LPG Energy Efficiency Report PDF

LP GAS: EFFICIENT ENERGY FOR A MODERN WORLD
WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION
LP GAS: EFFICIENT ENERGY FOR A MODERN WORLD
22 JANUARY 2009 PREPARED BY ENERGETICS INCORPORATED
LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World
January 2009
FOREWORD BY THE WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION (WLP GASA)

The availability of energy is one of the most crucial issues facing the world today. Concerns about rising energy costs, reliability of supplies and environmental impacts of energy use, including the potentially disastrous consequences of global climate change are forcing world attention to focus on intelligent, efficient use of energy sources. This study quantifies and compares the primary efficiency of LP Gas and other energy sources in six regions and in four different applications with the goal of informing policymakers, industry stakeholders and consumers about the relative efficiency of using LP Gas when compared with other fuels. LP Gas is a clean-burning and very efficient fuel. It is also a vital source of energy for hundreds of millions of people throughout the world today. It is a modern and safe energy providing heat and power to both urban and rural consumers. LP Gas can be used anywhere and is available now without large investments in technology and infrastructure. It is a multi-purpose energy with litreally thousands of applications. It is portable; can be transported, stored and used virtually anywhere in the world and there are sufficient reserves to last for many decades. This study demonstrates that LP Gas is among the most attractive options for improving energy efficiency in various applications all over the world. When combined with its other environmental, cost, and performance advantages, is clear that LP Gas is a clean, efficient energy source of the modern world. The World LP Gas Association (WLPGA) is the global voice of the LP Gas industry. Granted Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council in 1989, the WLPGA promotes the use of LP Gas worldwide to help foster a cleaner, healthier and more prosperous world.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was developed with the support of the following WLP GASA members who generously shared their time, talent and wisdom. Makoto Arahata Renzo Be A. Benbekhaled Kimball Chen Arnaud Duvielguerbigny Andrew Ford Mauricio Jarovsky Sunil Kakar Greg Kerr Ian Maloney Sunil Mathur Ian McCracken Inigo Palacio ` Japan LP Gas Association Totalgaz Salamgaz Energy Transportation Group AEGPL (The European LP GAS Association) SHV Gas Ultragaz BP PERC ELGAS Indian Oil Corporation SHV Gas Repsol
This study was prepared by Energetics Incorporated. Ross Brindle, Matt Antes, Joe McGervey, Kristian Kiuru, Mike Lloyd, Matt Munderville, and Lindsay Pack, all with Energetics, are the principal authors of this report. Michael Kelly of WLP GASA coordinated this project.
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary ............................................................................. 5 About This Study ............................................................................... 6 Methodology ..................................................................................... 7 Summary of Findings Cooking .....................................................................................................................................................12 Distributed Power Generation ...................................................................................................................14 Residential Space Heating ........................................................................................................................16 Residential Water Heating Central .........................................................................................................18 Residential Water Heating Point-of-Use.................................................................................................20
Application-Specific Analyses Cooking .....................................................................................................................................................23 Distributed Power Generation ...................................................................................................................26 Residential Space Heating ........................................................................................................................29 Residential Water Heating ........................................................................................................................32 Appendix A Assumptions and References ........................................... 36 Appendix B Glossary of Terms .......................................................... 43 About the World LP Gas Association .................................................. 47
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Executive Summary
This study quantifies the energy efficiency of using Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LP Gas) compared with other energy sources in four selected applications and six regions of the world. Specifically, we estimate energy efficiency in India, Japan, a selection of European countries, North America, the Republic of Korea, and South America in four applications important to society: cooking, distributed power generation, residential space heating, and residential water heating. The findings of this study, based on existing scientific research in different countries and periods, clearly demonstrate that LP Gas has an important role to play as global decision-makers seek to address climate change and energy supply issues by promoting energy efficiency. Indeed, in many applications and regions, LP Gas is among the most energy efficient options. CookingIn nearly all regions examined, LP Gas was the most efficient fuel analysed for cooking. Distributed Power GenerationIn all regions, LP Gas was found to have higher efficiency than natural gas fuelled distributed power generation while remaining comparable with modern diesel configurations. This result is driven by technology differences between diesel-fuelled generator sets, which are highly efficient, and LP Gas-fuelled generator sets, which typically have slightly lower efficiencies. Residential Space HeatingLP Gas is among the most efficient energy options available for residential space heating, in every region analysed, across a wide variety of technology configurations. Residential Water HeatingAs with space heating, LP Gas is among the most energy-efficient options for providing both point-of-use and central water heating to residential consumers. In fact, LP Gas was consistently the most efficient water heating option across the regions analysed.
These results are not surprising. LP Gas has many inherent characteristics that make it an efficient energy choice in many diverse applications. LP Gas is an energy-rich fuel source with a higher calorific value per unit than other commonly used fuels, including coal, natural gas, diesel, petrol, fuel oils, and biomass-derived alcohols. This fact means that an LP Gas flame burns hotter, an advantage that can translate into higher efficiency. Further, because LP Gas is a gaseous fuel rather than a liquid fuel, it is easier to pilot and emissions standards are typically easier to achieve both factors that enable LP Gas to achieve higher efficiency. Also, because LP Gas is a very clean energy source nearly all the energy delivered by the fuel can be utilized by the application or device. Equipment manufacturers recognise and exploit these inherent advantages through optimized designs that allow LP Gas to deliver higher efficiencies than many other fuels in the applications analysed in this study and many others. The clean burning nature of LP Gas also means that applications tend to hold on to high levels of efficiency consistently over the totality of their life cycles and that maintenance is usually relatively undemanding and cost effective. This is particularly true when compared with more polluting fuels such as fuel oil and biomass. Recent and ongoing advances in LP Gas fuelled technologies promise to deliver even greater efficiency in other applications such as vehicles and other engine-driven applications in the near future. As policymakers continue to seek ways to enhance energy security, slow the depletion of finite energy resources, and address environmental concerns including global climate change through energy efficiency, LP Gas can offer significant near-term solutions. LP Gas is not only among the most attractive options for improving energy efficiency, but it is abundantly available today in many parts of the world through existing distribution channels. Switching to LP Gas can improve energy efficiency in many applications and parts of the world. LP Gas also can be easily delivered to developing regions which may not have existing natural gas or electricity distribution infrastructures, offering an immediate, cost-effective, and low-carbon energy solution. When combined with other environmental, cost, and performance advantages, it is clear that LP Gas is an efficient, clean energy source for a modern world.
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I. ABOUT THIS STUDY

