Sustainable Development of a Global Resource:

Geothermal Energy
Environmental Management Plan

Rashini Perera
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Covering Letter
This report was prepared in response to international government bodies, organisations and individuals requiring methods for sustainably developing and using geothermal energy. Sustainable Development of A Global Resource: Geothermal Energy Environmental Management Plan contains information about the sustainability of geothermal energy and the general publics opinions on the use of this renewable source. The existing environmental issues attributed to this source, as well as existing environmental management plans and their shortcomings are also highlighted. There is also an in depth environmental management plan developed to avoid any inconveniences or detriments prior, during and after the use of this geothermal energy. This plan will be implemented worldwide from 2020 to 2030 and will cycle from decade to decade to ensure that all machinery and plants are running as planned. The information in this report has been developed and collated from environmental organisations, government resources, experts opinions and will also build on previous environmental management plans.

Contents 1. Introduction..4 1.1 Background Information......4 1.2 Sustainability of Geothermal Energy....5 1.3 Survey Findings....6

2. Major Environmental Issues..7 2.1 Predicted Negative Impacts and Significance.7 2.2 Solutions to Negative Impacts.8

3. Current Environmental Management Plans...10 3.1 Brief Outlines of Current Environmental Management Plans (EMPs).....10 3.1.1 3.1.2 PNOC Energy EMP........10 Contact EMP...11

3.2 Shortcomings of Current EMPs.11

4. Proposed Environmental Management Plan...12 4.1 In depth Investigation.....13 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 Phase 1 (Preconstruction)13 Phase 2 (Construction)....14 Phase 3 (Post Construction)....16

4.2 Economic, social and legal issues.....17 4.3 Sustainability of the Environmental Management Plan.18

5. Conclusion..18

6. Annotated Visual Display (submitted with report in separate A3 paper)

7. Bibliography..19

8. Appendices.22

1.Introduction
This proposed environmental management plan was developed in response to international government bodies of first world, developed countries wanting a sustainable solution for harnessing and using geothermal energy. This plan has the scope of encouraging countries to utilise this source and providing them with an environmentally sustainable solution that will have a lifespan of a decade to even a score. People consume an incredible amount of energy. Using fossil fuels remains the primary way electricity is generated, but it is also one of the leading contributors to greenhouse gases. Finding reliable and renewable sources of energy is the key to a sustainable future. Geothermal energy is in fact, reliable and renewable. Geothermal energy can simply be explained by its name, which derives from the Greek words "geo," meaning Earth, and "therme," meaning heat. The heat is directly below the Earth's surface, making it a universal resource that anyone can access with the right resources. The most active geothermal spots are found near fault lines and volcanoes but also occur where there are hot springs, geysers and geothermal reservoirs. It can be harnessed cleanly and efficiently without having negative repercussions on the environment.

1.1 Background Information

Geothermal Energy is not a new concept since people have been using it for centuries. For example, the Romans, Chinese, and Native Americans, used hot mineral spring sites for bathing, cooking, and heating. Water from hot springs is now used world-wide in spas, for heating buildings, and for agricultural and industrial uses. New technology means that it can be harnessed on a larger scale with broader benefits for people everywhere.
Source 1

Methods of Accessing Geothermal Energy

Source 1 demonstrates the three different ways in which geothermal energy can be harnessed. This report will focus on obtaining geothermal energy through Hot Rocks and Hot Sedimentary Aquifer because they are widely available and do not require the presence of geological formations such as active volcanoes which are rare in some places of the world.
Source: AGEA 4

1.2 Sustainability of Geothermal Energy

"Geothermal energy has the potential to generate and deliver sustainable supplies of clean, renewable base load power. Depending on the nature of the resource and the reservoir, individual production wells have the potential to generate consistent supplies of base load power for decades." (Green Rock Energy: Benefits of Geothermal Energy) Geothermal energy is one of the only sources of energy that can produce power for homes and industries with zero greenhouse gas emissions. It presents a potentially sustainable and commercial solution to problems such as pollution, rising prices and long term supply problems associated with fossil fuels. Geothermal energy is sustainable because of the manner in which it is harnessed. The Earths natural heat is recovered by pumping hot water trapped underground to the surface or by pumping water below the earths surface and back again to collect the heat and return very hot water. Heat is essentially energy and this energy can be converted into electricity, a renewable form of energy or used directly for a range of commercial uses such a producing heating and cooling. Due to the sustainability of geothermal energy, it is used in over 70 countries from direct use applications for space heating, sea water desalination, water purification, air-conditioning buildings and other heat and drying applications, green houses and agriculture.
Source 2

