ,hilip Ghuri, :istor+ of the 4rabs, )ondon f 6ew &ork, 3B=3. *ocking, /illiam Hrnest, The "eaning of Eod in :u#an Experience, 6ew *aven, 3B==. *oernle, -. F. 'l red, "atter- <ife- "ind and Eod GFi*e <ectures on Conte#porar+ Tendencies of ThoughtH, )ondon, 3B58. :ol+ /ible, The I'uthorised Ging Oames KersionJ, )ondon f 6ew &ork, n.d. *orten, "a!, ,ie :auptlehren des 4*erroes nach seiner ShriftK ,ie $iderlegung des Ea7ali , 1onn, 3B38. *ourani, ;eorge F. Ied.J, Essa+s on !sla#ic Philosoph+ and Science, 'lbany, 3B@=. al-*u7wErE, 'lEb. 2thmn, 6ashf al;"ah%3b I#ran ,akistan #nstitute o ,ersian $tudies, ,ublication no. 5BJ, )ahore, 38BA_3B@A% Hng. trans. by -. '. 6icholson, )ondon, 3B33. #bn 'bEQar, 'bul-*asan 'lEb. 'bd 'llh, Raud al;Qirts I2psala, 3A98J% French trans. by '. 1eaumier: :istoire des sou*erains du "agreb . . . ,aris, 3A?D. #bn al-'rabE, "uhy al->En, Fus3s al;:i2a#, ed. f annotated by 'bul-'l' E E, 5 vols., +airo, 38?=_3B9?. #bn *azm, 'lEb. 'hmad, 6itb al;Fisal fil;"ilal &al;4h& &a;l;)ihal , 9 vols., +airo, 3833-3835. ---, 4l;Taqr b li;:add al;"antiq, ed. by >r #hsan 'bbas I rom the only "$ ?A39, al-"aktabat al'hmadEyah, TunisJ, 1eirut, 3B=B.

#bn Oamah, 1adr al->En, Tahr r al;4h2# fil;Tadb r 4hl al;!sl# , ed. f trans. into ;erman by *ans Go ler in !sla#ica, K# I3B89J, 89B-939 and K## I3B8=J, 3-?9. #bn GhaldMn, The "uqaddi#ahK 4n !ntroduction to :istor+ , trans. by Franz -osenthal, 8 vols., 6ew &ork f )ondon, 3B=A. #bn "7ah, 'bM'bd 'llh "uhammad b. &azEd, Sunan, ed. by "uhammad FuaNd 'bd al-1aN(i, 5 vols., +airo, 3B=5-=8. #bn "askawaih, 'bu 'lE 'hmad, 4l;Fau7 al;4sghar, +airo, 385= '.*.% Hng. trans. by Ghwa7a 'bdul *amid in #bn "askawaih: 4 Stud+ of :is 4l;Fau7 al;4sghar , ,art #, )ahore, 3B9?. #bn Qutaibah, 'bd 'llh b. "uslim, 6itab al;"aCrif, ed. by Tharwat 2kshah, +airo, 3B?D I2rdu trans. by >r Qia-ul-*a(: ,h. >. >issertation, 2niversity o the ,un7ab, )ahore, 3B=DJ. ---, 6itb Ta& l "u2htalif al;:ad th, ed. by Fara7 'llh QakiNal-GurdiN, et. al., +airo, 385? '.*. #bn -ushd, 'verroes Tahfut al;Tahfut GThe !ncoherence of the !ncoherenceH , trans. with #ntro. and 6otes by $imon van den 1ergh, 5 vols., )ondon, 3B=9. #bn TaimEyyah, 6itab al;Radd Calal;"an?iqi+ n, ed. by 'bd al-$amad $hara al->iNn al-Gurtubi, 1ombay, 3B9B. #kram, $. "., "odern "usli# !ndia and the /irth of Pa2istan , )ahore, 3B@@. !qbal 4s 4 Thin2er IHssays by Hminent $cholarsJ, )ahore, $h. "uhammad 'shra , 3B99. #s rEni, 'bM #sh( #brahEm, 4l;Tabsir fil;,in &a Ta# 7 al;Firqat al;)% +ah Can al;Firaq al;:ali2 n , +airo, 38@9 '.*. #slhE, 'mEn 'hsan, Tadabbar;i;Qurn I3B?@-3BADJ, Fourth reprint, B vols., )ahore, 3BAB. Oames, /illiam, :u#an !##ortalit+ I#ngersoll )ecture at *arvard 2niversity or 3ABAJ, )ondon, 3B3@. ---, The Principles of Ps+cholog+, 5 vols. in 3, 6ew &ork, 3B=D. ---, The Varieties of Religious ExperienceK 4 Stud+ in :u#an )ature I;i ord )ectures, 3BD3-3BD5J, )ondon f 6ew &ork, 3BD5. OmE, 'bd al--ahmn, <a&ih G4 Treatise on Suf s#H ed. f trans. by H. *. /hin ield and "irza ". Gazwini, )ondon, 3BD?. -ep., )ahore, 3B@A. Oung, +arl ;ustav, Contribution to 4nal+tical Ps+cholog+ , trans. by *. ;. f +ary F. 1aynes, )ondon, 3B5A. ---, Ps+cholog+ of the Anconscious, trans. by 1. ". *inkle, )ondon, 3B3B. Gahhlah, 2mar -iaa, "u%a# al;"uCallifinK Tar%i# "usannif l;6utub al;4rab ++ah , 3= vols. in A, >amascus, 3B=@-?3. Gant, #mmanuel, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. by 6. Gemp $mith, )ondon, 3B=8. Ghuda 1ukhsh, $alahuddin, Politics in !sla# G*on 6re#ers CStaatsidee des !sla# : enlarged and ampli iedJ, )ahore, 3B9A. al-GhudarE, "uhammad, Tr 2h al;Tashr al;!sl# , I+airo, 3B5?J 2rdu trans. by 'bd al-$alam 6advE: Tar 2h;i Fiqh;i !sla#i, 'zamgarh, 389? '.*. Girkpatrick, F. Ied.J, <ectures on the :istor+ of the )ineteenth Centur+ , +ambridge, 3BD9. Gohler, /., The "entalit+ of 4pes, trans. by Hlla /inter, )ondon, 3B59. )ammens, *., #slam, /eliefs and !nstitutions, trans. by $ir H. >enison -oss, )ondon, 3B5B. )ane, Hdward /illiam, 4n 4rabic;English <exicon, ,arts 3-A, A vols., ed. by $tanley )ane-poole, 6ew &ork, 3B=D-=?. )ewes, ;eorge *enry, The /iographical :istor+ of Philosoph+, )ondon, 3A=@. "acdonald, >uncan 1lack, ,e*elop#ent of "usli# Theolog+- 1urisprudence and Constitutional Theor+ , 6ew &ork, 3BD8% rep. )ahore, 3B?D.

---, The Religious 4ttitude and <ife in !sla# IThe *askell )ectures on +omparative -eligion, 3BD?J, 1eyrouth, 3B?=. "cTaggart, Oohn "cTaggart Hllis, )ature of Existence, ed. by +. >. 1road, +ambridge, 3B5@. ---, Philosophical Studies, ed. by $. K. Geeling, )ondon, 3B89. ---, Studies in the :egelian ,ialectic, +ambridge, 3B55. "ahmansani, $obhi I"ahmasnE, $ubhEJ, Falsafat al;Tashr il-#slm I1eirut, 3B=5J% trans. by Farhat O. Qiadeh: The Philosoph+ of 1urisprudence in !sla# , )eiden, 3B?3% 2rdu trans. by ". 'hmad -iavE: Falsafah;i ShariCat; !sla#, )ahore, 3BA3. "aimonides, "oses, The Euide of the Perlexed , trans. by $hlomo ,ines, with introductory essay by )eo $trauss, +hicago, 3B?8. al-"arghinnE, 1urhn al->En, 4l;:ida+ahK Sharh /id+at al;"ubtad , 9 vols., +airo 385?-5@ '.*., trans. by +harles *amilton: The :eda+a or EuideK 4 Co##entar+ on the "ussul#an <a&s , 5nd edn., )ondon, 3A@D% rep. )ahore, 3B=@. "argoliouth, >avid $amuel, The Earl+ ,e*elop#ent of "oha##edanis#, )ondon, 3B39. ---, "oha##ed and the Rise of !sla#, 6ew &ork, 3BD=. "asMd% >r Ghlid, !qbl 2a Tasa&&ur;i !%tihd, #slamabad, 3BA=. "erchant, "uhammad Kalibhai, 4 /oo2 of Quranic <a&s, )ahore, 3B9@. "etz, -udol , 4 :undred =ears of /ritish Philosoph+ , trans. rom ;erman by O. /. *arvey, et. al., and ed. by O. *. "uirhead, )ondon, 3B8A. "onzavi, 'hmad, 4 Catalogue of Persian "anuscripts, vol. ##, ,t. #, Tehran, 3B89I$J. "organ, +. )., E#ergent E*olution, )ondon, 3B58. "unk, $alomon, "F langes de philosophie 1ui*e et arabe, ,aris, 3A=B. "urphy, ;ardner, :istorical !ntroduction to "odern Ps+cholog+, )ondon, 3B9B. "uslim, 'bul-*usain b. al-*a777 al-6EsbMrE, 4l;Rah D, A vols., +airo, 3889 '.*.% Hng. trans. by 'bdul *amEd $iddE(E: Sahih "usli#, 9 vols., )ahore, 3B@?-A3. 6adhEr 6iyzE, Sa++id- !qbl 2e :uL3r, Garachi, 3B@3. 6asE, 'hmad b. $huaib, Sunan, +airo, 3B8D. al-6ashshr, 'lE $mE, "anhi% al;/ahth Cinda "ufa22iril;!sl# &a )aqd al;"usli# n lil;"antiq al; 4rist3tl s , +airo, 38?@_3B9@. 6asr, $eyyed *ossein, 4n !ntroduction to !sla#ic Cos#ological ,octrinesK Conceptions of )ature and "ethods Ased for the Stud+ b+ the !2h&an al;Safa- al;/iruni and !bn Sina , +ambridge I"ass.J, 3B?9. 6aumann, Ooseph Friedrick, /riefe 0 ber Religion, 1erlin, 3B3?. ---, "itteleuropa, trans. by +. ". "eredith: +entral Hurope, )ondon, 3B3?. )e& Enc+clopaedia /ritannica, The I,ropaedia, "icropaedia and "acropaediaJ, 8D Kols., +hicago, )ondon, Toronto, etc., 3B@8, 3BA=. 6ewton, $ir #saac, The "athe#atical Principles of )atural Philosoph+ , trans. by 'ndrew "otte, 8 vols., )ondon, 3AD8. 6icholson, -eynold '., 4 <iterar+ :istor+ of the 4rabs, +ambridge, 3B=8. 6ietsche, Friedrich /ilhelm, The Co#plete $or2s of Friedrich )iet7sche , trans. by /. '. *aussmann, et. al., ed. by .scar )evy, 3A Kols., Hdinburgh, 3BDB-39. .uspensky, ,eter >emianovich, Tertiu# 9rganu#K 4 6e+ to the Enig#as of the $orld , I3B35J, trans. by 6icholas 1essarabo f +laude 1ragdon, )ondon, 3B5?. ,assamore, Oohn, 4 :undred =ears of Philosoph+, *armondsworth, 3B@=.

-a E al->En *ashimE, >r. Tasn f;i !qbl 6a Tahq qi;o;TauL D "u?laah, )ahore, 3BA5. al--aghib, 'bul-Qsim al-*usain, 4l;"ufradt fi Ehar b al;Qurn, 1eirut, n.d. -ahEm 1akhsh $hhEn, 4urq;i Eu#gashtah, )ahore, 3B@=. ---, "e#entos of !qbal, )ahore n.d. -ahmn, Fazlur, Selected <etters of Shai2h 4h#ad Sirhindi, Garachi, 3B?A. ---, "a%or The#es of the Qurn, "inneapolis, 3BAD. -aschid, ". $alman, !qbals Concept of Eod, )ondon, 3BA3. -zE, Fakhr al->En, 4l;"abhith al;"ashriq ++ah, vol. #, *yderabad I>eccanJ, 3898 '.*. ---, 4l;Tafs r al;6ab r, A vols., +airo, 38D@ '.*. -enan, Hrnst, 4*erroes et la*errois#eK essai historique, ,aris, 3AA5% 2rdu trans. by "ashMN( *usain: !bn;i Rushd &a Falsafah;i !bn;i Rushd, *yderabad I>eccanJ, 389@_3B5B. -escher, 6icholas, The ,e*elop#ent of 4rabic <ogic, ,ittsburgh, 3B?9. -odwell, O. ". Itr.J, The 6oran I3A?3J, )ondon, 3B9A. -oss, /illiam >avid, 4ristotle, )ondon, 3B58. -ougier, )ouis, Philosoph+ and the )e& Ph+sicsK 4n Essa+ on the Relati*it+ Theor+ and the Theor+ of Quanta, authorised trans. by "orton "asius, ,hiladelphia, 3B53. -oyce, Oosiah, The $orld and the !ndi*idual I;i ord )ecturesJ, 5 vols., )ondon, 3BDD. -MmE, "auln Oall al->En, "athna& ;i "ana& , te!t ed. and trans. and commentary by -eynold '. 6icholson: The "athna& of 1alludd n R3# , A vols., )ondon, 3B5=-9D. -unes, >. >. Ied.J, The ,ictionar+ of Philosoph+, 6ew &ork, 3BA5. -ussell, 1ertrand, :istor+ of $estern Philosoph+, )ondon, 3B9B. ---, "+sticis# and <ogic, )ondon, 3B9B. ---, 9ur 6no&ledge- of the External $orld, )ondon, 3B9B. $aEd 'hmad 'kbarbadE, 6hutabt;i !qbl per e2 )a>r, $rinagar, 3BA8% reprinted, )ahore, 3BA@. $aEd b. 'hmad al-'ndalusi, (abaqt al;A#a#, 1eirut, n.d. al-$aEdE, 'bd al-"utal, 4l;"u%addid3n fil;!sl#, +airo, n.d. al-$alwE, 'hmad b. Ghlid al-6sirE, 4l;!stiqs li 42hbr ,u&al al;"aghrib al;4qs , vol. ##, al->r al1aid, 3B=9. $lik, 'bd al-"a7Ed, ,hi2r;i !qbl, )ahore, 3B==. $alEm 'khtar Ied.J, Fi2r;i !qbl 6e "una&&ar Eosha+, )ahore, 3B@8. al-$arakhsE, $hams al-'immah 'bM1akr "uhammad b. 'hmad, AJ3l al;Sara2hs , +airo, 38@8_3B=9. $arkhwush, "uhammad ' dal Ied.J 6ali#t al;ShuCar, )ahore, n.d. $arton, ;eorge, !ntroduction to the :istor+ of Science, 8 vols. in =, 1altimore, 3B5@-9A. $ayyid $ulaimn 6advE, Sair;i 4fghnistn, *yderabad I>eccanJ, 3B9=. $chacht, Ooseph, The 9rigins of "uha##edan 1urisprudence, .! ord, 3B=8. ---, with +. H. 1osworth Ieds.J, The <egac+ of !sla#- 5nd edn., .! ord, 3B@9. $chilpp, ,. '. Ied.J, 4lbert EinsteinK Philosopher;Scientist, 6ew &ork, 3B=3. $chimmel, 'nnemarie, Eabriels $ing G4 Stud+ in to the Religious !deas of Sir "uha##ad !qbalH , )eiden, 3B?8.