Energy is one of the most crucial issues facing the world today. Concerns about rising energy costs, reliability of energy supplies, and global climate change are stimulating increased attention on energy conservation and efficiency. The purpose of this study is to inform policymakers, the worldwide LP Gas industry, and other interested parties about the relative efficiency of using LP Gas compared with other energy sources in applications important to society. Ultimately, this study can help to inform businesses, policymakers, and individual consumers as they seek ways to increase their energy efficiency and reduce their impact on the planet. This report does not offer original scientific findings derived from experimentation. Rather, it is an analysis of data from prior studies that allows for meaningful comparisons of LP Gas and other fuels in specific applications. The study is intended to provide global stakeholders with information that specifically highlights the efficiency advantages of LP Gas in a variety of applications and world regions.
STUDY BOUNDARIES This study quantifies the relative energy efficiency profile for LP Gas and other significant energy sources in selected applications in six regions of the world: India, Japan, a selection of European countries, North America, the Republic of Korea, and South America. The four applications analysed are cooking, distributed power generation, residential space heating, and residential water heating. The analysis estimates the primary energy efficiency of LP Gas and other fuels in a given region and application. It does not attempt to estimate the total energy consumption by fuel source in an application or region. Total energy efficiency is driven by the overall energy supply and use picture in each region and the relative market shares of various technologies within the application areas. Such an analysis is beyond the scope of this study.
ABOUT PRIMARY ENERGY EFFICIENCY Primary energy consumption is a measure of the naturally occurring energy such as coal, crude oil, natural gas, solar radiation, hydraulic power, and other sources that must be converted to heat, electricity, or mechanical force to produce a useful output. Other definitions of primary energy consumption include: OECD: Primary energy consumption refers to the direct use at the source, or supply to users without transformation, of crude energy, that is, energy that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process. 1 U.S. Energy Information Administration: Primary energy consumption is the amount of site consumption, plus losses that occur in the generation, transmission, and distribution of energy. 2
Primary energy efficiency, then, is a measure of the total amount of primary energy consumed to obtain a useful output in a given application, such as heating a home. For fuels this measure is a straightforward measure of the energy consumed at the point of use. Electricity is an energy carrier, not a form of primary energy. Accordingly, the energy lost during the conversion of primary energy sources to electricity, and the losses associated with transmission and distribution of that electricity to the point of use are factored into the measure of primary energy efficiency of electricity. Using this convention provides a more accurate view of the amount of energy required to obtain a useful output. Figure 1 presents a visual representation of the boundaries of primary energy efficiency. This study does not attempt to quantify the energy used during the transport and distribution of fuels to their point of conversion to other forms of energy (electricity at a power plant or distributed power generator, or heat in a stove, furnace, or water heater). The transport of fuels from production facilities to domestic points of use can be expected to consume slightly more energy than the energy consumed to transport fuel from the same production facility to centralised power plants; however, this study does not attempt to quantify this small difference.
1 2
http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=2112 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/efficiency/ee_gloss.htm
6 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World
January 2009
Fig. 1: Boundaries of Primary Energy Efficiency
II. METHODOLOGY
The following describes the basic methodology used to determine the relative energy efficiency profile for all applications in all of the regions examined in this study. For detailed application-specific assumptions, please see the Appendix. BASIS OF COMPARISON This study examined four different applications important to the global LP Gas industry in six different regions of the world. For each application, LP Gas-fuelled equipment was compared to that fuelled or powered by other energy sources. To create a meaningful basis for comparison of relative energy efficiency profiles of LP Gas and other fuels, a base case for each application was defined. This report does not offer original scientific findings derived from experimentation. Rather, it is an analysis of data from prior studies that allows for meaningful comparisons of LP Gas and other fuels in specific applications. Each base case and the rationale used to determine it are described below: Cooking This analysis compares the energy efficiency of using various energy sources to heat one litre of water from 20 to 100 degrees Celsius on a stovetop. This application is sufficiently generic to allow the comparison of a wide range of stovetop cookers. Other cooking technologies, including ovens, microwave ovens, toasters, griddles, and traditional three stone arrangements were not included in this analysis. Distributed Power Generation This analysis calculated energy use based on manufacturer specifications (specs) for power-only (i.e., no combined heat and power) generator sets, or gensets, operating at 1,800 rpm for 60 Hz output and at 1,500 rpm for 50 Hz output and 100% nameplate load. We analysed manufacturing specs from more than 150 commercially available units that contained adequate data and were available in the regions analysed (see the Appendix for a full list of manufactures and models analysed). Statistical log-linear regression of genset data of a given power frequency and size were used to
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estimate energy end use. Gensets fuel usage for North America, South America, and Korea are based on 60 Hz power. India, the European countries analysed and Japan are based on 50 Hz power. The analysis considers a range of sizes of generators used for both prime and standby use. Residential Space Heating To make a fair comparison of LP Gas-fuelled and competing space heating technology, we chose to compare the most efficient units commercially available for all fuels, reflecting the best-in-class technologies available in each region. The basis for analysis was the energy required to heat a typical home or room in the region for one year. Our analysis reflected the differences in technologies used in each region. These differences are driven by government regulations, climate, availability of fuels, and the cost of various technology options. Residential Water Heating While there is substantial regional variation in both water heating technologies and their application, all regions tend to rely on central and/or point-of-use systems for their water heating needs. Central residential water heating heats all of a households water from one source, while point-of-use heaters are used to heat water for independent needs like dishwashing, hand washing, and showering. This study analyses both central and point-of-use water heaters on the basis of the amount of energy typically used by in one year.
The study compares LP Gas-fuelled technology to equipment fuelled by other energy sources commonly used for the same application. Operational variables such as size, hours of operation, and frequency of use were selected to represent an average or typical use of the technology or equipment. Data was obtained from published test results, vendor-supplied specifications, and government studies to determine what constituted a typical use and energy efficiencies of each fuel system. For most applications, the efficiencies were used to determine the amount of fuel needed to deliver an equivalent energy service using LP Gas and each competing energy option. For some energy sources, such as electricity or diesel, differences in energy efficiencies between LP Gas and the other fuel are the result of different technology designs. In other instances (most notably natural gas), there are only slight differences in technology design between the LP Gas-configured technology and alternate fuel configurations. All results are presented on a gross calorific value (GCV) basis. Gross calorific value is also known as higher heating value (HHV). For residential applications (cooking, space heating, and water heating), available equipment configurations can vary significantly across regions. Therefore, for these applications we attempted to analyze the range of technologies used in a given region. However, comparisons of the relative energy efficiency profiles of LP Gas versus other fuels across regions in one application may be misleading. Because distributed power generation is a highly global industry, a cross-regional approach for this application was not used. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PRIMARY ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF ELECTRICITY The generation of electricity from thermal energy by means of mechanical energy (turbines) or other means is often a highly inefficient process. Basic laws of thermodynamics and technological inefficiencies prevent a full conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy. To account for these inefficiencies, we calculate regional-specific primary energy efficiencies associated with electricity generation, transmission, and distribution to the point of use. This calculation is based on several key factors, such as primary energy sources used in the region to generate electricity, the efficiency of generation technology that uses those fuel sources, and losses associated with the transportation and distribution of electricity. Primary Energy Sources This report considers all significant sources of electricity as well as several minor ones. Specifically, it includes coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear, biomass, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar photovoltaic, waste, and wind generation. Coal, gas, oil, nuclear, and hydroelectric generation account for the vast majority of all electricity generated worldwide, but emerging technologies are also considered, as interest and growth in the use of these energy sources is growing rapidly in many parts of the world. The study presents regional summaries of primary energy sources used to generate electricity that are based on data produced by the International Energy Agency. 3 Fuel mix varies widely by region, and differences in source fuels have a significant impact on the generation efficiency of regions. Generation Efficiency Large amounts of energy are lost during the conversion of heat energy into the mechanical energy that powers electrical generators. The efficiency of generation varies, however, according to the type and quality of the fuel and the type and quality of generation equipment. This report uses average
3 http://www.iea.org/Textbase/stats/prodresult.asp?PRODUCT=Electricity/Heat
January 2009 8 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World
values for equipment efficiency across a region for each primary energy source used to generate electricity, as reported by the International Energy Agency. 4 Values for efficiency vary widely from region to region, while intra-region values tended to be more similar. Note that there is no universally accepted practice for measuring the thermal conversion efficiencies for electrical generation via biomass, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar photovoltaic, waste, or wind power. Accordingly, we used reliable national government estimates of efficiency for hydroelectric, waste, and biomass fuel sources and assumed 100% efficiency for renewable energy sources such as geothermal, solar, and wind power. Please see the Appendix for more details regarding these assumptions. Losses in Transmission and Distribution Efficiency losses during the transmission and distribution of power from generating plants to points of use are unavoidable. Much of this is accounted for by heat generated in power lines due to electrical resistance. Another source of loss, more significant in some areas than in others, is the direct theft of electricity from power lines. Due to the illegal nature of the latter, it can be difficult to distinguish between the unavoidable losses incurred in transportation and those caused by theft. General conclusions may be drawn, however, from the data: India, for example, loses more than a quarter of its electricity in transportation and distribution, while Korea only loses about 3.5 percent.
By factoring these considerations into the analysis, this study calculates the primary energy efficiency of electricity generation, transmission, and distribution by region. The results of this calculation are provided in Figure 2. Figure 3 provides details regarding the efficiency attributed to various fuel sources in each region. Figure 4 presents the electricity generation fuel mix of each region. Fig. 2: Electricity Generation, Transmission, and Distribution Efficiency
Gross Electrical Generation Efficiency
39.9%
25.7%
40.0%
38.9%
36.6%
59.8%
4 Energy Efficiency Indicators for Public Electricity Production from Fossil Fuels, IEA Information paper
January 2009
Fig. 3: Efficiencies of Electricity Generation Using Various Energy Sources Europe Coal Oil Gas Biomass Hydro Waste Nuclear Geothermal Solar Wind 37.3% 36.8% 49.3% 20.0% 90.0% 52.0% 31.9% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% India 27.3% 25.7% 40.5% 20.0% 90.0% 52.0% 28.2% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Japan 41.5% 41.9% 44.9% 20.0% 90.0% 52.0% 33.6% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% North America 36.2% 35.7% 51.0% 20.0% 90.0% 52.0% 32.4% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Korea 36.5% 36.8% 48.6% 20.0% 90.0% 52.0% 34.3% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% South America 28.9% 34.1% 44.7% 20.0% 90.0% 52.0% 31.3% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Note: Europe is defined as the EU 27 plus Croatia, Norway, Switzerland, and Turkey.
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10
Fig. 4: Electricity Generation Mix by Region

Europe
7% 0% 0% 1%
India
0% 2%
32%
Japan
8% 0% 0% 0% 28%
0% 1%
14%
0% 0% 9%
28%
36%
4%
4% 0% 3% 17%
70%
1% 1% 21%
13%
North America
0% 13% 0% 0%
Republic of Korea
0% 1% 0% 0%
South America
0% 0% 0% 3% 5% 14%
38%
19% 47%
38%
2% 0% 2%
0% 1% 17% 3%
0% 0% 16% 7%
74%
Coal Oil Gas Biomass Waste
Nuclear Hydro Geothermal Solar PV Wind
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III. Summary of Findings

This section presents a summary of the findings of this study. The following pages contain a series of graphs that show the primary energy efficiency profiles for LP Gas and other fuels in the applications and regions considered. The fuels selected for analysis reflect regional differences in fuels used in that application. The comparisons among fuels in each regional-specific analysis of a given application are meaningful. However, because of the significant regional variations in equipment, electricity generation sources, and efficiency regulations, readers are cautioned against drawing conclusions from cross-regional comparisons as they may be misleading. All results are presented on a gross calorific value (GCV) basis. Gross calorific value is also known as higher heating value (HHV). All results are normalized relative to the energy efficiency of LP Gas and, therefore, have no units. Higher values indicate higher energy efficiency.
Europe
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 LP Gas High- Natural Gas Efficiency HighEfficiency Electric Induction Electric Coil 1.00 1.00 0.80 0.70
COOKING
India
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 LP Gas Keros ene SinglePump-Type Burner Stove Stove Wood Ceramic Stove Wood Traditional Stove Electric Coil Crop Residue Improved Stove Dung Mud Stove 0.54 0.41 0.36 0.25 0.18 1.00 0. 88
Japan
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 LP Gas HighEfficiency
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1.00
1.00 0.80
Natural Gas High- Electric Induction Efficiency

COOKING (CONT.)
North America
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 LP Gas Standard Natural Gas Standard Electric Induction Electric Coil
1.00
1.00 0.82 0.72
Republic of Korea
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 -
1.00
1.00 0.73
LP Gas HighEfficiency
Natural Gas High-
Electric Induction
Efficiency
South America 1.10
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 -
1.00
1.00
0.23
Electric Coil
LP Gas Standard
Natural Gas Standard
Wood Lorena Stove
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Distributed Power Generation - Primary

Europe, India, Japan 50 Hz Output Frequency
1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 Diesel LP Gas Natural Gas Diesel LP Gas Natural Gas Diesel LP Gas Natural Gas 1.11 1.00 0.96
25 kW 50 kW 100 kW
1.15 1.00 0.96
1.19 1.00 0.96
North America, Republic of Korea, South America 60 Hz Output Frequency

25 kW 50 kW 100 kW
1.16 1.00 0.94
1.17 1.00 0.94
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DISTRIBUTED POWER GENERATION STANDBY

Europe, India, Japan 50 Hz Output Frequency
25 kW 50 kW 100 kW
1.15 1.00 0.94
1.17 1.00 0.92
North America, Republic of Korea, South America 60 Hz Output Frequency

25 kW 50 kW 100 kW
1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 Diesel LP Gas Natural Gas Diesel LP Gas Natural Gas Diesel LP Gas Natural Gas 1.15 1.00 0.90 1.17 1.00 0.94 1.18 1.00 0.99
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Residential Space Heating

Europe
1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 Condensing LP Condensing High-Efficiency Gas Boiler Natural Gas Boiler Fuel Oil Boiler High-Efficiency Wood Stove 0.84 1.00 1.00 0.96
India
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 LP Gas Space Heater Kerosene Space Heater Electric Space Heater Wood Stove 0.26 1.00 1.00
0.18
Japan
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00
1.02
1.00
1.00
0.49
Kerosene Direct Vent Heater
LP Gas Direct Vent Heater
Natural Gas Direct Vent Heater
Electric Space Heater
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RESIDENTIAL SPACE HEATING (CONT.)

North America
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 HighEfficiency LP Gas Furnace HighEfficiency Natural Gas Furnace Fuel Oil Furnace Electric Baseboard Heater Electric Furnace 0.48 0.41 1.00 1.00 0.90
Republic of Korea
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.41 0.40 0.20 0.00 High-Efficiency LP High-Efficiency Gas Boiler Natural Gas Boiler High-Efficiency Fuel Oil Boiler Electric Space Heater 1.00 1.00 0.97
South America
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 High-Efficiency High-Efficiency High-Efficiency Electric Space LP Gas Boiler Natural Gas Fuel Oil Boiler Heater Boiler Wood Stove 0.20 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.68
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Residential Water Heating Central

Unless otherwise noted, instant water heating systems included in this analysis use electronic ignition systems.
2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00
2.11
Europe
1.00
0.99
0.96
0.91
0.91
0.83
0.68
Pumped Solar w/ LP Gas Combination Backup
LP Gas instant
Natural Gas Instant
Electric LP Gas Natural Gas Electric instant, Instant Instant instant, electronic Combination Combination hydraulic temp control Boiler Boiler temp control
Electric Storage
6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00
5.46
India
1.00
1.00
0.71
0.69
Pumped Solar LP Gas Instant, w/ LP Gas Electronic Instant Backup Ignition
Natural Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition
LP Gas Instant, Pilot Ignition
Natural Gas Instant, Pilot Ignition
Japan
2.50 2.00 1.50
2.33
1.05 1.00 0.50 0.00 Pumped Solar w/ LP Gas Instant Backup Fuel Oil Instant
1.00
1.00
LP Gas instant
Natural Gas Instant
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RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING CENTRAL (CONT.)

