Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1 Functions
(a) state the domain and range of a function, and find composite functions; The domain of a function is all the possible input values, and the range is all possible output values. Domain: set of all possible input values (usually x) Range: set of all possible output values (usually y) a) State the domain and range of the following relation {(3, 2), (5, 4), (1, 1), (2, 6)} The domain is all the x-values, and the range is all the y-values Domain: {3, 5, 1, 2} Range:{2, 4, -1, 6} a) State the domain and range of the following relation {(3, 5), (5, 5), (1, 5), (2, 5)} Domain: {3, 5, 1, 2} Range: {5} What is a Function? A function, f(x) relates an input to an output. Each input is related to exactly one output. This is a function. There is only one y for each x
This is a function. There is only one arrow coming from each x; there is only one y for each x
This is not a function. 5 is in the domain, but it has no range element that corresponds to it
Functions: Domain and Range The function composition of two functions takes the output of one function as the input of a second one Aninverse function for f, denoted by f-1, is a function in the opposite direction. - See more at: http://coolmathsolutions.blogspot.com/2013/02/what-isfunction.html#sthash.t3Rri8gK.dpuf
(b) determine whether a function is one-to-one, and find the inverse of a one-to-one function; A one-to-one function is a function in which every element in the range of the function corresponds with one and only one element in the domain. A function, f(x), has an inverse function if f(x) is one-to-one. The Horizontal Line Test: If you can draw a horizontal line so that it hits the graph in more than one spot, then it is NOT one-to-one.
f(x)=x3
f(x)=x3 is one-to-one function and has inverse function. (The horizontal line cuts the graph of function f at 1 point, therefore f is a one-to-one function) b) Is below function one-to-one?
f(x)=x2
f(x)=x2 is NOT one-to-one function and does NOT has an inverse function. (The horizontal line cuts the graph of function f at 2 points, therefore f is NOT a one-to-one function) If we restricted x greater than or equal to 0. The horizontal line cuts the graph of function f once and f(x)=x2 is one-to-one function and has an inverse function.
f(x)=3x4
Draw the graph of f(x)=3x-4
The horizontal line cuts the graph of function f once, therefore f is a one-to-one function and it has has inverse function.
Piecewise-defined function is a function which is defined by multiple subfunctions, each sub-function applying to a certain interval of the main function's domain.
Example 1
f(x)={2x1,x<1x23,x1
Example 2
f(x)=anxn+an1xn1+a1x+a0
where an, an-1,.... a0 are real numbers and n is a nonnegative integer. Some example of polynomials:
f(x)=P(x)Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomial functions in x.
y=2x+5x1
f(x) is not defined at x=1. We can't have x = 1, and therefore f(x) has a vertical asymptote (a line that a curve approaches as it heads towards infinity) at
x=1
Horizontal asymptote will be the result of dividing the leading coefficients.
y=21=2
Graph of Rational Functions of f(x).
Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x r) and a remainder R is obtained, then f(r) = R.
f(x)=(xr)q(x)+R
Example: f(x)=x4+3x3-2x2+x-7 divide by (x-1)
f(x)=(x1)(x3+4x2+2x+3)4
(e) solve polynomial and rational equations and inequalities; Solving Rational Inequalities A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials.
x2+3x+2x2160 x2+3x+2x216=(x+2)(x+1)(x4)(x+4)
as an example for an inequality involving a rational function.
(x+2)(x+1)=0 x=2,x=1
The fraction will be undefined wherever the denominator is zero
(x4)(x+4)=0 x=4,x=4
Consequently, the set
(,4),[2,1],(4,+)
Solution in "inequality" notation
x<4,2x1,x>4
Find the interval with f(x) > 0 Rational equations and inequalities 02
x2+3x+2x2160 x2+3x+2x216=(x+2)(x+1)(x4)(x+4)
as an example for an inequality involving a rational function.
(x+2)(x+1)=0 x=2,x=1
The fraction will be undefined wherever the denominator is zero
(x4)(x+4)=0 x=4,x=4
Consequently, the set
(,4),[2,1],(4,+)
Solution in "inequality" notation
x<4,2x1,x>4
(f) solve equations and inequalities involving modulus signs in simple cases; Solve the inequality |x 2| |x + 1|
Square both sides of each equation to omit the modulus signs. Rearrange the inequality into an equivalent form.
(g) decompose a rational expression into partial fractions in cases where the denominator has two distinct linear factors, or a linear factor and a prime quadratic factor; A rational function P(x)/Q(x) can be rewritten using what is known as partial fraction decomposition.
A1ax+b+A1(ax+b)2+...+Am(ax+b)m
Write the partial fraction decomposition of
11x+21(2x3)(x+6)=A2x3+Bx+6
Distribute A and B
11x+21=(x+6)A+(2x3)B
If x=-6
11(6)+21=[2(6)3]B B=3
If x=0,
21=6A3B A=5
The partial fraction
11x+21(2x3)(x+6)=52x3+3x+6
f(x)=ax
a is any value greater than 0
As x increases, f(x) heads to 0 As x decreases, f(x) heads to infinity It is a Strictly Decreasing function It has a Horizontal Asymptote along the x-axis (y=0). For a > 1:
As x increases, f(x) heads to infinity As x decreases, f(x) heads to 0 it is a Strictly Increasing function It has a Horizontal Asymptote along the x-axis (y=0).
f(x)=ex
where e is the number (approximately 2.718281828) 1.3 Exponential and logarithmic functions
(h) relate exponential and logarithmic functions, algebraically and graphically; This is the Exponential Function:
f(x)=ax
a is any value greater than 0
As x increases, f(x) heads to 0 As x decreases, f(x) heads to infinity It is a Strictly Decreasing function It has a Horizontal Asymptote along the x-axis (y=0). For a > 1:
As x increases, f(x) heads to infinity As x decreases, f(x) heads to 0 it is a Strictly Increasing function It has a Horizontal Asymptote along the x-axis (y=0).
f(x)=ex
where e is the number (approximately 2.718281828) The logarithmic function is the function y = logax, where a is any number such that a > 0, a 1, and x > 0. y = logax is equivalent to x = ay
Since y = log2x is a one-to-one function, we know that its inverse will also be a function. When we graph the inverse of the logarithmic function, we notice that we obtain the exponential function, y=2x Comparison of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
2. Law of Indices
logab=1logba logab=lognblogna
(j) solveequations and inequalities involving exponential or logarithmic expressions; Solving Rational Inequalities A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials.
x2+3x+2x2160 x2+3x+2x216=(x+2)(x+1)(x4)(x+4)
as an example for an inequality involving a rational function.