Photograph of Australias first commissioned enhanced geothermal plant in South Australia

Source: Enviroinfo

Australia is one of the many countries that is testing and harnessing this sustainable source of energy. No pollution is emitted and as shown in Source 2, average plants and wells do not cover an extensive area of land.

1.3 Survey Findings

Figure 1

Use of Energy Sources

12 In the survey, see 10 appendix 1 when asked 8 what sources of energy 6 4 people use for/in their 2 Amount of People who households, vehicles, 0 use it school and work, as shown in Figure 1, it was evident that no one out of 10 Data Pool: 10 people used geothermal energy. Other energy sources such as coal produced electricity, petroleum and natural gas were more common, as well as other sources of energy such as solar energy and wind produced energy. Most of the survey participants admitted that they were not entirely sure of what geothermal energy was and how it could be harnessed to produce power. However, they were willing to use it after discovering that it was renewable and sustainable power source.

All of the survey participants believed that using geothermal energy was a good idea and were willing to use it for their general electricity production, heating and cooling. However, when asked if the government should force people to use this source, over 50% of the participants strongly disagreed with this notion due to the extravagant installation cost. A further 30% of participants believe that geothermal energy needs to be further developed. Nevertheless, 100% of survey participants were willing to recommend this energy source to other people. According to one of the survey participants, Brad Battin, Parliamentary Secretary for the Environment, geothermal energy will be a way of the future, but Mr Battin also believes that more research has to be done to reduce the costs. Similarly to most of the other survey participants, Mr Battin believes that it is important that energy sources are both renewable and cost effective. The main environmental hazards and detriments the survey participants saw were: Clearing land for wells Destruction to flora and fauna Earthquakes from drilling This report will strive to eradicate these and many other hazards, so that geothermal energy can be sustainably developed on a global scale.

2. Major Environmental Issues

There are many setbacks and detriments associated with the external and internal processes of harnessing geothermal energy. Some of the basic external hazards include clearing land and causing harm to flora and fauna, as well as natural habitats. Internal hazards include microseismical movement that can result from deep drilling, internal gases escaping from deep within the Earth and pumping too much cold water into the Earth can cool down the hot rocks too much.

2.1 Predicted Impacts on the Environment and their Significance

As highlighted previously, there are many hazards that can result from the use of geothermal energy. Some of the major impacts from accessing geothermal energy will be discussed in detail below. Depletion of Resources The process of accessing geothermal fluids from beneath the surface removes heat from natural reservoirs at 10 times their natural rate of replenishment. This has negative repercussions on lands forms as well as its inhabitants.

Source 3

Geyser at Yellowstone National Park, U.S.

Damage to Natural Geothermal features Natural features such as hot springs, mud pools, sinter terraces, geysers, steam vents and steaming ground can be easily damaged by geothermal development to an extent where they cannot be repaired. Source 3 is an image of a geyser at Source: Grand Canyon Yellowstone National Park which is under threat from future geothermal energy harnessing plans in the site. As the supply of steaming water from below is depleted, the ground can become to sag and hot springs and geysers start to decline and even die.

Subsidence and Uplift Extracting geothermal fluids can also reduce the pressure in underground reservoirs and cause the land to sink. This can destroy natural habitats and alter natural surface drainage patterns. Source 4 illustrates the subsidence at Wairkei geothermal field in New Zealand, where the land subsides at a rate of 0.5 metres per year.

Source 4

Contour Map of Subsidence at Geothermal Field, New Zealand

Polluting Waterways Geothermal fluids contain high levels of arsenic, mercury, lithium and boron because of the underground contact Source: Te Ara between hot fluids and rocks. If waste is released into rivers or lakes instead of being injected into the geothermal field, these pollutants can damage aquatic life and make the water unsafe for drinking or irrigation.

