The Photogrammetric Record 25(132): 382401 (December 2010)

HIGH RESOLUTION TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PANAREA ISLAND BY FUSION OF PHOTOGRAMMETRIC, LIDAR AND BATHYMETRIC DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
Massimo Fabris (massimo.fabris@unipd.it) University of Padua, Italy Paolo Baldi (p.baldi@unibo.it) University of Bologna, Italy Marco Anzidei (marco.anzidei@ingv.it) Arianna Pesci (pesci@bo.ingv.it) Istituto Nazionale di Geosica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Italy Giovanni Bortoluzzi (giovanni.bortoluzzi@bo.ismar.cnr.it) Stefano Aliani (s.aliani@ismar.cnr.it) Institute of Marine Sciences (ISMAR), Italy

Abstract Aerial digital photogrammetry and laser scanning (lidar) and marine multibeam bathymetry can play a fundamental role in the generation of digital terrain models (DTMs) of land and submarine areas, respectively. Integrating these survey techniques is crucial for providing accurate and homogeneous DTMs along narrow coastal zones that often cannot be adequately surveyed owing to logistical limitations on collecting bathymetric data in shallow water. In this project, three aerial photogrammetric surveys, two multibeam bathymetric surveys and a lidar survey were analysed and integrated in the same reference system in order to generate the rst 3D high resolution digital terrain and marine model (DTMM) of the volcanic island of Panarea (Aeolian Islands, Italy). This is a volcanically active area that underwent a submarine gas eruption in November 2002, and produced impacts on the environment as well as potential hazards for the local population. The DTMM shows the morphological features of this volcanic area with an average grid resolution of 1 m and a maximum elevation error of 1 m. This model will signicantly improve geophysical and geomorphological studies of this volcanic island and assist in reducing future hazards. Keywords: aerial photogrammetry, data integration, DTMM, lidar, multibeam bathymetry, Panarea island Introduction Remote sensing devices, including high precision bathymetry, are used in the earth sciences to measure the morphological features of, and changes in, remote and hazardous environments,
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and to study and mitigate critical events, such as landslides, volcanic eruptions and the evolution of glaciers. The comparison of multitemporal models allows the evaluation of the volumes involved in these natural processes, as well as the measurement of both surface deformations and ground velocity, as reported in Baltsavias et al. (2001), Mora et al. (2003), Van Westen and Lulie Getahun (2003), Anzidei et al. (2005), Baldi et al. (2005; 2008a, b) and Pesci et al. (2007). Digital aerial photogrammetry, lidar (light detection and ranging) and multibeam bathymetry are powerful survey techniques capable of providing very high resolution images of topography of land and seaoor surfaces with high accuracy and in a short time. However, the integration of land and bathymetric surveys may lead to a data gap along coastal strips because of the technical and logistical limitations on collecting marine data in very shallow water (less than 2 m depth). To integrate topographic surveys from different data-sets into accurate 3D digital terrain and marine models (DTMM), the data must be co-registered in the same reference system. Hence, homologous points between different data-sets are used together with approaches based on the least square surfaces matching method. The aim of these procedures is to apply a rigid transformation in order to co-register a digital model to a reference model. Alignment of similar surfaces, distance minimisation between pairs of digital models and error analysis, use of points, straight-line features and other registration primitives, have been exhaustively described by Besl and McKay (1992), Chen and Medioni (1992), Bergevin et al. (1996), Pilgrim (1996), Rusinkiewicz and Levoy (2001), Habib et al. (2004) and Gruen and Akca (2005). Deformations occurring in the time interval between the production of two subsequent models can decrease the algorithms ability to obtain a satisfactory co-registration. Up to now, these areas have generally been excluded during the processing and are analysed separately to estimate changes of the surface shape. In this paper, a topographic data-set is used consisting of several surveys performed on the Panarea volcanic island (Aeolian Islands, Italy): (i) three aerial photogrammetric surveys acquired over the period 1987 to 2003 by regional authorities, (ii) a lidar survey performed in 2004 by the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), (iii) a GPS/RTK multibeam bathymetry survey at very high resolution, carried out in 2002 to 2003 by the Istituto Nazionale di Geosica e Vulcanologia (INGV) in collaboration with the Italian National Research Councils Institute of Marine Sciences (ISMAR), and (iv) regional bathymetric surveys by ISMAR during 1993 to 1999, in collaboration with the Istituto Idrograco della Marina (IIM). The data-sets include topography and bathymetry of the small archipelago surrounding Panarea, consisting of the islets of Dattilo, Panarelli, Lisca Nera, Bottaro, Lisca Bianca and Basiluzzo (Fig. 1). The goal of the present study was to provide a detailed 3D model of the topographic surface of this area because it underwent a submarine eruption in November 2002 that produced a fracture eld and a large number of gas vents, located mainly between the islets (Anzidei et al., 2005; Esposito et al., 2006). As this exhalation activity produced impacts on the environment as well as on the local population, this study will provide crucial data for the monitoring programmes related to volcanic hazard reduction, funded by the Italian Dipartimento della Protezione Civile. Panarea Volcano Panarea volcano belongs to the Aeolian volcanic arc (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy) (Fig. 1). This area is characterised by complex geodynamics with active volcanism, deep and shallow seismicity and crustal deformations (De Astis et al., 2003; Serpelloni et al., 2005). The island of Panarea is the emergent portion of a submarine stratovolcano which rises from the bottom of the Tyrrhenian Sea to more than 2000 m high and 20 km across (Favalli et al., 2005).
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(a)

