Nonliniar Circuit

Hudgins, J.L., Bogart, Jr., T.F., Mayaram, K., Kennedy, M.P., Kolumbn, G.
Nonlinear
Circuits
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
5
onIInear CIrcuIfs
5.1 Diodes and Rectifeis
Diodes Rectifeis
5.2 Limiteis
Limiting Ciicuits Piecision Rectifying Ciicuits
5.3 Distoition
Haimonic Distoition Powei-Seiies Method Diffeiential-Eiioi
Method Thiee-Point Method Five-Point Method
Inteimodulation Distoition Tiiple-Beat Distoition Cioss
Modulation Compiession and Inteicept Points Ciossovei
Distoition Failuie-to-Follow Distoition Fiequency Distoition
Phase Distoition Computei Simulation of Distoition Components
5.4 Communicating with Chaos
Elements of Chaotic Digital Communications Systems Chaotic Digital
Modulation Schemes Low-Pass Equivalent Models foi Chaotic
Communications Systems Multipath Peifoimance of FM-DCSK
5.1 Diudes and Rectihers
jerry I. Hudgn
A diode geneially iefeis to a two-teiminal solid-state semiconductoi device that piesents a low impedance to
cuiient ow in one diiection and a high impedance to cuiient ow in the opposite diiection. These piopeities
allow the diode to be used as a one-way cuiient valve in electionic ciicuits. Retfers aie a class of ciicuits
whose puipose is to conveit ac wavefoims (usually sinusoidal and with zeio aveiage value) into a wavefoim
that has a signifcant non-zeio aveiage value (dc component). Simply stated, iectifeis aie ac-to-dc eneigy
conveitei ciicuits. Most iectifei ciicuits employ diodes as the piincipal elements in the eneigy conveision
piocess; thus the almost insepaiable notions of diodes and iectifeis. The geneial electiical chaiacteiistics of
common diodes and some simple iectifei topologies incoipoiating diodes aie discussed.
Diudes
Most diodes aie made fiom a host ciystal of silicon (Si) with appiopiiate impuiity elements intioduced to
modify, in a contiolled mannei, the electiical chaiacteiistics of the device. These diodes aie the typical
-junction (oi bipolar) devices used in electionic ciicuits. Anothei type is the Schottky diode (unipolai),
pioduced by placing a metal layei diiectly onto the semiconductoi Schottky, 1938; Mott, 1938]. The metal-
semiconductoi inteiface seives the same function as the n-junction in the common diode stiuctuie. Othei
semiconductoi mateiials such as gallium-aisenide (GaAs) and silicon-caibide (SiC) aie also in use foi new and
specialized applications of diodes. Detailed discussion of diode stiuctuies and the physics of theii opeiation
can be found in latei paiagiaphs of this section.
The electiical ciicuit symbol foi a bipolai diode is shown in Fig. 5.1. The polaiities associated with the
foiwaid voltage diop foi foiwaid cuiient ow aie also included. Cuiient oi voltage opposite to the polaiities
indicated in Fig. 5.1 aie consideied to be negative values with iespect to the diode conventions shown.
}erry L. HudgIns
Inverry of Sour| Coro|no
Theodore !. Bogarf, }r.
Inverry of Sour|ern M
KarfIIeya Nayaram
Wo|ngron Srore Inverry
NIchaeI efer Kennedy
Inverry Co||ege Dub|n
Ceza KoIumln
Tec|nco| Inverry of udoer
The chaiacteiistic cuive shown in Fig. 5.2 is iepiesentative of the cuiient-
voltage dependencies of typical diodes. The diode conducts foiwaid cuiient
with a small foiwaid voltage diop acioss the device, simulating a closed
switch. The ielationship between the foiwaid cuiient and foiwaid voltage
is appioximately given by the Shockley diode equation Shockley, 1949]:
(5.1)
wheie I
s
is the leakage cuiient thiough the diode, q is the electionic chaige, n is a coiiection factoi, | is
Boltzmann`s constant, and T is the tempeiatuie of the semiconductoi. Aiound the knee of the cuive in Fig. 5.2
is a positive voltage that is teimed the tuin-on oi sometimes the thieshold voltage foi the diode. This value is
an appioximate voltage above which the diode is consideied tuined on" and can be modeled to fist degiee
as a closed switch with constant foiwaid diop. Below the thieshold voltage value the diode is consideied weakly
conducting and appioximated as an open switch. The exponential ielationship shown in Eq. (5.1) means that
the diode foiwaid cuiient can change by oideis of magnitude befoie theie is a laige change in diode voltage,
thus pioviding the simple ciicuit model duiing conduction. The nonlineai ielationship of Eq. (5.1) also piovides
a means of fiequency mixing foi applications in modulation ciicuits.
Reveise voltage applied to the diode causes a small leakage cuiient (negative accoiding to the sign convention)
to ow that is typically oideis of magnitude lowei than cuiient in the foiwaid diiection. The diode can withstand
ieveise voltages up to a limit deteimined by its physical constiuction and the semiconductoi mateiial used.
Beyond this value the ieveise voltage impaits enough eneigy to the chaige caiiieis to cause laige incieases in
cuiient. The mechanisms by which this cuiient inciease occuis aie impact ionization (avalanche) McKay,
1954] and a tunneling phenomenon (Zenei bieakdown) Moll, 1964]. Avalanche bieakdown iesults in laige
powei dissipation in the diode, is geneially destiuctive, and should be avoided at all times. Both bieakdown
iegions aie supeiimposed in Fig. 5.2 foi compaiison of theii effects on the shape of the diode chaiacteiistic
cuive. Avalanche bieakdown occuis foi ieveise applied voltages in the iange of volts to kilovolts depending on
the exact design of the diode. Zenei bieakdown occuis at much lowei voltages than the avalanche mechanism.
Diodes specifcally designed to opeiate in the Zenei bieakdown mode aie used extensively as voltage iegulatois
in iegulatoi integiated ciicuits and as disciete components in laige iegulated powei supplies.
Duiing foiwaid conduction the powei loss in the diode can become excessive foi laige cuiient ow. Schottky
diodes have an inheiently lowei tuin-on voltage than n -junction diodes and aie theiefoie moie desiiable in
applications wheie the eneigy losses in the diodes aie signifcant (such as output iectifeis in switching powei
supplies). Othei consideiations such as iecoveiy chaiacteiistics fiom foiwaid conduction to ieveise blocking
FIGURE 5.2 A typical diode dc chaiacteiistic cuive showing the cuiient dependence on voltage.
FIGURE 5.1 Ciicuit symbol foi a
bipolai diode indicating the polai-
ity associated with the foiwaid
voltage and cuiient diiections.
I
qV
n|T
D s
D
_
,
1
]
1
1
exp - 1
may also make one diode type moie desiiable than anothei. Schottky diodes conduct cuiient with one type of
chaige caiiiei and aie theiefoie inheiently fastei to tuin off than bipolai diodes. Howevei, one of the limitations
of Schottky diodes is theii excessive foiwaid voltage diop when designed to suppoit ieveise biases above about
200 V. Theiefoie, high-voltage diodes aie the n-junction type.
The effects due to an inciease in the tempeiatuie in a bipolai diode aie many. The foiwaid voltage diop
duiing conduction will deciease ovei a laige cuiient iange, the ieveise leakage cuiient will inciease, and the
ieveise avalanche bieakdown voltage (V
BD
) will inciease as the device tempeiatuie climbs. A family of static
chaiacteiistic cuives highlighting these effects is shown in Fig. 5.3 wheie T
3
> T
2
> T
1
. In addition, a majoi
effect on the switching chaiacteiistic is the inciease in the ieveise iecoveiy time duiing tuin-off. Some of the
key paiameteis to be awaie of when choosing a diode aie its iepetitive peak inveise voltage iating, V
RRM
(ielates
to the avalanche bieakdown value), the peak foiwaid suige cuiient iating, I
FSM
(ielates to the maximum
allowable tiansient heating in the device), the aveiage oi ims cuiient iating, I
O
(ielates to the steady-state
heating in the device), and the ieveise iecoveiy time,
rr
(ielates to the switching speed of the device).
Rectihers
This section discusses some simple uncontrolled rectiner ciicuits that aie commonly encounteied. The teim
untonro||eJ iefeis to the absence of any contiol signal necessaiy to opeiate the piimaiy switching elements (diodes)
in the iectifei ciicuit. The discussion of contiolled iectifei ciicuits, and the contiolled switches themselves, is
moie appiopiiate in the context of powei electionics applications Hoft, 1986]. Rectifeis aie the fundamental
building block in dc powei supplies of all types and in dc powei tiansmission used by some electiic utilities.
A single-phase full-wave iectifei ciicuit with the accompanying input and output voltage wavefoims is shown
in Fig. 5.4. This topology makes use of a centei-tapped tiansfoimei with each diode conducting on opposite
half-cycles of the input voltage. The foiwaid diop acioss the diodes is ignoied on the output giaph, which is
a valid appioximation if the peak voltages of the input and output aie laige compaied to 1 V. The ciicuit changes
a sinusoidal wavefoim with no dc component (zeio aveiage value) to one with a dc component of 2 V
peak
/r .
The ims value of the output is 0.707 V
peak
.
The dc value can be incieased fuithei by adding a low-pass fltei in cascade with the output. The usual foim
of this fltei is a shunt capacitoi oi an LC fltei as shown in Fig. 5.5. The iesonant fiequency of the LC fltei
should be lowei than the fundamental fiequency of the iectifei output foi effective peifoimance. The ac poition
of the output signal is ieduced while the dc and ims values aie incieased by adding the fltei. The iemaining
ac poition of the output is called the ripple. Though somewhat confusing, the tiansfoimei, diodes, and fltei
aie often collectively called the iectifei ciicuit.
Anothei ciicuit topology commonly encounteied is the biidge iectifei. Figuie 5.6 illustiates single- and
thiee-phase veisions of the ciicuit. In the single-phase ciicuit diodes D1 and D4 conduct on the positive
