Sight distance is simply defined as the longest distance a driver can see in front of

him.
Sight distance may also be perceived as the length of carriageway visible to a driver
in both horizontal and vertical planes.
Sight distance is the most important feature in the safe and efficient operation of a
highway.
Obstructions to the drivers view may arise through various objects such as parked
vehicles plants on the inside of curves cut sections buildings etc.
!or safe driving certain minimum sight distances should be prescribed.
Sight distances that are commonly provided at the design stage include"
#. Stopping sight distance
$. %assing sight distance
&. 'ntersection sight distance
(. Sight distance on horizontal curves
). Sight distance on vertical curves
4.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
*he clear distance ahead needed by a driver to bring his vehicle to a stop before
meeting a stationary or slow+moving object on his way is known as the safe stopping
sight distance.
*he calculation of the minimum distance re,uired to stop a vehicle before it hits a
stationary or slow+moving object involves establishing values for speed perception+
reaction time braking distance and eye and object heights.
*he vehicle speed used in safe stopping sight distance calculations is normally the
design speed.
Perception time is the time which elapses between the instant the driver sees the
hazard and the realization that brake action is re,uired.
Reaction time is the time taken by the driver to actuate the brake pedal after
realizing the need to brake until the brakes start to take effect.
%erception+reaction time - %erception time . /eaction time
49
Sight Distance 4
!ield measurements indicate that combined perception+reaction time typically vary
form 0.) s in difficult terrain where drivers are more alert to #.) s under normal road
conditions.
!or safe and comfortable design a combined time of $s is suggested. !or design
purposes perception+reaction time of #.) s is assumed for urban areas while $.) s is
assumed for rural areas.
Perceptionreaction distance is the distance traveled during the perception+reaction
time.
%erception+reaction distance - 0.$12tV
where3
t - perception+reaction time 4in seconds5
V - initial speed 4in km6hour5
!ra"ing distance is the distance needed by a vehicle to decelerate to a stop on a level
road after the brakes have been applied.
7raking distance
f 254
V
d
2

where3
V - initial speed 4km6hr5
f - longitudinal coefficient of friction 4developed between the tyre and the road
surface5
*he longitudinal coefficient of friction proposed for certain design speeds are as
follows"
Design speed#
V $"m%hr& &0 (0 )0 80 10 20 90 #00 ##0 #$0
Coe''icient o'
'riction# f
0.(0 0.&2 0.&) 0.&& 0.&# 0.&0 0.&0 0.$9 0.$2 0.$2
:ye and object heights used should ensure that there is an envelope of clear visibility
which enables drivers of low cars to see low objects on the carriageway and drivers
of high vehicles to see portions of other vehicles even though bridge soffits at sag
curves and overhanging tree branches may be in the way. :ye heights are generally
between #.0) m ; $.00 m while object heights are between 0.$8 m ; $.00 m.
<enerally
Stopping sight distance - %erception+reaction distance . 7raking distance

50
On flat roads,
Stopping sight distance
f 254
V
tV 278 . 0 SSD
2
+
On slopes,
Stopping sight distance

,
_

t
+
100
n
f 254
V
tV 278 . 0 SSD
2
=here3
n - gradient 4>5
E(A)P*E 1
? motorist traveling at 80 km6hr on a steep rural road with a gradient of 2> sees an
obstruction on the carriageway ahead of him. @alculate the minimum stopping sight
distance re,uired.
4%lease attend class for the solution5
4.+ PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
Sufficient sight distances must be available on two+way two+lane roads to enable
faster vehicles to safely overtake slower ones without causing disruption to traffic
flow on the opposite direction.
51
!igure (+# shows the four components of the minimum distance re,uired for safe
passing on two+way two+lane roads.
!igure (+#" @omponents of minimum safe passing sight distance
d
1
- perception+reaction distance traveled by a vehicle while its driver
decides if it is safe to pass the vehicle in front
- v
s
t
1