2.2 Solutions to Negative Impacts

Although the impacts listed above are detrimental and have serious repercussions on the natural environment, there are many ways in which these issues can be solved. Depletion of Resources Due to progressing technology, the depletion of heat resources from beneath the Earth is only a minor issue that can be solved by simply injecting waste fluids (i.e. water) back into the geothermal system. This enables the system to run according to its natural cycle. Damage to Natural Geothermal features Precious and natural geothermal features can be saved from damage and destruction if the amount of steam and water being taken out from the Earth is monitored carefully, and similarly to the solution of resource depletion, waste fluids can be injected back into the areas where heat has been taken out of, generally under geothermal formations.

Subsidence and Uplift Source 5 Deformation data from a geothermal field Surface deformation measurements can be used as input to geo-mechanical models, allowing engineers to identify areas of subsidence and uplift that can assist in determining appropriate injection/extraction policies in order to repair the areas of land. Such data allows scientists and engineers to observe spatial change over time. Source: Tre - Sensing the Planet Source 5 is an example of subsidence data that enables engineers and scientists to recognise vulnerable areas of land. Polluting Waterways Geothermal engineers should take extra care in the way in which they monitor geothermal waste disposal. Geothermal waste should be deposited into waste fields and in return, back into the geothermal system. By doing this, both the external and internal environments are kept stable.

3. Current Environmental Management Plans

There are many environmental management plans that have been developed in order to sustainably produce and use geothermal energy. Some are local plans while there are others that are long term and can be applied on a global scale. This section of the report will outline some of these current plans and will highlight their shortcomings.

3.1 Brief Outlines of Current Environmental Management Plans

This section will outline two EMPs by PNOC Energy and Contact Energy, respectively. 3.1.1 Proposed Development and Environmental Management Plan for the Geothermal Energy Development, PNOC Energy, October 2007 see appendix 2 This report is by PNOC - Philippine National Oil Company - and is quite a detailed investigation that elaborates on how geothermal energy can be sustainably harnessed, without causing harm to the environment, and having the least amount of negative repercussions on the environment. This report focusses on management prior to and after construction, not during construction. The key aspects this report focusses on are outlined below: Ecological Enhancement Protecting plants and animals (flora and fauna) Watershed management Ensuring that developing geothermal energy plants and drilling wells does not interfere with watershed systems Environmental Monitoring Regular monitoring should be undertaken to stabilise water and air quality of landmasses on geothermal plant sites Monitoring and Evaluation (Special undertaking) Broader monitoring and evaluation activities are implemented in order to assess the long term ecological implication of geothermal operation within particular ecosystems

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3.1.2 Tauhara II Geothermal Development Project, Contact, February 2010 see appendix 3 This environmental management plan was developed by Contact Energy which is a leader in New Zealands energy sector. The scope of this plan is to implement the use of geothermal energy in the Tauhara region in New Zealand with minimal consequences on the Earth during the construction process. An outline of its main environmental controls this EMP focusses on is: Erosion and sediment control Ensuring that vegetation removal, earthworks, access track and road construction, and trenching cause no or minimal discharge of sediment Noise management Minimising noise effects from construction activities, including drilling and other earthworks Dust control Constantly monitoring weather conditions during construction in order to reduce the build-up of dust Hazardous substance control Ensuring that no hazardous substances are leaked from beneath the Earth during construction processes and having Emergency Response and Spill Management procedures in the case of an accident. Archaeology Identifying any historically or environmentally significant archaeological sites and ensuring that they are an acceptable distance away from construction

3.2 Shortcomings of Current Environmental Management Plans

Both these plans contain an adequate amount of information on how to develop geothermal energy. However, the PNOC EMP doesnt include management during construction and the Contact EMP only contains information about the management during the construction process. An EMP with sufficient information should focus on all aspects of all the processes that need to be undertaken. This includes pre planning and testing selected sites, taking into consideration the amount of damage that will be done to the landscape and environment, minimising negative effects and monitoring sites and effectiveness of project even after construction. This means that there should be ongoing monitoring and maintaining prior to the construction processes, and during and after the construction processes.