half-cycle of the input while D2 and D3 conduct on the negative half-cycle of the input. Alteinate paiis of
diodes conduct in the thiee-phase ciicuit depending on the ielative amplitude of the souice signals.
FIGURE 5.3 The effects of tempeiatuie vaiiations on the foiwaid voltage diop and the avalanche bieakdown voltage in
a bipolai diode.
FIGURE 5.4 A single-phase full-wave iectifei ciicuit using a centei-tapped tiansfoimei with the associated input and
output wavefoims.
FIGURE 5.5 A single-phase full-wave iectifei with the addition of an output fltei.
FIGURE 5.6 Single- and thiee-phase biidge iectifei ciicuits.
V
in
L
C
C
Filter Load
The thiee-phase inputs with the associated iectifei output voltage aie shown in Fig. 5.7 as they would appeai
without the low-pass fltei section. The thiee-phase biidge iectifei has a ieduced iipple content of 4% as
compaied to a iipple content of 47% in the single-phase biidge iectifei Milnes, 1980]. The coiiesponding
diodes that conduct aie also shown at the top of the fguie. This output wavefoim assumes a puiely iesistive
load connected as shown in Fig. 5.6. Most loads (motois, tiansfoimeis, etc.) and many souices (powei giid)
include some inductance, and in fact may be dominated by inductive piopeities. This causes phase shifts
between the input and output wavefoims. The iectifei output may thus vaiy in shape and phase consideiably
fiom that shown in Fig. 5.7 Kassakian et al., 1991]. When othei types of switches aie used in these ciicuits the
inductive elements can induce laige voltages that may damage sensitive oi expensive components. Diodes aie
used iegulaily in such ciicuits to shunt cuiient and clamp induced voltages at low levels to piotect expensive
components such as electionic switches.
One vaiiation of the typical iectifei is the Cockioft-
Walton ciicuit used to obtain high voltages without the
necessity of pioviding a high-voltage tiansfoimei. The
ciicuit in Fig. 5.8 multiplies the peak secondaiy voltage
by a factoi of six. The steady-state voltage level at each
fltei capacitoi node is shown in the fguie. Adding
additional stages incieases the load voltage fuithei. As
in othei iectifei ciicuits, the value of the capacitois
will deteimine the amount of iipple in the output
wavefoim foi given load iesistance values. In geneial,
the capacitois in a lowei voltage stage should be laigei
than in the next highest voltage stage.
Dehning Terms
Bipolar device: Semiconductoi electionic device that uses positive and negative chaige caiiieis to conduct
electiic cuiient.
Diode: Two-teiminal solid-state semiconductoi device that piesents a low impedance to cuiient ow in one
diiection and a high impedance to cuiient ow in the opposite diiection.
-junction: Metalluigical inteiface of two iegions in a semiconductoi wheie one iegion contains impuiity
elements that cieate equivalent positive chaige caiiieis (-type) and the othei semiconductoi iegion
contains impuiities that cieate negative chaige caiiieis (n-type).
Ripple: The ac (time-vaiying) poition of the output signal fiom a iectifei ciicuit.
Schottky diode: A diode foimed by placing a metal layei diiectly onto a unipolai semiconductoi substiate.
Uncontrolled rectiner: A iectifei ciicuit employing switches that do not iequiie contiol signals to opeiate
them in theii on" oi off " states.
FIGURE 5.7 Thiee-phase iectifei output compaied to the input signals. The input signals as well as the conducting diode
labels aie those iefeienced to Fig. 5.6.
FIGURE 5.8 Cockioft-Walton ciicuit used foi voltage
multiplication.
Re!ated Tupics
22.2 Diodes 30.1 Powei Semiconductoi Devices
Relerences
R.G. Hoft, SemtonJutor Power E|etronts, New Yoik: Van Nostiand Reinhold, 1986.
J.G. Kassakian, M.F. Schlecht, and G.C. Veighese, Prnt|es o[ Power E|etronts, Reading, Mass.: Addison-
Wesley, 1991.
K.G. McKay, Avalanche bieakdown in silicon," P|ysta| Reew, vol. 94, p. 877, 1954.
A.G. Milnes, SemtonJutor Detes anJ InegraeJ E|etronts, New Yoik: Van Nostiand Reinhold, 1980.
J.L. Moll, P|ysts o[ SemtonJutors, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1964.
N.F. Mott, Note on the contact between a metal and an insulatoi oi semiconductoi," Prot. Cam|rJge P||os.
Sot., vol. 34, p. 568, 1938.
W. Schottky, Halbleiteitheoiie dei Speiischicht," Naurwssenst|a[en, vol. 26, p. 843, 1938.
W. Shockley, The theoiy of p-n junctions in semiconductois and p-n junction tiansistois," Be|| Sysem Tet|.
J., vol. 28, p. 435, 1949.
Further Inlurmatiun
A good intioduction to solid-state electionic devices with a minimum of mathematics and physics is So|J Sae
E|etront Detes, 3id edition, by B.G. Stieetman, Pientice-Hall, 1989. A iigoious and moie detailed discussion
is piovided in P|ysts o[ SemtonJutor Detes, 2nd edition, by S.M. Sze, John Wiley & Sons, 1981. Both of
these books discuss many specialized diode stiuctuies as well as othei semiconductoi devices. Advanced mateiial
on the most iecent developments in semiconductoi devices, including diodes, can be found in technical jouinals
such as the IEEE Transatons on E|etron Detes, So|J Sae E|etronts, and Journa| o[ |eJ P|ysts. A good
summaiy of advanced iectifei topologies and chaiacteiistics is given in Bast Prnt|es o[ Power E|etronts by
K. Heumann, Spiingei-Veilag, 1986. Advanced mateiial on iectifei designs as well as othei powei electionics
ciicuits can be found in IEEE Transatons on Power E|etronts, IEEE Transatons on InJusry |taons, and
the EPE Journa|. Two good industiy magazines that covei powei devices such as diodes and powei conveitei
ciicuitiy aie Power Conro| anJ Ine||gen Moon (PCIM) and Power Tet|nts.
5.2 Limiters
1
T|eodore . ogorr, jr.
Limiteis aie named foi theii ability to limit voltage excuisions at the output of a ciicuit whose input may
undeigo uniestiicted vaiiations. They aie also called t|ng trtus because wavefoims having iounded peaks
that exceed the limit(s) imposed by such ciicuits appeai, aftei limiting, to have theii peaks attened, oi clipped"
off. Limiters may be designed to clip positive voltages at a ceitain level, negative voltages at a diffeient level, oi
to do both. The simplest types consist simply of diodes and dc voltage souices, while moie elaboiate designs
incoipoiate opeiational amplifeis.
Limiting Circuits
Figuie 5.9 shows how the tiansfei chaiacteiistics of limiting ciicuits ieect the fact that outputs aie clipped at
ceitain levels. In each of the examples shown, note that the chaiacteiistic becomes hoiizontal at the output
level wheie clipping occuis. The hoiizontal line means that the output iemains constant iegaidless of the input
level in that iegion. Outside of the clipping iegion, the tiansfei chaiacteiistic is simply a line whose slope equals
1
Exceipted fiom T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus, 3id ed., Columbus, Ohio:Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993,
pp. 689-697. With peimission.
the gain of the device. This is the iegion of lineai opeiation. In these examples, the devices aie assumed to have
unity gain, so the slope of each line in the lineai iegion is 1.
Figuie 5.10 illustiates a somewhat diffeient kind of limiting action. Instead of the positive oi negative peaks
being clipped, the output follows the input when the signal is above oi below a ceitain level. The tiansfei
chaiacteiistics show that lineai opeiation occuis only when ceitain signal levels aie ieached and that the output
iemains constant below those levels. This foim of limiting can also be thought of as a special case of that shown
in Fig. 5.9. Imagine, foi example, that the clipping level in Fig. 5.9(b) is iaised to a positive value; then the
iesult is the same as Fig. 5.10(a).
Limiting can be accomplished using biased diodes. Such ciicuits iely on the fact that diodes have veiy low
impedances when they aie foiwaid biased and aie essentially open ciicuits when ieveise biased. If a ceitain
point in a ciicuit, such as the output of an amplifei, is connected thiough a veiy small impedance to a tonsan
voltage, then the voltage at the ciicuit point cannot diffei signifcantly fiom the constant voltage. We say in
this case that the point is t|ameJ to the fxed voltage. An ideal, foiwaid-biased diode is like a closed switch,
so if it is connected between a point in a ciicuit and a fxed voltage souice, the diode veiy effectively holds the
point to the fxed voltage. Diodes can be connected in opeiational amplifei ciicuits, as well as othei ciicuits,
FIGURE 5.9 Wavefoims and tiansfei chaiacteiistics of limiting ciicuits. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ
Crtus, 3id ed., Columbus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 676. With peimission.)
in such a way that they become foiwaid biased when a signal ieaches a ceitain voltage. When the foiwaid-biasing
level is ieached, the diode seives to hold the output to a fxed voltage and theieby establishes a clipping level.
A biased diode is simply a diode connected to a fxed voltage souice. The value and polaiity of the voltage
souice deteimine what value of total voltage acioss the combination is necessaiy to foiwaid bias the diode.
Figuie 5.11 shows seveial examples. (In piactice, a seiies iesistoi would be connected in each ciicuit to limit
cuiient ow when the diode is foiwaid biased.) In each pait of the fguie, we can wiite Kiichhoff `s voltage law
FIGURE 5.10 Anothei foim of clipping. Compaie with Fig. 5.9. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus,
3id ed., Columbus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 690. With peimission.)
FIGURE 5.11 Examples of biased diodes and the signal voltages
iequiied to foiwaid bias them. (Ideal diodes aie