(x+2)(x+1)=0 x=2,x=1
The fraction will be undefined wherever the denominator is zero
(x4)(x+4)=0 x=4,x=4
Consequently, the set
(,4),[2,1],(4,+)
Solution in "inequality" notation
x<4,2x1,x>4
(k) relate the periodicity and symmetries of the sine, cosine and tangent functions to their graphs, and identify the inverse sine, inverse cosine and inverse tangent functions and their graphs; (l) use basic trigonometric identities and the formulae for sin (A B), cos (A B) and tan (A B), including sin 2A, cos2A and tan 2A; (m) express a sin + b cos in the forms r sin ( ) and r cos ( ); (n) find the solutions, within specified intervals, of trigonometric equations and inequalities.
Trigonometric Identities
Let
asin+bcosRsin(+)
Expand R sin( ) as follow
sin(A+B)=sinAcosB+cosAsinB
So
asin+bcos Rcossin+Rsincos
Equating the coefficients of sin and cos in this identity, we have: For sin : a = R cos ----(1) For cos : b = R sin ----(2)
ba=RsinRcos =tan
So
=tan1ba
( is a positive acute angle and a and b are positive)
asin+bcosRsin(+)
Similar to minus case,
asinbcosRsin()
Express
Rsin()RcossinRsincos
Example Express 4 sin +3 cos in the form R sin( + )
4sin+3cos=5sin(+36.87)
Summary of the expressions and conditions
asin+bcosRcos()
Expanding R cos ( ), Trigonometric Identities
Rcos()=Rcoscos+Rsinsin asin+bcosRcoscos+Rsinsin
Equating the coefficients of sin and cos in this identity, we have: For sin : a = R sin ----(1)
For cos :
b = R cos ----(2)
ab=RsinRcos =tan
So
=tan1ab R=a2+b2
Then we have expressed a sin + b cos in the form required
asin+bcosRcos()
Summary of the expressions and conditions
2.1 Sequences
(a) use an explicit formula and a recursive formula for a sequence; (b) find the limit of a convergent sequence;
Convergent Sequence
A sequence is said to be convergent if it approaches some limit. Formally, a sequence converges to the limit
limnSn=S
Example
The sequence 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, . . . has limit 2, so the sequence converges to 2. The sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . has a limit of infinity (). This is not a real number, so the sequence does not converge. It is a divergent sequence.
2.2 Series (c) use the formulae for the nth term and for the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series and of a geometric series;
An arithmetic progression or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between the consecutive terms is constant. The nth term of the sequence (an) is given by
an=a1+(n1)d
The sum of the sequence of the first n terms is then given by
Sn=n2[2a+(n1)d]
or
Sn=n2(a1+a2)
Geometric Series is a series with a constant ratio between successive terms.
an=arn1
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is:
a+ar+ar2+ar3+.....+arn1=k=0n1ark=a1rn1r
Derive the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series as follows: Let
s=a1rn1r
As n approaches infinity, the absolute value of r must be less than one for the series to converge.
a+ar+ar2+ar3+ar4.....=k=0ark=a1r
When a=1
1+r+r2+r3+....=11r
Let
s=11r
Proof of convergence
1+r+r2+r3+....=limn(1+r+r2+r3+....+rn)
Since (1 + r + r + ... + r )(1r) = 1r
2 n n+1
and r
n+1
0 for | r | < 1
1+r+r2+r3+....=limn1rn+11r
(d) identify the condition for the convergence of a geometric series, and use the formula for the sum of a convergent geometric series; (e) use the method of differences to find the nth partial sum of a series, and deduce the sum of the series in the case when it is convergent;
(f) expand (a+b)n , where nZ Binomial theorem describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial
(x+y)n=(n0)xny0+(n1)xn1y1+(n2)xn2y2+...+(nn1)x1yn1+(nn)x0yn
It can be written as
(x+y)n=k=0n(nk)xnkyk
Binomial formula : involves only a single variable
(1+x)n=(n0)x0+(n1)x1+(n2)x2+...+(nn1)xn1+(nn)xn (1+x)n=k=0n(nk)xk
According to the ratio test for series convergence a series converges when:
(g) expand (1+x)n , where nQ, and identify the condition | x | < 1 for the validity of this expansion; (h) use binomial expansions in approximations.
Chapter 3 Matrices
3.1 Matrices (a) identify null, identity, diagonal, triangular and symmetric matrices;
(b) use the conditions for the equality of two matrices; (c) perform scalar multiplication, addition, subtraction and multiplication of matrices with at most three rows and three columns;
The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of the diagonal elements. The inverse of a triangular matrix is a triangular matrix. The product of two (upper or lower) triangular matrices is a triangular matrix.
