CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION 1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT Solar based agricultural water pumping is an efficient method that drastically reduces the power supply cost of normal method. In this proposed method, the total cost of the apparatus is reduced as only renewable source is used as the source of energy. 1.2 WORK SUMMARY A photovoltaic energy conversion system for converting solar power into useable DC at 5V to 15V has been proposed and implemented which can be used for charging batteries of low power devices like mobile phones. The energy obtained from the photovoltaic module is unregulated. But for charging Lithium ion batteries, we require approximately 11.5V steady DC supply. Therefore the 18V unregulated DC obtained from the PV module is stepped down up to 12V by DC-DC boost converter. For efficient usage of photovoltaic energy conversion system, it is essential to design a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) system. The concept of MPPT is to automatically vary a PV array's operating point so as to get maximum power. This is necessary because the PV cell has a very low conversion efficiency and it is necessary to reduce the cost of the overall system. The power delivered by array increases to maximum as the current drawn rises and after a particular value, the voltage falls suddenly making the power drop to zero. This frequent rise and drop reduces the efficiency drastically, to avoid this the algorithm keeps tracking the maximum power point in the photo voltaic arrays
1

there by keeping the output almost at a constant value given that the illumination of the sun stays within a particular range. The efficiency is also is maintained at its perfect level.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY 2.1 EXISTING METHOD There is a different commercial pump setup that is in existence powered up by solar radiation. It has a disadvantage that it does not use the maximum power point tracking algorithm. It also uses more number of power semiconductor control circuits. It probably leads to the decrease in the efficiency of the pump. The existing setup uses an alternating current motor which needs an additional power semiconductor control setup, an inverter, in addition to the existing power semiconductor control setup, a converter. This is because the energy obtained from photovoltaic cells is direct current energy. 2.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY In recent years, there is a substantial increase of energy consumption in India. This fast rate of energy consumption is influenced by the population growth and economic development in India. In the last four decades the commercial energy consumption in India has grown by about 7 times. This has led to the per capita consumption in India to be in region of 400 KWH per annum. Driven by the rise in population, ever expanding economy and an ultimate quest for improved quality of life, energy usage in India is expected to grow in an exponential rate. Compared to the other developing countries the per capita energy consumption in India is still very low even though there is an overall increase in energy demand every year. Today, India is one of the potential competitors for the effective usage of renewable energy. India is the worlds largest producer of wind power after Denmark, Germany, Spain and the USA. India has a significant
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potential for generation of power from renewable energy sources - Small hydro power, wind energy, bio-mass and solar energy. 2.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY SCENARIO IN INDIA Renewable Energy in India is a sector that is still undeveloped. India was probably the first country in the world to set up a separate ministry of nonconventional energy resources in early 1980s. However the results have been very mixed and in recent years it has lagged far behind other developed nations in using renewable energy (RE). RE contribution to energy sector is less than 1% of India's total energy needs. India is one of the largest and fastest growing economies in the world with an expansive populace of above 1.1 billion people. There is a very high demand for energy, which is currently satisfied mainly by coal, foreign oil and petroleum, which apart from being a non-renewable, and therefore non-permanent solution to the energy crisis, it is also detrimental to the environment. The price of crude oil has risen sharply over the last few years, and there are no signs of a change in this trend. Thus, it is imperative that India obtains energy security without affecting the booming economy, which would mean that alternative energy sources must be developed. This would mean that the country must switch from the non-renewable energy (crude oil and coal) to renewable energy. The Government of India has already made several provisions, and established many agencies that will help it achieve its goal. According to reports Renewable Energy, excluding large hydro projects already accounts for 9% of the total installed energy capacity, equivalent to 12,610 MW. In combination with

large hydro, the capacity is more than 34%, i.e. 48,643MW, in a total installed capacity of 1,44,980 MW. 2.4 SOLAR ENERGY IN INDIA Solar power, a clean renewable resource with zero emission, has got tremendous potential of energy which can be harnessed using a variety of devices. With recent developments, solar energy systems are easily available for industrial and domestic use with the added advantage of minimum maintenance. Solar energy could be made financially viable with government tax incentives and rebates. An exclusive solar generation system of capacity of 250KWh per month would cost around Rs.5 lakhs, with present pricing and taxes (2010). Most of the developed countries are switching over to solar energy as one of the prime renewable energy source. The current architectural designs make provision for photovoltaic cells and necessary circuitry while making building plans. India is a country near the equator which means that given its geographical location, it is subject to a large amount of solar irradiation throughout the year. India is also, according to area, the seventh largest country in the world. Combining the two points together, it is not difficult to gauge that solar energy in India is a vast and plentiful resource. Much of the country does not have access to electrical grid; one of the first applications of solar power has been for water pumping; to begin replacing India's four to five million diesel powered water pumps, each consuming about 3.5 kilowatts, and off-grid lighting. Some large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 km area of the Thar Desert has been set aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 Giga Watts. About 7.7 lakhs solar lanterns, 5.1 lakhs solar home lighting
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systems, 82,500 solar street lighting systems, 7,247 solar water pumping systems, stand-alone and grid connected solar photovoltaic (SPV) power plants of about 10 MW peak aggregate capacity, about 3.12 million square meter solar water heater collector area and 6.57 lakhs solar cookers have been distributed/installed in the country, as on 30.11.2009, under the solar energy programs. The present cost of electricity generation from solar thermal and solar photovoltaic energy systems is Rs. 13.45 and Rs. 18.44 per unit, respectively as fixed by Central Electricity Regulatory Commission.

CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPMENT OF SPIP 3.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter we get to know the specifications of the components used for the demonstration of the solar powered irrigation. It also gives the functional abilities of the components. The functions of the components are explained from the functional block diagram of the project shown in figure 3.1. The functional setup consists of the following, 1. Solar Panel 2. Boost converter 3. Battery 4. Motor pump 5. PIC microcontroller 6. MPPT

Solar ray

Solar panel

Boost Converter

Battery

Motor

PIC Controller

Pump

Display

Output

Fig: 3.1: Block Diagram

3.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT The use of new efficient photovoltaic solar cells (PVSCs) has emerged as an alternative measure of renewable green power, energy conservation and demandside management. Owing to their high initial cost, PVSCs have not yet been fully an attractive alternative for electricity users who are able to buy cheaper electrical power from the utility grid. However, they can be used extensively for water pumping and air conditioning in remote and isolated areas, where utility power is not available or is too expensive to transport. This method aims to pump water using solar panel (Renewable energy source) only, so that the power supply cost is reduced and reliability is increased.
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3.3 SPECIFICATIONS Specifications of Solar panel, Motor, Pump, Battery, Boost conversion are given below. 3.3.1 Solar Panel Rated Voltage: Rated current: Rated power: 3.3.2 Motor Rated Voltage: 12 V Rated current: Rated Power: 3.3.3 Pump Pressure: Flow: 3.3.4 Battery Rated Voltage: 12V Rated Amp-Hour: 7.2Ah 3.3.5 Controller Frequency: 1A 12 W

3.3.6 Power semiconductor setup

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE HARDWARE COMPONENTS 3.4.1 SOLAR PANEL: It converts the solar energy from the sun into 12V/20W electrical output which can be fed as the input to the battery for the purpose of re-charging. In between the solar panel and battery a charge controller device is used for producing pulsating DC that can be fed as the input to battery. This solar energy is used as the source of energy in the whole apparatus.

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SOLAR PANEL (12V, 20W)

Fig 3.2: Solar energy conversion

This 12V/20W DC output is variable and that cannot be fed as the input to the lead acid battery. If variable DC input is given to the battery, the lifetime and reliability of the battery will be reduced. A new process that simultaneously combines the light and heat of solar radiation to generate electricity could offer more than double the efficiency of existing solar cell technology. The process, called Photon enhanced thermionic emission, or PETE, could reduce the costs of solar energy production enough for it to compare with oil as an energy source. In concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater, sometimes hundreds of time greater, than the absorber area.

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3.4.2 BOOST CONVERTER A boost converter, used as the voltage increase mechanism in the circuit, is known as the 'Joule thief'. This circuit topology is used with low power battery applications, and is aimed at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would otherwise be wasted since the low voltage of a nearly depleted battery makes it unusable for a normal load. The energy would remain untapped because many applications do not allow enough current to flow through a load when voltage decreases. This voltage decrease occurs as batteries become depleted, and is a characteristic of the ubiquitous alkaline battery. Since ( ) as well, and R tends to be stable, power available to the load goes down significantly as voltage decreases. Here MOSFET IRF540 is used in the boost converter circuit for amplifying the energy. 3.4.3 BATTERY Battery is charged from the solar panel through the charge controller. Pulsating DC input is fed as the input to the battery. A lead-acid battery is an electrical storage device that uses a reversible chemical reaction to store energy. It uses a combination of lead plates or grids and an electrolyte consisting of a diluted sulphuric acid to convert electrical energy into potential chemical energy and back again. BLDC Motor shaft is connected to the pump. The pump has two inputs, one DC input from the lead-acid battery consists of a negative electrode made of spongy or porous lead. The lead is porous to facilitate the information and dissolution of lead. The positive electrode consists of lead oxide. Both electrodes are immersed in a electrolytic solution of sulfuric acid and water. In case the electrodes come
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into contact with each other through physical movement of the battery or through changes in thickness of the electrodes, an electrically insulating, but chemically permeable membrane separates the two electrodes. This membrane also prevents electrical shorting through the electrolyte. 3.4.4 MOTOR PUMP The brushless DC motor is connected to the battery. Output from the battery is given as input to the Brushless DC motor. The motor is connected to a centrifugal pump. The pump helps to pump out the water for irrigation.