North America
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 LP Gas instant Natural Gas Instant LP Gas Storage Natural Gas Storage Fuel Oil Storage Electric Storage 0.56 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.98 0.85
Republic of Korea
2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 Pumped Solar Pumped Solar Fuel Oil Instant LP Gas instant w/ LP Gas w/ NG Instant Instant Backup Backup Natural Gas Instant 1.05 1.00 1.00 2.33 2.33
South America
6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 Pumped Solar w/ LP Gas Instant Backup LP Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition Natural Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition Electric Storage LP Gas Instant, Pilot Ignition Natural Gas Instant, Pilot Ignition LP Gas Storage Natural Gas Storage 1.00 1.00 0.87 0.71 0.69 0.38 0.38 5.46
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RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING POINT-OF-USE
Europe
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 LP Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition Electric Instant, Electronic Temp. Control Natural Gas Electric Instant, Instant, Electronic Hydraulic Ignition Temp. Control Electric Storage 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.88 0.62
India
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 LP Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition Natural Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition Electric Electric Instant, Instant, Hydraulic Electronic Temp. Control Temp. Control Electric Storage 0.53 0.47 0.33
1.00
1.00
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RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING POINT-OF-USE (CONT.)

Japan
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 LP Gas Instant Bathtub Heater Natural Gas Instant Bathtub Heater Fuel Oil Instant Bathtub Heater 1.00 1.00 0.88
South America
1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 Electric Electric Instant, Instant, Electronic Hydraulic Temp. Control Temp. Control LP Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition Natural Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition Electric Storage 1.24 1.09 1.00 1.00 0.84
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IV. APPLICATION-SPECIFIC ANALYSES

The following pages present detailed information regarding the four applications considered in this study. Each section includes a brief description of the application area; energy use, broken down by fuel and technology; market data or information; key assumptions made in the analysis; and additional notes to explain the analysis. A complete list of assumptions and references for each application is provided in the Appendix. The structure of this section is as follows: Cooking .......................................................................................................................................... page 23 Distributed Power Generation ........................................................................................................ page 26 Residential Space Heating ............................................................................................................. page 29 Residential Water Heating Centralised ....................................................................................... page 32 Residential Water Heating Point-of-Use ..................................................................................... page 35
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COOKING
Stovetop cooking is one of the worlds most universal energy-consuming activities. Consumers in industrialized countries choose from numerous stovetops and ovens using LP Gas, natural gas, and electricity. In developing countries people use more basic LP Gas, natural gas, or kerosene cookers or locally manufactured stoves that burn biomass (e.g., wood, crop residues, and animal dung), often with significant adverse human health and environmental consequences. Actual cooking efficiencies may vary widely with the size and composition of the cooking pot and whether a lid is used. This analysis is based on standardised tests that control for these variables. Generally, the efficiencies of stovetop cookers of similar designs (e.g., LP Gas sealed burner) do not vary substantially between manufacturers. Governments have not issued efficiency standards for stovetop cookers.
MARKET DATA
Mass-produced stovetop cookers are sold in all regions, although certain designs are preferred in each region. In developing countries, food may be cooked on a smaller single or double cooker that sits on the floor or tabletop. Biomass cookers in this analysis are stoves burning locally available fuels. In all cases the biomass stoves incorporate simple chimneys or vents to improve efficiency and remove smoke. Europe: Cooking practices vary by country according to fuel availability and local preferences. Sales of electric stoves slightly outpace gas stoves across the region; however gas stoves are nearly universal in Italy while nearly all stoves sold in Germany and Sweden are electric. High-efficiency gas and electric equipment was analysed in Europe, where consumers in many countries place a high value on efficiency. India: Efficiency data is specific to India and is based on a boiler water test using locally available cooking equipment and fuels. This analysis uses only seven of the 28 combinations tested by the Tata Energy Research Institute. Japan: Gas stovetops have traditionally been dominant in Japan. Interest is growing in electric induction stovetops due to strong interest in technology, efficiency, and reducing dependence on imported natural gas. North America: Standard-efficiency gas and electric stovetops dominate consumer sales in this region. Republic of Korea: Technology options are similar to those found in Japan. South America: Standard efficiency gas and electric stovetops are typical in this region. In rural areas locally produced Lorena stoves are common.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. The base case analysis was heating one litre of water from 20C to 100C on a stovetop. This corresponds to 0.335 MJ of heat being delivered to the cooking vessel. 2. The efficiencies of gas and electric stovetop cookers are based on standardized tests performed by the U.S. government. (DOE 1996). a. LP Gas or natural gas stovetop: Standard (open flame burner): 39.9%. High efficiency (thermostatically controlled, sealed burner design): 42.0%. b. Electric stovetop: Coil: 73.7%. Induction: 84.0%. The coil uses electrical resistance to generate heat, which is conducted directly to the pot. The induction element generates a high-frequency magnetic field that produces eddy currents in the cooking vessel, causing it to heat up. Some electric stoves use smooth heating elements, but performance is similar (74.2%) to electric coils. 3. LP Gas and natural gas burners are assumed to have the same efficiencies. 4. Biomass cooking is assumed to use renewable energy, which is included in the energy-consumption analysis.
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EFFICIENCY DATA*
Fuel / Technology LP Gas: High Efficiency NG: High Efficiency Electric: Induction Electric: Coil LP Gas: Single Burner Stove Kerosene: Pump-Type Stove Electric: Coil Wood: Traditional Stove Wood: Ceramic Stove Crop Residue: Improved Stove Dung: Mud Stove LP Gas: High Efficiency NG: High Efficiency Electric: Induction LP Gas: Standard NG: Standard Electric: Coil Electric: Induction LP Gas: High Efficiency NG: High Efficiency Electric: Induction LP Gas: Standard NG: Standard Electric: Coil Wood: Lorena Stove Total Energy Use (MJ) 0.80 0.80 1.00 1.14 0.62 0.71 1.76 1.52 1.15 2.48 3.56 0.80 0.80 1.00 0.84 0.84 1.17 1.02 0.80 0.80 1.09 0.84 0.84 0.76 3.72 Point of Use Energy (MJ) 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.45 0.62 0.71 0.45 1.52 1.15 2.48 3.56 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.84 0.84 0.45 0.40 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.84 0.84 0.45 3.72 Upstream Energy (MJ) 0 0 0.60 0.69 0 0 1.31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.60 0 0 0.71 0.63 0 0 0.69 0 0 0.31 0
*Unit of comparison: Heating one litre of water from 20C to 100C on a stovetop. This process adds 0.335 MJ of energy to the water.
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NOTES
1 Some governments are encouraging consumers to switch from electric to gas appliances (E.U.) while other governments encourage the use of electric appliances (Japan). 2 The major energy-saving measure available to manufacturers is the replacement of pilot lights with electronic ignition. Standing pilot lights can consume more energy than is used for cooking over the life of a stovetop. This analysis assumes that none of the stovetops have a pilot light. 3 Manufacturers data indicated that in nearly all cases, LP Gas and natural gas stovetops have the same efficiency. 4 Biomass stove energy consumption is not zero because the energy contained in the biomass is included in this analysis.
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DISTRIBUTED POWER GENERATION

Distributed power generation provides small-scale production of electricity at or near the location where the power is used. Distributed generation is employed for a variety of applications and users. Commercial users operate distributed generators as backup power (standby generators) for critical functions such as data centers or hospitals, or as primary power (prime generators) for operations off the electric grid. Residential users employ standby generators to supplement interrupted grid electricity, or use prime generators in remote areas not reached by electric grids. Reciprocating internal combustion engines represent the most widespread and mature distributed generation technology. These engines come in two varieties: spark-ignition and compression-ignition. Spark-ignition engines commonly operate on LP Gas or natural gas, and compression engines operate on diesel fuel. Both engine types can by designed for standby use, which normally run for less than about 500 hours per year in short intervals, or they can be designed for prime use, which are rated and designed for regular use throughout the year. These engines are packaged with supporting systems into generator sets, or gensets.
Figure 1. Small and midsized spark engine distributed generators
The type of generator set (genset) technology does not vary significantly Sources: Honda 2008, Cummins among the regions evaluated in this study. Major manufacturers in each region supply generators to customers worldwide. The electric power frequency does vary among world regions, so only generators that are able to supply power at the region-specific electric frequency were considered in this analysis. North America, South America, and Korea primarily use 60 Hz power, while Europe, India, and Japan use 50 Hz power in most cases. Distributed generators for onsite use typically range from a few kW to several hundred kW (Figure 1).
MARKET DATA
Five of the most common manufacturer brands worldwide are Cummins/Onan, Kohler, Generac, Caterpillar, and Honda (Figure 2). These manufactures offer diesel, natural gas, and LP Gas-fuelled standby and prime gensets. The most regularly sold gensets deliver power of 100 kW or less. Gensets of several hundred kW to several MW are also offered, but are less common.
Cummins 15%
Other 47%
In developed regions of the world, the genset market is mainly driven by the need to protect local electricity supply against interruptions from natural disasters or other catastrophic events. In less-developed Kohler regions, increasing wealth has enabled greater purchasing power to 12% procure electricity-driven applications, such as household appliances, but the electric grid is often unreliable and intermittent. Generators are Generac increasingly common in these regions as a regular supplement to grid 10% power.
Honda 8%
Caterpillar 8%
Figure 2. Fraction of genset brands offered by distributors, worldwide sample (Power Systems Research 2005)
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25kW Prime Genset
50kW Standby Genset 180 MJ Energy Output (Electricity Delivered) Energy Input (MJ) 672 716 585 698 741 599 Efficiency (%) 26.8% 25.1% 30.8% 25.8% 24.3% 30.0%
100kW Prime Genset 360 MJ Energy Output (Electricity Delivered) Energy Input (MJ) 1395 1457 1169 1318 1404 1123 Efficiency (%) 25.8% 24.7% 30.8% 27.3% 25.6% 32.1%
EFFICIENCY
90 MJ Energy Output (Electricity Delivered) Fuel Energy Input (MJ) 351 367 317 352 377 305 Efficiency (%) 25.6% 24.5% 28.4% 25.5% 23.9% 29.5%
Region
50 Hz (Europe, India, Japan)
LP Gas Natural Gas Diesel
60 Hz (N. America, Korea, S. America)
LP Gas Natural Gas Diesel
*Energy efficiency is based on ratio of energy output (in the form of electricity delivered) compared to energy input to the genset (in the form of fuel).
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. Reported efficiencies and energy use are based on prime and standby gensets delivering 25kW, 50kW, and 100kW at steady state for 1 hour at 100% load. 2. Energy use requirements are based on data reported in manufacturing specs from over 150 commercially available units that contained adequate data and were available in the regions of interest (see appendix). Different manufacturers provide different energy use requirements for generator set ratings. Statistical loglinear regression of genset data of a given power frequency and size range were used to estimate energy end use. 3. Energy use and calculated efficiencies are based on manufacturer specifications (specs) for power-only (i.e., no combined heat and power) gensets operating at 1800 rpm for 60 Hz output and at 1500 rpm for 50 Hz output and 100% nameplate load. Gensets fuel usage for North America, South America, and Korea are based on 60 Hz power. Europe, India, and Japan are based on 50 Hz power. See appendix for full list of assumptions and references.
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NOTES
Energy use and efficiencies are the same for regions using the same electric power frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz). Actual efficiency of individual gensets varies significantly based on use and maintenance/upkeep. Wellmaintained generator sets typically operate more efficiently than systems that are not well-maintained. Fuel usage for both prime and standby gensets are based on performance at manufacturer-specified conditions and ratings. Fuel usages required for startup or for poorly maintained units are not incorporated into manufactures specs. Energy efficiency of diesel (compression) engines improves with larger gensets compared to natural gas and LP Gas powered (spark-ignition) engines. Energy use is based on gensets operating at an elevation below 500 m and at 25C. Energy use increases about 4% for spark-engine (LP Gas and natural gas) generators operating above 1000 m, and 1% per every 5C above 40C. For diesel gensets, energy use increases about 4% for every 300 m above 500 m, and 2% per every 11C above 25C (Cummins 2008). Efficiencies should be compared for a single genset size/usage in a given region; avoid making generalizations between 50Hz and 60Hz gensets and between standby and prime gensets within a region.
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RESIDENTIAL SPACE HEATING