assumed.) In each case, we solve foi the value of
that is necessaiy to make V

D
> 0. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront
Detes anJ Crtus, 3id ed., Columbus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 691. With peimission.)
aiound the loop to deteimine the value of input voltage
that is necessaiy to foiwaid bias the diode. Assuming

that the diodes aie ideal (neglecting theii foiwaid voltage diops), we deteimine the value
necessaiy to foiwaid
bias each diode by deteimining the value
necessaiy to make
D
> 0. When
ieaches the voltage necessaiy

to make V
D
> 0, the diode becomes foiwaid biased and the signal souice is foiced to, oi held at, the dc souice
voltage. If the foiwaid voltage diop acioss the diode is not neglected, the clipping level is found by deteimining
the value of
necessaiy to make V
D
gieatei than that foiwaid diop (e.g., V
D
> 0.7 V foi a silicon diode).
Figuie 5.12 shows thiee examples of clipping ciicuits using ideal biased diodes and the wavefoims that iesult
when each is diiven by a sine-wave input. In each case, note that the output equals the dc souice voltage when
the input ieaches the value necessaiy to foiwaid bias the diode. Note also that the type of clipping we showed
in Fig. 5.9 occuis when the fxed bias voltage tends to reerse bias the diode, and the type shown in Fig. 5.10
occuis when the fxed voltage tends to [orwarJ bias the diode. When the diode is ieveise biased by the input
signal, it is like an open ciicuit that disconnects the dc souice, and the output follows the input. These ciicuits
aie called ara||e| clippeis because the biased diode is in paiallel with the output. Although the ciicuits behave
the same way whethei oi not one side of the dc voltage souice is connected to the common (low) side of the
input and output, the connections shown in Fig. 5.12(a) and (c) aie piefeiied to that in (b), because the lattei
uses a oating souice.
Figuie 5.13 shows a biased diode connected in the feedback path of an inveiting opeiational amplifei. The
diode is in paiallel with the feedback iesistoi and foims a paiallel clipping ciicuit like that shown in Fig. 5.12.
In an opeiational amplifei ciicuit,
-
-
-
, and since
-
0 V in this ciicuit,
-
is appioximately 0 V (viitual
giound). Thus, the voltage acioss R
[
is the same as the output voltage
o
. Theiefoie, when the output voltage
ieaches the bias voltage E, the output is held at E volts. Figuie 5.13(b) illustiates this fact foi a sinusoidal input.
So long as the diode is ieveise biased, it acts like an open ciicuit and the amplifei behaves like a conventional
inveiting amplifei. Notice that output clipping occuis at nu voltage -(R
1
/R
[
)E, since the amplifei inveits and
has closed-loop gain magnitude R
[
/R
1
. The iesulting tiansfei chaiacteiistic is shown in Fig. 5.13(c).
In piactice, the biased diode shown in the feedback of Fig. 5.13(a) is often ieplaced by a Zener diode in seiies
with a conventional diode. This aiiangement eliminates the need foi a oating voltage souice. Zenei diodes
FIGURE 5.12 Examples of paiallel clipping ciicuits. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus, 3id ed.,
Columbus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 692. With peimission.)
aie in many iespects functionally equivalent to biased diodes. Figuie 5.14 shows two opeiational amplifei
clipping ciicuits using Zenei diodes. The Zenei diode conducts like a conventional diode when it is foiwaid
biased, so it is necessaiy to connect a ieveised diode in seiies with it to pievent shoiting of R
[
. When the ieveise
voltage acioss the Zenei diode ieaches V
Z
, the diode bieaks down and conducts heavily, while maintaining an
essentially constant voltage, V
Z
, acioss it. Undei those conditions, the total voltage acioss R
[
, i.e.,
o
, equals V
Z
plus the foiwaid diop, V
D
, acioss the conventional diode.
Figuie 5.15 shows Jou||e-enJeJ limiting ciicuits, in which both positive and negative peaks of the output
wavefoim aie clipped. Figuie 5.15(a) shows the conventional paiallel clipping ciicuit and (b) shows how double-
ended limiting is accomplished in an opeiational amplifei ciicuit. In each ciicuit, note that no moie than one
diode is foiwaid biased at any given time and that both diodes aie ieveise biased foi -E
1
<
o
< E
2
, the lineai
iegion.
Figuie 5.16 shows a double-ended limiting ciicuit using back-to-back Zenei diodes. Opeiation is similai to
that shown in Fig. 5.14, but no conventional diode is iequiied. Note that diode D
1
is conducting in a foiwaid
diiection when D
2
conducts in its ieveise bieakdown (Zenei) iegion, while D
2
is foiwaid biased when D
1
is
conducting in its ieveise bieakdown iegion. Neithei diode conducts when -(V
Z2
- 0.7) <
o
< (V
Z1
- 0.7),
which is the iegion of lineai amplifei opeiation.
Precisiun Rectilying Circuits
A retfer is a device that allows cuiient to pass thiough it in one diiection only. A diode can seive as a iectifei
because it peimits geneious cuiient ow in only one diiection-the diiection of foiwaid bias. Rectifcation is
the same as limiting at the 0-V level: all of the wavefoim below (oi above) the zeio-axis is eliminated. Howevei,
a diode iectifei has ceitain inteivals of nonconduction and pioduces iesulting gaps" at the zeio-ciossing points
of the output voltage, due to the fact that the input must oveicome the diode diop (0.7 V foi silicon) befoie
FIGURE 5.13 An opeiational amplifei limiting ciicuit. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus, 3id ed.,
Columbus, Ohio:Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 693. With peimission.)
conduction begins. In powei-supply applications, wheie input voltages aie quite laige, these gaps aie of no
concein. Howevei, in many othei applications, especially in instiumentation, the 0.7-V diop can be a signifcant
poition of the total input voltage swing and can seiiously affect ciicuit peifoimance. Foi example, most ac
instiuments iectify ac inputs so they can be measuied by a device that iesponds to dc levels. It is obvious that
small ac signals could not be measuied if it weie always necessaiy foi them to ieach 0.7 V befoie iectifcation
could begin. Foi these applications, retson iectifeis aie necessaiy.
Figuie 5.17 shows one way to obtain piecision iectifcation using an opeiational amplifei and a diode. The
ciicuit is essentially a noninveiting voltage followei (whose output follows, oi duplicates, its input) when the
diode is foiwaid biased. When
in
is positive, the output of the amplifei,
o
, is positive, the diode is foiwaid
biased, and a low-iesistance path is established between
o
and
-
, as necessaiy foi a voltage followei. The load
voltage,
L
, then follows the positive vaiiations of
in

-
. Note that even a veiy small positive value of
in
will
cause this iesult, because of the laige diffeiential gain of the amplifei. That is, the laige gain and the action of
the feedback cause the usual iesult that
-

-
. Note also that the diop acioss the diode does not appeai in
L
.
When the input goes negative,
o
becomes negative, and the diode is ieveise biased. This effectively opens
the feedback loop, so
L
no longei follows
in
. The amplifei itself, now opeiating open-loop, is quickly diiven
to its maximum negative output, thus holding the diode well into ieveise bias.
Anothei piecision iectifei ciicuit is shown in Fig. 5.18. In this ciicuit, the load voltage is an amplifed and
inveited veision of the negae vaiiations in the input signal, and is 0 when the input is positive. Also in contiast
with the pievious ciicuit, the amplifei in this iectifei is not diiven to one of its output extiemes. When
in
is
negative, the amplifei output,
o
, is positive, so diode D
1
is ieveise biased and diode D
2
is foiwaid biased. D
1
is open and D
2
connects the amplifei output thiough R
[
to
-
. Thus, the ciicuit behaves like an oidinaiy
inveiting amplifei with gain -R
[
/R
1
. The load voltage is an amplifed and inveited (positive) veision of the
negative vaiiations in
in
. When
in
becomes positive,
o
is negative, D
1
is foiwaid biased, and D
2
is ieveise
biased. D
1
shoits the output
o
to
-
, which is held at viitual giound, so
L
is 0.
FIGURE 5.14 Opeiational amplifei limiting ciicuits using Zenei diodes. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ
Crtus, 3id ed., Columbus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 694. With peimission.)
Dehning Terms
Biased diode: A diode connected in seiies with a dc voltage souice in oidei to establish a clipping level.
Clipping occuis when the voltage acioss the combination is suffcient to foiwaid bias the diode.
Limiter: A device oi ciicuit that iestiicts voltage excuisions to piesciibed level(s). Also called a clipping ciicuit.
Re!ated Tupics
5.1 Diodes and Rectifeis 27.1 Ideal and Piactical Models
FIGURE 5.15 Double-ended clipping, oi limiting. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus, 3id ed., Colum-
bus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 695. With peimission.)
FIGURE 5.16 A double-ended limiting ciicuit using Zenei diodes. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus,
3id ed., Columbus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 695. With peimission.)
Relerences
W.H. Baumgaitnei, Pu|se FunJamena|s anJ Sma||-Sta|e Dga| Crtus, Reston, Va.: Reston Publishing, 1985.
T. F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus, 3id ed., Columbus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993.
R.A. Gayakwad, O-ms anJ Lnear InegraeJ Crtu Tet|no|ogy, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1983.
A.S. Sedia and K.C. Smith, Mtroe|etront Crtus, New Yoik: CBS College Publishing, 1982.
H. Zangei, SemtonJutor Detes anJ Crtus, New Yoik: John Wiley & Sons, 1984.
5.3 Disturtiun
Korr|eyo Moyorom
The diode was intioduced in the pievious sections as a nonlineai device that is used in iectifeis and limiteis.
These aie applications that depend on the nonlineai natuie of the diode. Typical electionic systems aie
composed not only of diodes but also of othei nonlineai devices such as tiansistois (Section III). In analog
applications tiansistois aie used to amplify weak signals (amplifeis) and to diive laige loads (output stages).
Foi such situations it is desiiable that the output be an amplifed tiue iepioduction of the input signal; theiefoie,
the tiansistois must opeiate as lineai devices. Howevei, the inheient nonlineaiity of tiansistois iesults in an
output which is a distoited" veision of the input.
The distoition due to a nonlineai device is illustiated in Fig. 5.19. Foi an input X the output is Y F(X)
wheie F denotes the nonlineai tiansfei chaiacteiistics of the device; the dc opeiating point is given by X
0
.
Sinusoidal input signals of two diffeient amplitudes aie applied and the output iesponses coiiesponding to
these inputs aie also shown.
FIGURE 5.17 A piecision iectifei. When
in
is positive, the diode is foiwaid biased, and the amplifei behaves like a voltage
followei, maintaining
-

-

L
. (Sourte. T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus, 3id ed., Columbus, Ohio:
Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 696. With peimission.)
FIGURE 5.18 A piecision iectifei ciicuit that amplifes and inveits the negative vaiiations in the input voltage. (Sourte.
T.F. Bogait, Ji., E|etront Detes anJ Crtus, 3id ed., Columbus, Ohio: Macmillan/Meiiill, 1993, p. 697. With peimission.)
Foi an input signal of small amplitude the output faithfully follows the input, wheieas foi laige-amplitude
signals the output is distoited; a attening occuis at the negative peak value. The distoition in amplitude iesults
in the output having fiequency components that aie integei multiples of the input fiequency, |armonts, and
this type of distoition is iefeiied to as harmonic distortion.
The distoition level places a iestiiction on the amplitude of the input signal that can be applied to an
electionic system. Theiefoie, it is essential to chaiacteiize the distoition in a ciicuit. In this section diffeient
types of distoition aie defned and techniques foi distoition calculation aie piesented. These techniques aie
applicable to simple ciicuit confguiations. Foi laigei ciicuits a ciicuit simulation piogiam is invaluable.
Harmunic Disturtiun
When a sinusoidal signal of a single fiequency is applied at the input of a nonlineai device oi ciicuit, the
iesulting output contains fiequency components that aie integei multiples of the input signal. These haimonics
aie geneiated by the nonlineaiity of the ciicuit and the |armont Jsoron is measuied by compaiing the
magnitudes of the haimonics with the fundamental component (input fiequency) of the output.
Considei the input signal to be of the foim:
x() X
1
cos u
1
(5.2)
wheie [
1
u
1
/2r is the fiequency and X
1
is the amplitude of the input signal. Let the output of the nonlineai
ciicuit be
y() Y
0
- Y
1
cos u
1
- Y
2
cos 2u
1
- Y
3
cos 3u
1
- . . . (5.3)
wheie Y
0
is the dc component of the output, Y
1
is the amplitude of the fundamental component, and Y
2
, Y
3
aie
the amplitudes of the second and thiid haimonic components. The setonJ |armont Jsoron [ator (HD
2
),
the |rJ |armont Jsoron [ator (HD
3
), and the nth |armont Jsoron [ator (HD
n
) aie defned as
(5.4)
FIGURE 5.19 DC tiansfei chaiacteiistics of a nonlineai ciicuit and the input and output wavefoims. Foi a laige input
amplitude the output is distoited.
HD
2
2
1

Y
Y
(5.5)
(5.6)
The total harmonic distortion (THD) of a wavefoim is defned to be the iatio of the ims (ioot-mean-squaie)
value of the haimonics to the amplitude of the fundamental component.
(5.7)
THD can be expiessed in teims of the individual harmonic distortion factors
(5.8)
Vaiious methods foi computing the haimonic distoition factois aie desciibed next.
Puver-Series Methud
In this method a tiuncated powei-seiies expansion of the dc tiansfei chaiacteiistics of a nonlineai ciicuit is
used. Theiefoie, the method is suitable only when eneigy stoiage effects in the nonlineai ciicuit aie negligible
and the input signal is small. In geneial, the input and output signals compiise both dc and time-vaiying
components. Foi distoition calculation we aie inteiested in the time-vaiying oi inciemental components aiound
a quiescent
1
opeiating point. Foi the tiansfei chaiacteiistic of Fig. 5.19, denote the quiescent opeiating condi-
tions by X
0
and
-
Y
0
and the inciemental vaiiables by x() and y(), at the input and output, iespectively. The
output can be expiessed as a function of the input using a seiies expansion
-
Y
0
- y F(X
0
- x) a
0
- a
1
x - a
2
x
2
- a
3
x
3
- . . . (5.9)
wheie a
0

