Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439

www.elsevier.com/locate/aop

The uncertainties in radial position and

radial momentum of an electron in the
non-relativistic hydrogen-like atom
Cheng-Deng Kuo*
Laboratory of Biophysics, Department of Research and Education,
Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan 112, Taiwan

Received 31 August 2004; accepted 20 September 2004

Available online 15 December 2004

Abstract

Similar to the case of a simple harmonic oscillator, an increase in azimuthal quantum num-
ber l will result in simultaneous decrease in both the uncertainty in radial position and the
uncertainty in radial momentum for the same principal quantum number n in the non-relativ-
istic hydrogen-like atom. Thus, in some cases of hydrogen-like atom and in the case of a sim-
ple harmonic oscillator, the more precisely the position is determined, the more precisely the
momentum is known in that instant, and vice versa.

2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

PACS: 03.65.-w; 03.65.Bz; 03.65.Ca

Keywords: Uncertainty principle; Heisenberg; Uncertainty; Radial; Position; Momentum; Observable;
Conjugate observable

1. Introduction

In 1927, physicist Werner Heisenberg introduced into physics the famous

‘‘Uncertainty Principle’’ which states: ‘‘It is impossible to know both the position

*
Fax: +886228710773.
E-mail address: cdkuo@vghtpe.gov.tw.

0003-4916/$ - see front matter
2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.aop.2004.09.005
432 C.-D. Kuo / Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439

and the momentum of a particle at a given moment to an arbitrary degree of accu-

racy’’ [1–3]. Heisenberg proved that if the position x of an electron or the momentum
p of that electron has been independently measured in the specific state, then the
uncertainties in the measurements of position and momentum satisfy the following
relation
Dp
Dx P

h=2; ð1Þ
where Dx is the uncertainty in the measurement of x, Dp is the uncertainty in the
measurement of momentum, and
h is Plank
s constant h divided by 2p [3,4]. Eq.
(1) implies that the more precise the measurement of position, the more imprecise
the measurement of momentum, and vice versa. Therefore, it is physically impos-
sible to measure exactly both position and momentum of a particle at the same
time. It is said that both uncertainties in position and momentum arise from
the quantum nature of matter, rather than from the imperfections in measurement
instruments. The Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg describes the limits imposed
by nature on the precision of simultaneous measurements of position and momen-
tum of an object at the atomic scale. Similar to Eq. (1), there is an uncertainty
relation relating the uncertainties in the measurements of time and energy, DE Æ D-
tP
h/2. Hence, the Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg may be expressed in
words as follows: the simultaneous measurement of two conjugate variables such
as momentum and position, or energy and time, of a moving particle elicits a lim-
itation on the precision of simultaneous measurements of both conjugate variables.
In the most extreme case, the absolute precision of one variable would result in
the absolute imprecision of the other variable. The Uncertainty Principle of Hei-
senberg has profound implications on such fundamental notions as causality
and determination. However, because of the small value of the Plank
s constant
in everyday units, this principle is only significant and meaningful at the atomic
scale.
In quantum mechanics, the uncertainty or root mean square deviation in the
measurement of an observable O is defined as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DO ¼ hO2 i  hOi2 ; ð2Þ

where
Z

hOi ¼ WðxÞ OWðxÞ dx ð3Þ

and
Z

hO2 i ¼ WðxÞ O2 WðxÞ dx ð4Þ

are the mean values of O and squared O in the state described by the wavefunction
w(x). It is evident from Eqs. (2)–(4) that the uncertainties of an observable and its
conjugate observable can be calculated exactly and simultaneously if the wavefunc-
tion of the system is known.
 C.-D. Kuo / Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439 433

In the case of simple harmonic oscillator, the uncertainties in the measurements of

position and momentum, and the product of these two uncertainties have long been
calculated and found to be [5]
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dx ¼ ðn þ 12Þ
h=mx; ð5Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dp ¼ ðn þ 12Þmx
h; ð6Þ
 