Residential space heating utilizes either a centralised system to distribute warm air or hot water throughout the home or individual heating units that heat either a single room or a part of a room. Warm air for a centralised system is typically generated by a furnace. In other centralised systems, a boiler produces hot water that is distributed to each room in a home. Furnaces and boilers can use LP Gas, natural gas, fuel oil or electricity. Single-room heaters are smaller and can operate independently in a home. Single-room heaters that burn LP Gas, natural gas, fuel oil, or wood typically incorporate a direct vent design in which room air is heated and re-circulated while combustion gases are exhausted to the outdoors. In developing countries small space heaters using LP Gas or kerosene may not incorporate heat exchangers and all combustion gases are released into the living space. Electric baseboard heaters and space heaters use electric resistance to generate heat. The amount and type of space heating technologies used in homes vary by region, reflecting differences in home construction, cultural attitudes, fuel availability, climate, and cost. This analysis compares the relative primary energy consumption associated with space heating for one year. In general, the technologies analysed reflect the most efficient commonly used systems in each region.
MARKET DATA
Europe: Europe is a highly diverse region in terms of climate and housing stock. Historically high energy costs and strong government requirements for efficiency and labeling result in the use of highly efficient space heating equipment, especially boilers. Sophisticated wood stoves are used in northern Europe. Many urban homes utilise district heating systems, which are not included in this analysis. India: Space heating is not common in India and limited to northern areas. Centralised furnaces and boilers are almost unknown. Small electric resistance space heaters are a common heating option. Biomass-fired cook stoves may be kept in use throughout the day to provide space heating. Japan: Most homes do not have central heating and are maintained at cooler temperatures (15C) than other regions. Individual room heaters using a direct vent design are highly efficient as required by government standards. North America: North America features larger and warmer (20C) homes than in other regions. Warm air systems are dominant, and a large number of manufacturers produce equipment to meet energy-efficiency labeling and efficiency requirements. Older heating systems used plentiful and affordable natural gas and electricity, but recent price increases have boosted consumer interest in more efficient technologies. Republic of Korea: Rising incomes and government policies have resulted in fuel oil displacing coal and wood as the dominant heating fuels over the past 20 years. Central heating systems using boilers are common. South America: Heating demands generally are lower than other regions, but some form of home heating is universal. About half of rural homes use wood to cook and heat. Energy policies in the regions largest country, Brazil, include energy labeling and efficiency requirements, although space heating is not specifically targeted.
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KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. The analysis uses a typical seasonal space heating requirement that varies by region: a. Europe: 18,191 MJ based on an average E.U. household in 2005. b. India and Japan: 3,600 MJ based on 1,000 hours of heating from a typical space heater. c. North America: 40,095 MJ based an average-sized (U.S.) home in a climate with 4,000-5,499 heating degree days. d. Korea: 19,200 MJ based on estimated average residential energy use in 1994. e. South America: 10,551 MJ 2. Technology selection varies by region: a. Europe: Based on highest boiler efficiencies in practice as identified by E.U. Condensing boilers are assessed for LP Gas and natural gas fuels. b. India: Small space heaters (LP Gas, kerosene, electricity) are not vented to the outdoors and 100% of energy is delivered to the living space. Wood stove efficiency is typical as identified by United Nations data. c. Japan: Gas and oil heater efficiencies are based on Japanese Top Runner standards. Electric space heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space.
d. North America: Energy efficiencies based on the highest annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) reported in the GAMA Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings (GAMA 2006) for gas and fuel oil furnaces with greater than 60,000 Btu-hour ratings. Assumed 100% conversion efficiency of electric heaters and electric furnaces. e. Korea: Boiler efficiencies are based on the highest efficiencies reported by manufacturers. Electric space heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space. f. South America: Boiler efficiencies are based on the highest efficiencies reported by manufacturers. Electric space heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space. Wood stove efficiency is typical as identified by United Nations data.
3. Centralised heating systems experience distribution losses in the pipes and ductwork that do not occur in single room and portable heaters. These losses are added to the heating demand assumed for the region. In boiler systems the heat losses in the pipes are assumed to be 5%. In furnace systems the heat losses in ductwork are assumed to be 15% in this analysis.
NOTES
1. Differences in calculating the efficiency of boiler and furnaces by manufacturers makes it difficult to compare systems between regions. For instance, the duration and frequency of equipment cycling is determined by government regulations, which can affect overall performance. 2. The efficiencies of central heating systems are diminished by losses in ductwork (15%) and boiler system piping (5%).
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EFFICIENCY DATA*
Fuel LP Gas: Condensing Boiler Natural Gas: Condensing Boiler Fuel Oil: High-Efficiency Boiler Wood: High-Efficiency Stove LP Gas: Space Heater Kerosene: Space Heater Electricity: Space Heater Wood: Stove LP Gas: Direct-Vent Heater Natural Gas: Direct-Vent Heater Kerosene: Direct-Vent Heater Electricity: Space Heater LP Gas: High-Efficiency Furnace Natural Gas: High-Efficiency Furnace Fuel Oil: Furnace Electricity: Baseboard Heater Electricity: Furnace LP Gas: High-Efficiency Boiler Natural Gas: High-Efficiency Heater Fuel Oil: High-Efficiency Boiler Electricity: Space Heater LP Gas: High-Efficiency Boiler Natural Gas: High-Efficiency Boiler Fuel Oil: High-Efficiency Boiler Electricity: Space Heater Wood: Stove Total Energy Use (MJ) 22,063 22,063 23,012 26,404 3,600 3,600 14,024 19,999 4,390 4,390 4,311 8,994 49,291 49,291 54,851 103,025 121,206 21,755 21,755 22,456 52,522 11,955 11,955 12,340 17,662 58,614 Point of Use Energy (MJ) 20,993 20,993 21,942 26,404 3,600 3,600 3,600 19,999 4,390 4,390 4,311 3,600 42,215 42,215 47,775 40,096 40,096 20,745 20,745 21,446 19,200 11,399 11,399 11,785 10,551 58,614 Duct and Pipe Losses (MJ) 1,070 1,070 1,070 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7,076 7,076 7,076 0 7,076 1,011 1,011 1,011 0 555 555 555 0 0 Upstream Energy (MJ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 10,425 0 0 0 0 5,394 0 0 0 62,929 74,034 0 0 0 33,322 0 0 0 7,111 0
*Unit of comparison: Energy consumption for one heating season (varies by region)
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RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING

While there is substantial regional variation in both water heating technologies and their application, all regions tend to rely on central and/or point-of-use systems for their water heating needs. Central residential water heating heats all of a households water from one source, while point-of-use heaters are used to heat water for independent needs like dishwashing, hand washing, and showering. A wide variety of technologies are used in each region for these two types of water heating, including: storage tank Maintains a readily available reservoir of hot water instantaneous (tankless or demand) Heats water as it is supplied to the end-user combination or combi boilers Water is heated by a space heating boiler system solar thermal Fluid absorbs solar energy in a collector; common designs use electricity to circulate fluid and connect the system to a conventional heater for cloudy days electric heat pump (Japan) Use electricity to move heat rather than directly generating heat
There are many design features that impact energy consumption of a water heater. For example, the ignition mechanism of gas water heaters can impact the energy use of small units, while instantaneous water heaters with electronic temperature control have an efficiency advantage over heaters that control temperature hydraulically. There are a wide variety of water heater technologies available in each region, and there is substantial regional variation in both technologies and their application. While gas and electricity are popular fuels for water heating in every region, the use of fuel oil for water heating is significant in North America and Japan. Gas and electric storage tank water heaters are dominant in North America, whereas it is common for those fuels to power instantaneous (also called tankless or demand) water heaters in other regions. In Europe, instantaneous water heaters that are combined with a space heating boiler system (combination or combi boilers) are widely used. Solar water heaters have a substantial market share in India and South America, where abundant solar energy makes this technology cost-effective, but are also gaining significant market share Europe and Japan. Solar water heaters frequently feed into a conventional heating system, which is used as a backup for cloudy or cold days. Electric heat pumps water heaters are rare in most regions, but are being aggressively subsidised in Japan. Region Europe India Japan North America Republic of Korea South America Central Water Heating Technologies gas-fired combination boilers electric storage heaters solar thermal systems electric storage heaters large dedicated instantaneous gas heaters dedicated gas-fired storage heaters instantaneous (gas or electric) solar thermal solar thermal electric storage heaters Point-Of-Use Water Heating Technologies instantaneous heaters (gas or electric) small electric storage heaters instantaneous heaters (gas or electric) small electric storage heaters bathtub heaters (common household appliance
MARKET DATA
instantaneous water heaters (gas or electric) small electric storage heaters
Storage and instantaneous water heaters come in a large range of sizes and power ratings, respectively. Unit size and power depends on whether the application is being used for central water heating or point-of-use water heating. There are marked differences among regions in the type of technology chosen for central heating. In Japan, large dedicated instantaneous gas water heaters are the norm, whereas in Europe, central hot water is provided mainly by gas-fired combination boilers or electric storage heaters. Dedicated gas-fired storage water heaters are the most
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32
common heater type in North America, but are rarely found in European households. In India and South America, central hot water is typically provided by solar thermal systems or electric storage heaters. Smaller point-of-use applications are popular in Europe, India, and South America for dishwashing, hand washing, and showering. In these regions, households may employ instantaneous water heaters fuelled by gas or electricity for their point-of-use water heating, or small electric storage water heaters. In Japan, bathtub water heaters are a common household appliance. While gas and electricity are popular fuels for water heating in every region, the use of fuel oil for water heating is significant in North America and Japan. There are many design features that impact energy consumption of a water heater. For gas water heaters, however, the ignition mechanism can have an especially significant impact on the energy use of small units. Gas water heaters that use a pilot light will burn a substantial fraction of total fuel consumption while not heating water. Electronic ignition devices eliminate the need for a pilot light and consume a negligible amount of electricity. For electric instantaneous water heaters, those with electronic temperature control have a significant efficiency advantage over heaters that control temperature hydraulically by regulating water flow.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. Water heating performance in North America is based on government-mandated minimum energy performance standards in the United States. 2. Water heating performance in Europe and Japan is based on the estimated energy efficiency of the existing stock of water heaters. 1, 2 3. Water heating technologies in Korea were assumed to have the same performance of Japanese water heaters. 4. Solar water heaters were assumed to employ backup water heating for 15% of the hot water load in India and South America, and 40% in Europe, Japan, and Korea. 5. Different efficiency values for the LP gas and natural gas were only used where the difference was supported by region-specific data. 3
NOTES
Average system efficiency of European water heaters (also applied to Indian and South American heaters) is based on analysis contained in VHK 2007. 2 Japans voluntary Top Runner programme bases efficiency targets on a percent improvement from estimated efficiency of existing stock in 2000. 3 Although there is some anecdotal information suggesting LP Gas water heaters are more efficient than natural gas models, this was not supported by the data. An analysis of energy factors reported by the Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association showed that LP Gas and natural gas achieved the same efficiency on the same water heater. 4 Demand assumptions for central water heating: North America, Japan, and Korea 2560 kWh per year of useful heating per household. Europe 1280 kWh per year. India and South America 1160 kWh per year. 5 Average of pilot and electronic ignition shown for Europe due to small (<2%) difference in results. Nonspecificity of ignition type in data for other regions. India and South America have larger differences between results since smaller units can be used for the same flow rate (due to a lower T). 6 Demand assumptions for point-of-use water heating: Europe 460 kWh per year of useful heating per household. India and South America 400 kWh per year. Japan (bathtub heating) 1280 kWh per year.
1
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January 2009
EFFICIENCY DATA: CENTRAL WATER HEATING*

