The Cholas

History I 1st Year, III Trimester

Kiran Meena I.D. Number- 2068 Date of Submission: April 8, 2014

National Law School of India University, Bangalore.

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Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3 Research Methodology .............................................................................................................. 4 Chapter 1- Social Developments Under Chola Rule ................................................................. 6 Chapter 2- Economic Developments During the Cholas ......................................................... 13 Chapter-3 Chola State (centralistic or bureaucratic) ................................................................ 16 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 18 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 19

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INTRODUCTION
The Chola Dynasty were an influential and powerful dynasty of the Southern part of the Indian Subcontinent by the end of the ninth century AD. They started-off as minor kingdoms in the Kaveri River delta and ruled for a continuous period of four centuries from ninth century to twelfth century AD. During their rule Tamil society experienced an expansion of its cultural, commercial and the political sectors1 along with various other socio-economic as well as political developments. This paper attempts to study these significant developments and their effect on the society as well as the economy in order to understand the nature of the Chola polity. The Chola period witnessed numerous grants made to temples in the form of lands and precious jewels, etc. and to individual Brahmans in the form of landed property, which resulted in them becoming landed magnates with land holdings of great extents. This shows the movement of a subsistent self-sufficient economy towards an economy which gave rise to an economic surplus which further gave rise to trade. The prosperity of the agrarian sector and the subsequent stratification of society has also been taken into consideration. Temples played a major role in the development of the society as a whole during the period from ninth century A.D. to twelfth century A.D and as an institutional base for socioeconomic & political integration, temples assumed great importance from tenth century onwards. They were the major market centres, music and dance hubs, meetings and educational destinations, etc. These powerful temples had control over large chunks of land administered by their own bureaucratic machinery consisting of some Brahmins themselves. Another major factor in the prosperity of the Chola society was the emergence of trade benefitting various groups of the society and giving rise to urban centres, for ex. Ports, Emporia of trade etc. Finally, the researcher has focused mainly on the changes in the political structure by looking at it from the perspective of a decentralized form of government.

James Heitzman, Ritual Polity and Economy: The Transactional Network of an Imperial Temple i n Medieval South India, 34(1) JOURNAL OF THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL HISTORY OF THE ORIENT, 26 (1991).

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
AIMS AND OBJECTIVE:
The aim of this paper is to understand the political structure of the Chola state from the perspective of decentralized form of government. The objective here is to study the nature of the society and economy of the Chola dynasty.

SCOPE AND LIMITATION:

This paper has covered the developments that took place in the society, economy and polity during the Chola rule. The Chola period extended for four centuries and because of this tracking all the developments in the society and economy has not been possible entirely, only significant developments have been studied in this research paper.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
How did individual land holdings lead to an expansion of the agrarian sector? How and why did the tribal society disintegrate into the caste society? In what manner and extent did landownership and taxation affect the administration? How did temples help the society to develop and flourish by playing a major role in the social, economic, cultural and political sectors? Why was the Chola State decentralized with an effective bureaucracy?

CHAPTERISATION: The paper has been divided into three parts as mentioned below:
Chapter 1- It deals with the nature of the society and various social developments which took place during the reign of the Chola dynasty. Chapter 2- It deals with the nature of the economy and the changes which occurred during the four century rule of the Cholas. In the second part of this chapter the researcher has interpreted and analyzed the nature of the polity during the Chola rule.

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SOURCES:
The researcher has relied entirely upon secondary sources such as Books and Articles from journals.

MODE OF CITATION
The researcher has followed the NLS Guide to Uniform Citation throughout the paper. Books have been cited as follows: Author, TITLE OF THE BOOK, volume number, page number (Editors name ed(s)./ Translators name tr(s)., (if any) edition number edn., (if any), Name of Publication, year of publication). Articles have been cited as follows: Author, Title of the Article, volume number(issue number), NAME OF THE JOURNAL, page number, (month of publication (if given), year of publication).

STYLE OF WRITING:
This paper is descriptive to the extent of understanding the nature of the society and economy under the Chola rule and is analytical at the part that deals with the nature of the Chola polity.

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CHAPTER 1- SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS UNDER CHOLA RULE

During the end of the eighth century, there were two major kingdoms in the southern part of the Indian sub-continent, which were in battle and this continued political conflict paved way for the rise of the Cholas. When they came in to rule, they tried to extend their state territory and in order to optimize natural as well as human resources, these rulers decided to initiate a structure of a government which monopolized State power.2 During their rule several developments took place which affected the society and economy. The significant changes and developments which took place from the very beginning of the Chola Empire till the end of their rule have been discussed below.