Dx
Dp ¼ n þ 12
h: ð7Þ
Although the expectation values of both momentum and position of a simple
harmonic oscillator are zero, the uncertainties in both position and momentum of
a ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
q simple harmonic oscillator are non-zero and exact, being proportional to
n þ 12, and the product of these two uncertainties is also certain and exact. The case
of a simple harmonic oscillator tells us that if additional information, such as the
wavefunction of the simple harmonic oscillator, can be input into the calculation
of the uncertainties of an observable and its conjugate observable, then there
must be some additional certainty in the measurements of that observable and its
conjugate observable.
The mathematical expressions for the uncertainties in the measurements of posi-
tion and momentum in a simple harmonic oscillator have been found many years
ago. However, the uncertainties in the measurements of position and momentum
in a hydrogen-like atom have not been derived yet. This study intended to examine
the uncertainties in the radial position and radial momentum in the non-relativistic
hydrogen-like atom to see if there is additional certainty for the uncertainties in the
measurements of radial position and radial momentum.

2. Non-relativistic hydrogen-like atom

For a non-relativistic hydrogen-like atom, the wavefunction can be written in the

following form
vnl ðrÞ
wnlm ¼ Y lm ð#; uÞ; ð8Þ
r
where vnl = rRnl satisfies the radial part of the Schrödinger equation for a central
field of force
 
h2 o2

Ze2
h2 lðl þ 1Þ
 v  E nl þ  vnl ¼ 0; ð9Þ
2l or2 nl r 2lr2
with Z the atomic number of the atom. Since the average values of r and r2 for an
electron in the hydrogen-like atom are already known [6]
a0
hri ¼ ½3n2  lðl þ 1Þ; ð10Þ
2Z
434 C.-D. Kuo / Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439

 2  a20 n2  2
r ¼ 2
5n þ 1  3lðl þ 1Þ ; ð11Þ
2Z
the uncertainty in the measurement of the distance of the electron from the nucleus,
or the uncertainty in radial position, can be obtained as follows
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 a0
2
Dr ¼ hr i  hri ¼ n2 ðn2 þ 2Þ  l2 ðl þ 1Þ2 ; ð12Þ
2Z
where Æræ is the average distance of the electron from the nucleus, Ær2æ is the mean-
squared radius of the nuclear charge distribution around its center of mass, and
h2/le2 is the Bohr radius for the hydrogen-like atom. The uncertainty Dr is seen
a0 =

to depend on principal quantum number n and azimuthal quantum number l that
can take n different values in all for a given value of principal quantum number n
l ¼ 0; 1; . . . ; n  1: ð13Þ
From Eqs. (10) and (12), the relative dispersion or coefficient of variation in the
measurement of radial position can be defined as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
Dr n2 ðn2 þ 2Þ  l2 ðl þ 1Þ
¼ ; ð14Þ
hri 3n2  lðl þ 1Þ

which also depends on the quantum numbers n and l. The relative dispersion of radial
position gives us an estimate of how indeterminate the measurement in radial position
is relative to the average value of r for an electron in the hydrogen-like atom.
To calculate the uncertainty in the measurement of radial momentum, a little
algebra is required. The operator of the radial component of the linear momentum
is defined as [7]


1 o o 1
pr ¼ i
h r ¼ i

h þ : ð15Þ
r or or r
Therefore, the expectation value of the radial momentum is
Z 1

o 1
hpr i ¼ i
h r2 dr Rnl þ Rnl
0 or r
 Z 1 Z 1
o
¼ i
h  r2 dr Rnl Rnl  r dr R2nl
0 or 0
Z 1

2 o 1
¼ i

h r dr Rnl þ Rnl ¼ hpr i ¼ 0: ð16Þ
0 or r

The expectation value of the squared radial momentum can be evaluated by using
the following equation which states that the average squared linear momentum for
a hydrogen-like atom is the sum of the radial momentum part and the orbital
momentum part
h2
lðl þ 1Þ

p2nlm ¼ p2r þ 2
: ð17Þ
r
 C.-D. Kuo / Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439 435