A=313025001=3.2.1=6 A1=1/31/61/601/25/25001
B=200310461=2.1.1=2 B1=1/2003/2101161
Properties of Matrices
(AB)=(A)B (AB)=A(B)
Transpose
(AB)T=BTAT
Properties of Inverse Matrix
(e) find the inverse of a non-singular matrix using elementary row operations; Find the inverse of a non-singular matrix using elementary row operations
4322 4 4 232xyz=190295250
Let
A=adgbeh cfi
1. Determinant of 3x3 Matrices
Properties of Determinant
1. |A| = 0 if it has two equal line
3132 22313=0
2. |A| = 0 if all elements of a line are zero
303202303=0
3. |A| = 0 if the elements of a line are a linear combination of the others. (row 3 = row 1 + row 2)
213325246=0
4. The determinant of matrix A and its transpose A are equal. |AT|=|A|
A=3130 25001=3.2.1=6
6. The determinant of a product equals the product of the determinants.
|A.B|=|A|.|B|
7. If a determinant switches two parallel lines its determinant changes sign.
213121342=5, 123211432=5
3.2 Systems of linear equations (h) reduce an augmented matrix to row-echelon form, and determine whether a system of linear equations has a unique solution, infinitely many solutions or no solution;
(i)
Ax=b
Gaussian elimination starting with the system of equations Compose the "augmented matrix equation" Perform elementary row operations to put the augmented matrix into the upper triangular form A matrix that has undergone Gaussian elimination is said to be in echelon form Given below matrix equation In augmented form, this becomes Switching the first and second rows (without switching the elements in the righthand column vector) gives First row times 3 and minus third row gives First row times 2 and minus second row gives Finally, second row times -7/3 and minus third row gives (augmented matrix has been reduced to row-echelon form) which can be solved immediately to give and then again back-substituting to find , back-substituting to obtain
(j) find the unique solution of a system of linear equations using the inverse of a matrix. Use result in 24a to solve simultaneous equations below.
4 Complex Numbers
The real numbers include all integer, rational number (number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction p/q of two integers, with the denominator q not equal to zero) and irrational numbers (numbers cannot be represented as a simple fraction) Intergers
...4,3,21,0,1,2,3,4....
Rational Number
12,12,1537,....
Irrational Number
2,33,,e,log23,....
Imaginary number is a number than can be written as a real number multiplied by the imaginary unit i
i=1 i2=1
A complex number is a number that can be put in the form
a+bi
wherea and b are real numbers and i is the square root of -1, the imaginary unit
i=1 i2=1
|z|=a2+b2
(b) use the conditions for the equality of two complex numbers; (c) find the modulus and argument of a complex number in cartesian form and express the complex number in polar form;
Complex Number, z=a+bi Modulus is the length of the line segment, that is OP (modulus of z can nd using Pythagoras theorem)
Argand Diagram
The Argand diagram is used to represent complex numbers. Argand diagram form by y-axis which represents the imaginary part and x-axis represent the real part. Example:
Z1=3+2i Z2=4+i
Conjugate of
(e) find the complex roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients; (f) perform elementary operations on two complex numbers expressed in cartesian form; (g) perform multiplication and division of two complex numbers expressed in polar form;
(h) usede Moivres theorem to find the powers and roots of a complex number
De Moivre's formula states that for any real number x and any integer n,
(cosx+isinx)n=cos(nx)+isin(nx)
From Euler's formula
zn=(x+yi)n=(rei)n
Example 1: Use De Moivres theorem to nd (1+i)10. Write the answer in exact rectangular form.
(xh)2+(yk)2=r2
Equation of an Ellipse in Standard Form
(xh)2a2+(yk)2b2=1
Equation of a Hyperbolas in Standard Form
(xh)2a2(yk)2b2=1
Equation of a Parabolas in Standard Form
a(xh)2+k
y=x2
(xh)2a2+(yk)2b2=1
Vertex of an ellipse.The points at which an ellipse makes its sharpest turns. The vertices are on the major axis. Centre of an ellipse A point inside the ellipse which is the midpoint of the line segment linking the two foci. Foci of an ellipse - The foci, c is always lie on the major (longest) axis, spaced equally each side of the centre.
c2=a2b2
Example
Find Vertices, Centre, and Foci of Ellipse 01 Find Vertices, Centre, and Foci of Ellipse 02 Find Vertices, Centre, and Foci of Ellipse 03 (d) find the vertices, centre, foci and asymptotes of a hyperbola; (e) find the equations of parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas satisfying prescribed conditions (excluding eccentricity); (f) sketch conics; (g) find the cartesian equation of a conic defined by parametric equations; (h) use the parametric equations of conics.
Chapter 6 Vectors
6.1 Vectors in two and three dimensions (a) use unit vectors and position vectors;
u=uu
(c) (d)
Position Vectors
A vector that starts from the origin (O) is called a position vector.
Point A has the position vector a, if
A=(35)
Point B has the position vector b, if
B=(62)
(e)
c[a1a2]=[ca1ca2]
Example: Multiply the vector u = < 2, 3 > of by the scalars 2, 3, and 1/2
(c) find the scalar product of two vectors, and determine the angle between two vectors; The scalar product, or dot product is an algebraic operation that takes two equal-length sequences of numbers (usually coordinate vectors) and returns a single number. Properties of the Scalar Product
a.b=|a||b|cos
|a| means the magnitude (length) of vector a. and
a.b=axbx+ayby
a.b=axbx+ayby a.b=(6)(5)+(8)12)=66
Find the angle between the two vectors.
|ab|=|a||b|sin n
|a| is the magnitude (length) of vector a |b| is the magnitude (length) of vector b is the angle between a and b n is the unit vector at right angles to both a and b Vector Product, C,
6.2 Vector geometry (e) find and use the vector and cartesian equations of lines;
r=OA+AB
or
r=a+t, t=ba
Example: Compute the vector equation of a straight line through point A and B with position vector:
a=axayaz,b=bxbybz,r=xyz
Cartesian Equation will be
xaxbxax=yaybyay=zazbzaz
Example: Compute the cartesian equation of a straight line through point A and B with position vector:
(f) find and use the vector and cartesian equations of planes;
r=a+u+v
Example: Compute the vector equation of a plane through point A, B and C with position vector:
14x+6y+11z=1
(g) calculate the angle between two lines, between a line and a plane, and between two planes;
tan=m1m21+m1m2
m1m2 -1, this formula doesn't work for perpendicular lines. Example 1: Find the acute angle between the lines y = 3x - 1 and y = -2x + 3.
y=6x+8 y=311x1011
m1=6, m2=-3/11
(h) find the point of intersection of two lines, and of a line and a plane;
y=3x7(1) y=2x+3(1)
Substitute (1) into (2)
y=3(2)7 y=1
5 0 0Google
- See more at: http://coolmathsolutions.blogspot.com/2013/03/find-point-of-intersectionbetween-two.html#sthash.hyvNVGN1.dpuf
n1=cn2
Therefore, <2, -5, 3> and <3, 4, -3> not parallel to each others.