Fuel/ Technology Total Energy Use (kWh/yr) 5,207 11,472 13,210 11,139 16,146 12,164 End Use Energy Use (kWh/yr) 5,207 4,865 5,603 11,139 6,848 12,164 Upstream Energy Use (kWh/yr) 0 6,607 7,608 0 9,298 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16,064 0 0 0 0 0
Solar, pumped w/LP Gas combination backup Electric Instant, electronic temp control Electric Instant, hydraulic temp control Natural Gas Instant Electric storage Natural Gas Instant combination boiler
LP Gas Instant 11,013 11,013 LP Gas Instant combination 12,164 12,164 boiler Pumped solar w/ LP Gas 1,883 1,883 instant backup NG instant, electronic ign. 10,272 10,272 LP Gas instant, electronic ign. 10,272 10,272 NG instant, pilot ign. 14,791 14,791 LP Gas instant, pilot ign. 14,550 14,550 Pumped solar w/ LP Gas 5,006 5,006 instant backup Natural Gas Instant 11,661 11,661 LP Gas Instant 11,661 11,661 Oil Instant 11,099 11,099 Natural Gas instant 14,858 14,858 LP Gas instant 14,858 14,858 Natural Gas storage 15,102 15,102 LP Gas storage 15,102 15,102 Fuel oil storage 17,381 17,381 Electric storage 26,300 10,236 Pumped solar w/ NG instant 5,006 5,006 backup Pumped solar w/ LP Gas 5,006 5,006 instant backup Natural Gas instant 11,661 11,661 LP Gas instant 11,661 11,661 Oil instant 11,099 11,099 *Unit of comparison: Energy consumption for typical residential building for one year
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EFFICIENCY DATA: CENTRAL WATER HEATING (CONT.)*

Fuel/ Technology Total Energy Use (kWh/yr) End Use Energy Use (kWh/yr) Upstream Energy Use (kWh/yr) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,747 Pumped solar w/ LP Gas instant 1,883 1,883 backup Natural Gas instant, electronic 10,272 10,272 ignition LP Gas instant, electronic 10,272 10,272 ignition Natural Gas instant, pilot 14,791 14,791 ignition LP Gas instant, pilot ignition 14,550 14,550 Natural Gas storage 27,189 27,189 LP Gas storage 27,189 27,189 Electric Storage 11,791 7,043 *Unit of comparison: Energy consumption for typical residential building for one year
EFFICIENCY DATA: POINT-OF-USE WATER HEATING*

Fuel/ Technology Total Energy Use (kWh/yr) 4,604 5,939 4,610 4,610 7,453 3,238 3,328 6,085 6,896 9,852 6,163 6,163 7,003 2,615 4,610 2,963 4,610 End Use Energy Use (kWh/yr) 1,952 2,213 4,610 4,610 3,161 3,238 3,328 1,562 1,770 2,529 6,163 6,163 7,003 1,562 4,610 1,770 4,610 Upstream Energy Use (kWh/yr) 2,651 3,005 0 0 4,292 0 0 4,523 5,126 7,323 0 0 0 1,053 0 1,193 0 1,556
Electric instant, electronic temp control Electric instant, hydraulic temp control NG instant, electronic ign. LP Gas instant, electronic ign. Electric storage NG instant, electronic ign. LP Gas instant, electronic ign Electric instant, electronic temp control Electric instant, hydraulic temp control Electric storage NG instant bathtub heater LP Gas instant bathtub beater Oil instant bathtub heater Electric instant, electronic temp control NG instant, electronic ign. Electric instant, hydraulic temp control LP Gas instant, electronic ign.
Electric storage 3,865 2,309 *Unit of comparison: Energy consumption for typical residential building for one year
LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 35
January 2009
APPENDIX A ASSUMPTIONS AND REFERENCES COOKING REFERENCES

Carniero de Miranda, R. 1998. Forest replacement schemes in Latin America: An effective model to achieve sustainability of supply for industrial fuelwood consumers. Unasylva 192. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7126e/w7126e0a.htm (accessed May 2008). Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (e-CFR). 2008. Appendix I to Subpart B of Part 430Uniform Test Method for Measuring the Energy Consumption of Conventional Ranges, Conventional Cooking Tops, Conventional Ovens, and Microwave Ovens (May 7). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO). http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/textidx?c=ecfr;sid=76a0c2194d8b367d90c6fd26fe702502;rgn=div5;view=text;node=10%3A3.0.1.4.16;idno=10;cc=ecfr#1 0:3.0.1.4.16.2.9.7.9 (accessed May 2008). Energy Information Administration. 2007. Emissions of Greenhouse Gas Report (November): Appendix H of the instructions to Form EIA-1605. DOE/EIA-0573(2006). http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/excel/Fuel%20EFs_2.xls (accessed May 2008). European Commission Institute for Environment and Sustainability. 2007. Electricity Consumption and Efficiency Trends in the Enlarged European Union: Status report 2006. Prepared by Paolo Bertoldi and Bogdan Atanasiu. Italy: European Communities. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2006. Energy. Vol. 2 of 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, ed. Eggleston H.S., Buenida L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. Japan: IPCC. http://www.ipccnggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/index.html (accessed May 2008). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 1996. Technologies, Policies and Measures for Mitigating Climate Change. Ed. Robert T. Watson, Maraufu C. Zinyowera, and Richard H. Moss. IPCC. International Energy Agency (IEA). 2006. World Energy Outlook 2006. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)/IEA. International Energy Initiative (IEI). 2004. Report on the use of LP GAS as a domestic cooking fuel option in India (June). Prepared by Antonette DSa and K.V. Narasimha Murthy. Bangalore: IEI. Lebot, Benoit, Alan Meier and Alain Anglade. 2000. Global Implications of Standby Power Use. Proceedings of ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings. Asilomar: American Council for An Energy Efficient Economy. Also published as Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory Report LBNL-26019 (June 2000). Ramakrishna, K., L. Jacobsen, R. Thomas, E. Woglom, and G. Zubkova. 2003. Country Case Study: India. Action Versus Words: Implementation of the UNFCCC by Select Developing Countries (February). Woods Hole, MA: The Woods Hole Research Center. Roggema, Paul. 2006. Energy Saving in Gas Cooking. Appliance Magazine (June). http://www.appliancemagazine.com/editorial.php?article=1431&zone=208&first=1 (accessed May 2008). Smith, Kirk R., R. Uma, V.V.N. Kishore, Junfeng Zhang, V. Joshi, M.A.K. Khalil. 2000. Greenhouse Implications of Household Stoves: An Analysis for India. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, no. 25 (November): 741763. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 1999. Trends in Consumption and Production: Household Energy Consumption (April). Prepared by Oleg Dziuobinski and Ralph Chipman. A Discussion Paper of the United Nations Department and Social Affairs, New York.
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United States Agency International Development (USAID). 1997. Fuel Efficient Stove Programs in IDP Settings Summary Evaluation Report, Uganda (September). Prepared by the Academy for Educational Development (AED). Washington, DC: AED. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Codes and Standards. 1996. Potential Impact of Alternative Efficiency Levels for Residential Cooking Products. Vol. 2 of Technical Support Document for Residential Cooking Products. Prepared by Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory. Berkley, CA: Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Air and Radiation. 2000. Greenhouse Gases from Small-Scale Combustion Devices in Developing Countries: Phase IIA Household Stoves in India (June). Prepared by National Risk Management Research Laboratory. Washington, DC: EPA. EPA/600/R-00/052. World LP Gas Association (WLP GASA). 2005. Household Fuels and Ill-Health in Developing Countries: What improvements can be brought by LP Gas? Prepared by Kirk R. Smith, Jamesine Rogers, and Shannon C. Cowlin of the University of California, Berkley. Paris: WLP GASA.
ASSUMPTIONS
1. The base case analysis was heating one litre of water from 20C to 100C on a stovetop. This corresponds to 0.335 MJ of heat being delivered to the cooking vessel. 2. The efficiencies of gas and electric stovetop cookers are based on standardized tests performed by the U.S. government. (DOE 1996). a. LP Gas or natural gas stovetop: Standard (open flame burner): 39.9%. High efficiency (thermostatically controlled, sealed burner design): 42.0%. b. Electric stovetop: Coil: 73.7%. Induction: 84.0%. The coil uses electrical resistance to generate heat, which is conducted directly to the pot. The induction element generates a high-frequency magnetic field that produces eddy currents in the cooking vessel, causing it to heat up. Some electric stoves use smooth heating elements, but performance is similar (74.2%) to electric coils. 3. LP Gas and natural gas burners are assumed to have the same efficiencies. 4. Biomass cooking is assumed to use renewable energy, which is included in the energy-consumption analysis.
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION REFERENCES