---, "+stical ,i#ensions of !sla#, +hapel *ill, 3B@=. $chmb lders, 'ugust, Essai sur les Ecoles philosophiques che7 les 4rabes- et nota#ent sur la doctrine d4lga77ali, ,aris, 3A95. $chopenhauer, 'rthur, $orld as $ill and !dea, trans. by -. 1. *aldane f Oohn Gemp, vol. #, )ondon, 3B58. $ervier, 'ndre, !sla# and the Ps+cholog+ of "usul#an, trans. by '. $. "oss-1landell, )ondon, 3B59. $habistarE, "ah#3d- Eulshan;i R7, ed. and trans. by H. *. /hin ield: Eulshan;i R7K The "+stic Rose Earden, )ondon, 3AAD% rep. )ahore, 3B@A. $ha EE, 'bM 'bd 'llah "uhammad, !sla#ic 1urisprudenceK Shfi s Risla- trans. with intro. and notes by "a7id Ghadduri, 1altimore, 3B?3. al-$hahrastnE, "uhammad b. 'bd al-GarEm, 6itb al;"ilal &al;)ihal, ed. by /. +ureton, )ondon, 3A9?. $hams al-*a((, 4un al;"ab3d li;:all;i "ush2ilt Sunan 4b3,&3d, 9 vols., "ultan, 38BB '.*. $harE , ". ". Ied.J, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+ G&ith Short 4ccounts of 9ther ,isciplines and "odern Renaissance in "usli# <andsH, 5 vols., /iesbaden, 3B?8, 3B??. al-$htibE, 'bM #sh( #brhEm b. "Ms, 4l;"u&fiqt fi As3l al;4h2#, 9 vols., +airo, 3893 '.*. al-$haukanE, "uhammad b. 'lE, !rshd al;Fuh3l, +airo, 38=? '.*. $heikh, ". $aeed, 4 ,ictionar+ of "usli# Philosoph+, )ahore, 3BA3. $hiblE 6umnE, !l# al;6al#, 'gra, n.d. ---, 4l;6al#, +awnpore, 3BD9. ---, Shir al;4%a#, vol. ###, Yzamgarh, 3B9=. $hihb al->En $uhrawardE "a(tMl, 6itb :i2#at al;!srq, ed. by *enri +orbin, Tehran, 3B=5. $iddE(E, >r 'bul-)aith Ied. and annotatorJ, "alf37t;i !qbl, )ahore, 3B@@. $iddi(E, "azheruddEn, Concept of "usli# Culture in !qbl, #slamabad, 3B@D. $iddE( *asan Ghn, "uhammad, :us3l al;"a#3l #in C!l# al;AJ3l, )ucknow, 35BA '.*. $iddi(, "uhammad, ,escripti*e Catalogue of 4lla#a !qbals Personal <ibrar+, )ahore, 3BA8. $mith, 6orman Gemp, 4 Co##entar+ to 6ants CCritique of Pure Reason, 6ew &ork, 3B58. $pencer, *erbert, First PrinciplesK 4 S+ste# of S+nthetic Philosoph+ , )ondon, 3B33. $pengler, .swald, The ,ecline of the $est, trans. by +. H. 'tkinson, 5 vols. in one, )ondon, 3B=9. $prenger, 'loys, ,as <eben und die <ehre des "oha##ed, 8 vols., 1erlin, 3A?3-?=. $teinberg, $. *. Ied.J, Cassells Enc+clopaedia of <iterature, vol. #, )ondon, 3B=8. $tockl, 'lbert, Eeschichte der Philosophie des "ittelaters, vol. ##, 1onn, 3A?=. al-$uyMtE, Oall al->En, Busn al;"uhadarah fi 42hbr "isr &al;Qhirah, vol. #, +airo, 35BB '.*. Tau(n, QadrE * iz, Turth al;4rab al;!l# , +airo, 38A5_3B?8. Thadani, 6anikram Kasanmal, The Earden of the East, Garachi, 3B85. al-TirmidhE, "uhammad b. gs, 4l;1#i al;Sah h, ed. by 'hmad "uhammad $hkir, 8 vols., +airo, 38=?_3B8@. Tourneau, -. )e, The 4l#ohad "o*e#ent in )orth 4frica in the T&elfth and Thirteenth Centuries , ,rinceton, 3B?B. Toynbee, '., 4 Stud+ of :istor+, Kol. ###, )ondon, 3B89. Tsano , -adoslav '., The Proble# of !##ortalit+K Studies in Personalit+ and Value , )ondon, 3B59.

al-\MsE, 6asEr al->En, 4l;Rislat al;Shfi+ah an al;Sha22 fil;6hut3t al;"uta&7i+ah in I\MsEsJ Rasil, vol. ##, *yderabad I>eccanJ, 38=B '.*. Tyan, Hmile, !nstitutions du droit public #usul#an, Tome ##: $ultanat et cali at, ,aris, 3B=?. Kaihinger, *ans, The Philosoph+ of C4s !f, trans. by +. G. .gden, )ondon, 3B59. /ahEd-ud->En, Fa(Er $ayyid, R37gr;i Faq r, )ahore, 3B?8. /alE 'llh, $hh, Bu%%at 4llh al;/lighah, Kol. #, +airo, 3855 '.*., 2rdu trans. by "auln'bd al-ahEm, )ahore, 3B?3. /hin ield, H. *. Itr.J, "asna*i;i "aCna*i GSpiritual Couplets of "auln 1allud;, n "uha##ad R3# : trans. f abridgedJ, )ondon, 3ABA. /hitehead, 'l red 6orth, The Concept of )ature, +ambridge, 3B5D. ---, Religion in the "a2ing I)owell )ectures in 1oston in 3B5?J, 6ew &ork f +ambridge, 3B5?. ---, Science and the "odern $orld I)owell )ectures in 1oston in 3B5=J, 6ew &ork, 3B5=. /ol son, *arry 'ustryn, The Philosoph+ of the 6ala#, +ambridge, "ass., 3B@?. &Mnus FarangE "ahallE, "uhammad, #bn -ushd, 'zamgarh, 3859 '.*. Qhid al-GautharE, :usn al;Taqd fi S rat al;!## 4bi =3suf al;QL , +airo, 3B9A. al-QarkashE, 1adr al->En "uhammad, b. 1ahdur, 4l;/urhn fi CAl3# al;Qurn, ed. by "uhammad 'bM l-Fadl al--ahEm, 5 vols., +airo, 38B3_3B@5. al-QiriklE, Ghair al->En, 4l;4l#K Q#3s Tar%i# li;4shhar al;Ri%l &al;)is #in al;4rab &al; "ustarib n &al;"ustashriq n, 3D vols. in =, +airo, 38@8-@A_3B=9-=B% rev. edn., A vols., 1eirut, 3B@B. (B) Articles 'rendonk, +. van, #bn *azm, The Enc+clopaedia of !sla# IFirst editionJ, ##, 8A9-A?. 'rnaldez, -oger, f '. Q. #skander, #bn -ushd, ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, U##, 3-B. 'rnheim, -., ;estalt, Enc+clopedia of Ps+cholog+, ##, =A-?D. 1arker, *enry, 1erkeley, section: "etaphysics o #mmaterialism, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, =5?b-=5Ab. 1assett, -., #bn Tumart, The Enc+clopaedia of !sla#, ##, 95=-5@% also Shorter Enc+clopaedia of !sla#, pp. 3=5-=9. 1ausani, '., +oncept o Time in the -eligious ,hilosophy o "uhammad #(bl, ,ie $elt des !sla#s, 6. $., ### I3B=9J, 3=A-A?. 1eare, "ary, Faust in $. *. $teinberg Ied.J, Cassells Enc+clopaedia of <iterature, #, 53@-3B. de 1oer, T. O., 'tomic Theory I"uhammadanJ, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 5D5b-5D8b. 1ohr, 6iels, 'tom, Enc+clopaedia /ritannica, ##, ?95-9@. 1road, +. >., Time Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, U##, 889a-89=a. 1rowne, H. ;., ,anC #slamism in F. Girkpatrick Ied.J, <ectures on the :istor+ of the )ineteenth Centur+. 1[ tler, -. '., Gitb al-TawsEn o al-Rall7, 1ournal of the Ani*ersit+ of /aluchistan , 3_5 I'utumn 3BA3J, 9B-33@. +arr, *. /ildon, The #dealistic #nterpretation o Hinsteins Theory, Proceedings of the 4ristotelian Societ+, 6. $., UU## I3B53-55J, 358-5@. +arra de Kau!, 1., 'verroes, 'verroism, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 5?9-??% #bn -ushd, The Enc+clopaedia of !sla#, ##, 93D-38. >r, 1ashEr 'hmad, #(bal 'ur "asalah-i Qamn-o-"akn, in $alim 'khtar Ied.J Fi2r;i;!qbl 2e

"una&&ar Eosha+ I)ahore, 3B@@J, pp. 393-=3. >eussen, ,aul, 'tman, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 3B=b-3B@b. >iwald, $usanna, Gitb al-Qists al-"usta(Em, ,er !sla#, UUUK# I3B?3J, 3@3-@9. >ray, /. *., $pengler, .swald, The Enc+clopaedia of Philosoph+, K##, =5@-8D. >ummet, "ichael, ' >e ence o "cTaggarts ,roo o the 2nreality o Time, Philosophical Re*ie&, )U#U I 3B?DJ, 9B@-=D9. Hhsan Hlahie, -ana ". 6., #(bal on the Freedom o #7tihd, 9riental College "aga7ine I'llama #(bal +entenary 6umberJ, )### I3B@@J, 5B=-88D. +ontains acsimiles o 'llama #(bals recently discovered our letters to ,ro essor "aulavi "uhammad $ha E rom 38 "arch 3B59 to 3 "ay 3B59. Hmmet, >orothy "., 'le!ander, $amuel, The Enc+clopaedia of Philosoph+, #, ?B-@8. Forster, H. "., The $ecrets o the $el I'srr-i-GhudiJ, The 4thenaeu# I3D >ecember 3B5DJ, pp. AD8D9% a book review reproduced in >r -i at *asan Ied.J, The S&ord and the Sceptre, pp. 5@@-A=. Frank, ,hilipp, ,hilosophical #nterpretations and "isinterpretations o the Theory o -elativity, in *erbert Feigel f "ay 1rodbeck Ied.J, Readings in the Philosoph+ of Science, pp. 535-83. ;ilman, -ichard +., *ocking, /illiam Hrnest, Enc+clopaedia of Philosoph+, #K, 9?-9@. ;oldziher, #gnaz, >wMd 1. 'lE 1. Ghal , Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, K, 9D=-D? #bn *azm, ibid., K##, @D-@5. ---, "aterialien zur Genntniss der 'lmohadenbewegung, .eitschrift der ,eutschen #orgenlS ndischen Eesellschaft, U)# I3AA@J, 8D-39D. *aldane, O.$., 're ,hysical, 1iological and ,sychological +ategories #rreducible0, Proceedings of the 4ristotelian Societ+, UK### I3B3@-3AJ, 93B-8?. *alperin, >.O., The #bn $ayyaNd Traditions and the )egend o al->a77l, 1ournal of the 4#erican 9riental Societ+, U+##_ii I3B@?J, 538-5=. *anney, '. *oward Ied.J, 'bstract o the "inutes o the ,roceedings o the 'ristotelian $ociety or the Fi ty-Fourth $ession, Proceedings of the 4ristotelian Societ+ , 6.$., UU### I3B85-88J, 893-98 Icontains a brie report about 'llama #(bals lecture: #s -eligion ,ossible0 on = >ecember 3B85J. *a(ue, $era7ul, #bn Taimiyyas +onception o 'nalogy and +onsensus, !sla#ic Culture, UK## I3B98J, @@-A@% #bn Taimiyyah in ". ". $hari Ied.J, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ##, @B?-A3B. *shimE, -a Eal->En, 'llmah ke +hand ;hair-"udawwan Ghu^M^, !qbal Re*ie&, UU###_iv IOan. 3BA8J, 93-=B Ireproduces 'llama #(bals letter dated ? "ay 3B8@ addressed to ,ro essor >r $yed Qa arul *asan, which indicates that 'llama had gathered material or his proposed -hodes "emorial )ectures on $pace and Time in "uslim ThoughtJ. *aydar 'li >irioz, Tev ik Fikret, 1ournal of the Regional Cultural !nstitute, #_9 I'utumn 3B?AJ, 35-3=. *aynie, *. '., *elmholtz, *ermann von, Enc+clopedia of Ps+cholog+, ##, 3D8. *eisenberg, /., h ber den anschaulischen #nhalt der (uanten theoretischen Ginematik und "echanik, .eitschrift fM r Ph+si2, U)### I3B5@J, 3@5-BA. *opkins, O. F. ,., #bn Tumart, The Enc+clopaedia of !sla# I6ew editionJ, ###, B=A-?D. *ourani, ;. F., The >ialogue 1etween 'l-;hazzli and the ,hilosophers on the .rigin o the /orld, The "usli# $orld, U)K###_iii and iv I3B=AJ, 3A8-B3, 8DA-39. *ussain, -iaz, 3B3D men >unya-i #slm ke *lt I,olitical +onditions o the #slamic /orld in 3B3DJ, !qbal Re*ie&, U#U_5 IOuly 3B@AJ, A=-BD I ocussed on 'llama #(bals letter dated 55 'ugust 3B3D addressed to the Hditor, Paisa 42hbr - an 2rdu daily o )ahoreJ. #mtiyz 'lE Ghn 'rshE, "., Qamn-o "akn kE 1ahth ke "utaalla( 'llmah #(bl ka aik "aakhadh: #r(Eya 'shnawE, !qbal Centenar+ Papers Presented at the !nternational Congress on 4lla#a "oha##ad !qbal I5-A >ecember 3B@@J, vol. #K I,apers in 2rduJ, pp. 3-3D. Oacobi, *ermann, 'tomic Theory I#ndianJ, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 3BBa-5D5b.