Find some point which lies on both the planes because then it must lie on their line of intersection. Any point which lies on both planes will do. Could be plane-xy, yz, xz. If x=0,
r=(0,18,26)+t(3,15,23)
To check that point that we get does really lie on both planes and so on their line of intersection. If t=1
r=(3,3,3)
Substitute into the planes equations
2(3)5(3)+3(3)=12 3(3)+4(3)3(3)=6
If y=0
2x+3z=12 3x3z=6
x=3.6,z=1.6
Point with position vector (0, 3.6, 1.6) lies on the line of intersection. The equation of the line of intersection is
r=(3.6,0,1.6)+t(3,15,23)
To check that point that we get does really lie on both planes and so on their line of intersection. If t=1
r=(6.6,15,24.6)
Substitute into the planes equations
2(6.6)5(15)+3(24.6)=12 3(6.6)+4(15)3(24.6)=6
7.1 Limits (a) determine the existence and values of the left-hand limit, right-hand limit and limit of a function; Left-hand Limit and Right-hand Limit
A limit is the value that a function or sequence "approaches" as the input or index approaches some value. The limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right.
limxa+f(x)
The limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left.
limxaf(x)
Example: Find
limx2(x31) limx2(x31)=limx2(231)=7
As x approaches 2 from the left, x3pproaches 8 and x3-1 approaches 7. Find
limx2+(x31) limx2+(x31)=limx2+(231)=7
limxak=k
The limit of a function multiplied by a constant is equal to the value of the function multiplied by the constant.
limxak.f(x)=k.limxaf(x)
The limit of a sum (or difference) of the functions is the sum (or difference) of the limits of the individual functions.
limxa[f(x)+g(x)]=limxaf(x)+limxag(x) limxa[f(x)g(x)]=limxaf(x)limxag(x)
The limit of a product is the product of the limits.
limxaf(x).g(x)=limxaf(x).limxag(x)
The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits
limxaf(x)g(x)=limxaf(x)limxag(x)
The limit of a power is the power of the limit.
limxaxn=an
7.2 Continuity (c) determine the continuity of a function at a point and on an interval;
A function f (x) is continuous at a if the following three conditions are valid: i) The function is de fined at a: That is, a is in the domain of definition of f (x) ii) if
limxaf(x)
exists. iii) if
limxaf(x)=f(a)
If any of the three conditions in the definition of continuity fails when x = c, the function is discontinuous at that point.
Continuity on An Interval
(d) use the intermediate value theorem. Let f (x) be a continuous function on the interval [a b] If d is between f(a) and f(b), then a corresponding c between a and b, exists, so that
f(c)=d
Chapter 8 Differentiation
8.1 Derivatives (a) identify the derivative of a function as a limit; Derivative of a Function as a Limit
f(x)=limx0f(x+x)f(x)x
Example 1: Compute the derivative of f(x) by using limit definition
f(x)=5x+2 f(x)=limx0f(x+x)f(x)x =limx0{5(x+x)+2}{5x+2}x =limx0x+2x+x+2x =limx0x+2x+x+2x.x+2+x+x+2 x+2+x+x+2 =limx0(x+3)(x+x+3)x{x+3+x+x+3} =limx0xx{x+3+x+x+3} =limx01x+3+x+x+3 =1x+3+x+3 =12x+3
(b) find the derivatives ofxn (nQ), ex , ln x, sin x, cos x, tan x, sin-1x, cos-1x, tan-1x, with constant multiples, sums, differences, products, quotients and composites; Common Derivatives Table of Derivatives
ddx(x)=1 ddx(xn)=nxn1 ddx(ex)=ex ddx(lnx)=1x,x>0 ddx(sinx)=cosx ddx(cosx)=sinx ddx(tanx)=sec2x ddx(sin1x)=11x2 ddx(cos1x)=11x2 ddx(secx)=secxtanx ddx(cscx)=cscxcotx ddx(cotx)=csc2x
There are two ways to define functions, implicitly and explicitly. Most of the equations we have dealt with have been explicit equations, such as y = 3x-2. This is called explicit because given an x, you can directly get f(x). The technique of implicit differentiation allows you to find the derivative of y with respect to x without having to solve the given equation for y. Given
x2+y2=10
Performing a chain rule to get dy/dx, solve dy/dx in terms of x and y. Find dy/dx for
(d) find the first derivatives of functions defined parametrically; First Derivative of Parametric Functions Parametric derivative is a derivative in calculus that is taken when both the x and y variables (independent and dependent, respectively) depend on an independent third variable t, usually thought of as "time".
8.2 Applications of differentiation (e) determine where a function is increasing, decreasing, concave upward and concave downward
Increasing function: if f '(x)>0, function is increasing. Decreasing function: if f '(x)<0, function is decreasing
concave down: if the second derivative is negative, f ''(x) < 0 the function curves downward, convex down. concave upward: if the second derivative is negative, f ''(x)> 0 the function curves upward.
b) f(x) is increasing and concave down if f'(x) is positive and f"(x) is negative.
d) f(x) is decreasing and concave down if f'(x) is negative and f"(x) is negative.