where3
v
s
- speed of the slower vehicle 4m6s5 and
t
1
- time taken for the driver to decide on making the pass 4s5 usually &.) s
d
2
- the overtaking distance traveled by the overtaking vehicle in carrying
out the actual passing maneuver
- $s . v
s

a
s 4
where3
s - safe clearance distance between the fast and slow vehicles
- 0.1v
s
. 8
v
s
- speed of the slower vehicle 4m6s5
a - acceleration 4m6s
$
5
d
3
- the safe distance between the overtaking vehicle and the opposing
vehicle at the instant the overtaking vehicle returns to its correct lane
- v
o
t
3

where3
v
o
- speed of the oncoming vehicle 4m6s5 and
t
3
- safety time 4s5 usually #.) s
d
4
- the closing distance traveled by the opposing vehicle during the passing
maneuver 4this distance is sometimes taken as $6& d
2
5
*hus the safe passing sight distance %SA - d
1
. d
2
. d
3
. d
4
52
*able (+# shows passing sight distance values according to BC/.
*able (+#" %assing Sight Aistance 4BC/5
Design Speed $"m%h& Passing Sight Distance $m&
#$0
#00
20
80
)0
(0
&0
$0
200
100
))0
()0
&)0
$)0
$00
$00
E(A)P*E +
? vehicle traveling at 20 km6hr wants to overtake a slower vehicle in front. *he speed
of the oncoming vehicle is 10 km6hr. @alculate the minimum passing sight distance
re,uired for this maneuver. ?ssume the acceleration a is #.0 m6s$ and the speed
difference between the faster vehicle and the slower vehicle is #8 km6h.
4%lease attend class for the solution5
53
4., INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE
*he operator of a vehicle approaching an intersection at grade should have an
unobstructed view of the whole intersection and a length of the intersecting road
sufficient to permit control of the vehicle to avoid collision.
!or the sight of distance of the driver of a vehicle passing through an intersection two
aspects must be considered"
4a5 there must be a sufficient unobstructed view to recognize the traffic signs or
traffic signals at the intersection
4b5 there must also be a sufficient sight distance to make a safe departure after the
vehicle has stopped at the stop line
'n order that drivers will see the appropriate traffic there should be an area of sight
unobstructed by buildings or other objects across the corners of an intersection. *his
is known as the sight triangle as shown in !igure (+$"
!igure (+$" 'ntersection sight distance
?7 - stopping sight distance based on operating speed on road D
7@ - stopping sight distance based on operating speed on road E
?@ - sight line
54
?ny object within the sight triangle high enough above the elevation of the adjacent
roadways to constitute a sight obstruction should be removed or lowered. Such
objects include cut slopes trees bushes and other erected objects. %arking within the
sight triangle should also be eliminated.
4.,.1 SIGHT DISTANCE -OR APPROACH
$1& Signa.i/ed Intersections
Sight distance for approach
2
A
6 . 3
V
a 2
1
6 . 3
Vt
S
,
_