Expansion of agrarian system during the Chola period: Land played a fundamental role in the development of the agrarian sector and peoples dependence on it made it even more important as it was the main source of livelihood.3 Before eighth century, the South Indian economy was characterized by its subsistence which implied a reliance on natural resources for livelihood. Greater expansion of the agrarian system resulted in an increase in agricultural surplus and resulted in a more differential distribution. The consequence of this was the development of a class society. In other words, the undifferentiated tribes of an earlier period were transformed into peasants organized in a hierarchical manner depending on the share of surplus that each was able to command, and identified as so many castes.4 The first rank in the hierarchy was occupied by Brahmins because of their religious superiority added to the land power that they possessed throughout the Chola rule. They were called puran-kudi meaning the greater kudi. Vellalas was the other caste the members of which were equal to Brahmins but were superior to them in terms

2 3

K.J Schmidt, AN ATLAS AND SURVEY OF SOUTH ASIAN HISTORY, 32 (M.E Sharpe, 1995). N. K. Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar, 2 (Oxford University Press, 2009). 4 Kesavan Veluthat, The Early Medieval in South India, 7 (Oxford University Press, 2009).

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of the number of land holdings. These two castes were always on the higher side of the hierarchy, followed by primary producers and artisans. Lastly came the leather workers and hunters who were at the lowest level in the hierarchy because they were the agricultural labor who owned a very small share of the land. Local-self administration: The King was the most important person in the administration of the Chola system, in whom the authority regarding taking important decisions was vested. But he had a council of ministers/ chiefs who helped him in taking major decisions regarding the welfare of the empire. The basic unit of the administration was the nadu, which consisted of the number of villages, closely relative. When more land was brought under cultivation by the king as discussed above, the number of nadus increased. Irrigation facility was also provided so that water could be used in water-scarce lands for cultivation and this process resulted in the transformation of the tribes into the peasants because now everyone had individual land holdings with irrigational facilities.5 This was done by dividing various channels from the Kaveri River with setting up of pumps and construction of tanks to store water.6 The Chola state was divided into four mandalams which entailed a significant reorganization of the entire society.7 The chiefs were appointed as governors for these provinces, who were either heads of these provinces or members of the royal family. ur and mahasabha/sabha were the two village assemblies during their rule. ur was initially considered as the general assembly of the village but mahasabha had gained importance because of the gathering of the adults of the Brahmin villages, hence these mahasabhas had the main power regarding issues concerning land. An educated person was elected as the head for each of the various executive committees keeping in mind the administrative skills needed to head such departments, for example, Revenue department (for accessing the taxes and land revenue), water committee (for the distribution of the water to various villages), etc.8

Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, 30-32 (1 edn, Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2007). Supra note 3, at 73. Y Subbarayalu, South India under the Cholas, 214 (Oxford University Press, 2011). Supra note 4, at 26-32.

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There was decentralization of the powers in this political administration of the Chola State as discussed earlier. Although he was at the top of the administration the king merely enjoyed a nominal status of a head while all the real powers and authority were divided among the chiefs or the local magnates etc. Hence, the socio-political structure of the Chola period was quite balanced and decentralized. It can be said that the village assemblies and communities under the Cholas were really democratic. Individual Landholding: The private landholding system also took a turn at this time and significant changes have been noticed as discussed further. During the heyday of the Chola rule in the tenth century, emergence of individual landholdings led to a decrease in state slavery. The kings wanted to expand their empire and for this purpose they started breaking the community ties of these people as before this, they followed a communal landholdings system. For breaking these ties they started giving lands to these people and some individual Brahmans also. Brahmans were expected to lead a spiritual life being priests, performing all rituals and worships. However, with the passage of time they started concerning themselves with other secular, non-religious functions such as management of landholdings, administration etc.,9 Some of them dominated the tract comprising a number of villages while few dominated the entire region and went on to become landed magnates.10 However, these efforts of the king resulted in the creation of economically independent peasants who held individual lands.11 These countrymen constantly contended with each other and tried to enhance their sphere of authority and privileges. During the beginning of the ninth century the king was not the sole ruler but was the central figure among the chiefs who were heads of small or large group of villages. The King also followed the system of distributing the lands which the State had earned by acquiring new territories to these chiefs resulting in them holding individual land tracts.12 So,

Noburu Karashima, Ancient to Medieval: South Indian Society in Transition, 7-8 (New Delhi: Oxford

University Press, 2010).