-
Y
0
F(X
0
) is the output at the dc opeiating point. The inciemental output is
y a
1
x - a
2
x
2
- a
3
x
3
- . . . (5.10)
Depending on the amplitude of the input signal, the seiies can be tiuncated at an appiopiiate teim. Typically
only the fist few teims aie used, which makes this technique applicable only to small input signals. Foi a puie
sinusoidal input Eq. (5.2)], the distoition in the output can be estimated by substituting foi x in Eq. (5.10)
and by use of tiigonometiic identities one can aiiive at the foim given by Eq. (5.3). Foi a seiies expansion that
is tiuncated aftei the cubic teim
1
Defned as the opeiating condition when the input has no time-vaiying component.
HD
3
3
1

Y
Y
HD
n
n
Y
Y

1
THD
+ + + Y Y Y
Y
n 2
2
3
2 2
1

THD HD HD HD + + +
2
2
3
2 2
n
(5.11)
Notice that a dc teim Y
0
is piesent in the output (pioduced by the even-poweied teims) which iesults in a shift
of the opeiating point of the ciicuit due to distoition. In addition, depending on the sign of a
3
theie can be
an exanson oi tomresson of the fundamental component. The haimonic distoition factois (assuming Y
1

a
1
X
1
) aie
(5.12)
As an example, choose as the tiansfei function Y F(X) exp(X); then, a
1
1, a
2
1/2, a
3
1/6. Foi an
input signal amplitude of 0.1, HD
2
2.5% and HD
3
0.04%.
Dillerentia!-Errur Methud
This technique is also applicable to nonlineai ciicuits in which eneigy stoiage effects can be neglected. The
method is valuable foi ciicuits that have small distoition levels and ielies on one`s ability to calculate the small-
signal gain of the nonlineai function at the quiescent opeiating point and at the maximum and minimum
excuisions of the input signal. Again the powei-seiies expansion piovides the basis foi developing this technique.
The small-signal gain
1
at the quiescent state (x 0) is a
1
. At the extieme values of the input signal X
1
(positive
peak) and -X
1
(negative peak) let the small-signal gains be a
-
and a
-
, iespectively. By defning two new
paiameteis, the diffeiential eiiois, E
-
and E
-
, as
(5.13)
the distoition factois aie given by
(5.14)
1
Small-signal gain Jy/Jx a
1
- 2a
2
x - 3a
3
x
2
- . . .
Y
a X
Y a X
a X
a X
Y
a X
Y
a X
0
2 1
2
1 1 1
3 1
3
1 1
2
2 1
2
3
3 1
3
2
3
4
2
4
+ e
HD
HD
2
2
1
2
1
1
3
3
1
3
1
1
2
1
2
1
4

Y
Y
a
a
X
Y
Y
a
a
X
E
a a
a
E
a a
a
+
+

- -
-
-
1
1
1
1
HD
HD
2
3
8
24
+
+
+
E E
E E
-
-
-
The advantage of this method is that the tiansfei chaiacteiistics of a nonlineai ciicuit can be diiectly used;
an explicit powei-seiies expansion is not iequiied. Both the powei-seiies and the diffeiential-eiioi techniques
cannot be applied when only the output wavefoim is known. In such a situation the distoition factois aie
calculated fiom the output signal wavefoim by a simplifed Fouiiei analysis as desciibed in the next section.
Three-Puint Methud
The thiee-point method is a simplifed analysis applicable to small levels of distoition and can only be used to
calculate HD
2
. The output is wiitten diiectly as a Fouiiei cosine seiies as in Eq. (5.3) wheie only teims up to
the second haimonic aie ietained. The dc component includes the quiescent state and the contiibution due to
distoition that iesults in a shift of the dc opeiating point. The output wavefoim values at u
1
0 (F
0
), u
1

r/2 (F
r/2
), u
1
r (F
r
), as shown in Fig. 5.20, aie used to calculate Y
0
, Y
1
, and Y
2
.
(5.15)
The second haimonic distoition is calculated fiom the defnition. Fiom Fig. 5.20, F
0
5, F
r/2
3.2, F
r
1, Y
0
3.1, Y
1
2.0, Y
2
-0.1, and HD
2
5.0%.
Five-Puint Methud
The fve-point method is an extension of the above technique and allows calculation of thiid and fouith
haimonic distoition factois. Foi distoition calculation the output is expiessed as a Fouiiei cosine seiies with
teims up to the fouith haimonic wheie the dc component includes the quiescent state and the shift due to
distoition. The output wavefoim values at u
1
0 (F
0
), u
1
r/3 (F
r/3
), u
1
r/2 (F
r/2
), u
1
2r/3 (F
2r/3
),
u
1
r (F
r
), as shown in Fig. 5.20, aie used to calculate Y
0
, Y
1
, Y
2
, Y
3
, and Y
4
.
FIGURE 5.20 Output wavefoim fiom a nonlineai ciicuit.
Y
F F F
Y
F F
Y
F F F
0
0 2
1
0
2
0 2
2
4
2
2
4
+ +
+
r r
r
r r
/
/
-
-
(5.16)
Foi F
0
5,

F
r/3
3.8, F
r/2
3.2, F
2r/3
2.7, F
r
1, Y
0
3.17, Y
1
1.7, Y
2
-0.1, Y
3
0.3, Y
4
-0.07, and
HD
2
5.9%, HD
3
17.6%. This paiticulai method allows calculation of HD
3
and also gives a bettei estimate
of HD
2
. To obtain highei-oidei haimonics a detailed Fouiiei seiies analysis is iequiied and foi such applications
a ciicuit simulatoi, such as SPICE, should be used.
Intermudu!atiun Disturtiun
The pievious sections have examined the effect of nonlineai device chaiacteiistics when a single-fiequency
sinusoidal signal is applied at the input. Howevei, if theie aie two oi moie sinusoidal inputs, then the nonlin-
eaiity iesults in not only the fundamental and haimonics but also additional fiequencies called the |ea
[requentes at the output. The distoition due to the components at the beat fiequencies is called intermodulation
distortion. To chaiacteiize this type of distoition considei the inciemental output given by Eq. (5.10) and the
input signal to be
x() X
1
cos u
1
- X
2
cos u
2
(5.17)
wheie [
1
u
1
/2r and [
2
u
2
/2r aie the two input fiequencies. The output fiequency spectium due to the
quadiatic teim is shown in Table 5.1.
In addition to the dc teim and the second haimonics of the two fiequencies, theie aie additional teims at
the sum and diffeience fiequencies, [
1
- [
2
, [
1
- [
2
, which aie the beat fiequencies. The setonJ-orJer nermoJ-
u|aon Jsoron (IM
2
) is defned as the iatio of the amplitude at a beat fiequency to the amplitude of the
fundamental component.
(5.18)
wheie it has been assumed that the contiibution to second-oidei inteimodulation by highei-oidei teims is
negligible. In defning IM
2
the input signals aie assumed to be of equal amplitude and foi this paiticulai
condition IM
2
2 HD
2
Eq. (5.12)].
TABLE 5.1 Output Fiequency Spectium Due to the Quadiatic Teim
Y
F F F F
Y
F F F F
Y
F F F
Y
F F F F
Y
F F F F F
0
0 3 2 3
1
0 3 2 3
2
0 2
3
0 3 2 3
4
0 3 2 2 3
2 2
6
3
2
4
2 2
6
4 6 4
12
+ + +
+ +
r r r
r r r
r r
r r r
r r r r
/ /
/ /
/
/ /
/ / /
- -
-
- -
- -
IM
2
2 1 2
1 1
2 2
1

a X X
a X
a X
a
Fiequency
Amplitude
0 2 2
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
2
1
2
2
2 2
1
2 2
2
2
2 1 2
[ [ [ [
a
X X
a
X
a
X a X X
+ ]
The cubic teim of the seiies expansion foi the nonlineai ciicuit gives iise to components at fiequencies 2[
1
-
[
2
, 2[
2
- [
1
, 2[
1
- [
2
, 2[
2
- [
1
, and these teims iesult in |rJ-orJer nermoJu|aon Jsoron (IM
3
). The fiequency
spectium obtained fiom the cubic teim is shown in Table 5.2.
Foi defnition puiposes the two input signals aie assumed to be of equal amplitude and IM
3
is given by
(assuming negligible contiibution to the fundamental by the cubic teim)
(5.19)
Undei these conditions IM
3
3 HD
3
Eq. (5.12)]. When [
1
and [
2
aie close to one anothei, then the thiid-oidei
inteimodulation components, 2[
1
- [
2
, 2[
2
- [
1
, aie close to the fundamental and aie diffcult to fltei out.
Trip!e-Beat Disturtiun
When thiee sinusoidal signals aie applied at the input then the output consists of components at the tiiple-
beat fiequencies. The cubic teim in the nonlineaiity iesults in the tiiple-beat teims
(5.20)
and the r|e-|ea Jsoron [ator (TB) is defned foi equal amplitude input signals.
(5.21)
Fiom the above defnition TB 2 IM
3
. If all of the fiequencies aie close to one anothei, the tiiple beats will
be close to the fundamental and cannot be easily iemoved.
Cruss Mudu!atiun
Anothei foim of distoition that occuis in amplitude-modulated (AM) systems (Chaptei 63) due to the ciicuit
nonlineaiity is cross modulation. The modulation fiom an unwanted AM signal is tiansfeiied to the signal of
inteiest and iesults in distoition. Considei an AM signal
x(t) X
1
cos u
1
t - X
2
1 - m cos u
m
t]cos u
2
t (5.22)
wheie m < 1 is the modulation index. Due to the cubic teim of the nonlineaiity the modulation fiom the
second signal is tiansfeiied to the fist and the modulated component coiiesponding to the fundamental is
(5.23)
TABLE 5.2 Output Fiequency Spectium Due to the Cubic Teim
Fiequency
Amplitude
1
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [
a
X X X
a
X X X a X X a X X a X a X
2 1 2 2 1 1 2
3
1
3
1 2
2 3
2
3
1
2
2 3 1
2
2 3 1 2
2
3 1
3
3 2
3
2 2 3 3
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
1
4
1
4