Armstrong Power Systems. 2006. Wide range of electric generators available. Gas product list. http://www.armstrongpower.com/products/gas.htm (accessed May 2008). Armstrong Power Systems. 2006. Wide range of electric generators available. Diesel product list. http://www.armstrongpower.com/products/power.htm (accessed May 2008). Baldor. Industrial Diesel Liquid Cooled Generators (IDLC) Standby/Prime Power. http://www.baldor.com/products/generators/idlc.asp (accessed May 2008). Baldor. Industrial Gaseous Standby/Prime Power Generators (IGLC) Industrial Gaseous Liquid Cooled. http://www.baldor.com/products/generators/iglc.asp (accessed May 2008). Caterpillar. Spec Sheets: CAT Gensets Powered by CAT engines, Olympian Gensets Available from your CAT Dealer. http://www.cat.com/cda/layout?m=39280&x=7 (accessed May 2008). Cummins Power Generation. Generator Sets: Spark-ignited Gas Generator Sets. http://cumminspower.com/na/products/generators/sparkignited#results (accessed May 2008). FG Wilson. 10 to 30 kVA. Gas generator set models. http://www.fgwilson.com/cda/layout?m=147961&x=7 (accessed May 2008). Generac Power Systems, Inc. Home Standby Air-Cooled Spec Sheets. http://www.generac.com/Products/Residential/AirCooled/SpecSheets.aspx (accessed May 2008).
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Kohler Power. Residential Power: All Residential Generators. Product list. http://www.kohlerpower.com/residential/filterresults.htm?categoryNumber=13061&sectionNumber=13561 (accessed May 2008). Kohler Power. Industrial Power: All Gas Generators. Product list. http://www.kohlerpower.com/industrial/filterresults.htm?categoryNumber=12061&sectionNumber=13261 (accessed May 2008) Lareya, Nathan. 2008. Gen-sets: A Transition from Industrial to Commercial Use? (April 4). Frost & Sullivan Market Insight. http://www.frost.com/prod/servlet/market-insight-print.pag?docid=126684096 (accessed May 2008). McNeely, Mark. 2007. 31st Power Generation Order Survey. Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide (October). http://www.dieselgasturbine.com/pdf/power_2007.pdf (accessed May 2008). Power Systems Research. 2005. PowerTracker Dealer/Distributor Survey (November 23). http://www.powersys.com/pdf/DealerSampleReport.pdf (accessed May 2008).
ASSUMPTIONS
1. Manufacturer specs used to calculate energy use is based on over 150 commercially available units that contained adequate data and were available in regions of interest. A full list of manufactures and models analysed is provided in the table below.
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Make Caterpillar Caterpillar Olympian Olympian Olympian Caterpillar Caterpillar Olympian Olympian Olympian Caterpillar Caterpillar Olympian Olympian Olympian Olympian Olympian Olympian Cummins Cummins Cummins Cummins Kohler Kohler Kohler Cummins Cummins Kohler Kohler Kohler Cummins Armstrong Armstrong Caterpillar Cummins Olympian Olympian Armstrong Cummins Armstrong Caterpillar Cummins Cummins Cummins Cummins Olympian Olympian Cummins Cummins Cummins Armstrong Kohler Kohler Kohler Kohler Cummins Cummins Kohler Kohler Kohler Olympian Kohler Armstrong Cummins Generac Generac Kohler Olympian Olympian Kohler Cummins Cummins Armstrong Armstrong Generac Generac Kohler Kohler Cummins Kohler Kohler
Model GEP13.5-2 GEP13.5-2 G12U3 G12U3 GEUG16-1 D13-2 GEP13.5-2 G12U3 G12U3 GEUG16-1 D13-2 GEP13.5-2 GEUG16-1 GEUG16-1 GEUG16-1 GEUG16-1 GEUG16-1 GEUG16-1 C30 D6 C33 D5 GGFE GGMC 30REOZJB 30RZG (alt. 4P5W) 30RZG (alt. 4P5W) GGMC GGMC 30REOZJB 30RZG 30RZG C30 D5 AGM30Si A30PE D30-8 C30 D6 G30F3 G30F3 AGM30Si GGMC AGM30Si D30-8 C30 D5 GGFE GGMC GGMC G30F3 G30F3 DGGD GGFE GGMC AGM30Si 30REOZJB 30RZG 30RZG 45RES DGGD GGFE 30REOZJB 30RZG (alt. 4P5W) 40REOZJB GEP44-2 45RES AGM45Si DGBC SD040 SD040 40REOZJB D40-4 GEP44-2 45RES GGFE C55 D5 A45PE AGM45Si QT045 QT045 60REOZJC 45RES GGFE 60RES 60RES
kW 10 11 11 11 11.5 12 12 12 12 12.8 13 13 13.7 15 15 15.8 15.8 16 24 24 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26.4 27 27 27 27 27 27 29 29 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 32 33 33 33 33 35 35 35 35 35 35.2 36 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 41 42 44 45 45 45 45 45 46 47 49 51
Fuel Diesel Diesel LPG Nat Gas Nat Gas Diesel Diesel LPG Nat gas LPG Diesel Diesel Nat gas Nat gas LPG LPG Nat Gas LPG Diesel Diesel Nat Gas Nat Gas Diesel LPG Nat gas LPG Nat Gas Diesel LPG Nat Gas Diesel Nat Gas Diesel Diesel Diesel LPG Nat Gas LPG Nat gas Nat gas Diesel Diesel Nat gas LPG LPG LPG Nat gas Diesel LPG LPG LPG Diesel LPG Nat Gas Nat gas Diesel LPG Diesel Nat gas Diesel Diesel LPG Nat gas Diesel Diesel Diesel Diesel Diesel Diesel Nat gas Nat gas Diesel Diesel LPG LPG Nat gas Diesel LPG LPG Nat gas LPG
Hz 50 50 60 60 50 60 60 60 60 50 60 60 50 60 50 60 60 60 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 60 60 50 50 50 50 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 50 60 60 60 60 60 50 50 60 60 60 60 50 60 50 60 60 50 50 50 60 60 60 50 60 60 60 60 60 50 60 60 60 60 50 60 60 50 50
Prime/Stby Prime Standby Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Standby Standby Prime Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Prime Prime Standby Prime Prime Prime Prime Standby Standby Standby Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Standby Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Prime Prime Prime Standby Prime Prime Prime Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby
Make Olympian Cummins Generac Generac Cummins Cummins Armstrong Cummins Cummins Cummins Cummins Cummins Generac Generac Kohler Kohler Olympian Kohler Armstrong Kohler Kohler Olympian Cummins Kohler Kohler Olympian Kohler Kohler Armstrong Caterpillar Kohler Kohler Kohler Armstrong Armstrong Baldor Kohler Olympian Armstrong Armstrong Armstrong Baldor Baldor Caterpillar Cummins Kohler Kohler Kohler Kohler Kohler Kohler Olympian FG Wilson Armstrong FG Wilson Kohler Kohler Armstrong Kohler Armstrong Armstrong Kohler Kohler Armstrong Baldor Kohler Kohler Kohler Kohler Baldor Kohler Baldor Baldor Baldor Cummins Baldor Baldor Baldor Kohler Kohler
Model kW GEP65-2 52 GGHF 55 QT055 55 QT055 55 DGCB 56 C80 D5 58 AGM60Si 60 DGCB 60 GGHE 60 GGHF 60 GGHF 60 GGHF 60 SD060 60 SD060 60 60REOZJC 60 60RES 60 D60-4 60 80RES 60 AGM60Si 62 80REOZJC 62 60RES 63 G80-F3 63.5 C80 D5 64 80RES 64 80RES (alt. 4S7W) 66 G80-F3 68 80REOZJC 70 80RES (alt. 4S7W) 70 A80PE 72 D80-6 72 80REOZJC 72 80RES 72 80RES 72 AGM80Si 73 AGM80Si 73 IGLC150N/L-CB 73 100RZG 73 G80F3 75 A80PE 80 AGM80Si 80 AGM80Si 80 IDLC150-3J 80 IGLC150N/L-CB 80 D80-6 80 C80 D5 80 100 RZG (alt. 4S13W 80 100REOZJC 80 100RZG 80 80REOZJC 80 80RES (alt. 4S7W) 80 80RES (alt. 4S7W) 80 G80F3 80 P100P2 80.4 AGM100Si 81 P110E2 88 100 RZG (alt. 4S13W 88 100REOZJC (alt. 4S1 88 A100PE 89 100REOZJC 90 AGM100Si 91 AGM100Si 91 100RZG 91 100RZG 91 AGM100Si 100 IGLC150N/L-CB 100 100 RZG (alt. 4S13W 100 100 RZG (alt. 4S13W 100 100REOZJC (alt. 4S1 100 150RZGB (alt. 4S13) 125 IGLC150N/L-CB 125 150REOZJC (alt. 4S1 132 IGLC150N/L-CB 135 IDLC150-3J 140 IDLC150-3J 140 C200 D5S 148 IDLC150-3J (alt. UCI 150 IGLC215N/L-CB 150 IGLC215N/L-CB 150 150REOZJC (alt. 4S1 150 150RZGB (alt. 4S13) 150
Fuel Diesel Nat gas LPG Nat gas Diesel Diesel Nat gas Diesel Nat gas LPG Nat gas LPG Diesel Diesel Diesel Nat gas Diesel Nat Gas LPG Diesel LPG Nat Gas Diesel LPG Nat gas LPG Diesel LPG Diesel Diesel Diesel LPG Nat Gas LPG Nat Gas Nat Gas Nat Gas Nat gas Diesel LPG Nat gas Diesel LPG Diesel Diesel Nat gas Diesel LPG Diesel LPG Nat gas LPG Diesel Nat Gas Diesel LPG Diesel Diesel Diesel LPG Nat gas LPG Nat Gas LPG LPG LPG Nat gas Diesel Nat gas LPG Diesel Nat Gas Diesel Diesel Diesel Diesel LPG Nat Gas Diesel Nat gas
Hz 50 50 60 60 50 50 60 60 60 60 60 50 60 50 60 60 60 50 60 50 60 60 50 50 50 60 50 50 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 50 50 60 60 60 60 50 50 60 60 50 50 50 60 60 60 60 50 60 50 50 50 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 50 60 60 60 50 60 50 60 60 50 50 60 50 50 60 60
Prime/Stby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Prime Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Standby Prime Standby Prime Standby Prime Standby Prime Standby Prime Standby Standby Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Prime Standby Standby Standby Standby Prime Prime Standby Standby Standby Prime Prime Standby Standby Standby Standby Prime Prime Standby Standby Standby Prime Prime Prime Standby Prime Prime Standby Prime Standby Standby Standby Standby Prime Standby Prime Prime Prime Prime Standby Prime Prime Standby Standby
2. Different manufacturers provide different energy use requirements for generator set ratings. Statistical loglinear regression of genset data of a given power frequency and size were used to estimate energy end use. 3. Energy use is based on manufacturer specifications (specs) for power-only (no CHP) gensets operating at 1800 rpm for 60 Hz output and at 1500 rpm for 50 Hz output and 100% nameplate load. 4. Gensets fuel usage for North America, South America, and Korea are based on 60 Hz power. Europe, India, and Japan are based on 50 Hz power. 5. Actual efficiencies vary significantly based on fuel type, combustion technology, operating conditions, control technology, quality of maintenance, and age of combustion equipment. Fuel usage in this study is based on performance at manufacturer-specified conditions and ratings. 6. Energy use is based on gensets operating at an elevation below 500 m and at 25C (LP Gas vaporizers are not necessary). Energy use increases about 4% for spark-engine (LP Gas and natural gas) generators operating above 1000 m, and 1% per every 5C above 40C. For diesel gensets, energy use increases about 4% for every 300 m above 500 m, and 2% per every 11C above 25C (Cummins 2008).
LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 39 January 2009
RESIDENTIAL SPACE HEATING REFERENCES