Gazim, ". '., 'l-1ErMnE and Trignometry, 4l;/ r3n Co##e#oration Volu#e, pp. 3?3-@D. Gennedy, H. $., 'l-1ErMnE 'bM -aihn, ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, ##, 39@-?A Ibases al1ErMnEs theory o unction on his Treatise on $hadowsJ. Go ka, G., ;estalt, Enc+clopaedia of the Social Sciences, K#, ?95-9?. Go ler, *ans, *andbuch des islamischen $taats und Kerwaltungsrechtes von 1adr-ad->in ibn ;amaah. *erausgegeben, abersetzt und mit 'nmerkungen versehen, !sla#ics K# I3B89J, 89B-939, K## I3B8=J, 3-?9 and $chl[ sshe t I3B8AJ, 3A-35B I'rabic te!t with ;erman trans. o #bn Oamahs Tahr r al;4h2# fi Tadb r 4hl al;!sl# J. Groll, /ilhelm, 'tomic Theory I;reekJ, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ##, 3B@a-BBa. )aoust, *, #bn TaimEyya, The Enc+clopaedia of !sla# I6ew editionJ, ###, B=3-==. "c+arthy, -. O., 'l-1akillnE, The Enc+clopaedia of !sla# I6ew editionJ, #, B=A-=B. "acdonald, >.1., +ontinuous -e-creation and 'tomic Time in "oslem $cholastic Theology, !sis, #U I3B5@J, 85?-99% reprinted in The "osle# $orld, UK###_i IOan. 3B5AJ, ?-5A. ---, #7tihd, The Enc+clopaedia of !sla#, ##, 99A-9B% reproduced in the 6ew edition, ###, 3D5?-5@. "cTaggert, O. ". H., The 2nreality o Time, "ind, 6ew $eries, UK## I.ctober 3BDAJ, 9=@-@9. "argoliouth, >. $., 'l-"ahdE, Shorter Enc+clopaedia of !sla#, pp. 83D-38. "armura, "ichael H., ;hazlEs 'ttitude to the $ecular $ciences and )ogic, in ;eorge F. *ourani Ied.J, Essa+s on !sla#ic Philosoph+ and Science, pp. 3DD-33. ---, $oul: #slamic +oncepts, The Enc+clopedia of Religion, U###, 9?D-?=. "asMd, Ghlid, Ghutubti #(bl men #7tihd ki Tari : #7tihd k TrEkhE ,as-i "anzar, Fi2r;o;)a7ar, UK_vii-viii, I#slamabad, Oan., Feb. 3B@AJ, 83-=8. 6amus, >r ". $., #bn al-*aitham: The ;reatest ,hysicist o #slam, in *akim "ohammad $aid Ied.J, !bn :aitha#K Proceedings of the Celebrations of PQQQth 4nni*ersar+ I3-3D 6ov. 3B?B, GarachiJ, pp. 359-89. 6asr, $eyyed *ossein, $hihb al->En $uhrawardE "a(tMl in ". ". $hari Ied.J, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, #, 8@5-BA. ---, 'l-\MsE 6asEr al->En, ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, U###, =DA-39 Ialso gives an assessment o al-TuNsiNs work on parallel postulateJ. 6unn, T. ,ercy, The #dealistic #nterpretation o Hinsteins Theory, Proceedings of the 4ristotelian Societ+, 6ew $eries, UU## I3B53-55J, 35@-8D. .bermann, O., ,olitical Theology in Harly #slam, *asan al-1asris Treatise on Qadar, 1ournal of the 4#erican 9riental Societ+, )K I3B8=J, 38A-?5. ,eyser, +. $., Gohler, /ol gang I3AA@-3B?@J, Enc+clopedia of Ps+cholog+, ##, 5@3. ,lanck, /ilhelm, -e ormation, 4n Enc+clopedia of Religion, ed. Kergilius Ferm, pp. ?9D-95. ,oynting, O. *enry, 'tomic Theory I"edieval and "odernJ, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics , ##, 5D8b-53Db. ,lessner, "., 'l-Ohiz, ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, K##, ?8-?= I ocusses on Gitb al-*ayawnJ. Qureshi, #. *., *istoriography, in ". ". $hari Ied.J, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ##, 33B=-353B. -eyburn, #dealism and the -eality o Time, "ind, .ctober 3B38, pp. 9B8-=DA. -eichenbach, *ans, The ,hilosophical $igni icance o the Theory o -elativity, in *. Feigel f ". 1rodbeck Ieds.J, Readings in the Philosoph+ of Science, pp. 3B=-533% also in ,. '. $chilpp Ied.J, 4lbert EinsteinK Philosopher;Scientist, pp. 5A@-833. -ussell, 1ertrand, -elativity, ,hilosophical +onse(uences, Enc+clopaedia /ritannica I3B=8J, U#U, BAd-3DDa.

$abra, '. #., #bn al-*aytham, ,ictionar+ of Scientific /iograph+, K#, 3AB-53D. I'lso gives an e!haustive bibliography including up-to-date in ormation about "$$ o Gitb al-"anzirJ. $chimmel, '., $ome Thoughts 'bout the Future $tudy o #(bal, !qbal I#(bal 6umberJ, UU#K_9 I.ctober 3B@@J, 3-A. $hari , ". "., #n luence o "uslim Thought on the /est, $ection >: ,hilosophical #n luence rom >escartes to Gant, idem Ied.J, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ##, 38A3-A@. $heikh, ". $aeed, 'llama #(bals #nterest in the $ciences I#(bal "emorial )ecture, 2niversity o the ,un7ab, )ahore, 3BAAJ, !qbal Re*ie&, UUU_i I'pril-Oune 3BABJ, 83-98. ---, 'l-;hazali: "etaphysics, section >: 'ttack on the ,hilosophers, in ". ". $hari Ied.J 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, #, =B5-?3?. ---, 'l-;hazali: "ysticism, ibid., #, ?3@-59. ---, ,hilosophy o "an I;eneral ,residential 'ddress, ,akistan ,hilosophical +ongress, 3BA@J, !qbal Re*ie&, UU#U_i% I'pril-Oune, 3BAAJ, 8-3?. $iddi(i, >r ". -azi-ud->in, #(bals +onception o Time and $pace, !qbal 4s 4 Thin2er, pp. 3-9D. ---, "athematics and 'stronomy, in ". ". $hari Ied.J, 4 :istor+ of "usli# Philosoph+, ##, 35@@-B5. $muts, O. +., *olism, Enc+clopaedia /ritannica, U#, ?9Dc-?99a. $tern, $. "., #bn al-$amh, 1ournal of the Ro+al 4siatic Societ+, 3B=?, pp. 83-99. $yrier, "iya, #bn Ghaldun and "ysticism, !sla#ic Culture, UU#_ii, I3B9@J, 5?9-8D5. Taylor, 'l red Hdward, +ontinuity, Enc+clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, #K, ABb-BAa Iinter alia Qeno o Hlias notion, B3-B5 and +antors theory, B?b-BAaJ. Thomson, /., Ghari7itism and the Ghari7ites in -. /. 1arstrow Ied.J, The "acdonald Presentation Volu#e, pp. 8@3-AB. Kernet, Ouan, "athematics, 'stronomy, .ptics, in O. $chacht Ied.J, The <egac+ of !sla#, pp. 9?3-AB. /att, /. "ontgomery, The ,olitical 'ttitudes o the "utazilah, 1ournal of the Ro+al 4siatic Societ+ , 3B?5, pp. 8A-=9. &azdni, >r Ghw7ah *amEd, -islah dar Qamn-o-"akn, 4l;"Carif, UK##_@ I)ahore, Ouly 3BA9J, 83-95, =? I2rdu trans. o Ghwa7a "uhammad ,rss tractate on space and time based on the uni(ue "$ @D@, "7mE Talat, >r al-Gutub, +airoJ. Qedler, 1. *., 'verroes and #mmortality, )e& Scholasticis#, 3B=9, pp. 98?-=8.

#')E.
'ote 0 2+0 Throughout the #ndex Ro!an and Ara%ic nu!erals within parentheses indicate the nu!%er of the *ecture and that of the note respectively where the entry !ay %e seen3 'ote 0 4+0 This is the index5 and page nu!%ers in this index are ta6en fro! the %oo6 7in printed for!8 7#$1'+ 9:90;2:04<:0:8 Pu%lished %y #=%al Acade!y5 Pa6istan3 #t is placed here >ust as reference3 'bbasids, 38=, 39B

'bd al-"alik IAD-3=D_?BB-@?@J, collection o traditions by, 3== 'bd al-"umin, 3@9 'bd al-Quddus o ;angoh Id. B9=_3=8AJ, 335 IK 3J

'bsolute Hgo, =5, =9 'bu *ani ah Ic. AD-3=D_c. ?BB-@?@J, 3=B-?D% introduced the principle o #stihsan, 3==% made practically no use o traditions, 3==-=?% modern *ana i legists have eternalized the interpretations o , 3?D: school o , possesses much greater power o creative adaptation, 3?D 'bu *ashim Id. 853_B88J, ?3-?5 I### 3DJ 'bu *urairah Id. c. =A_?@AJ, declared by 6azzam, an untrustworthy reporter, 38= IK# 3DJ accident, doctrine o , see 'sharites act, pro anity and spirituality o , determined by the invisible mental background, 38B IK# 53J activity, all, a kind o limitation even in the case o ;od as a concrete operative Hgo, @8: while en7oying his creative, man has a eeling o uneasiness in the presence o his un oldment, 3=D 'dam, endowed with the aculty o naming things, 35% irst act o disobedience o , also the irst act o ree choice, @@% orbidden the ruit o occult knowledge, @A I### ??J% ;ods Kicegerent on earth, @= I### 9AJ% is hasty, @A I### ??J% pain ul physical environment best suited to the un olding o the intellectual aculties o , @A% the chosen o ;od, A? ' a(, 339 IK =J ' ghanistan, su i techni(ues o $haikh 'hmad $irhindi in, 3@8 ' ghani, $ayyid Oamal al->in I35=9-3839_3A8A-8B-3AB@J, AA IK# 3BJ 'hkam, 3== 'hmad o $irhind, $haikh IB@3-3D89_3=?9-3?59J, criticism o contemporary su ism, 3@9% range o the su istic techni(ues o , 3@8% $tations o religious e!perience, 3@8-@9 IK## 3?J 'huramazda, 38D

'in al-Qudat al-*amadani I9B5-=5=_3DBA-3383J, I### 89J% see also #ra(i

'7ul, @ akh a, IK## 3?DJ

'lam-i 'mr, 3@9

'le!ander, $amuel I3A=B-3B8AJ, 359 I### 88, #K 58, K 8?, 8@J

'li b. 'bi Talib I58 1.*. -9D_?DD-??3J, the speaking Quran, BB 'li ,asha "uhammad I33A9-35?=_3@?B-3A9BJ, 38=
'llah, =3, =@ 'midi, $ai al->in I==3-?83_33=?-3588J, 3=@ 'mr, B8, B= I#K 55, 5?J analytic psychology, essential nature o religion beyond the province o IOungJ, 3@3-@5 'n us, 339 I# 5@, ## 9, K =J apostasy, women in the ,un7ab driven to, 3=5 IK# 8BJ 'ppearance and -eality I1radleyJ, Quoted: AA I#K 38J appreciative sel , nature o , see sel

'(l, one o the ive things that the )aw o #slam aims at protecting I$hatibiJ, 3=5
'rabia, 335, 388, 395, 3@8 'rabian imperialism o the earlier centuries o #slam, 398 'rabic replaced by Turkish, 39= IK# 5AJ 'ristotelian idea o i!ed universe, ?3, ?9, 359 IK 53J 'ristotle I8A9-855 1.+.J, 9, ==, 35@, 3=B, irst igure o syllogism o , -azi irst to criticize, 3D@ IK 38J

asi Iphilosophy o theJ, 3?? IK## @J

'shari, 'bul-*asan 'li b. #smail, al- Id. c. 859_B8=-8?J, 88

'sharites, 9, 33B% and notion o in initesimals, 88% atomism o , ?5-?9% doctrine o accident, ?9-?=% manner o ;ods creative activity, ?3% time as viewed by, ?@-?A 'shnawi, "ahmud b. Ghuda->ad Id. c. ?5B_3583-85J, I### 89J 'siatic -ussia, su i techni(ue o $haikh 'hmad $irhindi in, 3@8 atheistic socialism, 3?B-@D ' Theory o "onads: .utlines o the ,hilosophy o the ,rinciple o -elativity I*. /. +arrJ, (uoted: 93 I## 55J atomic time, born out o the movement o sel rom appreciation to e iciency, @D% cannot be applied to ;od, ?A% weakest part o the 'sharite theory o creation, ??% see also time atomism, ?3-?=, 33B, 3?@ I### 3D, K## AJ 1aghdad school o , ?5% 1asra $chool o , ?3% o kalam, a purely speculative theory, ?5 'ttributes o ;od, The IFarnellJ, =A 'ugustine, $t. I8=9-98DJ, =8, 35A I## 99J 'us der religisen -e ormbewegung in der Turkei I'ugust FischerJ, 398 IK# 5=J 1abi movement, a ,ersian re le! o 'rabian ,rotestantism, 38A 1acon, Francis I3=?3-3?5?J, 33@ 1acon, -oger Ic. 3539-35B9J, 33@ 1aghdad, destruction o , 38? 1a(illani, Qadi 'bu 1akr I88A-9D8_B=D-3D38J, and 'sharite atomism, ?5 I### 33J% and the condition o Qarshiyat, 398 1a(ir, "ulla I3D8@-333D_3?5A-3?BBJ, @D% see also >amad 1arzakh, 3D=% characterized by a change in egos sense o time and space, 3DA% ego catches a glimpse o resh aspects o -eality in 3DA bashar, @= batin, 38? IK# 38J 1a &azid Id. c. 5?3_A@9J, (uoted: ?D, BB 1edil, "irza 'bd al-Qadir I3D=9-3388_3?99-3@53J, @ I# 3BJ 1ergson, *enri )ouis I3A=B-3B93J, 88, 35A% and conscious e!perience, (uoted: 98-99 I## 5=J% and duration, 98-9?% and Qenos parado!, 88 I## 35J% denies the teleological character o -eality, 88% error o , in regarding time as prior to sel , 9B% holds intuition to be only a higher kind o intellect, 5% inade(uacy o analysis o conscious e!perience, 9A% on individuality, (uoted: =@ I### 5J% vitalism o , ends in an unsurmountable dualism o will and thought, 9@-9A 1erkeley, ;eorge I3?A=-3@=8J, sensations, 85 I## @J irst to re ute the theory o matter as the unknown cause o

1iographical *istory o ,hilosophy I;. *. )ewesJ, (uoted: IK 3DJ 1iruni, 'bu -aihan, al-I8?5-99D_B@8-3D9AJ, and conception o 6ature as a process o becoming 35A% and modern mathematical idea o unction, 35D IK 53J% and 6ewtons ormula o interpolation, 35D Iv 55J% discovery o reaction time, 33? IK 3=J 1lavatsky, "adame *elena ,etrovna I3A83-3AB3J, @A I### ?=J 1ody, accumulated action or habit o the soul, B=% compared to na s, is act become visible, ?=% -soul relationship, A=, B9, B?,335-339 1ook o ;enesis, @= 1radley, Francis *erbert I3A9?-3B59J, AA-AB 1rethren o ,urity I#khwan al-$a a est. 8@8_BA8J, 3DB 1rie e ber -eligion I6aumannJ, (uoted: @8-@9, 3=D IK# 8AJ 1ri ault, -obert I3A@?-3B9AJ, 33? 1road, +harlie >unbar I3AA@-3B@3J, =5 I## 93J