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4. Proposed Environmental Management Plan

This Environmental Management Plan has been developed to sustainably produce and use geothermal energy on a global scale. In order for this EMP to work effectively, it is crucial that all aspects are covered in great detail and with great accuracy. It is also expected that all nations involved will be active participants and will comply with the EMP for geothermal energy throughout its dates of establishment from 2020 to 2030 and after these dates as well.

4.1 In depth Investigation

This environmental management plan strives to cover and take into account all the major environmental issues covered in section 2. Other general environmental issues such as preventing damage to flora and fauna will also be discussed in detail. This EMP will take a chronological approach to sustainably Map of Rotorua, New Zealand Source 6 developing geothermal energy. This means that the EMP will be divided into three phases: Phase 1: Preconstruction Phase 2: Construction Phase 3: Post-construction This particular report will focus on the Rotorua region in New Zealand, which is depicted in source 6. This location was chosen based on its high geothermal activity and its natural importance. It is considered as one of New Zealands national treasures so it is crucial that there is an effective environmental management plan to protect the site. Although the focus is on northern New Zealand, the plan can definitely be applied to the rest of the world on a larger scale. Therefore, this management plan can be interpreted as a global management plan that all governments, not just New Zealand, can put into action.

Source: Google Maps

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4.1.1 Phase 1: Preconstruction

Selecting Suitable Site/Location:
Source 7

Ecological Issues: Flora/Fauna In order for the geothermal energy plant to be constructed, a suitable area of land should be chosen. This means that the location of the plant cannot be an area where flora or fauna are present or an area that creatures use as a natural habitat. For example, the whio or blue duck shown in source 7 lives in Lake Rotorua. In order for the plant to cause minimal damage to the environment, the area chosen should not interfere with any ecological systems.

Whio/Blue Duck in Lake Rotorua

Source: Biodiversity, NZ

Heritage/Natural Geothermal Features Some geothermal regions contain natural and heritage sites that should be protected and conserved. For example, the Rotorua region in New Zealand is a national treasure that attracts many tourists because of its natural importance and significance. In order to protect the sites and simultaneously pump thermal heat and steam, it is crucial that the geothermal plant is at a reasonable distance from the heritage sites or natural geothermal features, by at least 100 metres or at a safe distance that will not cause any harm to the features or region. Landscape Issues Pumping heat and steam in and out of the Earth can also cause subsidence which is when the land sinks due to a release in pressure from beneath. In order to prevent this, it is necessary that the underground areas are monitored and surveyed, in order to determine if the land is ideal for a geothermal plant. Seismic Issues Drilling wells for creating paths to pump water and steam in and out of the Earth can also result in seismic activity. This means that it is necessary for the location of the plant to not be prone to earthquakes and similar activity. For example, Japan is a country that lies on a major fault line and is prone to myriads of Earthquakes annually. Although Japan does harness geothermal energy, it is unwise to do so. However, Rotorua is reasonably safe from seismic activity. As shown in source 8, it does not run directly over any fault lines. It is ideal that the area of land that is used has no significance so the above issues can be eliminated. For example, a barren area of land would be ideal.

Source 8

Fault lines Under NZ

Source: ORC, NZ

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4.1.2 Phase 2: Construction

Minimal Damage to Environment During Construction

Source 9

Example of a geothermal power plant in Northern New Zealand that has Cleared a Large area of Land.

Type of Plant After the pre-construction process, the type of power plant should be decided. The power plant can be built on an isolated area of land Source: New Zealand Trade and Enterprise that is unused and barren. This is ideal because it does not interfere with other natural processes. The BacMan Geothermal Plant Source 10 power plants can also be built in the midst of vegetation, as shown in source 9, or integrated into the surrounding environment as shown in source 10. Source 9 is an example of a geothermal plant that is situated in northern-central New Zealand, in close proximity to Rotorua. This power plant has cleared a large area of natural Source: Energy: Sustainability habitat. On the contrary, source 10 is an example of a geothermal plant that is integrated into the forest and co-exists with the natural environment without causing harm to the environment. This particular geothermal plant is called BacMan and is in the Philippines. It is a perfect example where the environment and technology can co-exist in harmony. Access Road Construction Proposed Access Road from Thermal Explorer Source 11 During the construction process, careful Highway to Inner Ngongotaha consideration should be taken into the way in which roads and wells are constructed. In Rotorua, an access road of approximately 5 kilometres will be Access constructed from the Thermal Explorer Road Highway towards Ngongotaha, which is a suitable location for a geothermal Source: Google Maps plant in the Rotorua region, as depicted in source 11. The road will be quite narrow, approximately 10 metres wide, therefore; only about 5 hectares of land needs to be cleared. Suitable drainage will also be place on the sides of the roads in order to prevent erosion and land slips on the sides of the roads. Rain water washed off the sides of the roads will travel through the drainage systems and flow into Lake Rotorua, provided that it is clean and unpolluted.