From Eq. (17), the expectation value of the squared radial momentum can be written
as
h2 hr2 i:
hp2r i ¼ hp2nlm i  lðl þ 1Þ
ð18Þ
Since the expectation value of p2nlm and r2 are [6]
Z 2
h2
hp2nlm i ¼ ; ð19Þ
n2 a20

Z2
hr2 i ¼  ; ð20Þ
a20 n3 l þ 12
the expectation value of the squared radial momentum is then
" #
2 h2
Z2
lðl þ 1Þ
hpr i ¼ 2 2 1  : ð21Þ
n a0 nðl þ 12Þ

Thus, the uncertainty in the measurement of radial momentum can be calculated as

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 Z

h lðl þ 1Þ
Dpr ¼ hp2r i  hpr i ¼ 1 : ð22Þ
na0 nðl þ 12Þ

The uncertainty Dpr also depends on quantum numbers n and l. From the expres-
sions of Dr and Dpr, the product of Dr and Dpr is easily found to be
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2

h lðl þ 1Þ 2 þ 2Þ 
l2 ðl þ 1Þ
Dpr
Dr ¼ 1
ðn ; ð23Þ
2 nðl þ 12Þ n2

which again depends on quantum numbers n and l. The existence of explicit expres-
sions for the Dr, Dpr, and Dpr Æ Dr for an electron in the hydrogen-like atom appears
to prove my speculation stated in the Introduction that the uncertainties of an ob-
servable and its conjugate can be calculated separately and exactly by using Eqs.
(2)–(4) if the wavefunction of the system is known.

3. Some features of uncertainties in radial position and radial momentum

The values of the uncertainties Dr and Dpr, relative dispersion Dr/Æræ and product
of uncertainties Dpr Æ Dr for principal quantum number n from 1 to 4 with different
azimuthal quantum number l are listed in Table 1 and plotted for better visualization
in Fig. 1. As quantum number n increases, both Dr and Dpr Æ Dr increase, while both
Dpr and Dr/Æræ decrease, in accordance with the notion of the Uncertainty Principle
of Heisenberg. For the same value of principal quantum number n, however, an in-
crease in l will result in simultaneous decrease in both Dr and Dpr, and therefore a
decrease in the product Dpr Æ Dr. This phenomenon is similar to the case of a simple
harmonic oscillator in which Dx, Dp, and Dx Æ Dp all increase as n increases. Note
that the simultaneous and parallel change in both the uncertainties of position
436 C.-D. Kuo / Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439

Table 1
The values for the uncertainties in the measurements of radial position and radial momentum, the relative
dispersion in radial position and the product of uncertainties of radial position and radial momentum in a
hydrogen-like atom
n l Æræ Dr Dr/Æræ Dpr Dpr Æ Dr
1 0 1:5 aZ0 0:866 aZ0 0.577 Z
h
a0 0.866
h
2 0 6 aZ0 2:449 aZ0 0.408 0:5 Z

h
a0 1.225
h
2 1 5 aZ0 2:236 aZ0 0.447 0:289 Z
h
a0 0.645
h
3 0 13:5 aZ0 4:975 aZ0 0.369 0:333 Z
h
a0 1.658
h
3 1 12:5 aZ0 4:873 aZ0 0.39 0:248 Z
h
a0 1.211
h
3 2 10:5 aZ0 3:969 aZ0 0.378 0:149 Z
h
a0 0.592
h
4 0 24 aZ0 8:485 aZ0 0.354 0:25 Z
h
a0 2.121
h
4 1 23 aZ0 8:426 aZ0 0.366 0:204 Z
h
a0 1.720
h
4 2 21 aZ0 7:937 aZ0 0.378 0:158 Z
h
a0 1.255
h
4 3 18 aZ0 6 aZ0 0.333 0:094 Z
h
a0 0.567
h
n, principal quantum number; l, azimuthal quantum number; Æræ, uncertainty in radial position; Dr/Æræ,
relative dispersion in radial position; Dpr, uncertainty in radial momentum; and Dpr Æ Dr, product of
uncertainties of radial position and radial momentum.