Euroheat & Power. 2006. Ecoheatcool Work Package 1: The European Heat Market (Final Report). Brussels, Belgium: Ecoheatcool and Euroheat & Power. European Commission Altener Programme. 2003. Benchmarking for Existing European Dwellings. Task 1 of Energy Performance Assessment Method for Existing Dwellings (EPA-ED). (April). Prepared by C.A. Balaras, E. Dascalaki, S. Geissler, K.B. Wittchen, and G. van Cruchten. Athens, Hellas: European Commission. European Commission BOILeff project. 2008. Summary report on studies and field test reports dealing with boiler efficiency in practice. Deliverable 2.1 of Raising the efficiency of boiler installations. Prepared by CREVER Universitat Rovira I Virgili. European Commission. European Commission DG for Energy and Transport Save II Action. 2002. Labelling and other measures for heating systems in dwellings: Final Technical Report (January). European Commission. Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association. 2008. Consumers Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings for Heating and Water Heating Equipment (March). Arlington, VA: Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association, An Association of Appliance and Equipment Manufacturers. Hayden, Skip. 2006. Heating System Choices & Installation: Maximizing Comfort and Efficiency. Burlington, VT: Better Buildings by Design 2006 (February). PowerPoint slides. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2006. Energy. Vol. 2 of 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, ed. Eggleston H.S., Buenida L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. Japan: IPCC. http://www.ipccnggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/index.html (accessed May 2008). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 1999. Trends in Consumption and Production: Household Energy Consumption (April). Prepared by Oleg Dziuobinski and Ralph Chipman. A Discussion Paper of the United Nations Department and Social Affairs, New York. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). Prepared by Roger Taylor of National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Residential Wood Heating Economics. NAEMI Biomass Training Workshop. PowerPoint slides.
ASSUMPTIONS
1. The analysis uses a typical seasonal space heating requirement that varies by region: a. Europe: 18,191 MJ based on an average E.U. household in 2005. b. India and Japan: 3,600 MJ based on 1,000 hours of heating from a typical space heater. c. North America: 40,095 MJ based an average-sized (U.S.) home in a climate with 4,000-5,499 heating degree days. d. Korea: 19,200 MJ based on estimated average residential energy use in 1994. e. South America: 10,551 MJ 2. Technology selection varies by region: a. Europe: Based on highest boiler efficiencies in practice as identified by E.U. b. India: Small space heaters (LP Gas, kerosene, electricity) are not vented to the outdoors and 100% of energy is delivered to the living space. Wood stove efficiency is typical as identified by United Nations data. c. Japan: Gas and oil heater efficiencies are based on Japanese Top Runner standards. Electric space heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space.
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d. North America: Energy efficiencies based on the highest annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) reported in the GAMA Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings (GAMA 2006) for gas and fuel oil furnaces with greater than 60,000 Btu-hour ratings. Assumed 100% conversion efficiency of electric heaters and electric furnaces. e. Korea: Boiler efficiencies are based on the highest efficiencies reported by manufacturers. Electric space heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space. f. South America: Boiler efficiencies are based on the highest efficiencies reported by manufacturers. Electric space heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space. Wood stove efficiency is typical as identified by United Nations data.
3. Centralised heating systems experience distribution losses in the pipes and ductwork that do not occur in single room and portable heaters. These losses are added to the heating demand assumed for the region. In boiler systems the heat losses in the pipes are assumed to be 5%. In furnace systems the heat losses in ductwork are assumed to be 15% in this analysis.
RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING REFERENCES

ECOHOTWATER. 2007. Water Heater Model Draft v.2. (May 9). European Commission. 2007. Preparatory Study on Eco-design of Water Heaters: Task 5 Report (Final) Definition of Basecase (September 30). Prepared by Ren Kemna, Martijn van Elburg, William Li, and Rob van Holsteijn of Van Holsteijn en Kemna BV (VHK). Delft, Holland: VHK. European Commission. 2007. Preparatory Study on Eco-design of Water Heaters: Task 6 Design Options(Final) (September 30). Prepared by Ren Kemna, Martijn van Elburg, William Li, and Rob van Holsteijn of Van Holsteijn en Kemna BV (VHK). Delft, Holland: VHK. European Commission. 2006. Preparatory Study on Eco-design of Water Heaters: Task 1 Report Definition, Test Standards, Current Legislation & Measures (Draft) (December 3). Prepared by Ren Kemna, Martijn van Elburg, William Li, and Rob van Holsteijn of Van Holsteijn en Kemna BV (VHK). Delft, Holland: VHK.
Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association. 2008. Consumers Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings for Heating and Water Heating Equipment (March). Arlington, VA: Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association, An Association of Appliance and Equipment Manufacturers.
Indiasolar.com. Survey on Solar Water Heater Uses. http://www.indiasolar.com/survey-swh.htm (accessed May 2008). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2006. Energy. Vol. 2 of 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, ed. Eggleston H.S., Buenida L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. Japan: IPCC. http://www.ipccnggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/index.html (accessed May 2008). Pillai, Indu R. and Banerjee Rangan. 2006. Impact of Hot Water Usage Pattern and Location on Economics of Solar Water Heating Systems. Bombay, India: Energy Systems Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology. http://www.me.iitb.ac.in/~rangan/publications/recent%20papers%20published_homepage/Solar%20pap er.pdf (accessed May 2008).
ASSUMPTIONS
1. An extensive study of water heaters in the EU (Eco-design of water heaters), conducted by the Netherlands consulting firm VHK, was used to obtain many of the parameters in the analysis. 2. Efficiencies for water heaters in Europe, India, and South America were based on modeled and tested system efficiencies of water heaters in the base case reported in VHK 2007a). Currently, each country in the EU has independent efficiency standards for water heaters.
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3. Average efficiencies for North American water heaters were assumed to correspond to the United States minimum energy performance standards established for 2004. This was chosen to represent the typical performance of the existing stock of water heaters, reflecting a mix of sub-standard models purchased before 2004 as well as models that exceed the minimum standard. 4. Japanese water heater efficiencies were based on the performance of existing water heaters, which was inferred from the Japanese Top Runner program voluntary efficiency targets, which are based on a set percentage improvement from average efficiency in 2000. Each data source calculates efficiency differently. The U.S. government and the Japanese Top Runner program base minimum efficiency on a prescribed test procedure; the VHK study tends to include higher losses in its estimation of total system efficiency. Although some of the difference may be due to actual efficiency differences (such as the much more stringent standards for standby losses in the U.S. compared to Europe), caution is advised in drawing conclusions from cross-regional comparisons of results. 5. Size classes assigned in the VHK study were used to estimate heating energy demand in each region (the heating energy needed for useful hot water service after efficiency losses - see notes in main report for values). For Europe, the efficiencies of water heaters for central heating were based on the medium size class, which represented the largest number of water heating units sold in the EU. Average storage size in the medium size class is 80 litres. The flow rate of instantaneous heaters in this size category is 6-8 l/min (corresponding to a power input of 21-27 kW). For North America, Japan, and Korea, heating demand for the large size class was used. Average storage size in the large size class is 120 litres, which agrees well with the average size of United States water heaters (EIA 2001). The flow rate of instantaneous heaters in the large size class is 10 l/min. The large size class was chosen for Japan based on the popularity of bathtub use in that country. The water heating demand of Korean households were assumed to be similar to Japan. 6. Heating demand for point-of-use heaters was assumed to correspond to the small size class in the VHK study. Average storage size in the small size class is 20 litres. The flow rate of small instantaneous heaters is 5 l/min. 7. Central water heater efficiencies for India and South America were based on the medium size class for storage heaters, but used efficiencies from the small size class for instantaneous heaters (18 kW) due to tendency in those regions for smaller water heaters to be used to match the same flow rate demanded by the medium size class (reflecting a lower temperature change, possibly due to a higher inlet temperature or a lower outlet temperature in those regions, or both). Similarly, efficiencies for instantaneous technologies in the extra small category were used to estimate energy consumption for meeting the small energy requirements for point-of-use applications in these regions. 8. A lower heating energy demand than used for other regions was assumed for India and South America due to higher ambient temperatures. The VHK model assumes a T of 50 C from inlet to outlet. A T of 40 C was assumed for India and South America. Total heating demand for those regions was therefore reduced by 20% from the heating energy requirement assigned to each respective size category in the VHK study. 9. The percentage of backup solar water heaters was assumed to be 15% for India and South America, based on data presented in Pillai and Banerjee 2004. The backup percentage of 40% assumed for Europe, Japan, and Korea were based on typical backup percentages for solar water heaters in the United States (DOE 2005). (Solar water heaters were not analysed for the United States due to a small market share relative to other regions.) 10. Efficiencies for small and extra small gas instantaneous, electronic ignition technologies were taken from efficiencies reported in the VHK design options study (VHK 2007b). The efficiency used for the medium gas instantaneous water heater was calculated using the VHK spreadsheet model (VHK 2008). 11. The relative market shares of water heating technologies in India and South America was gleaned from a number of different sources, in particular the global trade website alibaba.com, which indicates the number of different water heater types available by regional export market.
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APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY OF TERMS