(f) determine the stationary points, extremum points and points of inflexion; Stationary Points
A stationary point is an input to a function where the derivative is zero. At stationary points,
dydx=0
Extremum Points
Maxima and minima are points where a function reaches a highest or lowest value, respectively (g)
(h) (i) Second Derivative If f'''(x) is positive, then it is a minimum point. If f'''(x) is negative, then it is a maximum point. If f'''(x)= zero, then it could be a maximum, minimum or point of inflexion.
Point of Inflexion An inflection point is a point on a curve at which the sign of the curvature changes.
d2ydx2=0
Third Derivative If f'''(x) 0 There is an inflexion point
(g) sketch the graphs of functions, including asymptotes parallel to the coordinate axes;
(h) find the equations of tangents and normals to curves, including parametric curves;
yy1=m1(xx1) m1=f(x)=dydx
where the gradient to the function of f(x). Tangent is perpendicular to normal, thus
m1m2=1
Example: Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line for the curve at t=1.
x=t2 y=2t+1
dxdt=2t dydt=2 dydx=dydt.dtdx =2t2
t=1
dydx=2
Since t = 1, x = 1, y = 3 Equation of tangent
Related rates problems involve finding a rate at which a quantity changes by relating that quantity to other quantities whose rates of change are known. The rate of change is usually with respect to time.
Example: Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon such that its radius increases at a rate of .80 cm/min. Find the rate of change of its volume when the radius is 5 cm. The volume ( V) of a sphere with radius r is
V=43r3
Differentiating above equation with respect to t
dVdt=43.3r2.drdt dVdt=4r2.drdt
The rate of change of the radius dr/dt = 0.80 cm/min because the radius is increasing with respect to time.
The differentiation and its applications can be used to solve practical problems. This include minimizing costs, maximizing areas, minimizing distances and so on. 1. Diagram- Draw a diagram. 2. Goal - Maximize or minimize which unknown? 3. Data - Introduce variable names. Which values are given? 4. Equation- Express the unknown as a function of a single variable. 5. Differentiate- Find rst and second derivatives. 6. Extrema
Find critical points Use the rst or second derivative test to determine whether the critical points are local maxima, local minima, or neither. Check end points of f, if applicable.
Chapter 9 Integration
(a) identify integration as the reverse of differentiation; (b) integrate xn (nQ), ex , sin x, cos x, sec2x, with constant multiples, sums and differences;
adx=ax+C
Variable
xdx=x22+C
Power
xndx=xn+1n+1+C
Reciprocal
1xdx=ln|x|+C
Exponential
f(x)=P(x)Q(x)
A rational function can be integrated into 4 steps 1. 2. 3. 4. Reduce the fraction if it is improper (i.e degree of P(x) is greater than degree of Q(x). Factor Q(x) into linear and/or quadratic (irreducible) factors. Find the partial fraction decomposition. Integrate the result in step 3.
1x2+5x+6dx
Factor Q(x) into linear and/or quadratic (irreducible) factors & find the partial fraction decomposition
1(x1)(x+2)(x+1)=Ax1+Bx+2+Cx+1
Decomposition of rational functions into partial fractions
1(x1)(x+2)(x+1)dx =16(1x1)+13(1x+2)12(1x+1)
=16ln|x1|+13ln|x+2|12ln|x+1|+C
(d) use trigonometric identities to facilitate the integration of trigonometric functions; (e) use algebraic and trigonometric substitutions to find integrals;
For a2x2, use x=asin For a2+x2, use x=atan For x2a2, use x=asec
Basic Trigonometric Identities
Properties of Integrals
Additive Properties
Split a definite integral up into two integrals with the same integrand but different limits
baf(x)dx+cbf(x)dx=caf(x)dx
If the upper and lower bound are the same, the area is 0.
aaf(x)dx=0
If an interval is backwards, the area is the opposite sign.
baf(x)dx=abf(x)dx
Integral of Sum
ba[f(x)+g(x)]dx=baf(x)dx+bag(x)dx
Scaling by a constant
bacf(x)dx=cbaf(x)dx
Total Area Within an Interval
baf(x)dx=F(b)F(a) ba|f(x)|dx=F(b)+F(a)
Integral inequalities
If
f(x)0 and a<b, then baf(x)dx0 f(x) g(x) and a<b, then baf(x) dx bag(x) dx
(i) evaluate definite integrals; (j) calculate the area of a region bounded by a curve (including a parametric curve) and lines parallel to the coordinate axes, or between two curves;
If y = f (x ) is continuous and non-negative on [a, b], then the area under the curve of f from a to b is:
Area=baf(x)dx
If y = f(x) is continuous and f(x) < 0 on [a, b], then the area under the curve from a to b is:
Area=baf(x)dx
Area=baf(x)d(x)+cbf(x)d(x)+dcf(x)d(x)
If x = g (y ) is continuous and non-negative on [c, d], then the area under the curve of g from c to d is:
Area=dcg(y)dy
(k) calculate volumes of solids of revolution about one of the coordinate axes.
(a) find the general solution of a first order differential equation with separable variables; (b) find the general solution of a first order linear differential equation by means of an integrating factor; (c) transform, by a given substitution, a first order differential equation into one with separable variables or one which is linear; (d) use a boundary condition to find a particular solution; (e) solve problems, related to science and technology, that can be modelled by differential equations.
(a) find the Maclaurin series for a function and the interval of convergence;
Maclaurin Series
Taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values of the function's derivatives at a single point. Taylor Series
f(x)=x=0fn(a)n!(xa)n =f(a)+f(a)(xa)+f(a)2!(xa)2+f(a)3!(xa)3+...+f(n)(a)n!(xa)n+...
MacLaurin series is the Taylor series of the function about x=0.
f(x)=x=0fn(0)n!xn f(x)=f(0)+f(0)x+f(0)2!x2+f(0)3!x3+...+f(n)(0)n!xn+...
Example : Find the Maclaurin Series expansion of e5x
f(x)=f(0)+f(0)x+f(0)2!x2+f(0)3!x3+...+f(n)(0)n!xn+... e5x=1+5x1!+52x22!+53x33!+...+5nxnn!
