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PJ Martinez Mrs. Rausch Chemistry - Per. 5 13 April 2013 The Study of Morphine Morphine is an opiate analgesic drug that plays a major role in relieving severe pain. It is used frequently used in the military to quickly alleviate pain soldiers have from battle wounds, before or after surgery to reduce the patients pain, and is also abused as a narcotic. Morphine was previously used strictly through injection, but it is now available commercially in tablet and syrup forms. The following discusses the chemical structure of morphine and its biological activity, the importance of morphine and notable research regarding the opiate drug. Morphine is a relatively simple and active chemical compound. It consists of four different elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. Morphines molecular formula is C17H19NO3 (PubChem 1). Morphine is a white crystalline solid and is an alkaloid of opium. An alkaloid is a chemical substance of plant origin composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and (usually) oxygen...Most have pronounced effects on the nervous systems of humans and other animals. Many are used as drugs, (Alkaloid 1). In terms of biological activity, morphine mainly acts upon the central nervous system. In order for any drug to produce effects, such as pain relief, it must first be delivered to the particular cellular system in the body that generates that effect; in this case, morphine

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interacts with the neurons in the brain/spinal cord that are responsible for the perception of pain to reduce the perception one feels when exposed to a pain-inducing stimulus (Busse 23). The numerous routes of administration of morphine include oral, sublingual (pill under the tongue), rectal, inhalation, intramuscular injection, subcutaneous injection (injection under the outer layer of skin),and intravenous injection (injection into a vein). Each route carries its own benefits and disadvantages, but the most common administration of morphine is an intravenous injection (Busse 24). Once it is successfully administered into the body, morphine affects neurons with opioid receptors and also acts as an opioid agonist, meaning it mimics the effects of the neurons in opioid peptides (Busse 49). Once the opioid receptors, including the mu, kappa and delta receptors, are activated, the neurons release neurotransmitters that prevent communication between other neurons. The result of this inhibition is the alteration of the sensation and perception of pain, increases in euphoric activity and ones sense of aversion (a strong dislike or disinclination), and the development and maintenance of addictive behaviors, (Busse 40). Morphine also causes drowsiness, constipation and a declined rate in respiration. An overdose of morphine can cause severe respiratory depression, a coma, or even death (Drug Guide 4). Morphine affects the bodys drug metabolism rate in the sense that the body becomes more efficient at breaking down morphine the more it is ingested. This increased metabolism rate results in the user requiring increasing amounts of morphine to experience the same effects (known as a drug tolerance), which results in the development of physical and psychological dependence (Busse 31-32, Infoplease 2). Once dependent upon the drug, morphine addicts experience withdrawal symptoms, such as nausea, tearing, yawning, chills, and

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sweating lasting up to three days (Infoplease 2). Overall, morphine is an opiate analgesic drug that can benefit users in correct dosages, alleviating pain at the cost of side effects. It is this powerful, near superhuman effect of pain relief that gives morphine such significance in todays world. Morphine has such functionality that society today would not be able to perform many medical operations without it due to patients not being able to physically or psychologically handle the perception of pain. The use of morphine can be traced back to 1805, when German pharmacist Friedrich Serturner successfully derived morphine from the poppy plant, creating a much more effective painkiller (Toxipedia 1). During the American Civil War, morphine was extensively used to ease the misery of sick and wounded soldiers; sometimes, under fortunate circumstances, the drug extended their lives (Schmoop Editorial Team 5). In addition to relieving pain, morphine was used to treat diarrhea and dysentery, which were both common amongst Civil War soldiers due to lack of hygienics and poor living conditions in the war (Shmoop Editorial Team 5). Morphine was also widely used in World War II as a pain killer; combined with physical exhaustion from combat and lack of sleep, the drug was powerful enough to induce sleep, with the soldier waking up in the hospital (Steinert 16, 17). Today, morphines uses include treating patients suffering from heart attacks, reducing pain associated with surgery, trauma and chronic pain (such as cancer) and acting as a general anesthesia (Human Touch of Chemistry 4). However, with its potency and euphoric pain alleviating effects, morphine causes many of its users to become addicted. As discussed above, the more frequently a person ingests morphine, the more tolerance the body builds towards the drug, causing the person to have to ingest higher amounts

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in order to experience the same effect. Morphine addiction is considered in two ways: users ingest morphine in order to experience the sense of euphoria that accompanies the ingestion and/or users ingest morphine in order to avoid withdrawal, whose symptoms include pain/itching, dysphoria (sickness), severe diarrhea, and an inability to sleep, all effects that are the exact opposite of morphines (Busse 62). Fortunately, recent progressions in research have allowed scientists to be able to reduce such addictions. With the progression of time, scientists have researched different ways towards improving morphines effects, determining its effects on different groups of people and reducing its addiction. One such way is with a new drug known as (+)-naloxone, which selectively blocks immune-addiction responses (ScienceDaily 3). Studies from the University of Adelaides School of Medical Sciences have indicated the ability of the drug to block addiction via the immune system of the brain, (ScienceDaily 2). (+)naloxone achieves such an effect by altering the neurochemistry in the brain chemical dopamine, which is responsible for providing the sense of reward from opioids. By reducing dopamine levels, the drug eliminates addicts need for drugs because they do not feel satisfaction from ingesting the drug; at the same time, the drug enables users to experience the full pain-relieving benefits of morphine without growing addicted to it (ScienceDaly 4). It has also been discovered that newborns do not experience any short-term effects of morphine infusions, meaning only people of a certain age are able to experience both short-term and long-term effects of morphine (Simons). Scientists have also determined that higher opioid doses are associated with increased risk of opioid overdose death (Bohnert). In brief, drugs that reduce ones chances of becoming

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addicted to morphine have been created, it has been discovered that newborns are unaffected by morphine with regards to short-term effects, and higher opioid doses are associated with increased risk of death due to overdose. As shown above, morphine is a necessary drug for survival. It has the primary effect of alleviating pain, but it also acts as a general anesthesia and is used to treat diarrhea and dysentery. It is a highly addictive opiate analgesic drug, yet research has allowed scientists to create drugs that counteract these addictive behaviors by altering ones neurochemistry to reduce addiction. Previously available almost-exclusively to medics and the military, morphine is now widely-available in various forms based on individuals preferences. Morphine plays an indispensable role in assisting those undergoing any form of medical treatment to make the experience as quick and as painless as possible.