Fig 3.3: Pump The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from where it exits. The transfer of energy from the mechanical rotation of the impeller to the motion and pressure of the fluid is usually described in terms of centrifugal force.
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3.4.5 PIC MICROCONTROLLER The PIC microcontroller is the controlling device for this project setup. The reason for choosing PIC16F877A is because of its special features which we got to know in the previous chapter. The solar panel absorbs the radiation and gives it to the boost converter which boosts up the energy and provides it to the battery. The battery runs the motor pump. This work is overlooked and controlled by the PIC microcontroller. It gives the current boosting limit to the boost converter, for boosting the energy as per the necessities. It calculates the pulse signal based on the current and voltage sensed on the output end. The pulse signal is the duty cycle signal to the MOSFET present in the boost converter. The PIC microcontroller also carries out the maximum power point tracking on the solar panel based on the embedded algorithm in it. The algorithm program is embedded on it from an external source. The below given figure gives the complete architectural and functional design of PIC microcontroller. The next section deals abt architrcture and func .

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3.4.5.1 Architecture

Fig 3.4: PIC 16F877A architecture

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3.4.6 Maximum power point tracking(MPPT) Operating point of PVA Photovoltaic modules have a very low conversion efficiency of around 15% for the manufactured ones. Besides, due to the temperature, radiation and load variations, this efficiency can be highly reduced. In fact, the efficiency of any semiconductor device drops steeply with the temperature. In order to ensure that the photovoltaic modules always act supplying the maximum power as possible and dictated by ambient operating conditions, a specific circuit known as Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) is employed. In most common applications, the MPPT is a DC-DC converter controlled through a strategy that allows imposing the photovoltaic module operation point on the Maximum Power Point (MPP) or close to it. 3.4.6.1 I-V curve Photovoltaic cells have a complex relationship between their operating environment and the maximum power they can produce. The fill factor, abbreviated FF, is a parameter which characterizes the non-linear electrical behavior of the solar cell. Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Open Circuit Voltage Voc and Short-Circuit Current Isc. In tabulated data it is often used to estimate the maximum power that a cell can provide with an optimal load under given conditions, P=FF*Voc*Isc. For most purposes, FF, Voc, and Isc are enough information to give a useful approximate model of the electrical behavior of a photovoltaic cell under typical conditions.

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Fig 3.5: I-V characteristics of MPPT 3.4.6.2 Perturb and observe In one method, the controller adjusts the voltage by a small amount from the array and measures power; if the power increases, further adjustments in that direction are tried until power no longer increases. This is called the perturb and observe method and is most common, although this method can result in oscillations of power output. It is referred to as a hill climbing method, because it
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depends on the rise of the curve of power against voltage below the maximum power point, and the fall above that point. Perturb and observe is the most commonly used MPPT method due to its ease of implementation. Perturb and observe method may result in top-level efficiency, provided that a proper predictive and adaptive hill climbing strategy is adopted. This PO strategy MPPT is mixed along with the Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) and used here in this project setup. This combining will eliminate the small flaws in PO method there by giving the best result in maximum power point tracking.

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3.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM The overall circuit diagram of the solar powered irrigation pump setup is given.

Fig 3.6: Circuit diagram

3.6 PCB DESIGN The Printed Circuit Board designed specifically for the controller and the converter setup of the SPIP setup is below.

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3.6.1 Front side

Fig 3.7: PCB front side design 3.6.2 Back side

Fig 3.8: PCB back side design

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CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION 4.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, description and specifications of the hardware components used in this proposed method of solar based water irrigation are discussed. It gives the specifications of the components used for the demonstration setup created and also gives the overview of the functional abilities of the components.

4.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL PANEL A Solar photovoltaic panel is a packaged and connected assembly of photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each panel is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a panel determines the area of a panel given the same rated output an 8% efficient 230 watt panel will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt panel. Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power, most installations contain multiple panels. 4.2.1 Four types of PV cells Selective Emitter Cell (SEC) Emitter wrap- through cells (EWC) Thin Film Photovoltaic Single Crystal Silicon Cells

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4.2.2 Single-Crystal Silicon Cell Construction The majority of PV cells in use are the single-crystal silicon type. Silica (SiO2) is the compound used to make the cells. It is first refined and purified, then melted down and re-solidified so that it can be arranged in perfect wafers for electric conduction. These wafers are very thin. The wafers then have either Phosphorous or Boron added to make each wafer either a negative type layer or a positive type layer respectively. Used together these two types treated of crystalline silicon form the p-n junction which is the heart of the solar electrical reaction. Many of these types of cells are joined together to make arrays, the size of each array is dependent upon the amount of sunlight in a given area. 4.2.3 The Photoelectric Effect The photoelectric effect relies on the principle that whenever light strikes the surface of certain metals electrons are released. In the p-n junction the n-type wafer treated with phosphorus has extra electrons which flow into the holes in the p-type layer that has been treated with boron. Connected by an external circuit electrons flow from the n-side to create electricity and end up in the p-side. Sunlight is the catalyst of the reaction. The output current of this reaction is DC (direct) and the amount of energy produced is directly proportional to the amount of sunlight put in. Cells only have an average efficiency of 30%

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Fig 4.1 photovoltaic array characteristics

4.2.4 Pros and Cons of Solar Electricity Expensive to produce because of the high cost of semi- conducting materials, which could be avoided by reducing manufacturing costs. The PV Manufacturing Research and Development Project focuses on increasing manufacturing capacity so that the cost of manufacturing will decrease. They aim to achieve break even costs. However, solar energy contributes positively to the nations energy security because it is produced domestically, reducing reliance on energy imports. The industry is still relatively new and extremely hi tech allowing for the creation of more jobs in the American market. The government has many incentives program which vary from state to state, but they exist to encourage investment in forms of alternative energy. Does not require the transportation of hazardous materials across country. Sunlight is a free abundant source PV can be designed for a variety of applications No noise or air pollution
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Fig 4.2 solar panel

Require minimal maintenance and have long service life times. Power can be either centralized in individual homes or distributed by electrical companies.