1rowne, Hdward ;ranville I3A?5-3B5?J, IK# 3AJ 1rowning, -obert I3A35-3AABJ, (uoted: @9 1ukhari, "uhammad b. #smail I3B9-5=?_A3D-A@DJ, 3= +aliphate I#mamateJ, according to the spirit o #slam, can be vested in an elected assembly, 395% Turkish view o , 395-399% universal, #bn Ghalduns account o , A, 395 +antor, ;eorge I3A9=-3B3AJ, 88-89 +arr, *erbert /ildon I3A=@-3B83J, 89, 93 I## 3?, K 5DJ +artesian orm o ontological argument, 5A I## 3J +artesian # think, 3@A cause and e ect, an indispensable instrument o the ego and not a inal e!pression o the nature o -eality, B@ +entral 'sia, 3@8% anti-#slamic propaganda in, ? chain, causal, and arti icial construction o the ego or its own purposes, B@ I## 5BJ change, and the 2ltimate Hgo, =8-=9% durable civilization possible only through the appreciation and control o the great act o , 38 +hristianity, according to newer psychology, has already ul illed its biological mission, 3@5% and #slam, A-B, =A, 3D9, 35A I### 8, #K 5J% appeared as a power ul reaction against legality in Oudaism, 3=D% individualism o , could see no spiritual value in the comple!ity o human relations, 3=D% originally a monastic order, 385, 39D% primitive, 39D, 3=D +hrist, Oesus, @8 +hurch and state, in #slam, 38B-39D% separation o , accentuated by ITurkishJ 6ationalist ,arty, 38B% separation o , permitted by #slam as a religio-political system, 38B% see also #slam +omplete /orks o Friedrich 6ietzsche I6ietzscheJ, (uoted: 3D9 I#K 9@J +omte, 'uguste I3@BA-3A=@J, 3DD% in luence on ;okalp, 398-399 +oncept compared to deed, 3?? +oncept o 6ature, The I/hiteheadJ, (uoted: 8D I## AJ +oncrete, -appeal o the Quran to the, 33?% or purposes o knowledge "uslim culture i!es its gaze on the, 33A% knowledge must begin with the, 33B% Quran always i!es its gaze on the, @8% theory o relativity and, 38 +oncrete e!perience, complete independence o thought rom , is not possible, k% religion insisted on the necessity o , long be ore science learnt to do so, 58 +on essions o $t. 'ugustine, The I$aint 'ugustineJ, (uoted: =8 I## 99J +on iguration ,sychology, B@ I#K 8DJ% insight in terms o , B@ I#K 83J consciousness, Oamess view o , e!amined, B5-B8% prophetic and mystic, 335-338% provides a luminous point to enlighten the orward rush o li e, 8@% to describe, as an epiphenomenon is to deny validity o all knowledge, 8@% see also ,rophetic +onsciousness unknown levels o consciousness I*alla7J, A@-AA +onstantine, Hmperor I5@9-88@J, 385 IK# 5J continuity, +antors theory o mathematical, 88-89 I## 38J +ontribution to 'nalytical ,sychology I+. ;. OungJ, (uoted: 3@5 IK## 39J +onversation o ;oethe with Hckermann and $oret I;oetheJ, (uoted: A I# 5DJ cosmological argument critically e!amined, 5?-5@

creation, and direction according to the Quran, B8-B9% #slamic idea o continuous, ?9, 35= I### 38J
creative activity, see activity +reative Hvolution I1ergsonJ, (uoted: 93-95 I## 5=J, =@ I### 5J

criticism, historical, 35?-5@, 3=8-=9 IK# 9=J +riti(ue o ,ure -eason IGantJ, 5= culture, "agian, A@, 35B-8D I#K 9J% modern, based on national egoism is a orm o barbarism, 393% modern, result o overdeveloped industrialism to satis y primitive instincts, 393 >ahr, >aihar, >aihur, names o ;od I#bn al-'rabi, Fakhr al->in -aziJ, ??-?@ >amad, "ir 1a(ir Id. 3D93_3?83J, and the view that time is born with the act o creation, @D >arwin, +harles I3ADB-3AA5J, 8@, 3@= >awani, Oalal al->in "uhammad b. 'sad "ulla IA8D-BDA_395@-3=D5-D8J, his views on >ivine time and >ivine knowledge similar to those o -oyce, ?A, @3 >ecline o the /est, The I$penglerJ, BA, (uoted: 38D I## =D, #K 9, K 53, ?D, ?3J democracy, spiritual, ultimate aim o #slam, 3?5 >emocritus Ic. 9?D-8@D, 1.+.J, 9@, 33B >enison, Oohn *opkins I3A@D-3B8?J, (uoted IK# 9J

>escartes "ethod, 33? IK 3DJ

>escartes, -ene I3=B?-3?=DJ, 5@, B9 IK 3D, 53J destiny ITa(dirJ, 9=, I## 5BJ BA-3DD >evelopment o "etaphysics in ,ersia I'llama #(balJ, (uoted: IK 3D, 38, 3=, K#, 33J >in, one o the ive necessary things that the )aw o #slam aims at protecting I$hatibiJ, 3=5 >iscours de la method I>escartesJ, IK 3DJ >ivine knowledge, a kind o knowledge which is also creative o the ob7ect known, @3% on the view o , as a kind o passive omniscience, it is not possible to reach the idea o a +reator, @5% regarded as a kind o passive omniscience, is nothing more than a sort o mirror passively re lecting the details o an already inished structure o things, @5 >ivine li e, and >ivine per ection, =9-==% like pearls do we live and move and have our being in the perpetual low o , ?=-?? >riesch, *ans 'dol Hduard I3A?@-3B93J, 9D IK 5DJ >hring, Hugen Garl I3A88-3B53J, 33@ duration, impossible to e!press the inner e!perience o pure, 99% pure, not touched by "cTaggarts argument against time, =8% serial and non-serial aspects o , 99

Hastern discussion IFakhr al->in -azi, (uoted: @D I### 8@J

Hckermann, Oohann ,eter I3@B5-3A=9J, A Hddington 'rthur $tanley I3AA5-3B99J, ?D, ?8, 3?@ I#K 98, K 5DJ education, legal, need or the re orm o the system o , 3=B IK# =9J ego, as ree personal causality, shares in the li e and reedom o the 2ltimate Hgo, @8, B@% can think o more than one space-order, BD% causal chain itsel an arti icial construction o B@-BA% conception o , as a soul-substance, serves neither psychological nor metaphysical interest, B3% did not pre-e!ist its emergence in the spatio-temporal order, 3D=% directive unction IamrJ o , B8-B=% discovers its metaphysical status through contact with "ost -eal, 3?=% emancipation rom the limitations o individuality not the end o , 3D=, 3@@-3@B% emergence o , is the world reaching the point o sel guidance, B=% e!cludes all other egos rom the private circuit o its individuality, ??% inite and the in inite, relation between, =A-=B, BB, 3D@% ormed and disciplined by its own e!perience, B8% individuality and uni(ueness o , as enunciated in the Quran, A?, 3D=-D? I#K 3, 5J% in ected with the oppositions o change and permanence, unity and diversity, A?% li e o , a kind o tension caused by the ego invading environment and environment invading the ego, B8% li e o , in an obstructing environment depends on perpetual e!pansion o knowledge, @B% modern psychology and, B5% "uslim theology on, B3% must continue to struggle until he is able to win his resurrection, 3DA% o higher order emerges out o lower order, B=-B?% privacy and uni(ueness o , ??, AA-AB% reality o , lies in its will-attitudes, aims, and aspirations, B9% reality o , too indubitable to be denied, though too pro ound to be intellectualized, A@-AA% reveals itsel as a unity o mental states, AA% sharpsightedness in li e herea ter, 333% true time-duration belongs to, alone, AA% 2ltimate -eality reveals

its secret to, B=-B?% /illiam Oamess view o , BD-B3 I#K 53J% see also man and sel egohood, degree o reality varies with degree o eeling o , ?? Hinstein, 'lbert I3A@B-3B==J, 89, 8=, 35D, 3@@-AA% discoveries o , have laid the oundations o a arreaching revolution in the entire domain o human thought, 83% theory o , suggests new ways o looking at the problems common to religion and philosophy, @% see also relativity and -ussell Hmotion as the 1asis o +ivilization, IO. *. >enisonJ, (uoted: 385-88 IK# 9J emotions, Oames-)ange theory o , I#K 59J ends and purposes, to live is to shape and change, and to be governed by them, 59 energy, >ivine, every atom o , however low in the scale o e!istence, is an ego, =@ Hssai sur les Hcoles philosophi(ues chez les 'rabes I'. $chmldersJ, IK 3DJ Hternal -ecurrence, see -ecurrence Hternity, as >ivine attribute, ??-?B% o the word, +hristian dogma o the, 38= Hthical $tudies I1radleyJ, AA Huclid I l 8DD 1.+.J, 35D Hurope, ailure o , in political and social sciences, 388% idealism o , never a living actor in her li e, 3?3% territorial nationalism in, 35@% the greatest hindrance in the way o mans ethical advancement, 3?3 Hve, @= evil, the problem o , @8-AD% intellectual, indispensable or building up o e!perience, @B Hvolution, 3DB, 35D-53, 35=, 3?@-3?B% Hmergent, B?, B@ I#K 58J e!perience, and -eality, 95, @3% conscious, 1ergsons analysis o , 95% levels o , 5B .% li e and thought permeate each other in conscious, 9A% religious, A% 3=, 53, 3?8-?9, 3@A% religious, pragmatic test o , 55, 59-5=, A@, 335% unitary_unitive, A@, BA-BB, 335, 338% see also mystic e!perience e!perimental method, not a Huropean discovery, 33@ . act, accomplished, constitutional theory o the 2mayyads, BB I#K, 8@J% elements o , and logical 7udgment, @@% no such thing as an isolated, @@ aith, ages o , are the ages o rationalism I/hiteheadJ, 5 I# 8J% and intellect, 3% as the irst stage o religious li e, 3?8% has cognitive content, 3, 3=, 3B, 3??, 3@3% more than mere eeling, 3 Fall Io manJ, legend o , @9-A3% Quranic legend o the, has nothing to do with mans irst appearance on this planet, @@ Farnell, ). -ichard I3A=?-3B89J, =A Fatalism, B5% higher, BA-BB Faust, @9 I### 9?J Fauz al-'sghar, 'l- I#bn "askawaihJ, (uoted: 353 IK 59J eeling and idea, non-temporal and temporal aspects o the same unit o e!perience I*ockingJ, 3B I# 8BJ% idea and word simultaneously emerge out o the womb o , 5D I# 9DJ Fikret, Tev ik I35A9-3888_3A?@-3B3=J, and anti-#slamic propaganda in +entral 'sia, @ I# 3BJ Fi(h, critical discussion o , likely to displease many and lead to sectarian controversies, 39B Fischer, 'ugust I3A?=-3B9BJ, 398 IK# 5=J Flint, -obert I3A8A-3B3DJ, 35@ ormula o #slam, see #slam Fo!, ;eorge I3?59-3?B3J, 3@3 reedom, human, A=-A@% a condition o moral goodness, ?A% relation to >ivine reedom, ?8, A?-A@ Freud, $igmund I3A=?-3B8BJ, 3B Fusus al-*ikam I#bn al-'rabiJ, (uoted: 399 IK## 9J

;arden o the Hast, The I6anikram ThadaniJ, (uoted: 39@-9A IK## 3DJ ;eneral ,rinciple o -elativity, The I*. /. +arrJ, (uoted: 5B-8D I## 3=J geometries, non-Huclidean, IK 5DJ ;estalt ,sychology, I#K 8DJ ;hayat al-#mkan i >irayat al-"akan I'in al-Qudat al-*amadaniJ, (uoted% ?D-?3, 3D@-DB I### 89, 8=, K 5A-8=, 8A, 8BJ ;hayat al-#mkan i >irayat al-Qaman wal-"akan I"ahmud b. Ghuda->ad 'shnawiJ, I### 89J ;hazali, 'bu *amid I9=D-=D=_3D=A-3333J, =@, 353 I### @, 58J% and >escartes "ethod, 3D5 IK 3DJ% and ego as viewed in "uslim theology, AD I#K 3=J% and Gant, 9% ailed to see that thought and intuition are organically related, 9-=% on the whole a ollower o 'ristotle in logic, 3D8 IK 33J ;od, and space, 3D@-3D% and time, ?D-?5% arguments or the e!istence o , critically e!amined, 585=% as the omnipsyche o the universe, 33D% change reveals its true character in, as continuous creation, untouched by weariness and unseizable by slumber or sleep, 9A I## 9A, 9BJ% in inity o , consists in in inite inner possibilities o *is creative activity, =5% is a percept and not a concept I#bn 'rabiJ, 399% is immanent in nature, A=% knowledge o 6ature is knowledge o the behaviour o , 9=% knowledge o , not passive omniscience as conceived by >awani, #ra(i and -oyce, ?5-?8% li e o , is sel -revelation and not the pursuit o an ideal, 9A% loyalty to, amounts to mans loyalty to his own ideal nature, 33@% metaphor o light as applied to, =3-=5% omnipotence as related to >ivine wisdom, ?9-@D% per ect individuality and unity o , as enunciated in the Quran, =D-=5 I### 8J% Qurans emphatic denial o the sonship o , =3 I### 8J% rationalistic arguments or the e!istence o , 58-5=% relation to the universe as souls relation to the body I#ra(iJ, 33D% scholastic arguments or the e!istence o , 58-5=% teleological argument or the e!istence o , 59% thought and deed, the act o knowing and the act o creating identical in, ?5 see also 2ltimate Hgo and 2ltimate -eality ;oethe, Oohann /ol gang von I3@9B-3A85J, and the legend o Faust, ?= IK### 9?J% on the teachings o #slam, (uotes @ ;kalp, Qiya Ic. 35B5-3898_c. 3A@=-3B59J, critical assessment o the views o , on e(uality o man and woman, 389-8=% ideal o womanhood, 35A% inspired by the philosophy o +omte, 35?-5@% religiopolitical views o , 35?-5A% science and religion, 35@ ;lodziher, #gnaz I3A=D-3B53J, IK 39, K# 39J% on hadith, 38= IK# 9=J good and evil, Quranic view o , ?=-?A ;overnment, republican orm o , not only consistent with the spirit o #slam, but a necessity, 35= ;reat Huropean /ar, 35B, 395

;reat # am, =@ I## 8@, ### 5?J

;reek logic, "uslim criticism o , 3D5-D8 IK 35J ;reek philosophy, intellectual revolt o #slam against, 8, 9@, 3D5, 338, 339 IK 53J ;reek thought, character o "uslim culture not determined by, 3D9 ;reeks, in luence o , tended to obscure "uslims vision o the Quran, 8, 3D9 ;uide o the ,erple!ed I"aimonidesJ, =9 I### 35J *adith, and li e-value o the legal principles enunciated in the Quran, 38@% as a source o "uhammadan )aw, 38=-8@% attitude o 'bu *ani ah towards, o purely legal import per ectly sound, 38@% ;oldzihers e!amination o , in the light o modern canons o historical criticism, 38=% intelligent study o , to be used as indicative o the spirit in which the ,rophet himsel interpreted his -evelation, 38@% modern I/esternJ critics o , 38= IK# 9=J% pre-#slamic usages in, our writers do not always re er to, 38?% (uoted in the present work: 'ctions shall be 7udged only by intention Istated with remarkably pro ound understanding as: #t is the invisible mental background o the act which determines its characterJ, 355 IK# 53J% >o not vili y time, or time is ;od, A, =A I# 59J% # she had let him alone, the thing would have been cleared up Isaid o #bn $ayyads motherJ, 38 I# 85J% The 1ook o ;od is su icient or us, 35B IK# 85J, Then # will e!ert to orm my own 7udgement I"uadh said this to the *oly ,rophet on being appointed as ruler o &emenJ, 33A IK# @J% The whole o this earth is a mos(ue, 358 IK# 55J% see also traditions *aldane, Oohn $cott I3A?D-3B8?J, (uoted: 89-8= I### 5=, K 5DJ *aldane, )ord -ichard 1urdon I3A=?-3B5AJ, =@ I## A, ### 5=, K 5DJ

*alim ,asha, $aid I35AD-3893_3A?8-3B53J, ;rand Kizier o Turkey, (uoted: 393 *alla7, "ansr I599-8DB_A=@-B55J, AA% and "cTaggart, I#K ?J% e!perience o e!perience reached its culmination in, @@ *amilton, $ir /illiam I3@AA-3A=?J, 3=D *asan o 1asra I53-33D_?95-@5AJ, AA *eaven, and *ell, description o , in the Quran are visual representations o an inner act, BA% 7oy o triumph over the orces o disintegration, BA% not a holiday, BA% states not localities, BA *edaya Ior ;uideJ, The I1urhan al->in al-"arghinaniJ, 389 *egel, Hrnest ;eorg /ilhelm Friedrich I3@@D-3A83J, =@% view o -eality as an in initude o reason, AB% see also -eality *eisenberg, /erner Garl I3BD3-3B@?J, principle o indeterminacy, 399 IK## 5J *ell, corrective e!perience, BA% ire which mounts above the hearts, BA% not a pit o everlasting torture, BA% pain ul realization o ones ailure as a man, BA *elmholtz, *ermann I)udwig FerdinandJ von, I3A53-3AB9J, B= I#K =AJ *eraclitus I l. in =th century 1.+.J, 338 *i7az, legists o , eternalized the concrete, 39D history, as a source o human knowledge, @@, 3D5, 33D-35% belie in the unity o mankind and a keen sense o reality o time oundational to the study o , 335-38% continuous creative movement in time, 338% alse reverence or past, no remedy or a peoples decay, 35D% #bn Ghalduns view o , 33D, 335% "agian attitude o constant e!pectation gives a alse view o , 33=% possibility o scienti ic treatment o , 335% Quranic teachings on, 33D-35 *istory o the ,hilosophy o *istory I-obert FlintJ, (uoted: 335-38 IK 9@J *obbes, Thomas I3=AA-3?@BJ, 35A *ocking, /illiam Hrnst I3A@8-3B??J, 3@-3A, 53 I# 8BJ *oernle, -. F. 'l red I3AAD-3B98J, (uoted: 5?-5@ I## ?J, *olism, I#K 8D, K 53J *orten, "a! I3A@9-3B9=J, (uoted: 38D *u77at 'llah al-1alighah I$hah /ali 'llahJ, (uoted: 38?-8@ IK# 9@J *ukm, 38B human origin, unity o , 335 human social relations, spiritual value o the comple!ity o , 385 human unity, conception o , in Hurope and #slam, 335 humanity today needs three things, 395 *umayun, Hmperor IB38-B?8_3=DA-3==?J, 9D *ume, >avid I3@33-3@@?J, 53, 3==-=? *urgron7e, +hristian $nouck I3A=@-3B8?J, >utch critic o #slam (uoted: 38D *u!ley, Thomas *enry I3A5=-3AB=J, 39A unity o inner