10 11

Supra note 4, at 42-44. Noburu Karashima, Towards a new formation: South Indian Society under Vijaynagar Rule , introduction, 7

(New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993)

12

Supra note 3, at 88-89.

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the transformation of tribal society into cultivators/peasants and tenants by owning land can be seen.13 Role of temple in the development of the society: The Chola city was popularly known as the city of temples14 because of the large number of temples. Temples were one of the major players in the development of the society during tenth century as stated before, which were mainly dedicated to the Agaimaic god Siva. The importance of this institution must not just be understood in religious terms but must also be seen in terms of its contributions to economy, society, polity, culture and other aspects of the human life. It acted as an effective agent for preserving the heritage of the elevated culture. 15 All these were interrelated in a very complex way as will be discussed later in the paper.16 The Chola Kings believed in their mythological lineages connecting them with the Puranic antiquity of their dynasty.17 The worship of the Agaiamaic deity Siva had been quite popular long before the establishment of the Chola Empire - their predecessors had patronized this sect in a big way by building temples and promoting Saivism.18 They were strong devotees of Siva and inspired Saivism into the Chola country by promoting it and making it a state religion by constructing big temples of Siva. The motive behind the construction of these institutions in such a way was to achieve various objectives such as legitimizing State power, organizing a different administration monitored by the temples and iterating supremacy of their will to gather people belonging to various castes and groups within one sphere of religious centre or to commemorate their victories in battles, to proclaim the greatness of the Chola dynasty and to dazzle the subjects of the empire with the magnificent edifices.19 These temples often depicted the emperors power and vision. This can also be seen in State records where it is mentioned that kings used to gift large extents of lands and other such useful

13 14

Supra note 3, at 11. R. Champaklaxmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanisation: South India 300 BC to AD 1300, 424 (New Delhi:

Oxford University Press, 1999).

15 16

Supra note 3, at 37. V. Ramaswamy, Historical Dictionary of the Tamils, 273 (New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 2007). Supra note 5, at 7. KesavanVeluthat, The Political Structure of Early Medieval South India, 254 (2 edn, Hyderabad: Orient

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Blackswan, 2012).
19

N. Vanamamalai, State and Religion in the Chola Empire: Taxation for Thanjavur Temple's Music and Dance, 3(3) Social Scientist, 26 (October, 1971).

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material to temples which resulted in temple members becoming landed magnates and the temples themselves storehouses of gold & silver with precious jewels.20 Temples became the leading political, pilgrimage and trade centres and also common places for various meetings, centres for dance and music, education centres etc.21 The economic activities like endowments of lands, domestic animals, jewels, necessary commodities (such as oil, food grains) for a variety of purposes such as religious festivals, burning of lamp, reconstruction/renovation of the temple structure, ornaments of the deities and a large complex for the education purpose etc. The temples had their own administrative machinery which was controlled by the landed groups (Brahmins or vellalas). People who were from the royal family, Chola officials of a high rank, place servants, leading landowners, merchants, etc. were allowed to participate in a number of religious and cultural activities.22 The temple administration system had a control over a large chunk of land. The duty of collecting taxes from all villages and redressal of grievances caused in the course of collection of taxes was assigned to the revenue department.23 So, this institution can be described in a way as a pluralistic settlement because this was the centre of different socio-religious groups pursuing various activities. Thus, this institution played a crucial role in the development and growth of both Chola society and economy by handling various political, cultural and economic powers. This led to a change in the relative position of the modes of power as now temples had gained prominence and also a status above that of local chiefs who were below the king as this institution was representing the state and its various activities on a much larger and consolidated manner.24 Status of women: Women were considered to be mentally and physically inferior as compared to men since the very early period of Chola rule. The age for marriage for a woman was decreased so as to tear down all her opportunities to lead an independent and dignified life. In royal families, women after their marriage were kept in seclusion with certain restrictions by keeping them away from public gaze. However, there was not any system like the Pardah system. During ninth

20 21

Supra note 17, at 6. Supra note 17, 74-77. 22 Supra note 13, at 204-210. 23 Supra note 17, at 74-77. 24 Supra note 17, at 78.