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural member of a module can either be the top layer or the black layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture.

Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the panels may contain silver, copper or other nonmagnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to rest of the system. Externally popular agricultural usage
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photovoltaic panels use connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

4.3BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR The motor used in the project is Brushless DC motor. Brushless DC Electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electrically commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors which are powered by a DC electric source via an integrated inverter/switching power supply, which produces an AC electric signal to drive the motor (Alternating current, does not imply a sinusoidal waveform but rather a bi-directional current with no restriction on waveform). Additional sensors and electronics control the inverter output amplitude and waveform (and therefore percent of DC bus usage/efficiency) and frequency.

Fig 4.3 motor The motor part of a brushless motor is often a Brushless DC motor, but can also be a switched reluctance motor, or induction motor. Brushless motors may be described as stepper motors.
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4.3.1 Principle of brushless dc motor The brushless DC motor is the combination of a permanent excited synchronous motor and a frequency inverter. The inverter has to replace the commutator of a conventional DC motor. A brushless DC motor can be derived from a mechanically commutated DC motor with three armature slots. Its armature winding corresponds to a three phase winding in delta connection. The commutator acts like a three phase frequency converter.

The commutation of a brushless DC motor depends on the position of the rotor. The angle between the magneto-motive forces of stator and rotor is fixed to 90 degree, so the motor produces maximum torque and needs low reactive current that is useful to advance commutation by few degrees to compensate the effects of the stray inductance and minimize reactive current. Brushless motors may be described as stepper motors. However, the term steppers motor tends to be used for motors that are designed specifically to be operated in a mode where they frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular position.

Brushless DC motor may be described as stepper motors. They develop a maximum torque when stationary, linearly decreasing as velocity increases. Some limitations of brushed motors can be overcome by brushless motors as they include higher efficiency and a lower susceptibility of the commutator assembly to mechanical wear. These benefits come at the cost of potentially less rugged, more complex, and more expensive control electronics. A typical brushless motor has permanent magnets which rotate and a fixed armature, eliminating problems associated with connecting current to the moving
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armature. An electronic controller replaces the brush and commutator assembly of the brushed DC motor turning. The controller performs similar timed power distribution by using a solid-state circuit rather than the brush system. The enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the motors performance curve. Under high mechanical loads, brushless motors and high-quality brushed motors are comparable in efficiency. Environments and requirements in which manufacturers use brushless-type DC motors include maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and operation where sparking is either hazardous (i.e., explosive environment) or affects the digital electronic firmware (ex. FPGA).

4.3.2 Advantages Brushless motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including more torque per weight, more torque per watt ( increased efficiency ), increased reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime ( no brush and commutator erosion ), elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator and overall reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With no windings on the rotor, they are not subjected to centrifugal forces, and because the windings are supported by the motor for cooling. This in turn means that the motor internals can be entirely enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign matter. The maximum power that can be applied to a brushless motor is limited almost exclusively by heat; too much of which weakens the magnets, and may damage the windings insulation.

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Fig 4.4 Performance curve

4.4CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 4.4.1 Introduction A fluid, be it hot or cold, has to be moved in a system, pumps are used. In other words, in a more technically appropriate manner, the pump is a machine which has the function of increasing the total (mechanical) energy of a liquid; This means that the pump transfers energy to the fluid that it receives from the driving motor. At this point we can already make an important distinction based on the driving motor: When we speak of an electric pump then the mechanical energy necessary for the pump to turn is provided by an electric motor. When we speak of a motor pump then this mechanical energy is provided by a heat engine (combustion engine, diesel engine, etc.).
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Considering the definition, we may proceed with our description of the pump, starting with the fundamental factors that describe its operation. They are, Flow rate Head Power Efficiency Speed Net Positive Suction Head (NPHS) 4.4.2 Flow rate The flow rate of the pump is defined as the useful volume of liquid distributed by the pump in the time unit. It is generally indicated with the letter Q and is measured in m3/s, or in m3/h, or in l/min. 4.4.3 Head The (total) head of the pump represents the increase in energy acquired by 1 kg of liquid between the input and the output section of the pump itself; this is generally indicated with the letter H and is measured in J/kg or in metres of carried liquid (m. C.L.). It is much more convenient to speak not of the head else of the manometric head, indicated as Hman and measured in m C.W. (metres of column of water): saying that a certain pump gives a flow rate of 3 m3/h with a manometric head of 12 m C.W. means that pump can lift a quantity of water amounting to 3 m3/h up to a maximum height of 12 m. The applicable equation is: H man [m C.A.] = H[m C.L.] * ?[kg/dm3], where ? = volume of the liquid transported.