# am, only that truly e!ists which can say: 9=% the more undamental, inds evidence o egos
reality not in the +artesian # think but in the Gantian # can, 3=?-=@

# amness, o ;od, 9= I## 8@J% the degree o the intuition o , determines the place o a thing in the
scale o being, 9= #bn 'bd al-/ahhab, "uhammad I333=-35D?_3@D8-3@B5J, 353 IK# 3BJ% movement o , conservation in its own ashion, 353% wholly uncritical o the past, 353 #bn al-'rabi, "uhyuddin I=?D-?8A_33?=-359DJ, 399% >ahr, one o the beauti ul names o ;od, =A% ;od is a percept and the world is a concept, 399 I# 8@, K## 9J #bn *aitham, 'bu 'li al-*asan I8=9-c. 98D_B?=-c. 3D8BJ, in luence on -oger 1acon, 3D8 IK 3?, 3@J% .ptics or Gitab al-"anazir, 3D8 IK 3?J% on reaction-time, IK 3=J

#bn *anbal, 'hmad I3?9-593_@AD-A==J, 38@ #bn *azm I8A9-9=?_BB9-3D?9J, in luence on -oger 1acon, 3D8 IK 3@J% language o the Quran mades no di erence in the act o creation and the thing created, ==% on predication o li e to ;od, 9@% re7ected the 'sharite notion o in initesimals, 5B I## 33J% relation with Qahiri school o law, 35D IK# 39J #bn #sha(, 'bu 'bd 'llah "uhammad Id. c. 3=D_@?@J, 335 IK 98J #bn Ghaldun I@85-ADA_3885-39D?J, and the modern hypothesis o subliminal sel , 39, 3=D I# 8=J% anti-classical spirit o the Quran scored its inal victory in, 338% demolished the alleged revelational basis o an idea similar to the original "agian idea, 33= IK ?3J% Flints euology o , 335 IK 9@J% his account o universal caliphate, 35=% indebtedness to the Quran or the whole spirit o his ,rolegomena, 333% intellectual inheritance o , 338% only "uslim to approach mystic e!perience in thoroughly scienti ic spirit, 39, @@, 3D3-D5, 3=D I#K @, K AJ% on the condition o Qarshiyat, 35=% three distinct views o the 2niversal +aliphate in #slam, 35=% was hostile to metaphysics, 338 IK 9AJ #bn "askawaih I88D0-953_B950-3D8DJ, 33D, 338% irst "uslim to give in many respects thoroughly modern theory o the origin o man, B?% substance o his evolutionary hypotheses, 3D@ IK 59J #bn -ushd I=5D-=B=_335?-33BAJ, doctrine o immortality, as a purely metaphysical (uestion, AB% in terms o 'ctive #ntellect, 8 I# 39, #K 8AJ% similarity to the view o /illiam Oames, AB I#K 8BJ #bn $ayyad Id. c. ?8_?A5J, ,rophets critical observation o the psychic phenomena o , 38, 3D3 I# 8, K @J #bn Taimiyyah I??3-@5A_35?8-385AJ, and the movement o "uhammad b. 'bd al-/ahhab, 353% induction the only orm o reliable argument, 3D8% re7ection o analogy and i7ma, 35D-53, IK# 3=J% systematic re utation o ;reek logic, 3D8 IK 35J #bn Tumart Id. =59_38DJ, 353 IK# 5DJ% call to prayer in 1erber, 35A IK# 5BJ% Quran to be translated and read in the 1erber language, 35A #7ma, as the third source o "uhammadan )aw, 38@-8B% attitude o the 2mayyad and 'bbasid caliphs to, determined by political interests, 38@-8A% #bn *azm and #bn Taimiyyah re7ected, 35D IK# 3=J% legislative assembly in view o opposing sects is the only possible orm o , 38A% (uestion o the te!t o the Quran being repealed by, 38A IK# 9AJ% rarely assumed the orm o a permanent institution, 38@% value and possibilities o , in view o new world orces and political e!perience o Huropean nations, 38A #7tihad, as mani ested in recent thought and activity in Turkey, 353-5B% causes o stagnation o , 33A5D% conditions o complete, impossible o realization in an individual, 33A% closing o the door o , is a pure iction, 393 IK# =@J% irst degree o Ii7tihad il-sharJ admitted in theory, denied in practice, 33A% in Turkey, rein orced by modern philosophical ideas, 353% meaning o , in the #slamic )aw, 33@-3A% tradition o the ,rophet relating to, 33A IK# @J% trans er o power o , rom individual representatives o schools to a "uslim legislative assembly, 38A% three degrees o , 33A IK# AJ% 2lema cannot deny the theoretical possibility o complete, 388 #mam, 'bsent, 38B #mamate, see +aliphate and Ghila at #man, and the higher atalism implied in it, A@% not merely a passive belie propositions, A@% the vital way o appropriating the universe, A@ in one or more

immortality, collective, by sel -multiplication, ?B% #bn -ushds doctrine o , 8, AB I# 39J% Gants ethical arguments or, AB-BD% man is only a candidate or, B=% metaphysical arguments do not give us a positive belie in, AB% 6ietzsches view o , in terms o Hternal -ecurrence, B3-B5, 39A I#K 99J% per ectly in accord with the spirit o the Quran, -umi regarded the (uestion o , as one o biological evolution and not a problem o metaphysics, (uoted: B?-B@, 39@-9A I#K ?5, K## 3DJ% personal, to be achieved by personal e ort, B=% Quranic view o , is partly ethical and partly biological, B5 .% status o belie in, philosophically speaking, BA indeterminacy, principle o , 399 IK## 8J individual, altogether crushed out o e!istence in an over-organized society, 38D individuality, harbours its own enemy by the tendency towards reproduction, =3% matter o degrees, =D% Quranic argument or the per ect, o ;od, =D-=3 individuals, sel -concentrated, see sel -concentrated individuals in inite, and the inite, 58-59% and thought, 9-=% ;od, not e!tensively, but intensively so, =3-=5, B9%

in the history o "uslim culture the ideal revealed is the possession and en7oyment o , 3D=% Hgo, relation between, and the inite ego, =5, B9 inheritance, economic signi icance o the Quranic rule o , 389 IK# 95J% principles underlying Quranic law o , have not yet received the attention they deserve, 38= insan, ?? intellect, inductive, birth o #slam is the birth o , 3D3% not the product o evolution, 8?% outgrowing its most undamental categories: time, space and causality, ? interpolation, ormula o , 3D? IK 5D, 55J% al-1iruni and 6ewtons ormula o , 3D? IK 55J

#ra(, legists o , 39D #ra(i I'in al-Qudat al-*amadaniJ, I9B5-=5=_3DBA-3383J, ?D, 399 I### 89J% and >ivine knowledge, ?5?8% and >ivine time, ?D-?3, 33D% in inite varieties o time relative to the varying grades o being, ?D?3% plurality o space-orders, 3D@-DB

#ra(i, Fakhr al->in #brahim Id. ?AA_35ABJ, I### 89, K## =J

#rshad al-Fuhul I$haukaniJ, (uoted: IK# =@J #saiah, 33= #shra(i, $hihab al->in &ahya ibn *abash ibn 'mirak $uhrawardi al-"a(tul I=9B-=A@_33=8-33B3J, =@% and ;reek logic, 3D8 IK 35J #slam, a civil society rom the very beginning, 358% and +hristianity, @-A% and Huropean culture, ?, 3D8-D9, IK 53J% and modern knowledge, @A% and original verities o reedom, e(uality and solidarity, 359% assimilative spirit o , more mani est in the sphere o law, 38D% birth o , is the birth o inductive intellect, 3D3% church and state in, 355-58% con ronted to-day by new orces set ree by the e!traordinary development o human thought in all its directions, 388% Huropean culture on its intellectual side only a urther development o the culture o , ?% ormula o , 3D3 IK ?, K# =J% irst hal o the ormula o , has created and ostered critical observation o 6ature divesting it o divine character, 3D3% growth o historical sense in, is a ascinating sub7ect, 335% harmony o idealism and positivism in, 358% idea o evolution in, 3D?-D@, 385% i renaissance o , is a act, and it is a act, we will have to re-evaluate our intellectual inheritance, 353% inner catholicity o the spirit o , bound to work itsel out, in spite o the rigorous conservatism o our doctors, 38D-83% is neither nationalism, nor #mperialism, but a league o 6ations, 35?% legal reasoning in, rom deductive to inductive, 383, 39D, 393 IK# 8=J% overcomes the sharp opposition between the biological within Ithe idealJ and the mathematical without Ithe realJ, @-A% over-organization by alse reverence o past contrary to the inner impulse o , 35D% propaganda against, in +entral 'sia, ?-@% prophecy in, reaches its per ection in discovering the need o its own abolition, 3D3% race idea in modern, 35B% rationalist movement in the church o , 33A-3B IK# 35J% re7ects blood-relationship as a basis o human unity, 33?% revision and reconstruction o theological thought in, ?% revolt o , against ;reek thought, 8, =?, 3D5, 338, 339 IK 53J% says yes to the world o matter, A I# 53J% search or rational oundations in, 5, 8 I# =J% socioeconomic position o women in, 389-8=% spirit o #slam seen at its best by tapping 6ature and *istory as sources o knowledge, 33?% spiritual democracy is the ultimate aim o , 395% state in, an e ort to realize the spiritual in human organization, 358% as endeavour to trans orm the principles o e(uality solidarity and reedom into space-time orces, 355% the problem o , suggested by the two orces o religion and civilization, @% 2niversal +aliphate in, 35=% universal ethical ideals o , lost through the process o localization, 359% whether the law o , is capable o evolution re(uires great intellectual e ort, 35B% world o , spiritually moving towards the /est, ? #slamic )aw, causes or the stationary character o , 33A-5D% (uestion whether, is capable o evolution will re(uire great intellectual e ort, 35B #stihsan, 38@ Oahiz, 'bu 2thman 'mr b. 1ahr I3?D-5==_@@?-A?BJ, B?, 3D? I#K =BJ Oalal al->in >awani, "ulla, see >awani Oames, /illiam I3A95-3B3DJ, 3=, BD IK 3J% and immortality, AB% empiricist criterion o mystic e!perience I(uotedJ, 3B% subliminal sel , 39 I# 8=J% ultimate motive o prayer I(uotedJ, @3-@5% view o ego critically assessed, A3-A5 I#K 53J Oannat, Quranic view o , ?@ Oavid 6amah I'llama #(balJ, (uoted: 3=9, 3=@ IK## 3A, 58J Oawahir Iatoms o the 'shartitesJ, ==

Oawahir-i-Ghamsah-i 'lam-i 'mr% Five Hssences o the -ealm o the $pirit I$haikh 'hmad $irhindiJ, IK## 3?J Oivatma, @A Ooy ul /isdom, The I6ietzscheJ, (uoted: B5, 39B I#K 9@, K## 33J Oulian, Hmperor I883-8?8J, 33? IK# 8J Oung, +arl ;ustav I3A@=-3B?3J, 3=3 Gant, #mmanuel I3@59-3AD9J, and metaphysics, 399 IK## 3, 5J% argument against soul as substance, AD-A3 I#K 3?, 3AJ% compared with ;hazali, 9-=% criticism o ontological argument, 59 I## 5J% denied the possibility o knowledge o ;od, 9 IK## 5J% ethical argument or immortality, AB-BD% serial time the essence o causality as de ined by, 83 Gantian # can, 3=? Garkhi, 'bul-*asan I5?D-89D_A@9-B=5J, (uoted: 38B Garbala, AA kha iy I$haikh 'hmad $irhindiJ, IK## 3?J Ghal( A5, A9 I#K 55, 5?J Ghawari7, 35= IK# 59J Ghila at, 359-5=% see also +aliphate Ghwarizmi, 'bu, 'bd 'llah "uhammad b. "usa Id. c. 585_c. A9@J, 3D? IK 58J Gindi 'bu &usu , &a(ub b. #sha( b. al-$abbah, al- Id. c. 5?D_A@8J, 3D8 IK 3=J Gitab al-Tawasin Ial-*alla7J, (uoted: @@, AA I#K ?J knowledge, 'dams desire or, ?A-?B I### ?=, ??J% all search or, is essentially a orm o prayer, @8% character o human, 33, ?A-?B% divine, ?5-?8 Isee also >ivine knowledgeJ% modern, the only course open to us is to approach, with a respect ul but independent attitude, @A% occult, ruit o the tree o , orbidden to 'dam, ?A-?B I### ??J% o other minds, 3=-3?, 39=% only a systematizes e!pression o consciousness, 88% sources o human, according to Quran, @@, 3D3-D5, 33D Gremer, von 'l red I3A5A-3AABJ, (uoted: 388% 38= kulliyatii: $iiler% ve halk masallar Qiya ;kalp IQiya ;kalpJ% (uoted: 35?-5A IK# 5=, 5@, 5A, 8D, 83J )aird, Oohn I3AA@-3B9?J, (uoted: A3 )ange, +arl ;eorg I3A89-3BDDJ, A9 I#K 59J )ange, Friedrich 'lbert I3A5A-3A@=J, (uoted: 39? IK## ?J, 3=9 )atai -i Quddusi I'bd al-Quddus ;angohiJ, (uoted: BB IK 3J laziness, intellectual, in periods o decay, turns great thinkers into idols, 393 legal education, see education legal reasoning in #slam, see #slam, and reasoning legal systems cannot claim inality, 389 )eibniz, ;ott ried /ilhelm I3?9?-3@3?J, A9, 3=3 )ewes, ;eorge *enry I3A3@-3A@AJ, (uoted: Iv 3DJ liberalism in modern #slam, see #slam li e, all human, is spiritual in its origin, 33? I#K 3J% anthropomorphic conception unavoidable in the apprehension o , =8% intricate behaviour o , cannot be sub7ected to hard and ast rules o logic, 39D% intellectual view o , necessarily pantheistic, 9A% moves with the weight o its own past on its back, 385% o the ideal consists in its perpetual endeavour to appropriate the real, eventually to illuminate its whole being, @% physical and mental in the evolution o , A=% see also religious li e )i e and Finite #ndividuality I*./. +arrJ, (uoted: 8= I## 53J )ocke, Oohn I3?85-3@D9J, 53 )uther, "artin I39A8-3=9?J, 35B IK# 88J