+
=here3
t - total reaction time 4urban - 8 s rural - #0 s5
a - acceleration 4maFimum allowable acceleration - #.98 m6s
$
5
G - vehicle speed or design speed 4in km6hr5
$+& Priorit0 Intersections
Hse the similar e,uation as for sight distance of approach at signalized intersections.
Iowever total reaction time is taken as $ sec because decision making is not re,uired
as every driver must stop.
4.,.+ SIGHT DISTANCE -OR DEPART1RE
Sight distance for departure
) t J ( V 278 . 0 S
a D
+
=here3
G - vehicle speed or design speed 4in km6h5
B - sum of perception time and the time re,uired to shift to first gear or actuate an
automatic shift 4in seconds5
t
a
- time re,uired to accelerate and traverse the distance S to clear the major road 4in
seconds5
B+value for rural areas is $ s while for urban and suburban areas is #.0 s to #.) s.
t
a
values can be obtained from !igure (+(. 't depends on the distance S which the
crossing vehicle must travel to cross the major road.
55
S
D
S
D
2
*
A
!
Sight Line
3
a
!igure (.&" Sight distance for departure
Aistance traveled during crossing maneuver S - A . = . J
=here3
A - distance from near edge of pavement of front of stopped vehicle 4for design
purposes taken as & m5
= - width of pavement along path of crossing vehicle 4in m5
J - overall length of vehicle 4) m for passenger cars #0 m for single unit trucks and
#) m for semi+trailers5
!igure (+(" *ime re,uired to accelerate and traverse the distance S 4t
a
5
56
*able (+$ gives the stopping sight distance for intersection approach at Signalized
'ntersections and Stop+@ontrolled 'ntersections as recommended by BC/.
*able (+$" Sight Aistance for 'ntersection ?pproach 4BC/5
Design Speed O'
)a4or Road
$"m%h&
Signa. Contro.
Stop Contro.
$on )inor Road&5 R6ra. 1r7an
#00
20
80
)0
(0
&0
$0
(20
&)0
$(0
#90
#(0
#00
80
&10
$80
#10
#&0
#00
10
(0
$80
#10
#0)
20
))
&)
$0
K On Lajor /oads of Stop @ontrolled 'ntersections the Stopping Sight Aistances
must comply to those given in *able (.&
E(A)P*E ,
? car is traveling at 1) km6hr along a secondary road approaching an intersection with
priority control. *he car departs from the intersection at a speed of 80 km6h. *he
width of pavement along the path where the vehicle crosses is 1.0 m. @alculate the
re,uired sight distance for approach and departure.
4%lease attend class for the solution5
57
4.4 SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORI8ONTA* C1R3ES
Aifficulties in providing the re,uired safe stopping and passing sight distances are
most commonly encountered in urban road design where the alignment constraints are
such that the desired visibility can only be achieved at considerable financial and
environmental costs.
'n rural areas diverse obstructions at the side of the road e.g. buildings bridge
supports slopes of cuttings solid fences or uncut grass on or adjacent to verges can
hinder visibility.
'n both urban and rural areas safety fences in the central reservation between dual
carriageways can hinder the achievement of the minimum stopping distance in the
inside lane because of the low object height.
!igure (+) illustrates the situation where the re,uired sight distance lies wholly within
the length of the curve L is assumed e,ual to the re,uired sight distance S. M is the
minimum offset clearance desired between the centerline and any lateral obstruction.
*herefore when S M L"
R 8
S
M
2
where R - horizontal curve radius
!igure (+8 illustrates the situation where S is greater than the available length of
curve, L and overlaps onto the tangents for a distance of l on either side.
*herefore when S N L"
R 8
) L S 2 ( L
M

58
!igure (+)" Sight distance for horizontal curve 4S J5
!igure (+8" Sight distance on horizontal curve 4S N J5
E(A)P*E 4
*he figure below illustrates the proposed site for the construction of a building that is
adjacent to a horizontal curve section of a rural highway. *he suggested offset
clearance is #0 m. *he highway design speed is #00 km6hr while the curve length and
curve radius is $00 m and 800 m respectively. Arivers perception+reaction time is
taken as $.) seconds and the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road
surface is 0.$2. 's the suggested offset clearance ade,uate to allow for safe stopping
sight distanceO
59
Straight
!in"
Straight
!in"
4%lease attend class for the solution5
4.4.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORI8ONTA*
C1R3ES
60
*he following shows how stopping sight distance 4SSA5 on a horizontal curve can be
calculated given the curve radius 4/5 and middle ordinate 4L5.
!igure (+1" 'llustration of SSA on horizontal curve
7ased on the diagram in !igure (+1
where J - length of curve / - curve radius
where /
v
- radius to the travel path of the vehicle

where L - middle ordinate
where L
s
- middle ordinate necessary to provide SSA
7y substituting into we obtain the following"
61
R
180
L