+ + ] ]
IM
3
3 1
3
1 1
3 1
2
1
3
4
3
4

a X
a X
a X
a
3
2
3 1 2 2 1 2 3
a X X X cos ] u u u
TB
3
2
3 1
2
1
a X
a
a X
a X m
a

m 1 1
3 2
2
1
1
1
3
+
1
]
1
1
cos cos u u
The tross-moJu|aon [ator (CM) is defned as the iatio of the tiansfeiied modulation index to the oiiginal
modulation.
(5.24)
The cioss modulation is a factoi of foui laigei than IM
3
and twelve times as laige as HD
3
.
Cumpressiun and Intercept Puints
Foi high-fiequency ciicuits distoition is specifed in teims of compression and intercept points. These quantities
aie deiived fiom extiapolated small-signal output powei levels. The 1 JB tomresson on is defned as the
value of the fundamental output powei foi which the powei is 1 dB below the extiapolated small-signal value.
The n|-orJer nerte on (IP
n
), n > 2, is the output powei at which the extiapolated small-signal poweis
of the fundamental and the nth haimonic inteisect. Let P
n
be an input powei that is small enough to ensuie
small-signal opeiation. If P
1
is the output powei of the fundamental, and P
n
the output powei of the nth
haimonic, then the nth-oidei inteicept point is given by IP
n
, wheie powei is measuied in dB.
Crussuver Disturtiun
This type of distoition occuis in ciicuits that use devices opeiating in a push-pull" mannei. The devices aie
used in paiis and each device opeiates only foi half a cycle of the input signal (Class AB opeiation). One
advantage of such an aiiangement is the cancellation of even haimonic teims iesulting in smallei total haimonic
distoition. Howevei, if the ciicuit is not designed to achieve a smooth ciossovei oi tiansition fiom one device
to anothei, then theie is a iegion of the tiansfei chaiacteiistics when the output is zeio. The iesulting distoition
is called crossover distortion.
Fai!ure-tu-Fu!!uv Disturtiun
When a piopeily designed peak detectoi ciicuit is used foi AM demodulation the output follows the envelope
of the input signal wheieby the oiiginal modulation signal is iecoveied. A simple peak detectoi is a diode in
seiies with a low-pass RC fltei. The ciitical component of such a ciicuit is a lineai element, the fltei capacitance
C. If C is laige, then the output fails to follow the envelope of the input signal, iesulting in failure-to-follow
distortion.
Frequency Disturtiun
Ideally an amplifei ciicuit should piovide the same amplifcation foi all input fiequencies. Howevei, due to
the piesence of eneigy stoiage elements the gain of the amplifei is fiequency dependent. Consequently diffeient
fiequency components have diffeient amplifcations iesulting in frequency distortion. The distoition is spec-
ifed by a fiequency iesponse cuive in which the amplifei output is plotted as a function of fiequency. An ideal
amplifei has a at fiequency iesponse ovei the fiequency iange of inteiest.
Phase Disturtiun
When the phase shift () in the output signal of an amplifei is not piopoitional to the fiequency, the output
does not pieseive the foim of the input signal, iesulting in phase distortion. If the phase shift is piopoitional
to fiequency, diffeient fiequency components have a constant delay time (/u) and no distoition is obseived.
In TV applications phase distoition can iesult in a smeaied pictuie.
Cumputer Simu!atiun ul Disturtiun Cumpunents
Distoition chaiacteiization is impoitant foi nonlineai ciicuits. Howevei, the techniques piesented foi distoition
calculation can only be used foi simple ciicuit confguiations and at best to deteimine the second and thiid
CM 3
3 2
2
1
a X
a
n1 1
n
n 1
1

haimonic distoition factois. In oidei to deteimine the distoition geneiation in actual ciicuits one must fabiicate
the ciicuit and then use a haimonic analyzei foi sine cuive inputs to deteimine the haimonics piesent in the
output. An attiactive alteinative is the use of ciicuit simulation piogiams that allow one to investigate ciicuit
peifoimance befoie fabiicating the ciicuit. In this section a biief oveiview of the techniques used in ciicuit
simulatois foi distoition chaiacteiization is piovided.
The simplest appioach is to simulate the time-domain output foi a ciicuit with a specifed sinusoidal input
signal and then peifoim a Fouiiei analysis of the output wavefoim. The simulation piogiam SPICE2 piovides
a capability foi computing the Fouiiei components of any wavefoim using a .FOUR command and specifying
the voltage oi cuiient foi which the analysis has to be peifoimed. A simple diode ciicuit, the SPICE input fle,
and tiansient voltage wavefoims foi an input signal fiequency of 1 MHz and amplitudes of 10 and 100 mV
aie shown in Fig. 5.21. The Fouiiei components of the iesistoi voltage aie shown in Fig. 5.22; only the
fundamental and fist two signifcant haimonics aie shown (SPICE piovides infoimation to the ninth
haimonic).
In this paiticulai example the input signal fiequency is 1 MHz, and this is the fiequency at which the Fouiiei
analysis is iequested. Since theie aie no eneigy stoiage elements in the ciicuit anothei fiequency would have
given identical iesults. To deteimine the Fouiiei components accuiately a small value of the paiametei RELTOL
is used and a suffcient numbei of points foi tiansient analysis aie specifed. Fiom the output voltage wavefoims
and the Fouiiei analysis it is seen that the haimonic distoition incieases signifcantly when the input voltage
amplitude is incieased fiom 10 mV to 100 mV.
The tiansient appioach can be computationally expensive foi ciicuits that ieach theii peiiodic steady state
aftei a long simulation time. Results fiom the Fouiiei analysis aie meaningful only in the peiiodic steady state,
and although this appioach woiks well foi laige levels of distoition it is inaccuiate foi small distoition levels.
Foi small distoition levels accuiate distoition analysis can be peifoimed by use of the Volteiia seiies method.
This technique is a geneialization of the powei-seiies method and is useful foi analyzing haimonic and
inteimodulation distoition due to fiequency-dependent nonlineaiities. The SPICE3 piogiam suppoits this
analysis technique (in addition to the Fouiiei analysis of SPICE2) wheieby the second and thiid haimonic and
inteimodulation components can be effciently obtained by thiee small-signal analyses of the ciicuit.
FIGURE 5.21 Simple diode ciicuit, SPICE input fle, and output voltage wavefoims.
An appioach based on the |armont |a|ante technique available in the simulation piogiam SPECTRE is
applicable to both laige and small levels of distoition. The piogiam deteimines the peiiodic steady state of a
ciicuit with a sinusoidal input. The unknowns aie the magnitudes of the ciicuit vaiiables at the fundamental
fiequency and at all the signifcant haimonics of the fundamental. The distoition levels can be simply calculated
by taking the iatios of the magnitudes of the appiopiiate haimonics to the fundamental.
Dehning Terms
Compression and Intercept Points: Chaiacteiize distoition in high-fiequency ciicuits. These quantities aie
deiived fiom extiapolated small-signal output powei levels.
Cross modulation: Occuis in amplitude-modulated systems when the modulation of one signal is tiansfeiied
to anothei by the nonlineaiity of the system.
Crossover distortion: Piesent in ciicuits that use devices opeiating in a push-pull aiiangement such that one
device conducts when the othei is off. Ciossovei distoition iesults if the tiansition oi ciossovei fiom
one device to the othei is not smooth.
Failure-to-follow distortion: Can occui duiing demodulation of an amplitude-modulated signal by a peak
detectoi ciicuit. If the capacitance of the low-pass RC fltei of the peak detectoi is laige, then the output
fails to follow the envelope of the input signal, iesulting in failuie-to-follow distoition.
Frequency distortion: Caused by the piesence of eneigy stoiage elements in an amplifei ciicuit. Diffeient
fiequency components have diffeient amplifcations, iesulting in fiequency distoition and the distoition
is specifed by a fiequency iesponse cuive.
Harmonic distortion: Caused by the nonlineai tiansfei chaiacteiistics of a device oi ciicuit. When a sinu-
soidal signal of a single fiequency (the [unJamena| fiequency) is applied at the input of a nonlineai
ciicuit, the output contains fiequency components that aie integei multiples of the fundamental fie-
quency (|armonts). The iesulting distoition is called haimonic distoition.
Harmonic distortion factors: A measuie of the haimonic content of the output. The nth |armont Jsoron
[ator is the iatio of the amplitude of the nth haimonic to the amplitude of the fundamental component
of the output.
FIGURE 5.22 Fouiiei components of the iesistoi voltage foi input amplitudes of 10 and 100 mV, iespectively.
Intermodulation distortion: Distoition caused by the mixing oi beating of two oi moie sinusoidal inputs
due to the nonlineaiity of a device. The output contains teims at the sum and diffeience fiequencies
called the |ea [requentes.
Phase distortion: Occuis when the phase shift in the output signal of an amplifei is not piopoitional to the
fiequency.
Total harmonic distortion: The iatio of the ioot-mean-squaie value of the haimonics to the amplitude of
the fundamental component of a wavefoim.
Re!ated Tupics
13.1 Analog Ciicuit Simulation 47.5 Distoition and Second-Oidei Effects 62.1 Powei Quality Distuibances
Relerences
K.K. Claike and D.T. Hess, Communtaon Crtus. na|yss anJ Desgn, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1971.
P.R. Giay and R.G. Meyei, na|yss anJ Desgn o[ na|og InegraeJ Crtus, New Yoik: John Wiley and Sons,
1992.
K.S. Kundeit, Setre User's CuJe. Frequenty Doman Smu|aor [or Non|near Crtus, EECS Industiial Liaison
Piogiam Offce, Univeisity of Califoinia, Beikeley, 1987.
K.S. Kundeit, T|e Desgner's CuJe o SPICE anJ SPECTRE, Mass.: Kluwei Academic Publisheis, 1995.
L.W. Nagel, SPICE2: A Computei Piogiam to Simulate Semiconductoi Ciicuits," Memo No. ERL-M520,
Electionics Reseaich Laboiatoiy, Univeisity of Califoinia, Beikeley, 1975.
D.O. Pedeison and K. Mayaiam, na|og InegraeJ Crtus [or Communtaon. Prnt|es, Smu|aon anJ Desgn,
Boston: Kluwei Academic Publisheis, 1991.
T.L. Quailes, SPICEJC.1 User's CuJe, EECS Industiial Liaison Piogiam Offce, Univeisity of Califoinia, Bei-
keley, 1989.
J.S. Roychowdhuiy, SPICE 3 Distoition Analysis," Memo No. UCB/ERL M89/48, Electionics Reseaich Labo-
iatoiy, Univeisity of Califoinia, Beikeley, 1989.
D.D. Weinei and J.F. Spina, SnusoJa| na|yss anJ MoJe|ng o[ Vea||y Non|near Crtus, New Yoik: Van
Nostiand Reinhold Company, 1980.
Further Inlurmatiun
Chaiacteiization and simulation of distoition in a wide vaiiety of electionic ciicuits (with and without feedback)
is piesented in detail in Pedeison and Mayaiam 1991]. Also deiivations foi the simple analysis techniques aie
piovided and veiifed using SPICE2 simulations. Algoiithms foi computei-aided analysis of distoition aie
available in Weinei and Spina 1980], Nagel 1975], Roychowdhuiy 1989], and Kundeit 1987]. Chaptei 5 of
Kundeit 1995] gives valuable infoimation on use of Fouiiei analysis in SPICE foi distoition calculation in
ciicuits. The softwaie packages SPICE2, SPICE3 and SPECTRE aie available fiom EECS Industiial Liaison
Piogiam Offce, Univeisity of Califoinia, Beikeley, CA 94720.
5.4 Cummunicating vith Chaus
Mc|oe| Perer Kennedy ond Cezo Ko|umbon
The goal of a digital communications system is to delivei infoimation iepiesented by a sequence of binaiy
symbols fiom a tiansmittei, thiough a physical channel, to a ieceivei. The mapping of these symbols into analog
signals is called digital modulation.
In a conventional digital modulation scheme, the modulatoi iepiesents each symbol to be tiansmitted as a
weighted sum of a numbei of eroJt basis functions. Foi example, two oithogonal signals, such as a sine and
a cosine, can be used. Each symbol iepiesents a ceitain bit sequence and is mapped to a coiiesponding set of
weights. The objective of the ieceivei is to iecovei the weights associated with the ieceived signal and theieby
to decide which symbol was tiansmitted 1]. The ieceivei`s estimate of the tiansmitted symbol is mapped back
to a bit sequence by a decodei.
When sinusoidal basis functions aie used, the modulated signal consists of segments of peiiodic wavefoims
coiiesponding to the individual symbols. A unique segment of analog wavefoim coiiesponds to each symbol.
If the spiead spectium technique is not used, the tiansmitted signal is naiiow-band. Consequently, multipath
piopagation can cause high attenuation oi even diopout of the tiansmitted naiiow-band signal.
Chaotic signals aie noneroJt wavefoims, geneiated by deteiministic systems, which aie chaiacteiized by a
continuous noise-like" bioad powei spectium 2]. In the time domain, chaotic signals appeai iandom." Chaotic
systems aie chaiacteiized by sensitive dependence on initial conditions"; an aibitiaiily small peituibation even-
tually causes a laige change in the state of the system. Equivalently, chaotic signals decoiielate iapidly with
themselves. The autocoiielation function of a chaotic signal has a laige peak at zeio and decays iapidly.
Thus, while chaotic signals shaie many of the piopeities of stochastic piocesses, they also possess a detei-
ministic stiuctuie that makes it possible to geneiate noise-like chaotic signals in a theoietically iepioducible
mannei. In paiticulai, a continuous-time chaotic system can be used to geneiate a wideband noise-like signal
with iobust and iepioducible statistical piopeities 2].
Due to its wide-band natuie, a signal compiising chaotic basis functions is potentially moie iesistant to
multipath piopagation than one constiucted of sinusoids. Thus, chaotic digital modulation, wheie the digital
infoimation signal to be tiansmitted is mapped to chaotic wavefoims, is potentially useful in piopagation
enviionments wheie multipath effects dominate.
In this chaptei section, foui chaotic digital modulation techniques aie desciibed in detail: Chaos Shift Keying
(CSK), Chaotic On-Off Keying (COOK), Differential Chaos Shift Keying (DCSK), and FM-DCSK.
E!ements ul Chautic Digita! Cummunicatiuns Systems
In a digital communications system, the symbol to be tiansmitted is mapped by the modulatoi to an analog
sample function and this analog signal passes thiough an analog channel. The analog signal in the channel is
subject to a numbei of distuibing inuences, including attenuation, bandpass flteiing, and additive noise. The
iole of the demodulatoi is to decide, on the basis of the ieceived coiiupted sample function, which symbol
was tiansmitted.
Transmitter
The sample function of duiation T iepiesenting a symbol is a weighted sum of analog basis functions g
,
():
(5.25)
In a conventional digital modulation scheme, the analog sample function of duiation T that iepiesents a
symbol is a lineai combination of eroJt, or|ogona| basis functions (e.g., a sine and a cosine, oi sinusoids at
diffeient fiequencies), and the symbol duiation T is an integei multiple of the peiiod of the basis functions.
In a t|aot digital communications system, shown schematically in Fig. 5.23, the analog sample function of
duiation T that iepiesents a symbol is a weighted sum of inheiently nonpeiiodic t|aot basis function(s).
Channe! Mude!
In any piactical communications system, the signal r
() that is piesent at the input to the demodulatoi diffeis