"abad b. 'bd 'llah al-Ouhani Id. AD_?BBJ, AA "abahith al-"ashri(iyah, 'l- IFakhr al->in -aziJ, (uoted: ?3 I### 8@J "acdonald, >uncan 1lack I3A?8-3B98J, 39, 353, I# 85, K## 38J% and the growth o atomistic kalam in #slam, =9 I### 38J "ahdi, #bn Ghalduns repudiation o the idea o , 33= IK ?3J "aimonides, "oses ben I338=-35D9J, =9 I### 35J "aking o *umanity, The I-obert 1ri aultJ, (uoted: 3D8-D9 "aktubat-i #mam-i -abbani I$haikh 'hmad $irhindiJ, (uoted: 3=8 IK## 3?J "al, one o the ive things that the )aw o #slam aims at protecting I$hatibiJ, 389 "alik b. 'nas Id. 3@B_@B=J, 39D man, approaches the observable aspect o -eality with the weapon o conceptual knowledge, 33% capable o participating in the creative li e o his "aker, =A, ?9% chosen o ;od, @?% destined, perhaps, to become a permanent element in the constitution o being, B% endowed with the aculty o naming things, 3D% entitled to only what is due to his own personal e ort, @? I#K 8J% ;od becomes co-worker o , in his progressive ad7ustment with the orces o the universe, 3D% ;ods immense aith in, ?A% i , does not evolve the inner richness o his being, the spirit within him hardens into stone, 3D I# 5?J% impossible or one, to bear the burden o another, @? I#K 5J% individuality and uni(ueness o , @?, @B I#K 3, 5J% in his inmost being, as conceived by the Quran, is a creative activity, an ascending spirit, 3D% modern, stands in need o a biological renewal, 3@D% no orm o reality so power ul, so inspiring, so beauti ul as the spirit o , 3D% not a stranger on this earth, ?@% occupies a genuine place in the heart o >ivine creative energy, =A% only a candidate or immortality, B=% open to, to belong to the universe and become immortal, B9% Quranic view o the destiny o , is partly ethical, partly biological, B5% restless being engrossed in his ideals, B I# 5=J% rises rom one state o being to another, 3D, B8% with all is ailings, superior to nature, B% with all his aults, representative o ;od on earth, @?% see also 'dam and ego mankind, unity o , @= I### @=J% - idea o , a living actor in the "uslims daily li e, not a philosophical concept nor a dream o poetry, 335 "anti( al-Tair IFarid al->in 'ttarJ, (uoted: 3I# 3J "a(tul, $hihab al->in $uhrawardi, see #shra(i "assignon, )ouis I3AA8-3B?5J, @@ "asudi 'bul-*asan Id. 89?_B=@J, 335 IK 9=J material, the merely, has no substance until we discover it rooted in spiritual, 358 materialism, 88, 98, AB, BD, B=, 39A% re utation o , 5?-5A, A8-A9 "athematical ,rinciples o 6atural ,hilosophy, The I6ewtonJ, (uoted: =B I### 83J "athnawi-i-"anawi IOalal al->in -umiJ, (uoted: 38, =@, @5-@8, AA, B@, 39@-9A, I# 5A, ### 59, @5, #K ?5, K## 3DJ matter, all this immensity o , constitutes a scope or the realization o spirit, 358% and theory o -elativity, 5@-5A% colony o egos o low order out o which emerges the ego o higher order, A9 I#K 58J% hypothesis o , as an independent e!istent per ectly gratuitous, A8% spirit in space-time re erence, 355 "atter, )i e, "ind and ;od I-.F.'. *oernleJ, (uoted: 5?-5@ I## ?J "cTaggart, Oohn "cTaggart Hllis I3A??-3B5=J, critical e!amination o his argument relating to the unreality o time, 9=-9? I## 93J% compared to *alla7, I#K ?J "eaning o ;od in *uman H!perience, The I/. H. *ockingJ, (uoted: 3@, 53 I# 8B, 9=J mechanism, 98, A=, B5% battle or and against, still iercely ought in the domain o biology, 88% concept o , cannot be applied to li e, 89-8? meliorism, ?= "endelssohn, "oses I3@5B-3@A?J, I#K 3AJ "etaphysics, positive views o ultimate things are the work rather o inspiration than, B3 "ill, Oohn $tuart I3AD?-3A@8J, 3D8

"itteleuropa I6aumannJ, IK# 8AJ modern culture, see culture modern "uslim, the task be ore the, is immense% he is to rethink the whole system o #slam without completely breaking with the past, @A modern psychology and religion, 3?, 53-59, AA, 3@3-@=% must develop independent method to possess a real signi icance or the li e o mankind, 3@=% slavish imitation o physical sciences, B@ "ohammedan Theories o Finance I'ghnidesJ, 38?, 38A, (uoted: IK# 9?, =5, =@J

"other o 1ooks I#ra(iJ, ?D I### 8?J

movement, as lived and not as thought does not admit o divisibility, 8D% hyperspace, 3D? IK 5DJ% theories o , 5B-8D, 9D-93, ==-=?% things can be derived rom, not movement rom things, 9D "uadh b. Oabal I5D 1.*.-3A_?D8-8BJ, and the hadith relating to i7tihad, 33A IK# @J "uawwidhatan, 38B IK# =3J "uhammad I=8 1.*.-33_=@3-?85J, AA, BB, 3=D% see also ,rophet "uhammadan )aw, sources o , 383-93 "u7tahid, 38A, 39D, 393 "umin, 'bd al-, 3=5 "unk, $olomon I3AD=-3A?@J, =9 "un(idh min al->alal I;hazaliJ and >escartes "ethod, 3D5 IK 3DJ music, in worship orbidden by $u ism, 3=? "uslim countries, most, today mechanically repeating old values with no thoughts and eelings at all, 35A-5B% "uslim IlegislativeJ assembly, +aliphate according to the true spirit o #slam to be vested in, 359% modern, or the present to consist mostly o men possessing no knowledge o the subtleties o "uhammadan )aw, 38B% trans er o power o #7tihad rom individual representatives o schools to, the only orm #7ma can take in modern times, 38A% 2lema to orm vital part o , helping and guiding ree discussion on (uestions relating to law, 39D "utakallimun, @@ "utazilah, ailed to see that in the domain o knowledge, scienti ic or religious, complete independence o thought rom concrete e!perience not possible, 9% regarded 2niversal #mamate a matter o e!pediency, 35= IK# 9DJ "uwa i(at 'l- I$hatibiJ, (uoted: 389, 38A IK# 9DJ "uwahhidun, 35A mystic, the, and the prophet, 3A, BB% condemnation o intellect by, not 7usti ied by history o religion, 3@-3A mystic e!perience, and the organic conditions, 3A-3B% characteristics o , 39-3B% content o , has a cognitive element also, 3@, 3=D% empirical criterion o , 3B% orms o e!pression o unitive ImysticalJ e!perience in the history o religious e!perience in #slam, A@-AA% incommunicability o , 3?-3@, 39=% not discontinuant rom normal consciousness, 3=% open to critical scrutiny like other aspects o e!perience, 3D3% (ualitatively not di erent rom prophetic e!perience, 3D3% see also prayer, religious e!perience and su ism mystic state, a moment o intimate association with a uni(ue other sel , 3A% has made average man contented with ignorance and spiritual thraldom, 39B mystic techni(ues, our medieval, no longer produce discoverers o ancient Truth, 39= mysticism, medieval, cannot cure the ills o a despairing humanity, 39B% has done in the "uslim Hast ar greater havoc, 39A% has now practically ailed, 39A% its set phraseology has deadening e ect, @5% 6eo-,latonic and its (uest a ter nameless nothing, @5 6a s, 'sharite view o , IsoulJ as an accident critically assessed, =@% distinction between, and -uh, AB% one o the ive necessary things that the )aw o #slam aims at protecting I$hatibiJ, 389 6apoleon, 1onaparte I3@?B-3A53J, A@

6asir 'li $irhindi I3D9@-33DA_3?8A-3?B?J, (uoted: 9@ 6askh, as the power to e!tend or limit the Quranic rule o law, 38A-8B 6asl, one o the ive things that the )aw o #slam aims at protecting I$hatibiJ, 389 nationalism, and modern "uslim, 3?B% territorial, has tended to kill the broad human element in the art and literature o Hurope, 335 naturalism, every orm o , ends in some sort o atomism, 39? IK## AJ% modern mans, has given him an unprecedented control over the orces o 6ature, but robbed him o aith in his own uture, 39@ 6ature, as a source o knowledge, @@, 3D3, 3D5% is human interpretation put on the creative activity o the 'bsolute Hgo, 9=% is the habit o 'llah, 9= I## 8BJ% is to the >ivine $el as character is to the human sel , 9=% its passage in time o ers the best clue to the ultimate nature o -eality, 8?% knowledge o , is the knowledge o ;ods behaviour, 9=% not a static act situated in an a-dynamic void, 5A, =5% observation o , is only another orm o worship, 9=, @8% only a leeting moment in the li e o ;od, 9=% organic unity o , as viewed by Quran, ?9 I### 93J% theory o bi urcation o , see also 2niverse 5@ I## AJ, /hiteheads view o , 5A 6ature o the ,hysical /orld, The IHddingtonJ, (uoted: 39@ I#K 98, K## BJ 6aumann, Ooseph Friedrich I3A?D-3B3BJ, ?9, 385 IK# 8AJ 6azzam, #brahim b. $ayyar Id. 583_A9=J, and principle o doubt, 3D5% declared 'bu *urairah an untrustworthy reporter, 33B IK# 3DJ% notion o ta rah or 7ump, ==-=? I## B, ### 3BJ% re7ection o traditions, 33B 6e7d, the cleanest spot in the decadent world o #slam, 353 6eo-,latonic mysticism, see mysticism 6ewton, $ir #saac I3?95-3@5@J, and mechanism, 88% de inition o time, critically e!amined, =B I### 83J% interpolation ormula o , and al-1iruni, 3D? IK 55J% view o absolute space, 5A, 8D 6ietzsche, Friedrich /. I3A99-3BDDJ, a genius who remained unproductive or want o spiritual guidance, 3=9 IK## 3BJ% appears to have been endowed with a kind o prophetic mentality, 3=9% a psychopath endowed with a great intellect, 3=9% aristocratic radicalism, 3=9 IK## 3@J% denounced patriotism and nationalism as sickness and unreason, 39B IK## 33J% enthusiasm or the uture o man, 39A% Hternal -ecurrence, B3-B5 I#K 99J% - it was the power o idea o , which appealed to, rather than its logical demonstration, B3% most hopeless idea o immortality ever ormed by man, 39A% nothing more that Fatalism worse than the notion o Qismat, B5% his mental history not without a parallel in the history o Hastern $u ism, 3=9% imperative vision o the >ivine in man did come to, 3=9% intellectual progenitors o , 3@=% metaphysics: a legitimate play o the grown-ups, 39? IK## ?J% modern prophet, B3% relation to ictionism, IK## @J% superman, B3-B5 I#K 58J% - a biological product, 3=9 IK## 3AJ% view o time o , di erent rom that o Gant and $chopenhauer, B3% vision o , completely blinded by his intellectual progenitors 3=9 6unn, T. ,ercy I3A@D-3B99J, 8D I## 3?J .ld Testament, 8B, ??, ?@ omnipotence, abstractly conceived, is merely a blind capricious power, ?9% intimately related to >ivine wisdom according to Quran, ?9% reconciliation o , with limitation o ;od, born, out o *is own creative reedom, ?8-?9 omniscience, ;ods, not a mirror passively re lecting a inished structure o things, ?8% not passive which suggests that ;ods creative activity is determined by an unalterable order o events, ?5-?8 ontological argument, 58-59 ontological problem, 8@

.ptics I#bn *aithamJ, 3D8 IK 3?J

optimism, ?= .pus "a7us I-oger 1aconJ, 3D8 IK 3?J original sin, ?A I#K 5J .uspensky, ,eter >emianovich I3A@A-3A9@J, his view o time, critically e!amined, 85 ,an-#slamic movement, 353 IK# 3AJ ,araclete, 33=

parallel postulate, Huclids, 3D? IK 5DJ ,arsa, Ghwa7ah "uhammad Id. A55_395DJ, 3D@ IK 5=J

,aralogisms o ,ure -eason, I#K 3?J

perception, through heart, 35-38 ,ersia, 353, 35=, 38B, 39B personality, reality o , lies in its directive attitude, A5-A8 pessimism, ?=, ?? petitio principii., 5= ,hilosophical /orks o >escartes I>escartesJ, (uoted: 59 I## 3J ,hilosophy and 6ew ,hysics I)ouis -ougierJ (uoted: =B I# 3A, ### 85J ,hilosophy o the 's # IKaihingerJ, (uoted: 39? IK## ?J ,lanck, "a! Garl Hrnst )udwig I3A=A-3B9@J, =? ,lato I95A_95@-89A_89@ 1.+.J, 335, 338% and sense-perception, 8 I# 3DJ% unites religion and state much as the Quran does, 385 prayer, all search or knowledge essentially a orm o , @8% and unity o mankind, @=% as an inner act, has ound e!pression in a variety o orms, @9% associative, in #slam, socialization o spiritual illumination, @8% call to, in 1erber_Turkish, 35@-5A IK# 5A, 5BJ% compared to thought, A3-A5% e!pression o mans inner yearning or a response in the aw ul silence o the universe, @8% orm o , according to Quran, ought not to become a matter o dispute, @9% orm o congregational, in #slam creates and osters the sense o social e(uality, @9% orm o , in #slam symbolizes both sel a irmation and sel -negation, @9% in the act o , mind rises to capture -eality itsel and become a conscious participator in its li e, @5% in the case o ,rophets consciousness, creates a resh ethical world, @3% little island o our personality suddenly discovers in, its situation in a larger whole o li e, @5% necessary complement to the intellectual activity o the observer o 6ature, @5% not some occult and special way o knowledge, @5% nothing mystical about, @5% observer o 6ature a kind o mystic in the act o , @8% Iopening up o the sources o li e that lie in the depths o human ego, @8% prophets and mystics, di erence between, @5% timing o the daily, in #slam is intended to save the ego rom the mechanizing e ects o sleep and business, A@% ultimate motive o , @3% uni(ue discovery whereby the searching ego a irms itsel in the very moment o sel -negation, @8

,reserved Tablet, ? I# 3@J

principles, to interpret oundational legal, pre ectly 7usti ied, 389 ,rinciples o )ogic, The I1radleyJ, @A ,rinciples o ,sychology, The I/illiam OamesJ, (uoted: @3 I### @3J ,ringle-,attison, 'ndrew $eth I3A=?-3B83J, A5 ,roblem o #mmortality, The I-adoslav Tsano J, (uoted: B5 I# 39, #K 8A, 9@J