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century, with an increase in property rights on land, the property rights of women also increased. In the case of a widow of a king, all the property rights of her husband were to be given to her if he were to die without having any child.25 The social status of ordinary women during the rule of Cholas received little to no reference in the State inscriptions as compared to that of women from the royal family. During the ninth century, Cholas were not the sole rulers of the country but were the central figures among chiefs who were the head of small or large groups of villages. These chiefs usually had matrimonial alliances with the king as they provided prospective queens to the rulers family. They recognized the Chola kings over lordship by implementing the orders given by the Chola monarch. These chiefs were taken as subordinates to the king as they used their army to assist the Chola overlord. During this period, taking a wife from a chiefly family was common and such prospective queens were given quite some importance. This can be inferred from the fact that more is known about the queens of this period as compared to the later Chola period. Sometimes, details of their origins would also be mentioned in inscription stating whether they belonged to a chiefly family or were just temple girls. On a positive side a womans modesty and chastity was given huge importance and considered sacred.26 Women who were interested in dance and music were attached to the temples. Overall, during the tenth century insignificant positions were assigned to the queens because of the glorified image and ascendancy of the king. So, it can be seen that womens participation in public affairs was not much at this time. Military: The power of a ruler can be seen by studying his military expeditions.27 The military office of the Chola State was important for the protection of the territory from unwanted wars. This was popularly known as the office of the commander of the forces. The military force consisted of about 70 regiments of a territorial army and numberless ships of a naval force. Senapatis were hereditary brought by evidence and hence, were not elected or recruited. They were remunerated by assigning lands for the service they provided by protecting the territory, which resulted into them becoming landed magnates.28 In this a different kind of hierarchy was present as can be seen that other than the soldiers who were taking oath to protect the king and his kingdom, there was a band of trusted companions of honor consisting of chieftains, archers, elephant riders and horsemen who were also called as The standing
25 26

Supra note 4, at 47. Supra note 15, at 44. 27 Supra note 17, at 11. 28 Supra note 17, at 104-105.

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army.29 Usually, tribesmen in this army were in the regular standing army but some had also occupied higher levels in the ranks.30 There were few Brahmans also who hold the title of the soldiers. Also, troops were provided to the king from the neighboring state like, Cheras etc. so as to assist them during the war. Hence, the army office of the Chola State shows that the king had no monopoly over military decisions and hence this sector was decentralized.31

29 30

Supra note 17, at 266. P.K. Gautam, The Cholas: some enduring issues of statecraft, military matters and international relations, 7(4) JOURNAL OF DEFENCE STUDIES, 47-42 (2013). 31 Supra note 17, at 104-105.

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CHAPTER 2- ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE CHOLAS

The economy under the Cholas was flourishing and contented. As discussed in chapter one, the agrarian sector constituted the backbone of the Chola economy. There were however lots of ups and downs in the economy of the Cholas due to several changes as discussed below: Emergence of trade: Emergence of trade played a major role in the economy of the Chola country. Likewise changes took place in the agrarian settlements, trade and urbanization became more elaborate and complex and showed signs of being structurally different.32 The evolution of such centres in the Chola period was dependent on the degree of the expansion in the agrarian settlements. Specialization in the marketing of local commodities and luxury goods was an advance step towards this process followed by the growth of the structured trade through merchant guilds or society. To encourage this further, development of ports and production centres was taken into consideration which began at the beginning of the tenth century through organized commerce.33 The Cholas also adopted a maritime policy to extend their power far longer to South East Asia.34 So Chola kings undertook the demonstration of their sea power with a probable objective of achieving monopoly rather than the acquisition of the territory.35 As discussed before the emergence of institutions like temples in the Chola society gave way to the rise of trade as a part of the endowments received from the king or big-landlords was invested into trade activities. The growth in economic activities of this institution led to a development of urban centres in the Chola society. This resulted in trade of agricultural commodities & local goods including, pearls and jewels with distant lands who would be attracted by these centres. Coins were a medium of exchange which became more regular from the tenth century onwards. This resulted in an increase in demand for goods which could not be produced locally. Such trade developments proved to be beneficial to large scale

32 33

Supra note 13, at 203-310. Supra note 13, at 206. 34 A.L. Basham, A Cultural History of India, 157 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997).
35

Supra note 33, at 450.