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Drilling After the construction of the access roads, the drilling rig and its components are set up in order to construct the wells. It will take approximately 3 months to drill one, 2-3 kilometre deep well. Direct drilling into the Earth prevents surface damage and erosion on the surface. This means that natural areas of land will not be interfered with. Noise Related Issues Constructing wells, access roads and other buildings can be quite a noisy process. It is very important that too much noise is not emitted from the construction processes. Noise can arise from heavy Earth moving machinery, well testing, cooling tower complexes, gas ejectors and the main powerhouse. In order to mitigate noise, construction should be timetabled so too much noise is not created at the same time. This is beneficial for wildlife living close-by and people involved in construction as well. Well Testing Process Source 12 Well Testing After the drilling and construction of wells, a completion test should be conducted. This is done immediately after the well drilling is completed. The wells initial temperatures, permeable zones and permanence are measured and evaluated in the test. This test usually lasts for about 1-2 days and tests the effectiveness of the wells. Source 12 demonstrates the process of testing wells.
Source: Layman Energy

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4.1.3 Phase 3: Post Construction

Evaluating Effectiveness of Plan and Introducing Management and Monitoring Tools It is important that plant life and animals are replaced after the construction process. Since this management plan has quite a long lifespan of about a decade, it is also necessary to monitor the effectiveness of the plant and to ensure that no harm is done to the environment. Replanting and Reintroducing Major areas of land may be logged for the construction process depending on the area of land that is chosen. This means that it is necessary to replant trees and other vegetation that was once prevalent in the region. Similarly, many animals and native creatures may have also dispersed from the area due to the destruction of their habitats and other factors such as noise pollution. These animals should be rounded back to their original habitats in the area. This way, they can co-exist with the geothermal plant. Erosion and Run-Off Prevention It is also important to replant plants and vegetation in order to prevent land erosion and run-offs. No new types of plants should be introduced. Replanting in the cleared land will ensure that there is no siltation of lakes or water channels. Siltation can be quite harmful for creatures that live in water channels as shown in source 13.
Source 13

Example of Siltation

Source: Gills Creek Watershed

Seismic Monitoring There should be continuous seismic monitoring of the region in order to determine if the process of pumping water and steam in and out of the Earth has any internal effects. Management and Monitoring The International Energy Agency (IEA) and the United Nations should monitor the geothermal activity of all nations to ensure that governments do not abuse this management plan and to make sure they implement all the strategies. Another organisation that has the full responsibility to prevent environmental crimes is the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA). If all these organisations carefully monitor the management of particular nations, it is highly unlikely that governments will abuse this environmental management plan.

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4.2 Economic, Social and Legal Issues

Economic The major issue in relation to establishing geothermal power plants is its extravagant cost. Smaller, household geothermal pumping systems only cost between $5,000 and $60, 000. However, larger scaled geothermal energy plants that supply energy for large numbers of homes can cost up to $50 million. This makes it difficult for governments to construct and install numerous geothermal energy plants.