,rolegomena I#bn GhaldunJ, 333, 35=

,rophet, the *oly, 5, A, 38, 39, =A, B9, 3DD, 3D3, 335, 33A, 358, 35B, 38=, 38?, 393, 398, 3=D% and 'postle, 3B I# 98J% and pre-#slamic usages o 'rabia, 38?% and the method o building up a universal $hariah, 38?-8@ IK# 9@J% irst critical observer o psychic phenomena, 38, 3D3 I# 83, K @J% rational oundation o #slam began with, 5% so ar as the spirit o his revelation is concerned, belongs to the modern world, 3D3% spirit o the interpretation o -evelation by, and study o the *adith literature, 38@% see also "uhammad ,rophet, desire to see his religious e!perience trans ormed into a living world orce supreme in, BB% in the personality o , the inite centre o li e sinks into his own in inite depths only to spring up again to disclose the new directions o li e, 3DD% inserts himsel into the sweep o time with a view to control the orces o history, BB% not less alert than the scientist in the matter o eliminating the alloy o illusion rom his e!perience, 3=D% penetrating the impervious material be ore him, discovers himsel or himsel , and unveils himsel to the eye o history, BB% pragmatic test o the religious e!perience o , 53-55, @@, BB% spiritual tension o , is to be understood as a response to an ob7ective situation generative o new enthusiasms, new organizations, new starting points, 3=D% way o , is not to classi y acts and discover causes, but to think in terms o li e and movement with a view to create new patterns o behaviour or mankind, 3=D

prophethood, inality o , 3DD-D3 IK 5J% creates an independent critical attitude towards mysticism, 3D3% early "uslims emerging out o the spiritual slavery o pre-#slamic 'sia were not in a position to realize the true signi icance o , 395% unction o the idea is to open up resh vistas in the domain o mans inner e!perience, 33=% generates the belie that all personal authority claiming supernatural origin has come to an end, 3D3% involves the keen perception that li e cannot or ever be kept in leading strings, 3D3% "uslims spiritually most emancipated because o their aith in, 395% psychological cure or the "agian attitude o constant e!pectation, 33= IK# ?3J Qurans constant appeal to reason and e!perience and emphasis on the study o 6ature and *istory, are aspects o the idea o , 3D3 prophetic consciousness, di erence between, and mystic consciousness, @3, BB% mode o economizing individual thought and choice by providing ready-made 7udgements, choices and ways o action, 3DD psychology, and religion, 3B-53, 3=8-=9% +on iguration, A? I#K 8DJ% must develop an independent method to possess a real signi icance or mankind, 3=9 ,sychology o 2nconscious I+.; OungJ, (uoted: 3=3-=5 IK## 3=J ,tolemy Ic. A@-c. 3?=J, 3D? Qalb, i.e. heart, perception o -eality through, 35-38% $tations o , 3=8 IK## 3?J Qarshiyat, condition o , in the Ghali ah, 35= Qismat, AA, B5 Qistas Ial-"usta(imJ, 'l- I;hazaliJ, 3D8 IK 33J Qiyas, absolutely ree within the limits o revealed te!ts, 393% as a source o #slamic )aw, 39D-93% only another name or #7tihad, 393% permitted even in the li e-time o the *oly ,rophet, 393% source o li e and movement in the )aw o #slam, 393 Quanta, theory o , ==, =? Quran, and 1arzakh, B5-B8, B=-B? I#K =DJ% and >ivine space, 3D@-DA% and ;ods response to man, 3?% and history, @@, 3D5, 33D-35% and legend o the all, ?=-@3% and man, A-3D, @?% and 6ature, B, 33, 9=, 3D3-D5% and perception o -eality through heart, 35-38% and resurrection, B5-B8, B?% and revelation, 3?-3@, 3DD-D3 IK 8J% and $atans suggestions to 'postles and ,rophets o ;od, 3B% and sense-perception, 8, 3D-35, 3D5 I# 35, K BJ% and sources o human knowledge, @@, 3D3-D5% and the character o mans knowledge, 33, ?A% and the concrete, ?9, 3D5, 3D=% and the ego, AD, A5-A8, A@, B8, B9, B=, B?, BA% and the legend, ?=% and the metaphor o light as applied to ;od, =3% and the method o simple enumeration, 3D8% and the problem o evil, ?9, ?@, ?A, @D% and the universe, A-B, 99, ==, 3D5% and time, 8B-9D, =A, ?D-?5% and trust o personality, B, @D, @?% and the unity o human origin, 335% anti-classical spirit o , 8, =?, 3D5, 338 IK 53J% as primary source o the )aw o #slam, 383-8=% destiny o man as viewed by, B5-BA% dogma o the eternity o , 33B IK# BJ% emphatic denial o the sonship o ;od, =3 I### 8J% general principles and rules o legal nature in, 383 IK# 8@J% *eaven and *ell as conceived by, BA% idea o destiny ITa(dirJ in, 8B, 9D, A@-AA I## 5BJ% .bservations and $tatements 1ases on ,erceptive and >eep $tudy o : 'lternation o day and night is one o the greatest signs o ;od, A, =A 'lways i!es its gaze on the concrete, ?9, 3D5, 3D= 'rgues the phenomenon o re-emergence o the ego Iin the li e herea terJ, on the analogy o his irst emergence, B? 'ttaches e(ual importance to all the regions o human e!perience, 35 1elieves in the possibility o improvement o behaviour o man and his control over the natural orces, ?= +annot be inimical to the idea o evolution, 383 +hange Ialso socialJ, according to, is one o the greatest signs o ;od, 33@ +onstant appeal to reason and e!perience, is an aspect o the idea o >eclares ultimate Hgo to be nearer to man than his own neck-vein, =@ >eclares unity o inner e!perience to be one o the three sources o human knowledge, @@ >escribes reality as the First and the )ast, the visible and the invisible, 5=-5?, A= I## =, #K 5A, K# 38J inality o prophethood, 3D3 +onsiders it necessary to unite religion and state, ethics and politics in a single revelation, 385

>oes not base the possibility o resurrection on the actual resurrection o an historic person, B5 >oes not contemplate complete liberation rom initude as the highest state o human bliss, B8 Hmbodies an essentially dynamic outlook on li e, 33A, 385 Hmphasis on 6ature and *istory, as sources o human knowledge, and as an aspect o the idea o inality o prophethood, 3D3 Hmphasizes deed rather than idea, ,re ace I#K =@J Hmphasizes the individuality and uni(ueness o man, @? IK 3, 5J Finds the in inite power o ;od revealed not in the arbitrary and capricious, but in the regular and the orderly, ?9 ;eneral empirical attitude o , engenders a eeling o reverence or the actual, 33 I# 35, K BJ ;eneral principles and rules o legal nature in the, 383 IK# 8@J *as a clear conception o 6ature as a cosmos o mutually related orces, ?9 I### 93J *as a de inite view o mans destiny as a unity o li e, @?, I#K 3J *as no liking or abstract universals, ?9 *istory in the language o , is the days o ;od Iayyam 'llahJ, 33D #dea o destiny runs throughout in, A@ #mam is a vital way o appropriating the universe, A@ #mmediate purpose in re lective observation o nature is to awaken the consciousness o that o which nature is a symbol, 33 #n order to emphasize the individuality o 2ltimate Hgo, gives *im the proper name o 'llah, =D #ntensive breadth o the legal principles o , is awakener o human thought, 388 #nterest o , in history e!tends arther than mere historical generalizations, 333 #s not a legal code, 383 )ays down a ew general principles and rules o legal nature, especially relating to the amily, 383 IK# 8@J "ain purpose o , is to awaken in man the consciousness o his relation with ;od and the universe, @, 383 "an in his inmost being is a creative activity, an ascending spirit, 3D "an is not a stranger on this earth, ?@ 6aturalism o , is only a recognition o the act that man is related to nature, and this relation must be e!ploited in the interest o a ree upward movement o spiritual li e, 35 6ations are collectively 7udged and su er or their misdeeds here and now, 33D IK 9DJ 6ature is the habit o 'llah, 9= I## 8BJ 6atures passage in time o ers the best clue to the ultimate nature o -eality, 8? 6o understanding o , possible until it is actually revealed to the believer, 398 IK## 3J .b7ect in dealing with legends is seldom historical, ?= .ne noteworthy eature o , is the emphasis that it lays on the observable aspect o -eality, 33 I# 35, K BJ .pens our eyes to the great act o IsocialJ change through the appreciation and control o which alone a durable civilization becomes possible, 35, 33@ -ecognizes empirical attitude to be an indispensable stage in the spiritual li e o humanity, 35 -egards both 'n us Isel J and ' a( IworldJ as sources o knowledge, 3D3 IK =J -egards e!perience within and without as symbolic o reality, 39, 5=-5? I# 5@, ## 9J -egards hearing and sight as the most valuable >ivine gi ts, 8 I# 33J -egards /ahi IinspirationJ a universal property o li e, 3DD IK 8J

-e7ects the idea o redemption, @? I#K 5J $eems to take and argue resurrection as a universal phenomenon o li e, B5 $et o simple legal principles received development by interpretation, 358 rom, carried great potentialities o e!pansion and

$pirit o , is essentially anti-classical, 8, 3D5, 338 IK 53J $ubscribes neither to optimism nor to pessimism, but to meliorism, ?= Teaching o , that li e is a process o progressive creation, necessitates that each generation be permitted to solve its own problems, 389 This noiseless swim o time which appears to us, human beings, as the movement o day and night is one o the greatest signs o ;od, A, =A Time regarded as an organic whole is Ta(dir or the destiny, 9D I## 5BJ True manhood consists in patience under ills and hardships, @D I### ?AJ 2ltimate Hgo that makes the higher ego emerge rom the lower egos is immanent in nature and is described as the First and the )ast, the visible and the invisible, A= I#K 58, 5A, ## =, K# 38J 2ltimate -eality is spiritual and its li e consists in its temporal activity, 358 2nderstanding o certain statements o biological nature made by, in conne!ion with the destiny o man, possible only through a deeper insight into the nature o li e, B5 2niverse, according to the teachings o , is dynamic in its origin, inite and capable o increase, 3D5 I# 58, K 53J 2niverse has a serious end, 33-35 I# 55J Kiews >ivine omnipotence as intimately related to >ivine wisdom, ?9 /ith its characteristic simplicity, alludes to serial and non-serial aspects o duration, 8B IQuranicJ method o complete or partial trans ormation o legends to besoul them with new ideas is an important point nearly always overlooked, ?= IQuranicJ outlook, nothing more alien to, than the idea that the universe is the working out o a preconceived plan, 99 -abbi I"y )ordJ, A5 -azi 'bu 1akr "uhammad b. Qakariya I5=D-c. 838_A?9-c. B5=J, and criticism o 'ristotles irst igure, 3D8 IK 38J -azi, #mam Fakhr al->in I=98-?D?_339B_35DBJ, and >ahr, >aihur. or >aihar, as names o ;od, =A% criticism o 'ristotles irst igure, IK 38J% Hastern >iscussions and e!amination o the contemporary theories o time, ?3 I### 8@J reaction-time, 33? IK 3=J -eality, and thought, =, 95% as viewed by 1ergson, 93-99% 1ergson denies the teleological character o , 98% every moment in the li e o , is original, 9D, BA, 338 I## 8D, #K @D, K =DJ% *egels idea o the degrees o , =@-=A% *egels view o , as an in initude o reason, AB% lives in its own appearances, 35 IK# 38J% 6atures passage in time o ers the best clue to the ultimate nature o , 8?% perception o , through heart, 35-38 I# 5AJ% reveals its symbols both within and without, 35, 5= I# 5@, ## 9J% sectional view o , 88% time an essential element in, =5-=8% ultimate nature o , must be conceived as an ego 9B, ?5% see also ;od, 2ltimate Hgo and 2ltimate -eality reason, inductive, once born, must be rein orced by inhibiting the non-rational modes o consciousness, 3DD reasoning, *ana ite principle o , 35D% legal, in #slam, development o , rom deductive to inductive, 383, 39D-93 IK# 8=J -ecurrence, Hternal, B3-B5, 338, 39A I#K 99J% see also 6ietzsche redemption, Quran re7ects the idea o , @? I#K 5J re lective contact with the temporal lu! o things trains us or an intellectual vision o the nontemporal, 35 -e ormation, essentially a political movement, 35B IK# 88J

-e utation o )ogic I#bn TaimiyyahJ, 3D8 IK 35J

-eign o -elativity I)ord *aldaneJ, =@ I## A, ### 5=J -elativity, theory o , and non-Huclidean geometries, IK 5DJ% dispenses with the concept o orce altogether, 3=? IK## 55J% emphasizes the concrete much as the Quran does, ?9% has given the greatest blow to the traditional notion o matter, 5@-5A% in /hiteheads presentation o , matter is entirely replaced by organism, 83% makes possible the e ect precede its cause, 85 I## 3AJ% makes space dependent on matter, 83% time as ree creative movement has no meaning or, 83, 3D? I## 3@J% universe Imuch in accord with the Quranic world-viewJ is inite but boundless, 83, 9= I# 58, K 3A, 53J% /hiteheads view o , likely to appeal more to "uslim students, 3D? I## 3AJ% /ildon +arrs interpretation o , in terms o "onadistic idealism, 8D I## 3?J% see also Hinstein and -ussell religion, and higher poetry, 3% and human ego, 39=, 3=D, 3=5-=9, 3=?-=@% and modern psychology, 3B-53, 3=3-=5% and philosophy, 3, 5, 9B, @D-@3% and re-integration o the human personality, 3@D, 3@8% and science, 5, 53, 88-89, 39?, 3==% conservatism in, destroys the egos creative reedom and closes up the paths o resh spiritual enterprise, 39=% deliberate enterprise to seize the ultimate principle o value, 39B% higher, as critical o its level o e!perience as 6aturalism o its own, 399% in its higher mani estations, neither dogma, nor priesthood, nor ritual, 39B% modern man and, 3?B-@D% only a search or larger li e, 398% reasons or and legitimacy o the (uestion o the possibility o , 3?@-@D% recognized the necessity o e!perience be ore science did so, 5D, 398-99% se!-impulse and, 58-59, 3@9-@=% stands in greater need o rational oundations than science, 5, 39?% ultimate purpose is to move beyond the moral health o the social abric which orms the present environment o the ego, 3@8 -eligion in the "aking I/hiteheadJ, (uoted: 3, 5 I# 5, 8J -eligious 'ttitude and )i e in #slam I"acdonaldJ, (uoted: 39 I# 85J religious e!perience, consists in creating the >ivine attributes in man, A@% critical e!amination o , not irreverent, 38% essentially a state o eeling with a cognitive aspect, 3@-3A, 39?, 3=D I# 8BJ% orms o e!pression o unitive e!perience in the history o , in #slam, A@-AA% higher, corrective o our concepts o philosophical theology, 39=% incommunicability o , gives a clue to the ultimate nature o ego, 39=% pragmatic test o , 3B, 53-55, @@-@B% process o , identical with scienti ic process, 3==% revelation o a new li e-process - original, essential, spontaneous, 3=?% tests o the truth o , 53-55% see also prayer religious li e, clima! o , is the discovery o the ego as an individual deeper than the habitual sel hood, 39=% individual achieves a ree personality in, by discovering the ultimate source o the law within the depths o his own consciousness, 398% psychopath endowed with great intellect I6ietzscheJ may give a clue to the techni(ue or the realization o the ultimate aim o , 3=9% ultimate aim o , is to bring the ego into contact with an eternal li e process,3=9% understanding o the *oly 1ook o #slam by a believer in the third period o , 398 -eligious -e orm ,arty I$aid *alim ,ashaJ, 358-59 -enan, Ooseph Hrnest I3A58-3AB5J, and #bn -ushds notion o unitary intellect, AA -epublic I,latoJ, 385 resurrection, bodily, the Quran suggests the act o , but does not reveal its nature, BA% kind o stocktaking o egos past achievements and uture possibilities, B?% universal phenomenon o li e, B5 revelation, prophetic, 3?-3A, BB-3D3 I# 9D, K 8J, prophetic, in terms o world li e, 33@% Quranic view o , as a universal property o li e, 3DD IK 8J% pure reason compared to, 3?3-?5% spirit o the ,rophets own interpretation o his, and study o *adith literature, 38@% understanding o , in the third period o religious li e, 398 IK## 3J% verbal, 3A I# 9DJ