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settlements of craftsmen and artisans, who were in due course accommodated in the temple centres. This progression saw a sluggish growth and it increased over a period of time.36 There was a corresponding expansion in the architectural structure of the temple complexes with numerous fields and gigantic entrances, surrounding many shrines, halls of educational activities, hospitals and monastic establishments with lineages of religious heads directing temple administration.37 This gave birth to major industries of metal ware, bronze-casting, vessel making and textiles which led to the formation of big centres for the art of casting bronze images on the temples, through which the Chola artists attained incomparable expertise in addition to excellence. Weaving was the second major industry38 and its demand from both within the country and foreign lands encouraged their production.39 Cotton fabric was the main manufactured item for exports apart from jewellery.40 Commercial taxes were levied on cotton production and export along with that of other fabrics as well professional taxes on weavers etc. during eleventh century AD.41 Cholas seemed to have had a hegemonic power over the major routes which facilitated the movement of the trade i.e. commerce between Roman West, Srilanka and South-East Asian countries. For this purpose, they developed a port which in many ways acted like a Gateway City. As mentioned before it was a major route for trade between many countries. 42 But the major reason behind the commercial importance of trade for Cholas was not the various developments that took place in the regular exchange system in the Kaveri delta nor the direct connection of commerce to that of the local demand of the population for the goods which could not produce locally but the access of Kaveri valley to the other coastal towns and countries through which trade could be done.43 They also gave importance for the construction of roads so as to facilitate healthy trade and safe movement of the army when in need.44 Thus, emergence in overseas trade resulted in a development of urban centres, for ex. Ports, Emporia of trade etc.45

36 37

Supra note 13, at 20. Supra note 13, at 206. 38 Supra note 13, at 209. 39 Supra note 13, at 227. 40 Supra note 13, at 182. 41 Supra note 13, at 228. 42 Supra note 13, at 191. 43 Supra note 13, at 223-224. 44 Supra note 4, at 31. 45 Supra note 13, at 204.

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Land Revenue department: The Chola state was considered to have an efficient bureaucracy and a wide tax base.46 The collection of tax was the main source of revenue for the government of the state. There existed a systematic assessment and collection of land revenue.47 Tax for every land differed because of different productivity of the lands. When the first systematic land survey of their reign was conducted by Rajaraja I, the standardization of land measurement rod (unit to measure land) was done, which means rod of the person who measured the world so as to avoid confusions regarding various kinds of rods in different areas during different time periods. But the actual details regarding the classification of lands and actual assessment are not available in the inscriptions. Also, one cannot calculate the actual land revenue because it differs according to the nature of the land. Government many times did not earn much revenue from charging tax because the land that was given as grants to temples and Brahmans was freed from any kind of tax on the land. But this loss was never too much to affect the total revenue. At the end of the Chola rule, some of the Brahman landlords were forced to sell their land due to their inability to paying heavy taxes. So, it can be seen that government had never gotten into a huge loss or debt. Whenever such situation arose; to keep the State machinery functioning, tax would be raised. The sale of these lands by Brahmans as per records were far greater although as out of the total area which was studied only 20 percent were Brahman settlements with rest being peasant settlements. In other words, the sale of land by the peasant assemblies was not proportionate to that of Brahman settlements. One reason behind this may be that peasants were usually unwilling to sell their land because it was their support for livelihood. The main idea behind purchasing was endowment in approximately every case which resulted in temples being large landowners and this was the main focus of the State inscriptions as the main purpose was to record religious charities. The sale by merchants did not seem to be much as individual merchants anyway profited from trade. As temples were mostly receivers of land by the generous Chola rulers for the entire period of their rule, sale of land by temples were found to be few. So here it can be seen that economy was not affected by the sale and

46 47

Supra note 3, at 100. Supra note 6, at Introduction, pg. xxiii.

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purchase of land after the late tenth century as before. As discussed earlier land was willfully made affordable to the tribal society to enable them to hold individual land.48 Hence, this discussion on the nature of the society and economy during Chola rule depicts a picture of hierarchy in which the actual position on different levels varied depending on the situation. The researcher has discussed in the previous two chapters about how an increase in individual land holdings gave rise to an agricultural surplus which further led to the emergence of trade and so on, which finally led to a total change in the scenario. A unique change in the administration of the Chola society was seen as will be discussed further on in the paper. The chiefs after becoming landed magnates gradually assumed many of the functions of the government, went on to charge and collect land revenue and assumed administrative powers to a great extent which at that time was considered as a privilege, some of them being taking fines and granting punishments on their own. They also played a major role in solving the disputes at the village level which was a unique feature of the Chola State. Thus, it can be seen that these people leased their land to their followers/peasants with no authorization from the king enabling them to draw sustenance from the land without even operating on it themselves. This system can therefore be called a feudal system as it is a common feudal feature.49 Although this system did not contain all the features of the feudal system it did possess certain basis feudal features i.e. deriving of income from the surplus produced by the peasants by the landed class without working on the land themselves, in which the position of the primary producer was dependent. Thus, these changes gave rise to an emergence of a new social order.50 Chola State (centralistic or bureaucratic): After studying the nature of the society and the economy the researcher has focused on analyzing the developments discussed before for understanding the nature of the polity and the form of government that existed during the Chola rule. A number of factors are responsible for the change in the political structure of the Chola State during the four centuries of their rule.51