=n=05nxnn!
Interval of Convergence
The set of points where the series converges is called the interval of convergence Finding interval of convergence 1) perform ratio test to test for the convergence of a series. 2) Check endpoint Ratio test
L=limnan+1an
if L < 1 then the series converges. if L > 1 then the series does not converge; if L = 1 or the limit fails to exist, then the test is inconclusive Example: Determine the interval of convergence for the series
n=1(x2)nn.5n
Apply ratio test
limnnn+1 1
The series converges for
n=1(5)nn.5n=n=11n
This is the harmonic series, and it diverges. Check end point x=-3,
n=1(5)nn.5n=n=1(1)n1n
The series converges by the Alternating Series Test. The interval of convergence is
3x<7
or
[3,7)
(b) usestandard series to find the series expansions of the sums, differences, products, quotients and composites of functions;
x4+x2
Rewrite the function as
(a) locate a root of an equation approximately by means of graphical considerations and by searching for a sign change; (b) use an iterative formula of the form xn+1 =f(xn) to find a root of an equation to a prescribed degree of accuracy; (c) identify an iteration which converges or diverges; (d) use the Newton-Raphson method;
12.2 Numerical integration (e) use the trapezium rule; (f) use sketch graphs to determine whether the trapezium rule gives an over-estimate or an under-estimate in simple cases.
Chapter 13 Data Description (a) identify discrete, continuous, ungrouped and grouped data;
Discrete Data is counted and can only take certain values (whole numbers). Eg Number of students in a class, Number of children in a playground, etc.
Continuous Data
Continuous Data is data that can take any value (within a range) Eg. Height of children, weights of car, etc.
Grouped Data
Data that has been organized into groups (into a frequency distribution). Eg.
Frequency 10 20 17 4
Ungrouped Data
(b) construct and interpret stem-and-leaf diagrams, box-and-whisker plots, histograms and cumulative frequency curves; Stem-and-Leaf Diagrams
A stem-and-leaf diagrams presents quantitative data in a graphical format, similar to a histogram, to assist in visualizing the shape of a distribution, giving the reader a quick overview of distribution. 45 46 48 49 63 65 66 68 68 73 73 75 76 81 85 88 107 4 |5689 5 | 6 |35688 7 |3356 8 |158 10 | 7 key 4 | 5 means 45
Box-and-Whisker Plots
Box-and-Whisker Plots displays of the spread of a set of data through five-number summaries: the minimum, lower quartile (Q1), median (Q2), upper quartile(Q3), and maximum.
The first and third quartiles are at the ends of the box, The median is indicated with a vertical line in the interior of the box Ends of the whiskers indicated the maximum and minimum.
(c) state the mode and range of ungrouped data; Mode of ungrouped data
An observation occurring most frequently in the data is called mode of the data Example: Find the median of the following observations 10, 14, 16, 20, 24, 28, 28, 30, 32, 40 In the given data, the observation 28 occurs maximum. So the mode is 28.
Range of ungrouped data Range = Highest Value Lowest value The range is the simplest measure of dispersion; it only takes into account the highest and lowest values. The range of above ungrouped data = 40 - 10 = 30 (d) determine the median and interquartile range of ungrouped and grouped data;
Q2 (the middle quartile) is the median. Q1 (the lower quartile) is the median of the numbers to the left of, or below Q2. Q3 (the upper quartile) is the median of the numbers to the right of, or above Q2. Interquartile Range = Q3 -Q1 Interquartile range for Ungrouped Data
12, 5, 22, 30, 7, 38, 16, 42, 15, 43, 35 Rearrange the data in ascending order:
Q1 == 1/4 (11+1) = 3th observation, Q1=12 Q2 == 1/2 (11+1) = 6th observation, Q2=22 Q3 == 3/4 (11+1) = 9th observation, Q3=38 Interquartile Range = Q3 -Q1 = 38 - 12 = 26 Range = Largest value - smallest value = 43 -5 = 38 Example 2: Find the median, lower quartile and upper quartile of the following numbers. 12, 5, 22, 30, 7, 38, 16, 42, 15, 43, 35, 50 Rearrange the data in ascending order:
Median=Lm+(n2Ffm)C
n = the total frequency Lm = the lower boundary of the class medianF = the cumulative frequency before class median f = the frequency of the class median fm= the lower boundary of the class median C= the class width
Q1=LQ1+(n4FfQ1)C
Q3=LQ3+3n4FfQ3C
Example : Find the median and interquartile range of below data.
x=xn
Standard Deviation
s=(xx)2n s=x2n(xn)2
Grouped Data Mean
x=fxf
Standard Deviation
s=f(xx)2n s=fx2f(fxf)2
(f) select and use the appropriate measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion; Measures of Central Tendency
Mode - the number that occurs most frequently. Median - the value of the middle item in a set of observations. Mean - average value of the distribution.
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of Dispersion is group of analytical tools that describes the spread or variability of a data set.
Range - Difference between the largest and smallest sample values. Variance/ Standard Deviation - Measures the dispersion around an average. Coefficient of variation - Expressed in a relative value.
Skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution. Skewness value can be positive or negative.
Negative skew: The left tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the right of the figure. Positive skew: The right tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the left of the figure.
Pearson coefficient of skewness is based on arithmetic mean, mode, median and standard deviation. Pearson's mode or first skewness coefficient:
If Sk = 0, then the frequency distribution is normal and symmetrical. If Sk> 0, then the frequency distribution is positively skewed. If Sk< 0, then the frequency distribution is negatively skewed.
Example: Calculate the coefficient of skewness of the following data by using Karl Pearson's method. 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4 mean=3, standard deviation = 1.07 Coefficient of skewness,
Sk=341.07=0.93
Therefore, the distribution is negatively skewed. (h) describe the shape of a data distribution.