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All pumps are provided with a data plate which clearly indicates, among the other data, the flow rate, manometric head and their interconnection. However these two parameters are not fixed, but vary inversely to one another: when one increases, the other decreases and vice versa. If the various points of operation of a pump are plotted on a graph, on which the X-axis represents the flow rate and the Y-axis the manometric head, the so-called characteristic curve Q-Hman of the pump is obtained.

Fig 4.5 Characteristic curve of centrifugal pump The characteristic curve may be "flat" or "steep", depending on how the pump has been designed and on the system in which the pump is to be fitted. As may be seen in figure 4.5, the pumps that have a flat characteristic curve give rise to slight variations in head for strong variations of flow rate, while pumps with a steep characteristic curve give rise to slight variations in flow rate for high variations in head. So pumps of the first type will be preferable when a more or less constant head is desired with a flow rate varying within ample margins (this is the case, for example, of pumps for fire-fighting installations); vice versa, pumps of the second type will be preferable when a more or less constant flow rate is
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desired with a head varying within a relatively wide field (for example in the case of pumping from wells, where constant flow rates are generally desired even in the

presence of high variations in the geodetic difference in level). Fig 4.6 Characteristic curve 4.4.4 Power There is the power supplied by the pump to the liquid, expressed as: Pu[W] = g[m/s2] * [kg/m3] * Q[m3/s] * H[m C.L.], where g[m/s2] is the acceleration of gravity, generally equal to 9,81 m/s2.

Then there is the power Pnom absorbed by the pump, that is, in the case of electric pumps, the power transferred by the electric motor to the pump axle. Then there is the electric power Pabs absorbed by the electric drive motor from the power mains.

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Fig 4.7 Pump power transfer 4.4.5 Efficiency There is the efficiencyp of the pump, defined as the ratio between the power Pu supplied to the fluid and the power Pnom absorbed by the pump (that is the mechanical power transferred by the electric motor) p = Pu / Pnom. Then there is the efficiency mot' of the electric motor, defined as the ratio between the power absorbed by the pump and that absorbed by the motor: mot = Pnom / Pass.

In the case of electric pumps we frequently speak of the efficiency of the unit, defined as the ratio between the power supplied to the fluid and the power absorbed by the motor: gr = Pu / Pass = p* mot. It must be stressed that the efficiency gr of the unit is a very important parameter for an electric pumps: the higher its value the less the cost, in terms of electric energy and in money in the long run, that must be borne to have the electric pump perform a certain job. 4.4.6 Speed
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The rotation speed is the number of revolutions performed by the pump in the time unit; this is generally indicated with the letter n and measured in rpm. All PENTAX electric pumps are fitted with a 2-pole induction motor; considering the average running of the motors and the fact that the electric energy distributed in the mains generally has a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz, this gives roughly n(50 Hz) = 2750 - 2950 rpm and n(60 Hz) = 3300 - 3550 rpm.

4.4.7 NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) This parameter indicates the pump's inability to create an absolute vacuum, that is the inability of all centrifugal pumps to suck at a height equal to or higher than 10.33 m (which generally corresponds to the value of atmospheric pressure at sealevel). From the physical point of view, the NPSH indicates the absolute pressure that must exist at the pump intake to prevent the occurrence of cavitation phenomena. When a pump tries to suck up a certain amount of liquid from a depth greater than that allowed by its characteristics, cavitation occurs: the impeller interrupts the flow of liquid and, as a result, small vapour bubbles are formed; these bubbles implode shortly after being formed, making a loud noise similar to a metallic hammer and causing severe damage to the hydraulic parts of the pump. That is why it is important for every pump manufacturer to indicate clearly, among the characteristics of his machines, the maximum suction depth, or to supply the curve of the NPSH as a function of flow rate. The maximum suction depth Hmax and NPSH are linked by the relationship: Hmax = A - NPSH - Hasp - Hr (m)

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where: A = absolute pressure in m on the free surface of the fluid in the suction tank; if fluid is being sucked from an "open" tank, that is in contact with the atmosphere, A is equal to the atmospheric pressure; Hasp = load loss in the suction pipe in m; Hr = vapour tension of the liquid transported in m. The NPSH is influenced by the flow rate value: it grows as the latter increases; as a result, in order to return the pump to regular operation it is often sufficient to choke the delivery gate valve suitably, thus reducing the flow rate of the pump. As may be seen from the equation above, to increase the maximum suction depth of a certain pump the load losses Hsuc of the suction pipe may be decreased: that is why it is always convenient to fit a pipe with the largest possible internal diameter at suction. 4.5 BATTERY 4.5.1 Introduction Lead Acid batteries have changed little since the 1880's although improvements in materials and manufacturing methods continue to bring improvements in energy density, life and reliability. All lead acid batteries consist of flat lead plates immersed in a pool of electrolyte. Regular water addition is required for most types of lead acid batteries although low-maintenance types come with excess electrolyte calculated to compensate for water loss during a normal lifetime.

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Fig 4.8 parts of the battery 4.5.2 Battery Construction Lead acid batteries used in the RV and Marine Industries usually consist of two 6-volt batteries in series, or a single 12-volt battery. These batteries are constructed of several single cells connected in series each cell produces approximately 2.1 volts. A six-volt battery has three single cells, which when fully charged produce an output voltage of 6.3 volts. A twelve-volt battery has six single cells in series producing a fully charged output voltage of 12.6 volts.