fiom that which was tiansmitted, due to the effects of the channel.
The simplest iealistic model of the channel is a lineai bandpass channel with additive white Gaussian noise
(AWGN). A block diagiam of the bandpass AWGN channel model that is consideied thioughout this section
and the next is shown in Fig. 5.24. The additive noise is chaiacteiized by its powei spectial density No.
Receiver
The iole of the ieceivei in a digital communications system is to decide, on the basis of the ieceived signal r
(),
which symbol was tiansmitted. This decision is made by estimating some piopeity of the ieceived sample
s s g
, ,
,
N
1
function. The piopeity, foi example, could be the weights of the coeffcients of the basis functions, the eneigy
of the ieceived signal, oi the coiielation measuied between diffeient paits of the tiansmitted signal.
If the basis functions g
,
() aie chosen such that they aie peiiodic and oithogonal - that is:
(5.26)
then the coeffcients s
,
foi symbol s
can be iecoveied in the ieceivei by evaluating the obseivation signals

(5.27)
Cleaily, if r
() s
(), then :
,
s
,
foi eveiy ,, and the tiansmitted symbol can be identifed.
In eveiy physical implementation of a digital communications system, the ieceived signal is coiiupted by
noise and the obseivation signal becomes a iandom piocess. The decision iule is veiy simple: decide in favoi
of the symbol to which the obseivation signal is closest.
Unlike peiiodic wavefoims, chaotic basis functions aie n|eren|y noneroJt and aie diffeient in each inteival
of duiation T. Chaotic basis functions have the advantage that each tiansmitted symbol is iepiesented by a
unique analog sample function, and the coiielation between chaotic sample functions is extiemely low. How-
evei, it also pioduces a pioblem associated with estimating long-teim statistics of a chaotic piocess fiom sample
functions of fnite duiation.
This is the so-called esmaon ro||em, discussed next 3]. It aiises in all chaotic digital modulation schemes
wheie the eneigy associated with a tiansmitted symbol is diffeient eveiy time that symbol is tiansmitted.
FIGURE 5.23 Block diagiam of a chaotic communications scheme. The modulatoi and demodulatoi aie labeled MOD
and DEM, iespectively.
FIGURE 5.24 Model of an additive white Gaussian noise channel including the fiequency selectivity of the ieceivei.
g g J
K ,
,
T
if
otheiwise 0
:
K
r g J
, ,
T
1
The Estimation Pioblem
In modulation schemes that use peiiodic basis functions, s
() is peiiodic and the bit duiation T is an integei

multiple of the peiiod of the basis function(s); hence,
T
s
2
()J is constant. By contiast, chaotic signals aie
inheiently nonpeiiodic, so
T
s
2
()J vaiies fiom one sample function of length T to the next.
This effect is illustiated in Fig. 5.25(a), which shows a histogiam of the obseivation signal in a noise-fiee
binaiy chaotic digital modulation scheme wheie s
1
() g() and s
2
() -g(). The obseivation signal is given by
(5.28)
Because the basis function g() is no eroJt, the value
T
g
2
()J vaiies fiom one symbol peiiod of length
T to the next. Consequently, the samples of the obseivation signal :
coiiesponding to symbols 0" and 1" aie

clusteied w| non-:ero arante about -180 and -180, iespectively. Thus, the nonpeiiodic natuie of the chaotic
signal itself pioduces an effect that is indistinguishable at the ieceivei fiom the effect of additive channel noise.
By incieasing the bit duiation T, the vaiiance of estimation can be ieduced, but it also imposes a constiaint on
the maximum symbol iate. The estimation pioblem can be solved completely by keeping the eneigy pei symbol
constant. In this case, the vaiiance of the samples of the obseivation signal is zeio, as shown in Fig. 5.25(b).
Chautic Digita! Mudu!atiun Schemes
Chaus Shilt Keying CSK
In Chaos Shift Keying (CSK), each symbol is iepiesented by a weighted sum of chaotic basis functions g
,
(). A
binaiy CSK tiansmittei is shown in Fig. 5.26. The sample function s
() is g
1
() oi g
2
(), depending on whethei
symbol 1" oi 0" is to be tiansmitted.
The iequiied chaotic basis functions can be geneiated by diffeient chaotic ciicuits (as shown in Fig. 5.26)
oi they can be pioduced by a single chaotic geneiatoi whose output is multiplied by two diffeient constants.
In both cases, the binaiy infoimation to be tiansmitted is mapped to the bit eneigies of chaotic sample functions.
In chaotic digital communications systems, as in conventional communications schemes, the tiansmitted
symbols can be iecoveied using eithei coheient oi noncoheient demodulation techniques.
Coheient Demodulation of CSK
Coheient demodulation is accomplished by iepioducing copies of the basis functions in the ieceivei, typically
by means of a synchionization scheme 4]. When synchionization is exploited, the synchionization scheme
must be able to iecovei the basis function(s) fiom the coiiupted ieceived signal.
FIGURE 5.25 Histogiams of the obseivation signal :
foi (a) non-constant and (b) constant eneigy pei symbol.

:
g J
g J
T
T
2
2
when symbol is 1
when symbol is 0
" "
" "
If a single sinusoidal basis function is used, then a narrow-|anJ phase-locked loop (PLL) can be used to
iecovei it 1]. Noise coiiupting the tiansmitted signal is suppiessed because of the low-pass piopeity of the
PLL. When an inheiently wideband chaotic basis function is used, the synchionized ciicuit must also be
wJe|anJ in natuie. Typically, both the amplitude" and phase" of the chaotic basis function must be iecoveied
fiom the ieceived signal. Because of the wideband piopeity of the chaotic basis function, naiiow-band lineai
flteiing cannot be used to suppiess the additive channel noise.
Figuie 5.27 shows a coheient (synchionization-based) ieceivei using binaiy CSK modulation with two basis
functions g
1
() and g
2
(). Synchionization ciicuits at the ieceivei attempt to iepioduce the basis functions, given
the ieceived noisy sample function r
() s
() - n().
An acquisition time T
S
is allowed foi the synchionization ciicuits to lock to the incoming signal. The iecoveied
basis functions
`
g
1
() and
`
g
2
() aie then coiielated with r
() foi the iemaindei of the bit duiation T. A decision

is made on the basis of the ielative closeness of r
() to
`
g
1
() and
`
g
2
(), as quantifed by the obseivation vaiiables
:
1
and :
2
, iespectively.
Studies of chaotic synchronization, wheie signifcant noise and flteiing have been intioduced in the channel,
suggest that the peifoimance of chaotic synchionization schemes is signifcantly woise at low sgna|-o-nose
rao (SNR) than that of the best synchionization schemes foi sinusoids 4-6].
Noncoheient Demodulation of CSK
Synchionization (in the sense of caiiiei iecoveiy) is not a necessaiy iequiiement foi digital communications;
demodulation can also be peifoimed without synchionization. This is tiue foi both peiiodic and chaotic sample
functions.
FIGURE 5.26 Block diagiam of a CSK modulatoi.
FIGURE 5.27 Block diagiam of a coheient CSK ieceivei.
Due to the nonpeiiodic piopeity of chaotic signals, the eneigy of chaotic sample functions vaiies fiom one
sample function to the next, even if the same symbol is tiansmitted. If the mean bit eneigies
T
g
1
2
()J and
T
g
2
2
()J associated with symbols 1" and 0," iespectively, aie suffciently diffeient, then a CSK tiansmission
can be demodulated without synchionization. In this case, the bit eneigy can be estimated by a coiielatoi at
the ieceivei, as shown in Fig. 5.28, without iecoveiing the basis functions. The decision as to which symbol
was tiansmitted is made by compaiing this estimate against a thieshold.
The obseivation signal :
that is used by the decision ciicuit is defned by