Chapter 14 Probability
(a) apply the addition principle and the multiplication principle; Addition Principle
If we want to find the probability that event A happens or event B happens, we should add the probability that A happens to the probability that B happens.
Addition Rule: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) Example: A single 6-sided die is rolled. What is the probability of rolling a 1 or a 6
When two compound independent events occur, we use multiplication to determine their probability. To find the probability that event A happens and event B happens, we should multiply the probability that A happens times the probability that B happens. Multiplication Rule: P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
Example: A pizza corner sells pizza in 3 sizes with 6 different toppings. If Peter wants to pick one pizza with one topping, there is a possibility of 18 combinations as the total number of outcomes.
(b) use the formulae for combinations and permutations in simple cases;
Permutations
A permutation is the choice of r things from a set of n things without replacement and where the order matters Permutation Formula
nPr=n!(nr)!
Combinations
A combination is the choice of r things from a set of n things without replacement and where order does NOT matter. Combination Formula
nCr=(nr)=nPrr!=n!r!(nr)!
(c) identify a sample space, and calculate the probability of an event; Sample Space - The set of all the possible outcomes in an experiment. Event - Any subset E of the sample space S, specific outcome of an experiment. Probability - The measure of how likely an event is. Example 1 Tossing a coin. The sample space is S = {Head, Tail}, E = {Head} is an event. The probability of getting 'Head' is 1/2
Example 2 Tossing a die. The sample space is S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}, E ={1,3,5} is an event, which can be described in words as "the number is odd". The probability of getting odd numbers is 1/2.
The complement of any event A, A' is the event that A does not occur.
Exhaustive Event
A set of events is collectively exhaustive if at least one of the events must occur. For example, when rolling a six-sided die, the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are collectively exhaustive, because they include the entire range of possible outcomes. Thus, all sample spaces are collectively exhaustive.
P(AB)=1
Mutually Exclusive Event
Two events are 'mutually exclusive' if they cannot occur at the same time. Example, tossing a coin once, which can result in either heads or tails, but not both.
P(AB)=0 P(AB)=P(A)+P(B)
P(AB)=P(A)+P(B)P(AB)
Independent Events
Two events are independent means that the occurrence of one does not affect the probability of the other. Two events, A and B, are independent if and only if
P(AB)=P(A).P(B)
Conditional Probability
Conditional Probability is the probability that an event will occur, when another event is known to occur or to have occurred. Given two events A and B, , the conditional probability of A given B is defined as the quotient of the joint probability of A and B, and the probability of B
P(A|B)=P(AB)P(B) P(AB)=P(A|B).P(B)
(f) calculate conditional probabilities, and identify independent events; (g) use the formulae P(A B) = P(A) x P(B|A) = P(B) x P(A |B); (h) usethe rule of total probability. The Fundamental Laws of Set Algebra
Commutative laws
AB=BA AB=BA
Associative Laws
(AB)C=A(BC) (AB)C=A(BC)
Distributive Laws
A(BC)=(AB)(AC) A(BC)=(AB)(AC)
Impotent Laws
AA=A AA=A
Domination Laws
AU=U A=
Absorption Laws
A(AB)=A A(AB)=A
Inverse Laws
AA=U AA=
Law of Complement
(A)=A U= =U
DeMorgan's Law
(AB)=AB (AB)=AB
Relative Complement of B in A
AB=AB
Var(X)=E(X2)[E(X)]2 Var(X)=2x=[x2iP(xi)]2x
(a) identify discrete random variables; (b) construct a probability distribution table for a discrete random variable; (c) use the probability function and cumulative distribution function of a discrete random variable; (d) calculate the mean and variance of a discrete random variable; Discrete random variables
A discrete variable is a variable which can only take a countable number of values. A discrete random variable X is uniquely determined by
Its set of possible values X Its probability density function (pdf): A real-valued function f () dened for each x X as the probability that X has the value x. Probability Density Function
f(x)=Pr(X=x) x=inf(xi)=1
F(x)=P(Xx)
The probability that random variable X will take the value xi is denoted by p(xi) where
P(xi)=P(X=xi)
E(X)=x=[xiP(xi)]
Variance 15.2 Continuous random variables
(e) identify continuous random variables; (f) relate the probability density function and cumulative distribution function of a continuous random variable; (g) use the probability density function and cumulative distribution function of a continuous random variable; (h) calculate the mean and variance of a continuous random variable;
Continuous Random Variables A random variable X is continuous if its set of possible values is an entire interval of numbers Probability Density Function Let X be a continuous random variables. Then a probability distribution or probability density function (pdf) of X is a function f (x) such that for any two numbers a and b,
P(aXb)=baf(x)dx
The graph of f is the density curve.
Area of the region between the graph of f and the x axis is equal to 1. The Cumulative Distribution Function The cumulative distribution function, F(x) for a continuous random variables X is defined for every number x by
F(x)=P(Xx)=xf(y)dy P(aXb)=F(b)F(a)
For each x, F(x) is the area under the density curve to the left of x. Expected Value The expected or mean value of a continuous random variables X with pdf f(x) is
E(X)=x=x.f(x)dx
Variance The variance of continuous random variables X with pdf f(x) is
(i) use the probability function of a binomial distribution, and find its mean and variance; (j) use the binomial distribution as a model for solving problems related to science and technology;
Binomial Distribution
The binomial distribution is used when there are exactly two mutually exclusive outcomes of a trial. These outcomes are appropriately labeled "success" and "failure".