and momentum as the quantum number changes is not in accordance with the no-
tion of the Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg.
Table 1 and Fig. 1 also show that when l assumes its maximum value for a given
value of n, namely l = n  1, the value of Dr, Dpr, and Dpr Æ Dr will be the smallest for
that value of n. To be more specific, we can have for l = n  1 the following expres-
sions for Dr, Dpr, Dr/Æræ, and DprÆDr
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
a0 n 2n þ 1
Dr ¼
; ð24Þ
Z 2
Z

h 1
Dpr ¼
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð25Þ
a0 n 2n  1

Dr 1
¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð26Þ
hri 2n þ 1
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

h 2n þ 1
Dpr
Dr ¼
: ð27Þ
2 2n  1
From these equations, we see that as n increases, the Dr becomes increased, whereas
Dr/Æræ, Dpr and Dpr Æ Dr become decreased, in accordance with the notion of the
Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg.
For the S orbit (l = 0) of various principal quantum number n, the equations for
Dr, Dpr, Dr/Æræ, and Dpr Æ Dr can be simplified to read
na0 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
Dr ¼ n2 þ 2; ð28Þ
2Z
Z

h
Dpr ¼ ; ð29Þ
na0
 C.-D. Kuo / Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439 437

Fig. 1. The changes in the uncertainties Dr and Dpr, relative dispersion Dr/Æræ and product of uncertainties
Dpr Æ Dr with respect to principal quantum number n and azimuthal quantum number l. As n increases, the
uncertainty in radial position Dr is increased and the uncertainty in radial momentum Dpr is decreased.
However, for the same n, the increase in l will result in simultaneous decrease in Dr, Dpr, and Dpr Æ Dr.

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dr n2 þ 2
¼ ; ð30Þ
hri 3n

h
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
Dpr
Dr ¼
n2 þ 2: ð31Þ
2
Again, as n increases, both Dr and Dpr Æ Dr increase, whereas Dr/Æræ and Dpr de-
creases. Note that Dpr Æ Dr approaches

h/2 when n is very small, similar to the case
of a simple harmonic oscillator. For the simplest case where n = 1 and l = 0, the
Dr, Dpr, Dr/Æræ, and Dpr Æ Dr are
pffiffiffi
3
Dr ¼
a0 ; ð32Þ
2Z
Z
h
Dpr ¼ ; ð33Þ
a0

Dr 1
¼ pffiffiffi ; ð34Þ
hri 3
438 C.-D. Kuo / Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439
pffiffiffi
3
Dpr
Dr ¼ h:

ð35Þ
2
The Dpr Æ Dr is greater than

h/2, as expected.