#
s
R
180
SSD

#
s
R
SSD 180

)
2
$%s 1 ( R M


)
2
$%s 1 ( R M
s
# s


)
2
$%s 1 ( R M
s
# s

)
2
$%s 1 ( R M
s
# s


1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

2
R
SSD 180
$%s 1 R M
#
# s
1
1
]
1

,
_

#
# s
R
SSD 90
$%s 1 R M

*ables (+& gives SSA values according to local standards while *able (+( gives SSA
values according to ??SI*O standards.
*able (+&" Stopping Sight Aistance 4BC/ and JJL5
High9a0 Agenc0 Design Speed $"m%h&
Stopping Sight Distance
$m&
)a.a0sian High9a0
A6thorit0 $**)&
#(0
#$0
#00
20
&$)
$$)
#)0
#00
P67.ic 2or"s
Department $:;R&
#$0
#00
20
80
)0
(0
&0
$0
$2)
$0)
#(0
2)
8)
()
&0
$0
*able (+(" Stopping Sight Aistance 4??SI*O5
Design Speed
$"m%h&
Stopping Sight Distance $m&
AASHTO +<<< AASHTO 1==4
Design Desira7.e )inim6m
&0
(0
)0
80
10
20
90
#00
&)
)0
8)
2)
#0)
#&0
#80
#2)
$9.8
((.(
8$.2
2(.8
##0.2
#&9.(
#82.1
$0).0
$9.8
((.(
)1.(
1(.&
9(.#
##$.2
#&#.$
#)1.0
E(A)P*E >
? horizontal curve on a H) highway is designed with a 100 m radius &.8 m lanes and
a #00km6hr design speed. Aetermine the distance that must be cleared from the inside
edge lane to provide sufficient sight distance for desirable and minimum SSA.
4%lease attend class for the solution5
62
4.> SIGHT DISTANCE ON 3ERTICA* C1R3ES
? vertical curve provides a smooth transition between successive tangent gradients in
the road profile.
?s a motorist traverses a vertical curve a radial force acts on the vehicle and tries to
force it away from the centre of the curvature and this may give the motorist some
discomfort.
*he discomfort eFperienced is minimized by restricting the gradients and by using a
type and length of vertical curve which allows the radial force to be eFperienced
gradually and uniformly. Sight distance re,uirements are also aided by the use of long
vertical curves on both crest and sag curves.
-or Crest C6r?es@
63
!igure (+2" Sight distance on crest vertical curve 4S J5
!igure (+2 illustrates the condition where the re,uired sight distance S is contained
within the available length of the vertical curve L.
=hen S M L"
2
2 1
2
&in
) h 2 h 2 (
AS
L
+

where3
? - difference in grades
h
#
- eye height
h
$
- object height
!igure (+9" Sight distance on crest vertical curve 4S N J5
!igure (+9 illustrates the condition where S is greater than L and overlaps on either
sides of the vertical curves.
=hen S N L"
A
) h h ( 2
S 2 L
2
2 1
&in
+

-or Sag C6r?es@
64
=hen S M L"

,
_

2
) h h ( 8
D 8
AS
L
2 1
2
&in
=hen S N L"
A
2
) h h ( 8
D 8
S 2 L
2 1
&in

,
_

=here3
A - vertical clearance 4ideally taken as ).1 m5
E(A)P*E A
? car is traveling at 90 km6hr on a crest vertical curve connecting grades of .#> and
+$> and having a curve length of &00 m. !urther ahead of the car a boF from a truck
has fallen onto the travel lane. *he height of the boF is )00 cm. :ye height is taken as
#.08 m. 'gnore the effects of grades on stopping sight distance. *he road is in a rural
area. @alculate the minimum length re,uired for the car to stop safely and avoid
colliding with the boF.
4%lease attend class for the solution5
65
66