If the random variable X follows the binomial distribution with parameters n and p, X ~ (B(n, P), the probability of getting exactly k successes in n trials is given by the probability mass function
f(k;n,p)=Pr(X=k)=(nk)pk(1p)nk
If X ~ B(n, p), X is a binomially distributed random variable, then the expected value of X is
Mean = np
and the variance is
Variance = np(1p)
n number of successes p is the probability of success in Binomial Distribution, assumes that p is fixed for all trials. 15.4 Poisson distribution
(k) use the probability function of a Poisson distribution, and identify its mean and variance; (l) use the Poisson distribution as a model for solving problems related to science and technology;
Poisson Distribution
Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution that expresses the probability of a given number of events occurring in a fixed interval of time and/or space if these events occur with a known average rate and independently of the time since the last event. A discrete stochastic variable X is said to have a Poisson distribution with parameter > 0, if for k = 0, 1, 2, ... the probability mass function of X is given by
f(k;)=Pr(X=k)=kek!
K is the number of occurrences of an event; the probability of which is given by the function is a positive real number.
(m) identify the general features of a normal distribution, in relation to its mean and standard deviation; (n) standardise a normal random variable and use the normal distribution tables; (o) use the normal distribution as a model for solving problems related to science and technology; (p) use the normal distribution, with continuity correction, as an approximation to the binomial distribution, where appropriate.
Normal distribution
The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution, defined by the formula
f(x)=12e(x)222
The normal distribution is also often denoted
X N(,2)
Standard Normal Distribution If = 0 and = 1, the distribution is called the standard normal distribution. Formula for z-score:
z=x
z is the "z-score" (Standard Score) x is the value to be standardized is the mean is the standard deviation
Normal Approximations
Binomial Approximation
The normal distribution can be used as an approximation to the binomial distribution, under certain circumstances, namely: If X ~ B(n, p) and if n is large and/or p is close to , then X is approximately N~(np, npq)
Poisson Approximation
The normal distribution can also be used to approximate the Poisson distribution for large values of (the mean of the Poisson distribution). If X ~ Po() then for large values of l, X ~ N(, ) approximately.
16.1 Sampling
(a) distinguish between a population and a sample, and between a parameter and a statistic; (b) identify a random sample; (c) identify the sampling distribution of a statistic; (d) determine the mean and standard deviation of the sample mean; (e) use the result that X has a normal distribution if X has a normal distribution; (f) use the central limit theorem; (g) determine the mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion; (h) use the approximate normality of the sample proportion for a sufficiently large sample size;
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population.
A population includes each element from the set of observations that can be made. A sample consists only of observations drawn from the population. Depending on the sampling method, a sample can have fewer observations than the population, the same number of observations, or more observations. More than one sample can be derived from the same population.
Aa measurable characteristic of a population, such as a mean or standard deviation, is called a parameter; but a measurable characteristic of a sample is called a statistic.
Random Sample
A simple random sample is a subset of a sample chosen from aa population. Each individual is chosen randomly and entirely by equal chance (same probability of being chosen at any stage during the sampling process).
According to the central limit theorem, the mean of a sampling distribution of means is an unbiased estimator of the population mean
x=
Similarly, the standard deviation of a sampling distribution of means is
x=n
The larger the sample, the less variable the sample mean
Example:
The population has a mean of 12 and a standard deviation of 4. The sample size of a sampling distribution is N=20. What is the mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution?
x=12 x=420=0.8944
Mean and Variance of Sample Proportion
p^=p
Standard deviation of a sample proportion
p^=p(1p)n
Example: Suppose the true value of the president's approval rating is 53%. What is the mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion with sample of 800 people?
p^=0.53 p^=0.53(10.53)800=0.0176
16.2 Estimation
(i) calculate unbiased estimates for the population mean and population variance; (j) calculate an unbiased estimate for the population proportion; (k) determine and interpret a confidence interval for the population mean based on a sample from a normally distributed population with known variance; (l) determine and interpret a confidence interval for the population mean based on a large sample; (m) find the sample size for the estimation of population mean; (n) determine and interpret a confidence interval for the population proportion based on a large sample; (o) find the sample size for the estimation of population proportion.
Unbiased Estimator
Unbiased Estimator of Population Mean
If the mean value of an estimator equals the true value of the quantity it estimates, then the estimator is called an unbiased estimator. Using the Central Limit Theorem, the mean value of the sample means equals the population mean. Therefore, the sample mean is an unbiased estimator of the population mean.
This makes the sample variance an unbiased estimator for the population variance.
s2=ni=1(xix)2n1
Although using (n-1) as the denominator makes the sample variance, an unbiased estimator of the population variance,the sample standard deviation, , still remains a biased estimator of the population standard deviation. For large sample sizes this bias is negligible.
Confidence Interval
A confidence interval (CI) is a type of interval estimate of a population parameter and is used to indicate the reliability of an estimate. : between 0 and 1 A confidence level: 1 - or 100(1 - )%. E.g. 95%. This is the proportion of times that the confidence interval actually does contain the population parameter, assuming that the estimation process is repeated a large number of times.
The central limit theorem states that when the sample size is large, approximately 95% of the sample means will fall within 1.96 standard errors of the population mean,
1.96(n)
Stated another way
X1.96(n)<<X+1.96(n)
Example: A survey which estimate the average age of the students presently enrolled. From past studies, the standard deviation is known to be 3 years. A sample of 40 students is selected, and the mean is found to be 25 years. Find the 95% confidence interval of the population mean.
pz/2p
p^z/2(p^(1p^)n)
(b) explain the meaning of the significance level of a test; (c) carry out a hypothesis test concerning the population mean for a normally distributed population with known variance; (d) carry out a hypothesis test concerning the population mean in the case where a large sample is used; (e) carry out a hypothesis test concerning the population proportion by direct evaluation of binomial probabilities; (f) carry out a hypothesis test concerning the population proportion using a normal approximation.
(a) identify the shape, as well as the mean and variance, of a chi-squared distribution with a given number of degrees of freedom; (b) use the chi-squared distribution tables; (c) identify the chi-squared statistic; (d) use the result that classes with small expected frequencies should be combined in a chisquared test; (e) carry out goodness-of-fit tests to fit prescribed probabilities and probability distributions with known parameters; (f) carry out tests of independence in contingency tables (excluding Yates correction).