4. Discussion

In this study, the uncertainties in the measurement of radial position and radial
momentum, Dr and Dpr, the relative dispersion of radial position, Dr/Æræ, and the
product of both uncertainties, Dpr Æ Dr, in a non-relativistic hydrogen-like atom were
derived and examined. All these quantities are found to depend on the quantum
numbers n and l, in contrast to the case of simple harmonic oscillator, where only
one quantum number n is involved. This is conceivable, because the Schrödinger
equation used for the description of a simple harmonic oscillator is one-dimensional,
whereas the Schrödinger equation used for the description of an electron in the
non-relativistic hydrogen-like atom is three-dimensional. Furthermore, both the
uncertainties Dr and Dpr in the non-relativistic hydrogen-like atom are found to be
non-zero, exact, and certain if the quantum numbers n and l of the orbit of that
electron are known. This observation suggests that we can know at the same time
the mean values of the radial position and radial momentum, Æræ and Æpræ, the uncer-
tainties in radial position and radial momentum, Dr and Dpr, and the product of the
uncertainties, Dpr Æ Dr, for the electron in the non-relativistic hydrogen-like atom.
That is, both the position and momentum of an electron in the non-relativistic
hydrogen-like atom can be measured simultaneously with known uncertainties if
the wavefunction of that electron can be specified.
The uncertainty relations of Heisenberg were originally derived from the commu-
tation relation between the quantum-mechanical conjugated operators such as posi-
tion and momentum, or time and energy, by using the Schwarz inequality. The sense
of uncertainty or indetermination in the Uncertainty Principle might stem from at
least two parts. The first part of the uncertainty or indetermination might come from
the inequality sign ‘‘P’’ in the uncertainty relations. The inequality sign in the uncer-
tainty relations comes from the Schwarz inequality relation, and gives us a sense of
uncertainty or indetermination. If the wavefunction of a particle can be specified be-
cause the particle under investigation is governed by known equation of motion,
such as the Schrödinger equation or some types of constraint, then the uncertainty
in the measurement of both position and momentum can be calculated exactly by
using Eqs. (2)–(4). In this case, the inequality sign ‘‘P’’ disappears and the sense
of uncertainty or indetermination caused by the inequality sign vanishes automati-
cally.
The second part of the uncertainty or indetermination might come from the spec-
ulation that as Dx approaches zero, the Dp becomes infinite, and vice versa. This phe-
nomenon is often generalized as: ‘‘the more precisely the position is determined, the
less precisely the momentum is known in this instant, and vice versa’’ [1]. The valid-
ity of this important and frequently quoted statement of the Uncertainty Principle of
Heisenberg is doubtful because both the uncertainties in position and momentum of
 C.-D. Kuo / Annals of Physics 316 (2005) 431–439 439

a particle in a system are fixed and exact, and cannot be varied at will by any mea-
surement technique if the wavefunction of the particle under investigation can be
specified, as can be seen in the cases of simple harmonic oscillator, hydrogen-like
atom, etc. Furthermore, though there seems to be a reciprocal relation between
the uncertainty of position and the uncertainty of momentum in Eq. (1), the uncer-
tainties of both position and momentum do not necessarily change in the opposite
direction when the quantum number involved is changed. For instance, in the case
of hydrogen-like atom, a decrease in Dr due to an increase in azimuthal quantum
number l is accompanied by a simultaneous decrease in both Dpr and Dpr Æ Dr for
the same quantum number n, rather than increase. Similarly, in the case of a simple
harmonic oscillator, the increase in the uncertainty of position is accompanied by a
parallel increase in the uncertainty of momentum when the quantum number n is
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
increased, because both uncertainties are proportional to n þ 12. Thus, the above-
quoted saying of the Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg is not always true in all
cases. The reason for this may be that there are cases when the position and momen-
tum of physical interest are not canonically conjugate.
In conclusion, similar to the case of a simple harmonic oscillator, an increase in
azimuthal quantum number l will result in simultaneous decrease in the uncertainties
of radial position and radial momentum and the product of these two uncertainties
for the same quantum number n in the non-relativistic hydrogen-like atom. Hence,
the frequently quoted saying of the Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg ‘‘the more
precisely the position is determined, the less precisely the momentum is known in this
instant, and vice versa’’ is not true in some cases of hydrogen-like atom and in the
case of a simple harmonic oscillator.

References

[1] W. Heisenberg, Zeits F. Physik 43 (1927) 172.

[2] W. Heisenberg, The Physical Principles of The Quantum Theory (Trans. C. Eckart and F.C. Hoyt),
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[3] F. Constantinescu, F. Magyari, Problems in Quantum Mechanics, Pergamon Press Inc., New York,
1971.
[4] F.D. Peat, From Certainty to Uncertainty: The Story of Science and Ideas in the Twentieth Century,
Joseph Henry Press, Washington, DC, 2002.
[5] C. Cohen-Tannoudji, D. Diu, F. Laloë, Quantum Mechanics (Trans. S.R. Hemley, N. Ostrowsky, and
D. Ostrowsky), Wiley, New York, 1997.
[6] L. Pauling, E.B. Wilson Jr., Introduction to Quantum Mechanics With Applications to Chemistry,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1935, p. 147.
[7] L.D. Landau, E.M. Lifshitz, Quantum Mechanics: Non-relativistic Theory (Trans. J.B. Sykes and J.S.
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