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A battery cell consists of two lead plates a positive plate covered with a paste of lead dioxide and a negative made of sponge lead, with an insulating material (separator) in between. The plates are enclosed in a plastic battery case and then submersed in an electrolyte consisting of water and sulfuric acid. Each cell is capable of storing 2.1 volts. The size of the battery plates and amount of electrolyte determines the amount of charge lead acid batteries can store. The size of this storage capacity is described as the amp hour (AH) rating of a battery. A typical 12-volt battery used in a RV or marine craft has a rating 125 AH, which means it can supply 10 amps of current for 12.5 hours or 20-amps of current for a period of 6.25 hours. Lead acid batteries can be connected in parallel to increase the total AH capacity. 4.5.3 Battery Recharge Cycle The most important thing to understand about recharging lead acid batteries is that a converter/charger with a single fixed output voltage will not properly recharge or maintain your battery. Proper recharging and maintenance requires an intelligent charging system that can vary the charging voltage based on the state of charge and use of your RV or Marine battery. Progressive Dynamics has developed intelligent charging systems that solve battery problems and reduce battery maintenance.

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During the recharging process as electricity flows through the water portion of the electrolyte and water, (H2O) is converted into its original elements, hydrogen and oxygen. These gasses are very flammable and the reason your RV or Marine batteries must be vented outside. Gassing causes water loss and therefore lead acid batteries need to have water added periodically. Sealed lead acid batteries contain most of these gasses allowing them to recombine into the electrolyte. If the battery is overcharged pressure from these gasses will cause relief caps to open and vent, resulting in some water loss. Most sealed batteries have extra electrolyte added during the manufacturing process to compensate for some water loss. The general discharge and recharge cycles chemical reaction can be given as, H2SO3 H+ + HSO3 Pb + HSO3- PbSO3 + H+ + 2e(s) (aq) dis (s) (aq)

PbO2 + 3H+ + HSO3- + 2e- PbSO3 + 2H2O Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO3 2PbSO3 + 2H2O

4.6 PIC MICROCONTROLLER 4.6.1 Microcontroller Core Features: High-performance RISC CPU. Only 35 single word instructions to learn.
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 All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle. Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle. Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory. Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77 Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources) Eight level deep hardware stack Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes. Power-on Reset (POR). Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST). Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation. Programmable code-protection. Power saving SLEEP mode. Selectable oscillator options. Low-power, high-speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology. Fully static design. In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP). Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability. In-Circuit Debugging via two pins.
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 Processor read/write access to program memory. Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V. High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA. Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges.

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4.6.2 Pin diagram of PIC 16F874A/877A

Fig 4.9 Pin diagram if PIC

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4.6.4 CMOS technology Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology. Fully static design. Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V). Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges. Low-power consumption.

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CHAPTER 5
OPERATION OF BOOST CONVERTER AND MPPT 5.1 INTRODUCTION The operation of boost converter and the MPPT in the solar powered irrigation pump setup is given in this chapter. They both form the important aspects of the project. The use of boost converter combined with maximum power point tracking is the advancement introduced in this project.

5.2 BOOST CONVERTER 5.2.1 Operating principle The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist changes in current by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Figure 1. (a) When the switch is closed, current flows through the inductor in clockwise direction and the inductor stores some energy by generating a magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the inductor is positive. (b) When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the impedance is higher. The magnetic field previously created will be destroyed to maintain the current flow towards the load. Thus the polarity will be reversed (means left side of inductor will be negative now). As a result two sources will be in series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through the diode D.

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If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between charging stages, and the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the input source alone when the switch is opened. Also while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load is charged to this combined voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand side is shorted out from the left hand side, the capacitor is therefore able to provide the voltage and energy to the load. During this time, the blocking diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. The switch must of course be opened again fast enough to prevent the capacitor from discharging too much.

Fig. 5.1: Boost converter schematic

The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states in the On-state, the switch S (see figure 5.1) is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor current;in the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is through the fly-back diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in transferring the energy accumulated during the On-state into the
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capacitor.The input current is the same as the inductor current. So it is not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the input filter are relaxed compared to a buck converter. 5.2.2 Continuous mode

Fig. 5.2: Continuous mode, current and voltage When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor ( ) never falls to zero. Figure 5.2 shows the typical waveforms of

currents and voltages in a converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behavior) operating in steady conditions: During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage ( ) appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current ( the inductor during a time period (t) by the formula:
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) flowing through

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch is ON. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on). During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:

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So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle. This means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:

Substituting

and

by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

Which in turn reveals the duty cycle to be:

The above expression shows that the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to infinity as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.