Social Most of the residents in areas with geothermal plants know that natural heat can be used in a number of ways. Most residents also know that geothermal development may bring about important benefits in the project area, whereas others are concerned with the impact that large projects may cause on environment and economy of the area. Therefore, there are varied public opinions and social issues. Positive Attitudes In each area, the different positions depend on several local factors, including socio-economic conditions, cultural background, and individual or group interests. Most people favour the implementation of a geothermal plant in their area because of the long term benefits and the environmental sustainability. Negative Attitudes However, attitude towards geothermal development usually changes with time as the project reaches the drilling stage. This is justified because undesirable effects may result from these activities on: ecosystem (air, land, flora, fauna, and superficial and underground water); human health (from water pollution, noise, and gas emission) economy (detrimental impact on some production activities and tourism, and damages to crops and private properties) people are also against landscape modifications and alteration to natural features of cultural or religious interest Legal Issues There are many legal issues and processes involved with the development of geothermal energy. Some of the major legal issues are listed below:

Leasing, siting and permitting geothermal energy projects Preplanning and discussions are necessary between international bodies, government bodies and energy companies/organisations. Groundwater and related features of state regulation No geothermal waste can be released into the external environment. Power purchase agreements and environmental attributes Public interest must be won and energy companies must be in agreement with governments. Project finance for geothermal power projects Governments must be willing to spend large sums of money for developing geothermal energy.

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4.3 Sustainability of Global Management Plan

This is a unique environmental management plan that covers all aspects of the geothermal harnessing process. It is ideal to cover all three stages of development which include preconstruction, construction and post-construction processes. The plan is sustainable in the sense that it minimises the general harm done to the environment and suggests long term commitments. Although this report is mainly focussed on Rotorua, it can be generalised and applied to any location that has the potential to harness this source. It is definitely not 100% sustainable, but it is a beneficial plan that should be followed by government bodies that chose to harness geothermal energy.

5. Conclusion
Abundant geothermal resources can provide an environmentally friendly source of energy. Data compiled from a variety of sources point to geothermal energy as an environmental option for new power generation that is far better than other energy sources such as fossil fuels. The Department of Energy, along with several scientific laboratories, conducts research on a regular basis to improve the already minimal environmental impacts of geothermal energy and to decrease the associated costs. Along with this research and the use of this Proposed Environmental Management Plan, geothermal energy can be a great global success. With continued technological development, geothermal resources can be expanded from first world countries, to less fortunate third world countries and the present environmental geothermal impacts can be further reduced. Geothermal energy can provide the clean, reliable, and renewable energy resource for our world.

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7. Bibliography
ABC Science 2013, What is Geothermal Energy, viewed 25 April 2013, <http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/10/02/2380462.htm> AGEA: Australian Geothermal Energy Association 2013, About Geothermal Energy, viewed 20 April 2013, <http://www.agea.org.au/geothermal-energy/about-geothermal-energy/> Australian Government: Geoscience Australia 2012, Geothermal Energy Project, viewed 26 March 2013, <http://www.ga.gov.au/energy/projects/geothermal-energy.html> Australian Government: Geoscience Australia 2012, Geothermal Energy Resources, viewed 26 March 2013, <http://www.ga.gov.au/energy/geothermal-energy-resources.html> Biodiversity 2013, Saving New Zealand's Whio, viewed 12 May 2013 <http://www.biodiversity.govt.nz/land/nzbs/conservationland/species/duck.html> CSIRO 2012, Geothermal Energy: Clean and Sustainable Energy for the future, viewed 26 March 2013, <http://www.csiro.au/en/Organisation-Structure/Divisions/Earth-Science--ResourceEngineering/Geothermal.aspx> Discover the Trip 2011, Introducing Rotorua, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://www.discoverthetrip.com/city/rotorua.html> ECOS: Environmental Council of Sacramento 2009, What I Learned at the Geysers, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://www.ecosacramento.net/?e=72> Energy: Sustainability 2012, Green Power Business, viewed 14 May 2013, <http://www.energy.com.ph/our-social-sustainability/index.php?id=5#prettyPhoto[project1]/3/> Enviroinfo 2013, Australia's First Enhanced Geothermal Plant Commissioned, viewed 20 April 2013, <http://www.enviroinfo.com.au/australias-first-enhanced-geothermal-plantcommissioned/#.UZnTf7XviSq> European Federation of Geologists 2011, Geothermal Energy in Europe PDF, viewed 26 March 2013, <http://www.eurogeologists.de/images/content/3rdIPGC/Geothermal_Energy_in_Europe.pdf >