T: Change in temperature. Annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE): The measure of seasonal or annual efficiency of a furnace or boiler, accounting for the cyclic on/off operation and associated energy losses of the heating unit as it responds to changes in the load, which in turn is affected by changes in weather and occupant controls. AFUE calculates the percentage of heat delivered compared to the amount of fuel supplied to the furnace. Baseboard heater: A heating system in which heating elements, installed in panels along the baseboard of a wall, provide non-motorized convection heating. Bathtub heater: A common Japanese household appliance that keeps bath water warm. Biomass: Living and recently dead biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production, such as wood. Boiler: An apparatus that generates heat (usually by burning fuel) and uses it to heat circulating water (or sometimes another liquid) in a closed system that is then used for general heating. Calorific value: The amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of a material or fuel, typically measured in units of energy per amount of material. Central residential water heating system: A system that heats all of a households water from one source. Clean fuel: Fuels which, when combusted, produce a relatively small amount of greenhouse and otherwise harmful gases. Climate change: Refers to changes in long-term trends in the average climate, such as changes in average temperatures. In IPCC usage, climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. In UNFCCC usage, climate change refers to a change in climate that is attributable directly or indirectly to human activity which alters atmospheric composition. Coil electric stovetop: A type of stove which generates heat through electric resistance by means of an electric current passing through a coil. Combination (combi) boilers: A boiler which generates hot water for both space and water heating purposes. Combined heat and power: The simultaneous generation of useable heat and power in a single process. Combustion gas: A gas generated through the combustion of a fuel. Compression-ignition engine: An engine which uses compression of the fuel to cause ignition. This is a defining feature of a diesel engine, Conduction: Heat transfer within a substance or between substances through molecular action. Heat flows from higher-temperature areas to lower-temperature one areas. Direct vent heater: A heater which forces exhaust away from the immediate area of the heater. Typically used to prevent contamination and human health issues. Distributed power generation: The small-scale production of electricity (typically using engine-driven generators) at or near the location where the point of power use. Distribution: Used in this report to mean the delivery of electric energy from the source of generation to customers. District heating system: A large system that distributes steam or hot water to multiple buildings. The heat can be provided from a variety of sources, including geothermal, cogeneration plants, waste heat from industry, and purpose-built heating plants. Eddy current: A current that is induced around a closed conducting loop by the application of an external magnetic field. Electric power frequency: The number of oscillations in an alternating current that occur within one second, measured in Hertz (Hz).
Electric resistance: A material's opposition to the flow of electric current; measured in ohms (). Electronic ignition: An electrically controlled ignition system. Emission standards: Government supported standards requiring applicable equipment to produce emissions below a certain maximum level to be legally sold. Varies heavily by country. End use: The point at which energy is used. Energy carrier: A form of energy allowing for convenient transportation and use. Includes electricity and, in the future, hydrogen. Energy conservation: The idea that the minimum amount of energy should be used for a given task. Arises chiefly from the beliefs that energy sources are limited and excess energy use is harmful. Energy efficiency: The calorific value of the fuel used to generate heat compared to the amount of energy created. Thus, if a reaction is 50% efficient, the amount of input energy (fuel) is twice the amount of output energy (electricity). Energy source: Any substance that supplies heat or power (such as petroleum, natural gas, coal, or Renewables). Energy supply: The sum total of all energy sources available. May be applied to smaller divisions, including planetary, continental, national, personal, etc. Equipment efficiency: The efficiency at which a particular piece of equipment converts one type of energy (electrical, mechanical, or thermal) into another. Equivalent energy service: To perform a task done with one energy source using another. E.U. 27: An economic and political union of member states established by the Treaty of Masstricht in 1992. Current member states are: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Furnace: A heat-generating device which combusts fuel to heat air and distribute the resulting heat through ducts or an equivalent system. Generation: Throughout this report, used to mean the generation of electrical energy via thermal or mechanical means. Generator set (Genset): A relatively small generator of electrical energy typically used to provide electricity for systems without easy access to the electrical grid or as a backup for critical systems. Gross electrical generation efficiency: The overall efficiency of electrical generation. Used in this report to indicate the average efficiency for a geographical region as calculated through consideration of the sum efficiencies of constituent areas. Heat exchanger: A device that transfers heat from one source to another. Heat pump: A heating and cooling unit that draws heat from an outdoor source and transports it to an indoor space for heating purposes or, inversely, for cooling purposes. Heating degree day: A measure of how cold a location was relative to a base temperature of 18 C. The number of heating degree-days is the sum of the daily heating degree-days for one year. Induction: An electrical phenomenon whereby an electromotive force (EMF) is generated in a closed circuit by a change in the flow of current Induction electric stovetop: A stove top which generates heat from the electrical resistance of eddy currents caused by magnetic induction. Instantaneous (Tankless or demand) water heater: A water heater which generates heat for a particular task (such as cooking or showering) at the time of the task. Differs from storage tank water heaters, which heat water in advance of a task to be stored until required. Load: The demand for service or performance made upon a given machine or system.
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Log-linear regression: A method of analysis which assumes a linear relationship among logarithmic data. A model is constructed to predict the frequency with which particular equipment is used in a particular region. Lorena stove: An enclosed stove of rammed earth construction with a chimney built onto it. Low-carbon energy solution: An process or material which generates lower carbon emissions than alternative methods or materials. Mechanical energy: The inherent energy of motion. Minimum energy performance standard (MEPS): A specification containing a number of performance requirements for an energy-using device, and that effectively limits the maximum amount of energy that may be consumed by a product in performing a specified task. A MEPS is usually made mandatory by a government energy efficiency body and generally requires use of a particular test procedure that specifies how performance is measured. Nameplate load: The maximum rated output of a generator under specific conditions designated by the manufacturer. Normalized: A statistical method allowing convenient comparison of data by choosing a specific parameter to be equal to unity (in this report, one) and adjusting all other data points to values which preserve their multiplicative relation to the original. Pilot light: A small, continuous flame (in a hot water heater, boiler, or furnace) that ignites gas or oil burners when needed. Point of use residential water heating system: A compact system that heats water for a dedicated, independent use, such as dishwashing, hand washing, and showering. Primary energy consumption: The amount of energy consumed as calculated without consideration of secondary sources of consumption (typically upstream considerations for the procurement and distribution of fuel). Primary energy efficiency: The energy efficiency as calculated without consideration of secondary sources of inefficiency (typically upstream considerations for the procurement and distribution of fuels). Prime generator: A generator which is used as the primary source of electricity. Pump-type stove: A self-contained stove, typically fuelled by kerosene, which is pumped by hand to create and maintain combustion. Reciprocating internal combustion engine: An engine which operates through the entirely internal combustion of fuel and the oscillatory motion of pistons. Renewable energy: Energy obtained from sources such as biomass, geothermal, photovoltaic, solar, and wind. Sealed burner: A type of burner which does not introduce outside air into the fuel (petroleum or natural gas) until the point of the flame. Increases the efficiency and temperature of combustion by minimizing excess air. Smooth heating element: An electric cook top which functions similarly to a coil electric stove but in which the electric current passes through the surface of the stove, rather than a visible coil, to generate heat. Spark-ignition engine: A defining feature of a petrol engine, an engine which, after mixing fuel and air, introduces a spark to cause ignition. Standby generator: A generator used for backup power, generally for critical functions such as data centers or hospitals. Steady state: Refers to a generator which has been running continuously, as opposed to cycling. Storage tank water heater: A type of water heater which heats and stores water in anticipation of use. System efficiency: The overall efficiency of a system. Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI): A non-profit, scientific and policy research organization, working in India and globally in the fields of energy, environment and a whole range of sustainable development issues. Thermal conversion efficiency: The efficiency with which electrical or mechanical energy is converted into heat, or vice versa
Thermal energy: The inherent energy of heat. Thermostatic control: A simple mechanical system which turns a heating system on once the temperature becomes lower than a set point and will turn the system off once another, higher point has been exceeded. Top Runner program: A Japanese government program that searches for the most efficient model on the market and then stipulates that the efficiency of this top runner model should become the standard within a certain number of years. Total energy consumption: The total amount of energy consumed. Useful in distinction from primary energy consumption, the amount of energy consumed as calculated without consideration of secondary sources of consumption Total energy use: The total amount of energy used. Includes both point-of-use and upstream energies. Transmission loss: The decrease or loss in power during the transmission of energy from one point to another across a power line or other medium. United Nations Economic and Social Council: United Nations organ facilitating international cooperation on standards-making and problem-solving in economic and social issues. Upstream: The part of a process including all activities prior to point-of-use. Typically includes procurement, processing, refinement, transportation, and distribution. Useful heat: Heat which is put to use, as opposed to that which is lost in the creation, transportation, and distribution of heat. Waste: In this report, refers to the generation of electricity through the extraction of energy from solid and liquid waste.
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ABOUT THE WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION

The World LP Gas Association is the authoritative voice of the global LP Gas industry representing all sectors of industry. The primary aim of the association is to add value to the sector through driving premium demand for LP Gas, while also promoting compliance to good business and safety practices. It brings together private and public companies involved in one several or all activities of the industry, it develops long term partnerships with international organizations and implements projects on local and global scales. The association was established in 1987 and granted Special Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council in 1989 World LP Gas Association Mission Demonstrate the benefits of LP Gas and position it as a clean energy for a low carbon world Create the environment to develop and sustain LP Gas markets Identify and stimulate innovation Promote compliancy with health, safety and environment standards and good business practices Facilitate and drive communication among all stakeholders
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As the global voice for LP Gas, the World LP Gas Association (WLPGA) promotes the use of this fuel to foster a cleaner, healthier and more prosperous world. WLPGA was officially granted Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council in 1989 and actively represents the interests of the LP Gas industry in numerous UN processes including the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations.
world LP Gas Association 9, rue Anatole de la Forge, 75017 Paris, France Tel. +33 (0)1 58 05 28 00 Fax +33 (0)1 58 05 20 01 Email: to mkelly@worldlpgas.com Web: www.worldlpgas.com

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LP GAS: EFFICIENT ENERGY FOR A MODERN WORLD

WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION

LP GAS: EFFICIENT ENERGY FOR A MODERN WORLD

22 JANUARY 2009 PREPARED BY ENERGETICS INCORPORATED

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

FOREWORD BY THE WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION (WLP GASA)

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

I. ABOUT THIS STUDY

Fig. 1: Boundaries of Primary Energy Efficiency

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Gross Electrical Generation Efficiency

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Fig. 4: Electricity Generation Mix by Region

Coal Oil Gas Biomass Waste

Nuclear Hydro Geothermal Solar PV Wind

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

III. Summary of Findings

Natural Gas High- Electric Induction Efficiency

1.00 0.82 0.72

1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 -

Natural Gas High-

South America 1.10

1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 -

Natural Gas Standard

Wood Lorena Stove

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Distributed Power Generation - Primary

1.15 1.00 0.96

1.19 1.00 0.96

North America, Republic of Korea, South America 60 Hz Output Frequency

1.16 1.00 0.94

1.17 1.00 0.94

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

DISTRIBUTED POWER GENERATION STANDBY

1.15 1.00 0.94

1.17 1.00 0.92

North America, Republic of Korea, South America 60 Hz Output Frequency

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Residential Space Heating

1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00

Kerosene Direct Vent Heater

LP Gas Direct Vent Heater

Natural Gas Direct Vent Heater

Electric Space Heater

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

RESIDENTIAL SPACE HEATING (CONT.)

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Residential Water Heating Central

2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00

Pumped Solar w/ LP Gas Combination Backup

Natural Gas Instant

6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00

Pumped Solar LP Gas Instant, w/ LP Gas Electronic Instant Backup Ignition

Natural Gas Instant, Electronic Ignition

LP Gas Instant, Pilot Ignition

Natural Gas Instant, Pilot Ignition

2.50 2.00 1.50

Natural Gas Instant