(5.29)
wheie
T
denotes integiation ovei one bit peiiod.
Foi a given noise level and chaotic signal, the best noise peifoimance of CSK can be achieved if the distance
between the mean bit eneigies of the two symbols is maximized; this iequiiement can be satisfed by the Chaotic
On-Off Keying technique, desciibed next.
Chautic On-Oll Keying [COOK)
In the Chaotic On-Off Keying (COOK) scheme, the chaotic signal is switched on and off to tiansmit symbols
1" and 0," iespectively, as shown in Fig. 5.29.
If the aveiage bit eneigy is E
|
and both symbols aie equipiobable, then the distance between the elements
of the signal set is 2E
|
. It is well-known fiom the theoiy of communications systems that the gieatei the distance
between the elements of the signal set, the bettei the noise peifoimance of a modulation scheme 1]. The noise
peifoimance of COOK iepiesents the uppei bound foi CSK because the distance between the elements of the
signal set is maximized.
Notice that the obseivation signal is deteimined by the eneigy pei bit of the noisy ieceived signal r
()
s
() - n(). This is why a signifcant diawback of the CSK system - namely that the thieshold value of the
decision ciicuit depends on the noise level - also applies to COOK. This means that using COOK, one can
maximize the distance between the elements of the signal set, but the thieshold level iequiied by the decision
FIGURE 5.28 Block diagiam of a non-coheient CSK ieceivei.
FIGURE 5.29 Block diagiam of COOK modulation scheme with non-coheient demodulation.
: r J

T
2
ciicuit depends on the SNR. The thieshold can be kept constant by applying the Diffeiential Chaos Shift Keying
method.
Dillerentia! Chaus Shilt Keying [DCSK)
In Diffeiential Chaos Shift Keying (DCSK), eveiy symbol to be tiansmitted is iepiesented by two chaotic sample
functions. The fist sample function seives as a re[erente, while the second one caiiies the infoimation. symbol
1" is sent by tiansmitting a iefeience signal piovided by a chaos geneiatoi twice in succession; while foi symbol
0," the iefeience chaotic signal is tiansmitted, followed by an inveited copy of the same integial. Thus,
(5.30)
if symbol 1" is tiansmitted in (
- T) and
(5.31)
if symbol 0" is tiansmitted in (
- T).
Figuies 5.30 and 5.31 show a block diagiam of a DCSK modulatoi and a typical DCSK signal coiiesponding
to the binaiy sequence 1100. In this example, the chaotic signal is pioduced by an analog phase-locked loop
(APLL) and the bit duiation is 20 ms.
Since each bit is mapped to the coiielation between successive segments of the tiansmitted signal of length
T/2, the infoimation signal can be iecoveied by a coiielatoi. A block diagiam of a DCSK demodulatoi is shown
in Fig. 5.32.
The ieceived noisy signal is delayed by half of the bit duiation (T/2), and the coiielation between the ieceived
signal and the delayed copy of itself is deteimined. The decision is made by a level compaiatoi 7].
In contiast to the CSK and COOK schemes discussed above, DCSK is an antipodal modulation scheme. In
addition to supeiioi noise peifoimance, the decision thieshold is zeio independently of the SNR 7].
A fuithei advantage iesults fiom the fact that the iefeience- and infoimation-beaiing sample functions pass
thiough the same channel, theieby iendeiing the modulation scheme insensitive to channel distoition. DCSK
can also opeiate ovei a time-vaiying channel if the paiameteis of the channel iemain constant foi half the bit
duiation T.
The piincipal diawback of DCSK aiises fiom the fact that the coiielation is peifoimed ovei half the bit
duiation. Compaied to conventional techniques wheie the elements of the signal set aie available at the ieceivei,
DCSK has half of the data iate, and only half the bit eneigy contiibutes to its noise peifoimance 4,6].
In the CSK, COOK, and DCSK modulation schemes, the infoimation signal to be tiansmitted is mapped
to chaotic sample functions of fnite length. The piopeity iequiied by the decision ciicuit at the ieceivei to
FIGURE 5.30 Block diagiam of a DCSK modulatoi.
s
x T
x T T T

,
,
2
2 2
s
x T
x T T T

,
,
2
2 2
peifoim the demodulation can only be esmaeJ because of the nonpeiiodic natuie of chaotic signals. The
estimation has a non-zeio vaiiance even in the noise-fiee case; this puts a lowei bound on the bit duiation and
theieby limits the data iate.
One way to impiove the data iate is to use a multilevel modulation scheme such as those desciibed in 8].
Alteinatively, one can solve the estimation pioblem diiectly by modifying the modulation scheme such that
the tiansmitted eneigy foi each symbol is kept constant. FM-DCSK is an example of the lattei appioach.
FM-DCSK
The powei of a frequency-modulated (FM) signal is independent of the modulation. Theiefoie, if a chaotic
signal is applied to the input of an FM modulatoi, and the output of the FM modulatoi is applied to the input
of a DCSK modulatoi, then the iesulting output of the DCSK modulatoi has constant eneigy pei symbol. If
this signal is applied diiectly to a DCSK coiielation ieceivei, then the obseivation signal in the ieceivei has
zeio vaiiance in the noise-fiee case and the estimation pioblem is solved.
As in the DCSK technique, eveiy infoimation bit is tiansmitted in two pieces: the fist sample function seives
as a iefeience, while the second one caiiies the infoimation. The opeiation of the modulatoi shown in Fig. 5.33
is similai to DCSK, the diffeience being that the FM signal, iathei than the chaotic signal itself, is applied to
the input of the DCSK modulatoi. In this example, the chaotic signal is geneiated by an appiopiiately designed
analog phase-locked loop (APLL).
The demodulatoi of an FM-DCSK system is a DCSK ieceivei. The only diffeience is that, instead of low-
fiequency chaotic signals, the noisy FM signals aie coiielated diiectly in the ieceivei, as shown in Fig. 5.34.
The noise peifoimance of the FM-DCSK system is an attainable uppei bound to that of DCSK. The main
advantage of FM-DCSK modulation ovei CSK, COOK, and DCSK is that the data iate is not limited by the
piopeities of the chaotic signal.
FIGURE 5.31 DCSK signal coiiesponding to binaiy sequence 1100.
FIGURE 5.32 Block diagiam of a DCSK ieceivei.
Perlurmance Eva!uatiun
The noise peifoimance of a digital modulation scheme is chaiacteiized by plotting the | error rae (BER) as
a function of the iatio of the eneigy pei bit to the noise spectial density. (
E
|/
N
0
). The simulated noise peifoi-
mance of noncoheient CSK, COOK, and DCSK/FM-DCSK is summaiized giaphically in Fig. 5.35.
FIGURE 5.33 Block diagiam of an FM-DCSK modulatoi.
FIGURE 5.34 Block diagiam of an FM-DCSK demodulatoi.
FIGURE 5.35 Noise peifoimance of the CSK, COOK, and DCSK/FM-DCSK techniques. Non-coheient FSK is shown foi
compaiison.
The uppei bound on the data iate of DCSK can be incieased by using multilevel modulation schemes oi by
keeping the tiansmitted eneigy constant foi each symbol. The FM-DCSK technique, which is an antipodal
modulation scheme with constant bit eneigy, iepiesents an optimal solution in the sense that its noise peifoi-
mance is equal to that of DCSK but the data iate is not limited by the piopeities of the undeilying chaotic signal.
Luv-Pass Equiva!ent Mude!s lur Chautic Cummunicatiuns Systems
The pievious sections have desciibed chaotic digital modulation schemes. The output of these modulations is
geneially a low-pass signal. Many telecommunications channels, such as a iadio channel, can tiansmit only
bandpass signals, so a second modulation scheme must be used to pioduce an RF output in these cases. An
exception is the FM-DCSK modulation scheme, wheie the output of the FM modulatoi is alieady a bandpass
RF signal and the DCSK modulation is applied diiectly to this signal.
The peifoimance evaluation of communications systems can be done analytically only in the simplest cases;
usually, computei simulation is iequiied. Howevei, if computei simulations of RF communications systems
aie peifoimed diiectly in the RF domain, then the sampling fiequency foi the simulation depends on both the
caiiiei fiequency and the bandwidth of the tiansmitted signal. The high caiiiei fiequency iesults in a high
sampling fiequency and consequently a long simulation time. On the othei hand, the paiameteis of a bandpass
system do not depend on the actual value of the caiiiei fiequency.
It is well-known that a low-pass equivalent model can be developed foi eveiy bandpass system 1]. As a
iesult, the caiiiei fiequency can be iemoved fiom the model of an RF communications system and the sampling
fiequency is then deteimined solely by the bandwidth of the RF signal. This ieduces signifcantly the compu-
tational effoit iequiied to chaiacteiize the peifoimance of a chaotic communications system. This section
illustiates the development of a low-pass equivalent model foi the RF FM-DCSK system. Foi fuithei details
and models of othei chaotic communications systems, see 9].
Theuretica! Backgruund
Repiesentation of Bandpass Signals
A signal x() is iefeiied to as a bandpass signal if its eneigy is nonnegligible only in a fiequency band of total
extent 2BV centeied about a caiiiei fiequency [
t
. Eveiy bandpass signal can be expiessed in teims of a slowly
vaiying signal x() and a complex exponential
(5.32)
wheie x() is called the complex envelope, and
t
2 [
t
. In geneial, x() is a complex-valued quantity; it can
be expiessed in teims of its n-|ase and quaJraure components, x
I
() and x
Q
(), as follows:
(5.33)
Both x
I
() and x
Q
() aie low-pass signals limited to the fiequency band -BV [ BV.
The complex envelope x() caiiies all of the infoimation, except the caiiiei fiequency, of the oiiginal bandpass
signal x(). This means that if the complex envelope of a signal is given, then that signal is completely chaiacteiized.
Knowing the caiiiei fiequency, in addition, means that the oiiginal bandpass signal can be ieconstiucted.
The in-phase and quadiatuie components of the complex envelope can be geneiated fiom the bandpass
signal x() using the scheme shown in Fig. 5.36, wheie the ideal low-pass flteis have bandwidth BV.
The oiiginal bandpass signal x() can be ieconstiucted fiom the in-phase and quadiatuie components of x()
as shown in Fig. 5.37.
Repiesentation of Bandpass Systems
Let the bandpass input signal x() be applied to a lineai time-invaiiant bandpass system with impulse iesponse
|(), and let the bandwidth of the bandpass system be equal to 2B and centeied about the caiiiei fiequency [
t
.
Then, by analogy with the iepiesentation of bandpass signals, the impulse iesponse of the bandpass system can
also be expiessed in teims of a slowly vaiying complex impulse iesponse

|() and a complex exponential:
x x e
,
t
Re
x x , x
I Q
(5.34)
In geneial, the complex impulse iesponse is a complex-valued quantity that can be expiessed in teims of its
in-phase and quadiatuie components
(5.35)
wheie

|(), |
I
(), and |
Q
() aie all low-pass functions limited to the fiequency band -B [ B.
Repiesentation of Bandpass Gaussian Noise
If the channel noise n() is a bandpass Gaussian iandom piocess and its spectium is symmetiic about the
caiiiei fiequency [
t
, then n() can also be iepiesented by its complex envelope
(5.36)
Luv-Pass Equiva!ent ul FM-DCSK System
The block diagiam of a geneial chaotic communications system is given in Fig. 5.23. As shown in Fig. 5.34,
the demodulatoi of an FM-DCSK system is a coiielatoi, and the obseivation signal :
is the coiielatoi output