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European Federation of Geologists 2013, Panel of Experts on Geothermal Energy, viewed 26 March 2013, <http://www.eurogeologists.eu/index.php?page=201 > Geothermal Energy UAF 2010, What Is Geothermal Energy?, viewed 27 March 2013, <http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2009.web/Nathan_Burke.dir/contentpage1.html> Gills Creek Watershed 2010, Cary Lake Silation, viewed 14 May 2013

<http://www.gillscreekwatershed.org/gcwagallery/v/carylake2012/CaryLakeFeb2012bCrop.jpg.html>

Google Maps 2013, Rotorua, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://maps.google.com.au/maps?biw=1366&bih=681&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&q=rotorua+map&um=1 &ie=UTF8&hq=&hnear=0x6d6e983d82f6b22b:0x500ef6143a39931,Rotorua,+New+Zealand&gl=au&sa=X&ei= O6ClUaDxJO-WiQfQ04HQAQ&ved=0CDYQ8gEwAA> Grand Canyon 2013, Yellowstone Image, viewed 3 May 2013, <http://grandcanyon.free.fr/images/parc2/original/Midway%20Geyser,%20Grand%20Prismatic,%20 Yellowstone%20National%20Park,%20Wyoming.html> GreenRock Energy 2009, Benefits of Geothermal Energy, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://www.greenrock.com.au/geothermalSustainability.php> IEA: Geothermal Implementing Agreement 2012, Mission, viewed 12 April 2013, <http://iea-gia.org/> INK 2008, Sumikawa Geothermal Power Plant, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://www.ink.or.jp/~hgc/english/brochure.html> Journalisme 2013, Icelandic Energy, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://www.journalisme-scientifique.com/Geothermal-Energy-ICELAND.html> Laboratory of Engineering and Environmental Geology 2010, Sustainable development of geothermal energy in the urban environment (CCES0020`GEOTHERM Module 5), viewed 26 March 2013, <http://geolep.epfl.ch/page-30831-en.hstml > Latent Semantic Analysis Colorado Education 2010, Geothermal Energy, viewed 28 March 2013, <http://lsa.colorado.edu/essence/texts/geothermal.html> Layman Energy Associates 2013, Vertical Steam Discharge, viewed 12 May 2013, <http://www.laymanenergy.com/clients.html> NASA: Tectonic Plates 2013, World Map, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://denali.gsfc.nasa.gov/dtam/data/ftp/gtam.pdf> New Zealand Trade and Enterprise 2013, Cheal Consultants, viewed 12 May 2013, <http://www.nzte.govt.nz/en/invest/sectors-of-opportunity/clean-technology/profiles-of-ourgeothermal-companies/cheal-consultants/>

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ORC NZ: Otago Regional Council 2013, Great Alpine Fault Earthquakes Talks, viewed 12 May 2013, <http://www.orc.govt.nz/Information-and-Services/Natural-Hazards/Great-Alpine-FaultEarthquake/> Oxford University Museum of Natural History: The Learning Zone 2006, Minerals We Use to Build a House, viewed 26 March 2013, <http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/thezone/minerals/usage/build.htm> Shomo News 2013, Olkaira: Community Demand Written MoU From KenGen Before Relocation, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://www.shomonews.com/olkaria-community-demand-written-mou-from-kengen-beforerelocation/> Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealnad 2013, Geothermal Energy, viewed 3 May 2013, <http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/map/5438/subsidence-around-wairakei-geothermal-field> Think Geoenergy 2013, World Map, viewed 28 May 2013, <http://map.thinkgeoenergy.com/> Tre-Sensing the Planet 2013, Geothermal, viewed 3 May 2013, <http://treuropa.com/energy/geothermal/> Tutor Vista 2010, Energy from Earths Interior, viewed 26 March 2013, <http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/sources-energy/geothermal-energy.php> United Nations University: Our World 2.0 2010, Making a Difference in Geothermal Energy, viewed 26 March 2013, <http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/making-a-difference-through-geothermal-energy/> YouTube 2013, Geothermal Energy (Video Published 25 November 2012), viewed 27 March 2013, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yrYEgJhLVNQ>

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8. Appendices
Appendix 1 Geothermal Survey

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Appendix 2 PNOC Energy Management Plan

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Appendix 3 Tauhara II Development Plan

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