-evivi ication o the $ciences o -eligion I;hazaliJ, 3D5 IK 3DJ

-isalah dar Qaman-o-"akan IGhwa7ah ,arsaJ, IK 5=J -isalat al-$ha iyah, 'l- ITusiJ, IK 3BJ -oman Hmpire, conception o human unity in, 335 -omans, twelve tables o , 358 -ome, 335, 33?, 3=3 -ougier, )ouis I3AAB-3BA5J, I### 85, K 5DJ% concept o intelligibility undergoing change with the advance o scienti ic thought, ? I# 3AJ% discontinuity o matter and time, =B I### 85J

-oyce, Oosiah I3A==-3B3?J, omniscience o ;od conceived as a single indivisible act o >ivine perception, ?D, ?5-?8 I### 9DJ% response as criterion o our knowledge o other minds, 3=-3? -uh, AB, 3=8 -umi, "aulana Oalal al->in I?D9-?@5_35D@-35@8J, =@, @5, AA% mystic (uest a ter -eality, @5-@8 I### @8J% perception o -eality through heart, 38 I# 5AJ% regarded the (uestion o immortality as one o biological evolution, and not a metaphysical problem, B?-B@% tremendous enthusiasm or the biological uture o man, 39@ I#K 58J -ussell, 'rthur /illiam 1ertrand I3A@5-3B@DJ, concept o orce in -elativity, 3=? IK## 55J% matter in the light o -elativity I(uotedJ, 5@-5A% realism in -elativity, 8D-83 I## 3?J% re utation o Qenos argument, 5A-8D I## 39J $abit, *alim Id. 38?5_3B98J, theory o "uhammadan law grounded in sociological concept, 353 $aid *alim ,asha, see *alim ,asha $anusi movement, 353 $arkashi Io 3Dth century o *i7rah sic.J, IK# =@J $atan, 3B, ?@, ?A $chmlders, 'ugust I3ADB-3AADJ, IK 3DJ $chopenhauer, 'rthur I3@AA-3A?DJ, ?=, B3, 3=9 I### 9=J science and -eality, 88-89, 39=, 3==% and religion, 3, 5, 8, 5D, 88-89, 39?, 3==% most momentous contribution o 'rab civilization to the modern world, 3D9% nature o , 88-89 $cience and the "odern /orld I/hiteheadJ, (uoted: =? I### 5DJ scienti ic and religious processes go parallel to each other, 3== scienti ic method, #slamic origin o , 3D8-D9 scienti ic (uest and vision o the total in inite, @8

$cope o )ogic I#bn *azmJ, 3D8 IK 39J

$ecret >octrine, The I1lavatskyJ, ?B I### ?=J secular is sacred in the roots o its being, 358 sel , alone can combine the opposite attributes o permanence and change, =9% appreciative and e icient, 8A-8B, ?3% appreciative, nature o , 8A-8B% e icient, 8A .% Quranic emphasis on individuality and uni(ueness o , @? I#K 3, 5J: subliminal, 39, 3=D I# 8=J, see also ego and man sel -concentrated individuals, alone reveal the depth o li e, 35D% in the light o new standards make us see that our environment is not wholly inviolable and re(uires revision, 35D% rearing o , alone counteracts the orces o decay in a people, 35D sel -determination, A= . I## 5B, #K 85J sense-perception, passage to -eality through the revelations o , 33-35, 88% ,latos view o , 8 I# 3DJ% Quranic emphasis on, 8, 3D, 3D5, I# 35, K BJ $ha ii, #mam 'bu 'bd 'llah "uhammad b. #dris I3=D-5D9_@?@-A5DJ, 39D, 393 $hah /ali 'llah see /ali 'llah, $hah $hariah, 33B, 35D, 359, 38?, 38B $hatibi, #mam 'bu #sha( Id. @BD_38AAJ, 389, 38A $haukani, Qadi "uhammad b. 'li I33@8-35=D_3@=B-3A89J, 38B, 393 $hihab al->in $uhrawardi "a(tul, see #shra(i $huara Ithe Quranic $urahJ, and the inductive method o simple enumeration, 3D8 sirr-i 'kh a I$haikh 'hmad $irhindiJ, 3=8 IK## 3?J $irr-i Gha i I$haikh 'hmad $irhindiJ, 3=8 IK## 3?J social change Iin #slamJ, the value and unction o $ocialism, atheistic, 39B orces o conservatism in, 3=D-=3

$ocius I/illiam OamesJ, @3 $ocrates I9@D-8DD 1.+.J, 8 $oul as substance, B3-B5% directive unction o , B5-B8 $oul-body relationship, B8-B?, 38B-9D% #ra(is view o , 355% "utakallimuns view o , ?9-?= space, #ra(is view o , 3D@-3D% 6ewtonian view o , as an absolute void, 5A, 8D% thought o a limit to the perceptual, staggers the mind, 3D= $pace and time, arise out o the relations o co-e!istence and succession o immobilities, 93% interpretations that thought puts on the creative activity o ;od, =5, =8% problem o , is a (uestion o li e and death in "uslim culture, 3D= space-orders and time-orders, plurality o I#ra(iJ ?D-?3, 3D@-3D, 39? I### 89J space-time, as the matri! o all things I'le!anderJ, 3DB IK 8?J% living thought as the ultimate principle o , 33D $pace, Time and >eity I'le!anderJ, ?D, 3DB I#K 58, K 8?, 8@J $pace, Time and ;ravitation IHddingtonJ, (uoted: =8 I### BJ $pencer, *erbert I3A5D-3BD8J, B3 $pengler, .swald I3AAD-3B8?J, AA, 3D=-D?% alleges complete negation o the ego in #slam, A@, 339 I#K 88, K =@J, and parallel postulate, IK 5DJ% culture o #slam "agian in spirit and character, 339% IK =?J% ails to appreciate the cultural value o the idea o inality o prophethood in #slam, 33= IK ?3J% ignorance o "uslim thought on the problem o time, 339-3=% main thesis, 339-3=% spirit o Huropean culture through and through anti-classical, 339 IK 53J $tate, +hurch and, 355-59 $tate in #slam, see #slam $tate, "uslim, generally le t in the hands o intellectual mediocrities, 33B subliminal sel , 3?=, 3@3 I# 8=J $u ism, 3=5, 3=8, 3=9, 3=? I### ??J% devotional, alone tried to understand the meaning o unity o inner e!perience% @@% ostered revolt against the (uibbles o early legists, 33B% ideal revealed in higher, is the possession and en7oyment o the in inite, 33B% in higher, unitive e!perience is not the e acing o the inite ego into the in inite Hgo, AA, B9% in later, otherworldliness obscured vision o #slam as a social polity, 33B% latter-day representatives o , have become absolutely incapable o any resh inspiration rom modern e!perience ,re ace% non-#slamic in luences on purely speculative, 33B I#K 9J% o ering the prospects o unrestrained thought, attracted and absorbed the best minds in #slam, 33B% pantheistic, di iculties o , with regard to the relation between the in inite and the inite egos, B9% speculative, a orm o ree-thought% see also prayer and religious e!perience $u yan al-Thauri IB@-3?3_@3?-@@AJ, 33B IK# 35J $unnis, 33A superman, B3-B5 I#K 58J% a biological product, 3=9, IK## 3AJ $uperstitions, pre-#slamic, o "uslim nations, 359 $uyuti, Oalal al->in IA9B-B33_399=-3=D=J, 353 IK# 3@J Tabari, 'bu Oa ar "uhammad ibn Oarir I55=-833_A8B-B58J, 335 IK 99J ta rah, =8 I## B, ### 3BJ Tahmasp, $hah IB3B-BA9_3=39-3=@?J, 9D Ta(dir IdestinyJ, 9D, A@ I## 5BJ% is time regarded prior to the disclosure o its possibilities, 9D Tauhid, essence o , is e(uality, solidarity and reedom, 355, 359% principle o , oundation o world unity, 33@ teleology, 1ergsons denial o , 98 Tertium .rganum I.uspenskyJ, 85 Thadani I6anikram KasanmalJ, 39A theocracy, meaning o , in #slam, 358

thought, and being are ultimately one, 5=% intuition and, spring rom the same root and complement each other 5% and the #n inite 9-=% as a potency, ormative o the very being o its material, 5=% 1ergsons view o , 93-95% complete independence o , rom concrete e!perience is not possible, 9% in its deeper movement capable o reaching the in inite, =, 95% in its true nature, is identical with li e, 95% operation o , being essentially symbolic in character, veils the true nature o li e, 9A% real unction o , is to synthecize the elements o e!perience by employing categories suitable to its various levels, 95 time, al-1irunis discovery o reaction, 3D8 IK =8J an essential element in -eality 9?% as a cyclic movement I6ietzsche, *eraclitus, $toicsJ, B3-B3, 338 IK =8J% as ourth dimension o space I.uspenskyJ, 85% as ree creative movement, has no meaning or Hinsteins -elativity, 83, 3D? I## 3@J% as mind o space I'le!anderJ, 33D IK 8@J% 'ugustines con ession o the mystery o , 9? I## 99J% 1ergsons error o regarding, as prior to sel , 99% 1ergsons view as pure duration, 8@-93% >ivine, ?D?3, 33D% >ivine, as viewed by >awani and #ra(i, ?D-?3, 33D I### 8=, K 8BJ% unction-idea and element o , in our world-picture, 3D? IK 53J, #ra(i, view o plurality o , ?D-?3, I### 89, 8=J% keen sense o the reality o , necessary or a scienti ic treatment o history, 335-38% mathematical idea o unction and, 3D?, IK 53J% "cTaggarts argument relating to unreality o , 9=-9? I## 95J% 6ewtons conception o , =B I### 83J% o appreciative sel as compared to that o e icient sel , 8A-8B% our physiological structure at the bottom o our view o time, B= I#K =AJ% priority o , due to ;ods priority I#ra(iJ, ?D I### 8=J% ,rophetic tradition relating to, A, =A I# 59J% regarded as destiny or Ta(dir, 9D I## 5BJ% view o , as cyclic, 338% true, belongs to ego alone, @B% view o , as held by the 'sharties and other "uslim thinkers and mystics =A-?5, 3D@, 33D, 39? traditions o the ,rophet, as a source o "uhammadan )aw, 38=-38@% attitude o 'bu *ani ah towards, o a purely legal import per ectly sound, 38@% ;oldzihers e!amination o , in the light o modern canons o historical criticism, 38=% intelligent study o , to be used as indicative o the spirit in which the ,rophet himsel interpreted his -evelation, 38@% modern critics o , 38= IK# 9=J% pre#slamic usages in, our writers do not always re er to, 38?% see also *adith Turk, modern, inspired by the realities o e!perience and not by the scholastic reasoning o 7urists, 35=-5? Turks, li e in, has begun to move, giving birth to new desires, bringing new di iculties and suggesting new interpretations, 35B% on way to creating new values, 35B Turkey, awakening o , in the wake o ;reat Huropean /ar, 395-98 IK# =AJ, growing comple!ities o a mobile and broadening li e are to bring new situations to, suggesting new points o view, and necessitating resh interpretations, 35A% religio-political thought in, 353-5A Tusi, 6asir al->in I=B@-?@5_35D3-35@9J, Huclids parallel postulate, 3D? IK 3B, 5DJ% hyperspace movement, 3D? IK 5DJ Twilight o the #dols, The I6ietzscheJ, (uoted: 35B IK## 33J 2lema, our modern, do not see that the ate o a people depends not so much on organization as on the worth and power o individual men, 35D% ,ersian constitutional theory and the, 38B IK# =8J% should orm assembly, 38B-9D IK# =9J 2ltimate Hgo, beyond, and apart rom *is creative activity, there is neither time nor space, =5% by permitting the emergence o a inite ego as ree personal causality, limits the reedom o *is own ree will, A?-A@% change reveals its true character in, as continuous creation, untouched by weariness and unseizable by slumber or sleep, 9A I## 9A, 9BJ% creative energy o , unctions as egounities, =@% given by Quran the proper name o 'llah to emphasize *is individuality, =D% intensive in inity o , consists in the in inite inner possibilities o *is creative activity, =5% is immanent in the emergence o higher ego rom lower egos, A= I#K 58J% reveals the in inite wealth o *is being in the countless variety o living orms, @D% thought and deed, the act o knowing and the act o creating, are identical in, ?5% universe only a partial e!pression o the in inite creative activity o , =5 2ltimate -eality, urnishes in the ego a clue to its ultimate nature, A9-A=% is rationally directed li e and can be conceived only as an ego, 9B, =@, ?5% li e o , according to Quran consists in its temporal activity, 358% reveals its symbols both within and without, 35, 5=-5? I# 5@, ## 9, #K =J% thought, li e and purpose interpenetrate in, to orm an organic unity, 99, ?5% time an essential element in, 9= ultimate things, positive views o , work rather o inspiration than o metaphysics, B3

2mar b. al-Ghattab I9D 1.*.-58_=A9-?99J, the irst critical and independent mind o #slam, 35B
2mayyads, AA, 38A uncertainty principle, IK## 8J

unitive e!perience, BB universe, a ree creative movement, 93% an elaborate di erential e(uation, 39?% 'ristotelian idea o i!ed, =9, =?, 3DB IK 53J% constantly growing, A, == I# 58, K 53J% controversy on the issue o creation o , I### @J% inite and boundless, according to Hinstein, 83: so also according to Quran, A, 99, 9=, 3D5 Ii 58, K 53J% ;ods relation to, is as souls relation to the body I#ra(iJ, 33D% only partial e!pression o ;ods in inite creative activity, =5% Quranic view o , A-B, 99% /hiteheads conception o , 8?, see also 6ature

2r i $hirazi I"uhammad Oamal al->inJ, IB?8-BBB_3==D-3=B3J, (uoted: 95 I## 85J

Kaihinger, *ans I3A=5-3B88J, IK## @J Karieties o -eligious H!perience I/illiam OamesJ, 39 I# 8=, K 3J, (uoted: 3B IK#J vision and power both must combine or the spiritual e!pansion o humanity, @8 /ahi, Quran regards, a universal property o li e, 3DD IK 8J /ali 'llah, $hah I3339-33@?_3@D8-3@?8J, on pre-#slamic usages and the ,rophets method o building up a universal $hariah, 38?-8@ IK## 9@J% irst "uslim to rethink the whole system o #slam, B5% last great theologian o #slam, B@% on some kind o physical medium suitable to the ego in li e herea ter, B@% works o , mentioned in 'llamas letters, IK# 9@J /hitehead, 'l red 6orth I3A?3-3B9@J, 83, =?% bi urcation o 6ature, theory o , 5@ I## AJ% de inition o religion, 3 I# 5J% 6ature according to, 5@-5A% on movement o electron in terms o (uantam mechanics, =? I### 5DJ% re utation o the traditional theory o materialism, 5@% universe according to, 5A, 8?% view o -elativity o , likely to make greater appeal to "uslim students than that o Hinstein, 3D? I## AJ /illiam ### I3?=D-3@D5J, 9? woman, economic position o , in #slam, 38=% e(uality o man and, as viewed by Qiya ;kalp, 35A, 389-8= world-li e and prophetic revelation, 33@ worship, di erence between prophets and mystics, @3 &ahweh, 33= &emem, 33A zahir and batin, 33B IK# 38J Qahiri school o law, 35D IK# 39J Qarkashi, "uhammmad b. 1ahadur b. 'bd 'llah I@9=-@B9_3899-38B5J, on the iction o the closing o the door o #7tihad, 393 IK# =@J Qaura I-isalatJ al- I>awaniJ, ?D Qeno I9BD-98D 1.+.J, arguments or the unreality o movement 5A-5B I## BJ% holds time to be unreal, 338% -ussells re utation o , 5B-8D I## 39-3=J Qiya ;kalp, see ;kalp Qoroaster I l. in the @th century 1.+. or be oreJ, 33= Quhri, "uhammad b. $hihab al- I=@-359_?@A-@95J, 38@ Qwemer, $amuel "arinus I3A?@-3B=5J, =9