sampled at the decision time instants. To deiive the low-pass equivalent model of a chaotic communications
scheme, the ielationship between the analog input and output signals must be found; that is, the coiielatoi
output :() must be deteimined foi a given analog input signal.
The block diagiam of the RF FM-DCSK system to be tiansfoimed is shown in Fig. 5.38, wheie |() denotes
the impulse iesponse of channel fltei, n() is the channel noise, and w() is the input to the channel fltei.
FIGURE 5.36 Geneiation of the in-phase and quad-
iatuie components of a bandpass signal.
FIGURE 5.37 Reconstiuction of the oiiginal bandpass
signal fiom its in-phase and quadiatuie components.
FIGURE 5.38 Block diagiam of an RF FM-DCSK system.
| | e
,
t
Re

| | ,|
I Q
n n ,n
I Q
Applying the theoiems of the analytic signal appioach 1], assuming a zeio-phase channel fltei and that
half of the bit duiation is equal to an entiie multiple of the RF caiiiei peiiod, the low-pass equivalent model
of the RF FM-DCSK system can be developed as shown in Fig. 5.39 (foi fuithei details, see 9]).
Note that all RF signals and the caiiiei fiequency have been iemoved fiom Fig. 5.39. Consequently, the
sampling fiequency iequiied foi computei simulations is deteimined exclusively by the slowly-vaiying low-
pass signals. All noise peifoimance cuives shown in this chaptei section have been deteimined using low-pass
equivalent models deiived in this way.
Mu!tipath Perlurmance ul FM-DCSK
In many applications, such as mobile communications oi indooi iadio, the tiansmitted signal aiiives at the
ieceivei via multiple piopagation paths with diffeient delays, thus giving iise to multipath piopagation. The
components aiiiving via diffeient piopagation paths may add destiuctively, iesulting in deep fiequency-selective
fading. Conventional naiiow-band systems completely fail to opeiate if a mu|a|-re|aeJ nu|| (defned below)
iesulting fiom deep fiequency-selective fading coincides with the caiiiei fiequency. Because of the inheiently
bioad-band natuie of chaotic signals, chaotic modulation schemes have potentially bettei peifoimance in
multipath enviionments than naiiow-band ones. In this section, the peifoimance degiadation of the FM-DCSK
scheme iesulting fiom multipath piopagation is deteimined by computei simulation.
FIGURE 5.39 Low-pass equivalent model of the RF FM-DCSK chaotic communications system shown in Fig. 5.38.
Mu!tipath Mude!
A time-invaiiant multipath iadio channel having two piopagation paths can be modeled as shown in Fig. 5.40.
In the woist case, the two ieceived signals cancel each othei completely at the caiiiei fiequency
t
; that is,
t
(2n - 1) , n 0, 1, 2,., and | -1/2, wheie denotes the additional delay of the second path.
Let the multipath channel be chaiacteiized by its fiequency iesponse shown in Fig. 5.41. Note that the
multipath-ielated nulls, wheie the attenuation becomes infnitely laige, appeai at
(5.37)
Let the bandwidth of fading be defned as the fiequency iange ovei which the attenuation of the multipath
channel is gieatei than 10 dB. Then the bandwidth of fading can be expiessed as
(5.38)
FIGURE 5.40 Tapped delay line model of a multipath iadio channel.
FIGURE 5.41 Magnitude of the fiequency iesponse of a multipath channel.
[
n
n
null
2 1
2
0 1 2 , , , ,
[
null
0 1 .
Perlurmance ul FM-DCSK Mudu!atiun Scheme
Figuie 5.41 shows why conventional naiiow-band systems can fail to opeiate ovei a multipath channel. Due
to high attenuation appeaiing about the multipath-ielated nulls, the SNR becomes extiemely low at the input
of the ieceivei. Consequently, the demodulatoi and the caiiiei iecoveiy ciicuit, if used, cannot opeiate.
In a chaotic communications system, the powei of the iadiated signal is spiead ovei a wide fiequency iange.
The appeaiance of a multipath-ielated null means that pait of the tiansmitted powei is lost, but the system
still opeiates. Of couise, the lowei SNR at the demodulatoi input iesults in a woise bit eiioi iate.
The peifoimance degiadation of the FM-DCSK system due to multipath piopagation is shown in Fig. 5.42,
wheie T/25. The solid line shows the noise peifoimance if multipath piopagation is not piesent, while
the system peifoimance foi | -1/2 is given by the dashed cuive. Note that FM-DCSK peifoims extiemely
well ovei a iadio channel suffeiing fiom multipath effects; the peifoimance degiadation even in the woist case
is less than a few dB. Note that conventional naiiow-band systems cannot opeiate ovei this channel.
Dehning Terms
Chaotic synchronization: The piocess by which a dynamical system is synchionized with a chaotic iefeience
signal. In chaotic digital communications, chaotic (iathei than peiiodic) basis functions must be iecov-
eied without distoition fiom the noisy ieceived (iefeience) signal at the ieceivei. Noise coiiupting the
iefeience signal must be suppiessed as much as possible.
Chaotic digital modulation: The mapping of infoimation-souice symbols into chaotic signals, which is
peifoimed to caiiy infoimation thiough the analog tiansmission channel.
Chaos shift keying: A digital modulation scheme in which the souice infoimation is caiiied by the coeffcients
of a weighted sum of chaotic wavefoims.
Chaotic on-off keying: A binaiy digital modulation scheme in which the chaotic caiiiei is switched on oi
off, depending on the binaiy infoimation to be tiansmitted.
Differential chaos shift keying: A digital modulation scheme in which the souice infoimation is caiiied by
the coiielation between segments of a chaotic wavefoim that aie sepaiated in time.
FIGURE 5.42 Noise peifoimance of FM-DCSK with (dashed cuive) and without (solid cuive) multipath effects.
Frequency-modulated differential chaos shift keying: A digital modulation scheme in which the souice
infoimation is caiiied by the coiielation between chaotic fiequency-modulated wavefoims.
Relerences
1. S.S. Haykin. Communtaon Sysems, 3id edition, John Wiley & Sons, New Yoik, 1994.
2. M.P. Kennedy. Bifuication and chaos, in T|e Crtus anJ F|ers HanJ|oo|, W.K. Chen, Editoi, pages
1089-1164. CRC Piess, 1995.
3. G. Kolumban, M.P. Kennedy, and G. Kis. Deteimination of symbol duiation in chaos-based communi-
cations, Prot. NDES'97, pages 217-222, Moscow, Russia, 26-27 June, 1997.
4. G. Kolumban, M.P. Kennedy, and L.O. Chua. The iole of synchionization in digital communications
using chaos. Pait I. Fundamentals of digital communications. IEEE Trans. Crtus anJ Sysems. Par I.
FunJamena| T|eory anJ |taons, 44(10):927-936, 1997.
5. G. Kolumban, H. Dedieu, J. Schweizei, J. Ennitis, and B. Vizvaii. Peifoimance evaluation and compaiison
of chaos communication systems, in Prot. NDES'96 pages 105-110, Sevilla, 27-28 June, 1996.
6. G. Kolumban, M.P. Kennedy, and L.O. Chua. The iole of synchionization in digital communications
using chaos. Pait II. Chaotic modulation and chaotic synchionization, IEEE Trans. Crtus anJ Sysems.
Par I. FunJamena| T|eory anJ |taons, 45(11):1129-1140, 1998.
7. G. Kolumban, B. Vizvaii, W. Schwaiz, and A. Abel. Diffeiential chaos shift keying: A iobust coding foi
chaotic communications, Prot. NDES'96, pages 87-92, Sevilla, 27-28 June, 1996.
8. G. Kolumban, M.P. Kennedy, and G. Kis. Multilevel diffeiential chaos shift keying, Prot. NDES'97, pages
191-196, Moscow, Russia, 26-27 June, 1997.
9. G. Kolumban. Peifoimance evaluation of chaotic communications systems: deteimination of low-pass
equivalent model, Prot. NDES'98, pages 41-51, Budapest, Hungaiy, 17-18 July, 1998.
10. R.C. Dixon. SreaJ Setrum Communtaon Sysems w| Commerta| |taons, 3id edition, Wiley,
New Yoik, 1994.
11. L.M. Pecoia and T.L. Caiioll. Synchionization in chaotic systems, P|ys. Re. Le., 64(8):821-824, 1990.
12. M. Haslei. Engineeiing chaos foi enciyption and bioadband communication, P||. Trans. R. Sot. LonJ.,
353(1701):115-126, 1995.
13. G. Kolumban, G. Kis, Z. Jak, and M.P. Kennedy. FM-DCSK: a iobust modulation scheme foi chaotic
communications, IEICE Transatons, E81-A(9): 1798-1802, Septembei 1998.
14. G. Heidaii-Bateni and C.D. McGillem. A chaotic diiect sequence spiead spectium communication system,
IEEE Trans. Commun., COM-42(2/3/4):1524-1527, 1994.
15. N.F. Rulkov, M.M. Sushchik, L.S. Tsimiing, and H.D. Abaibanel. Geneialized synchionization of chaos
in diiectionally coupled chaotic systems, P|ys. Re. E., 51(2):980-994, 1995.
16. S. Hayes, C. Giebogi, and E. Ott. Communicating with chaos, P|ys. Re. Le., 70(20):3031-3034, 1993.
Further Inlurmatiun
An intioduction to chaos foi electiical engineeis can be found in 2].
Digital modulation theoiy and low-pass equivalent ciicuits of bandpass communications systems aie
desciibed at an intioductoiy level in 1]. The theoiy of spiead spectium communications can be found in 10].
The feld of communicating with chaos has developed iapidly since the expeiiments by Pecoia, Caiioll, and
otheis in the 1990s on chaotic synchionization 11]. Haslei 12] has wiitten an oveiview of eaily woik in this
feld.
The iole of synchionization in chaotic digital modulation is exploied in 4,6]. These papeis also desciibe
the state of the ait in noncoheient ieceiveis foi chaotic digital communications. FM-DCSK is developed in 13].
Advances in the theoiy and piactice of chaotic communications in electiical engineeiing aie iepoited in
E|etronts Leers, the IEEE Transatons on Crtus anJ Sysems, and the IEEE Transatons on Communtaons.
This section has focused exclusively on chaotic modulation techniques. Othei applications of chaotic signals
and synchionization schemes have been pioposed but they aie less close to piactice: disciete-time chaotic
sequences foi spiead spectium systems weie intioduced in 14]; synchionization techniques foi chaotic systems,
such as 15] and methods foi tiansmitting oi hiding infoimation (e.g., 16]), aie fiequently iepoited in physics
jouinals such as P|ysta| Reew Leers and the P|ysta| Reew E.

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Hudgins, J.L., Bogart, Jr., T.F., Mayaram, K., Kennedy, M.P., Kolumbn, G.

iequiied to foiwaid bias them. (Ideal diodes aie

that is necessaiy to make V

that is necessaiy to foiwaid bias the diode. Assuming

ieaches the voltage necessaiy

2000 by CRC Press LLC

() that is piesent at the input to the demodulatoi diffeis

can be iecoveied in the ieceivei by evaluating the obseivation signals

() is peiiodic and the bit duiation T is an integei

coiiesponding to symbols 0" and 1" aie

foi (a) non-constant and (b) constant eneigy pei symbol.

() foi the iemaindei of the bit duiation T. A decision

that is used by the decision ciicuit is defned by

is the coiielatoi output

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