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5.2.3 Discontinuous mode

Fig. 5.3: Discontinuous mode, current and voltage If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be completely discharged before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This commonly occurs under light loads. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see waveforms in figure 5.3). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows: As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value (at ) is

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During the off-period, IL falls to zero after

Using the two previous equations, is:

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the offstate. Therefore the output current can be written as:

Replacing ILmax and by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, the switching frequency, and the output current.
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5.3 MPPT ALGORITHM Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid connected inverters, solar battery chargers and similar devices use to get the maximum possible power from one or more photovoltaic devices, typically solar panels, though optical power transmission systems can benefit from similar technology. Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar irradiation, temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency which can be analyzed based on the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the cells and apply the proper resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions. MPPT devices are typically integrated into an electric power converter system that provides voltage or current conversion, filtering, and regulation for driving various loads, including power grids, batteries, or motors. 5.3.1 MPPT program The following program is embedded into the PIC micro controller for MPPT purpose. The program is created on the basis of the PO method with the fuzzy logic control. It tracks down the point of maximum power on the solar panel and makes the setup to draw power from that point. #include<pic.h> unsigned int j, k, i,RX,set=0,set1=0,count12=35,volt1,c1,c2,c3,c4,g,SET11; unsigned int t1, sec, xyz=1, msg, n=0, b[8]={0},on=0,d,d1,d2,d3,f,f1,f2; ;

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void main() { ADCON1=0X06;

TRISA=0x00; TRISB=0X00; TRISC=0X00; TRISD=0X00; TRISE=0X00; PORTA=0X00; PORTB=0X00; PORTC=0X00; PORTD=0X00; PORTE=0X00;

CCP1IE=0;
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PR2 = 0b01000100 ; T2CON = 0b00000111 ; //CCPR1L = 0b00000000 ; CCP2CON = 0b00101100 ;

TMR1IE=1; TMR1IF=0;

TMR1L=0XEF; TMR1H=0XD8;

T1CON=0X01; PR2 = 0b00011000; T2CON =0b00000101;

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OPTION=0X80; //06 0r 05 TMR0 =69 ; //69 //28 TMR0IE=1; GIE=PEIE=RCIE=1;

//0x81

//delay();

while (1) { count12++; if(count12>=5) { count12=0; ADCON0=0X81;

ADGO=1; while(ADGO); //status check

volt1=((ADRESH*256+ADRESL)*0.0048); //right
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volt=(46*volt1)*2; //230/5*2

ADCON0=0X89; //1000 1001

ADGO=1; while(ADGO); //status check

curr1=((ADRESH*256+ADRESL)*0.0048); //98--200 68--100 curr=(0.6*curr1); //3/5 curr=(curr*10); } a=(int)volt; a1=a/100; a=a%100; a2=a/10; a=a%10; a3=a;

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f=(int)curr; //12,8 b2=f/10; p=((volt*curr)/10); g=(int)p; c4=g/1000; //1234 g=g%1000; c3=g/100; //123 g=g%100; c2=g/10; c1=g%10;

if(p==7) { PR2 = 0b11111001 ; T2CON = 0b00000101 ; CCP1CON = 0b00011100 ; d=4;

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if(p==8) { PR2 = 0b10100110 ; T2CON = 0b00000101 ; CCP1CON = 0b00101100 ; d=5; }

if(p==9) { PR2 = 0b01010010 ; T2CON = 0b00000101 ; CCP1CON = 0b00111100 ; d=7; }

if(p==10)
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{ PR2 = 0b11111001 ; T2CON = 0b00000100 ; //CCPR1L = 0b00000010 ; CCP1CON = 0b00011100 ; d=8; }

f1=f/10; f2=f%10; //if(f==10) { PR2 = 0b00011000 ; T2CON = 0b00000101 ; //CCPR1L = 0b00000000 ; CCP1CON = 0b00001100 ; }

CCPR1L=d;
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CCPR1H=100-d; CCPR2L=d; CCPR2H=100-d;

d1=d/100; d2=(d%100)/10; d3=d%10; } }

void interrupt isr() {

if(TMR1IF==1) {

// t1, sec, xyz, msg, n, b[8]={0}, j

TMR1IF=0; }

if(TMR0IF)
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{ TMR0IF=0; t1=0; }

if(RCIF==1) { RCIF=0; RX=RCREG-0x30; RX=0; } }

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CHAPTER - 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 6.1 OUTCOME From the observations made above, we conclude that the system developed is capable of extracting maximum power from the photovoltaic module at the same time providing a regulated DC supply. The results obtained from experiment are in synchronization with the theoretical results. The ambient temperature of the system is assumed not to change for a reasonably long time (about 5 minutes). But practically, this may not be the case. The insulation may change in two to three minutes. In such cases, we need to derive the reference voltage from the short circuit current of the PV panel. The value obtained can be latched as the reference voltage and MPP can be obtained automatically without any manual intervention. 6.2 LIFE SPAN Most commercially available solar panels are capable of producing electricity for at least twenty years. The typical warranty given by panel manufacturers is over 90% of rated output for the first 10 years, and over 80% for the second 10 years. Panels are expected to function for a period of 30 to 35 years. 6.3 FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS

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In the time since Berman's work, improvements have brought production costs down. As the semiconductor industry moved to ever-larger boules, panel size increased. In 1980s panels used cells with 2 to 4 inch (51 to 100 mm) diameter. Panels in the 1990s and early 2000s generally used 5 inch (125 mm) wafers, and since 2008 almost all new panels use 6 inch (150 mm) cells. The widespread introduction of flat screen televisions in the late 1990s and early 2000s led to the wide availability of large sheets of high-quality glass, used on the front of the panels. In terms of the cells themselves, there has been only one major change. During the 1990s, poly-silicon cells became increasingly popular. These cells offer less efficiency than their mono-silicon counterparts, but they are grown in large vats that greatly reduce the cost of production. By the mid-2000s, poly was dominant in the low-cost panel market, but more recently a variety of factors has pushed the higher performance mono back into widespread use. 6.4 APPLICATION Battery power systems often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However, sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many high voltage applications due to lack of space. Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells. Two battery-powered applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting systems. The NHW20 model Toyota Prius HEV uses a 500 V motor. Without a boost converter, the Prius would need nearly 417 cells to power the motor. However, a Prius actually uses only 168 cells and boosts the battery voltage from 202 V to 500 V. Boost converters also power devices at smaller scale applications, such as
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portable lighting systems. A white LED typically requires 3.3 V to emit light, and a boost converter can step up the voltage from a single 1.5 V alkaline cell to power the lamp. Boost converters can also produce higher voltages to operate cold cathode fluorescent tubes (CCFL) in devices such as LCDbacklights and some flashlights.

6.5 ECONOMIC ASPECTS IN FUTURE

The cost of photovoltaic-powered water pumping systems is decreasing. The cost of photovoltaic modules has fallen 400 percent in the last 30 years and this trend continues. Photovoltaic technology also continues to improve the power conversion efficiency of the photovoltaic cell. Increases in photovoltaic cell efficiency decrease the cost of photovoltaic power, because fewer modules arerequired to produce the same amount of power. While the cost of photovoltaic power is decreasing, the cost of power derived from fossil fuels is increasing.

6.6 FUTURE SCOPE The invention of quantum dot solar cells has led to a great scope in solar power utilization. The quantum dot solar cells are half or one-fourth in size when compared to normal photovoltaic cells and provide up to four times the output power provided by the photovoltaic cells. This eventually reduces the scale of the setup size and also provides sufficient power to run the power semiconductor control circuits present in the setup. Usually the power semiconductor circuit setup tops the power loss list.

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The electrical drive stands next to it. The high output power helps in running one or even more drives in a completely efficient manner. The power loss caused can be compensated by the boost process of the quantum dot cells solar power produced. Another scope is the usage of the CUK converter in the power semiconductor control setup. This setup can carry out both buck process as well as boost process as per the necessities. Depending upon the necessity of the drive being run, the voltage is either bucked or limited to a lower value or boosted up to a higher value. Combining this with the quantum dot solar cells would give a never before efficiency in solar power utilization. It will be a milestone in solar energy production.

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REFERENCE

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[17] Diary R. Sulaiman, Hilmi F. Amin, and Ismail K. Said., Design of High Efficiency DC-DC Converter for Photovoltaic Solar Home applications, Journal of Energy and Power engineering, 2009. [18] Muhammad H. Rashid, Power Electronics Circuits, Devices, And Applications, 3rd edition, University of West Florida, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2003. [19] Ned Mohan, Tore M. Undeland, and Williams P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd ed., John Wiley &Sons: USA, 2003. P.Sathya et al. / International Journal of Engineering and Technology (IJET) ISSN [20] B.M Hasaneen; Elbasse; (2008) Design and Simulation of DC/DC Boost Converters. Power system conference, MEPCON, 12th international middle east, 2008, pp: 335-340. [21] Chao zhang; Dean Zhao; Jinjing Wang; Guichang Chen; A modified MPPT method with variable perturbation step for photovoltaic system. Power electronic and motion control conference, IPEMC 09, IEEE 6th International, 2009, pp: 2096-2099. [22] K. H. Hussein; I. Muta, T. Hoshino; and M. Osakada; Maximum power point tracking: An algorithm for rapidly chancing atmospheric conditions IEE proc.Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 142, pp. 59-64, 1995. [23] Abu Tariq; Jamil Asghar, M.S; Development of microcontroller- based maximum power point tracker for photovoltaic panel, Power electronic conference, IEEE, 2006. [24]SyafrudinMasri; Pui-Wengchan Development of a microcontroller based boost converter for photovoltaic system European journal of scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.41 No.1 (2010), pp.39-47. [25] Tomas Markvart (2001), Solar electricity, john Wiley & sons Baffins lane, Chichester west Sussex PO19IUD, England. p-25. [26] Fang linluo; Hong Ye (2004), Advance DC/DC converters, CRC press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd, Boca Raton, Florida 33431. pp 1,2 and 38.

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[27]Janvarle L. Santos; Fernando Antunes; Amis Chehab; Cicero Cruz A maximum power point tracker for PV using a high performan ce Boost converter Solar energy, 80 (2006) 772-778, 29 august 2005. [28] Mohan Ned; undeland Tore M. and Robbins William P. (1995)Power Electronics; converters and Design John wiley& sons Inc. pp 178 -184. [29] Gopal Nath Tiwari; SwapnilDupbey (2010), Fundamentals of photovoltaic modules and their applications, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 OWF, UK.

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