48 49

Supra note 3, at 100-124. D.N. Jha, Early India: a concise History, 191 (New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors,2004) Supra note 17, at 42-44. Supra note 4, at 36.

50 51

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It can been seen that middle-period Chola kings were eager to build a centralized state which can be inferred from their attempts to centralize administration of land and land revenue. Their focus was however limited to the core part of the country so this cannot be called a growing trend. It is for this reason that the Chola State cannot be described as a centralized State.52 The Cholas had an effective administration. This can be seen through various steps undertaken by them (mainly, Rajaraja I and Rajendra I: most powerful kings of the Chola dynasty) like construction of the big Siva temple for the fulfillment of various socioeconomic as well as political purposes, distribution of the revenue which they earned by acquiring territory to the people of the Chola country so as to grant them individual lands instead of the communal holdings over a single land, providing irrigation facility by dividing various channels and construction of wells so as to increase agricultural production, etc. This simply brings forth the expression of their aspiration to build a great-powerful state with an effective bureaucracy. To understand this the researcher has discussed the administrative system, provincial and local government, military administration, etc. in chapters one and two, from which it can be concluded that the king himself did not concentrate on all the authority and power of the State but was enjoying the position of an overlord over a large number of local chiefs, local magnates, etc. Some important features like salaried occupations in which a head is generally appointed, codification of laws and punishments, etc. were missing in their administration which again are features of a centralized government. This is a representation which is in conformity with other features of polity of States in South India that have been appreciated and agreed upon - a polity with a largely decentralized nature. Thus Chola state was an imperial state, associated with a highly organized and thoroughly efficient bureaucracy.53

52 53

Supra note 5, at 104. Supra note 5, at 248.

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CONCLUSION
The researcher has studied the nature of the society and the economy of the period of the Chola rule and came to the conclusion that there was no individual landholding system among the non-Brahman people before eighth century but after that the non-Brahman people also had command over individual lands giving rise to the expansion of the agrarian sector. This further resulted in the stratification of the society into a caste society because of the increase in landed magnates and individual landholding which formed a new hierarchy based on the power of an individual in terms of command over the land property. Landholding and taxation affected the administration in a certain way that formed a new form of government. As concluded from the above discussion, the king himself did not concentrate on all of the authority and power of the state but instead was enjoying the position of an overlord, over a large number of local chiefs, local magnates, etc. Thus authority and power was decentralized in the Chola State. The effect on the society due to the construction of the big temples by the rulers was very much due to the pursuance of various socio-political activities in a common place. This gave rise to the emergence of the trade with other states. Finally, the decentralized form of the government has been seen in the Chola society with an effective bureaucracy.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS: 1- Kesavan Veluthat, The Early Medieval in South India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2009). 2- Noburu Karashima, Towards a new formation: South Indian Society under Vijaynagar Rule, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993). 3- Y Subbarayalu, South India under the Cholas, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011). 4- Kesavan Veluthat, The Political Structure of Early Medieval South India, (2 edn, Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan, 2012). 5- Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, (1edn, Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2007). 6- Noburu Karashima, Ancient to Medieval: South Indian Society in Transition (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2010). 7- R. Champaklaxmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999). 8- V. Ramaswamy, Historical Dictionary of the Tamils, (New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 2007). 9- K. A. Nilkanta Sastry, The Illustrated History of South India, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2010). 10- K. A. Nilkanta Sastry, A Contemporary History of India, vol. 2, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press). 11- A.L Basham, A Cultural History of India, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997). 12- D.N. Jha, Early India: a concise History, (New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 2004) ARTICLES: 1- P.K. Gautam, The Cholas: some enduring issues of statecraft, military matters and international relations, vol no. 7, issue no. 4, JOURNAL OF DEFENCE STUDIES (2013). 2-

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