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Fig. 1. (a) Location of the Aeolian Islands; (b) the integration of the two DTMs of the land areas of Panarea and surrounding islets (Panarelli, Dattilo, Lisca Nera, Bottaro, Lisca Bianca and Basiluzzo) obtained from the two aerial photogrammetric surveys performed on the 17th and 26th May 2003. The GPS reference station PANA is also shown (coordinate system UTM-WGS 84; grid size 25 m).

To the east of Panarea island, the seven islets form the Panarea archipelago that rises from an eroded submerged platform at the top of the volcano (De Astis et al., 2003). Presently, Panarea volcano is undergoing ground degassing from active fumaroles, located both inland and offshore (Capaccioni et al., 2007). Gas emissions and boiling of the sea water around the Aeolian Islands have been described several times over the past 2000 years and particularly around Panarea (Esposito et al., 2006 and references therein). The submarine eruption of 2002 provided new insights into the vulcanological and structural features of Panarea as well as the geological history of both the island and its underwater area (Caliro et al., 2004; Anzidei et al., 2006; Dol et al., 2007; Esposito et al., 2010). Aerial Photogrammetric Data and Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Extraction and Generation Three aerial photogrammetric surveys performed in 1987 and 2003 have been used for the generation of a digital model of the subaerial (dry land) parts of the Panarea volcanic area. It was assumed that no major morphological variations took place over this time period, and the models derived from surveys covering different portions of the area were georeferenced in the same coordinate system. All aerial photography was obtained using a Leica RC20 metric
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Table I. Main features of the three aerial photogrammetric surveys used in this study. Panarea aerial photogrammetric surveys Date of survey Number of images Calibrated focal length (mm) Average scale Coverage Ground pixel size (cm) Number of GCPs Rms values of GCP and tie point coordinates 5th July 1987 3 15326 1:10 000 Islets + Panarea 25 14 009 009 010 17th May 2003 4 15320 1:20 000 Islets + Panarea 52 13 010 010 011 26th May 2003 3 15322 1:13 000 Panarea 33 23 006 005 003

E (m) N (m) H (m)

camera. Frames were scanned by a Wehrli Raster Master RM2 photogrammetric scanner at 24 lm resolution (1000 dpi). Ground control points (GCPs) were used for the exterior orientation of images using the SOCET SET software v. 5.4 (Heipke, 1995). The main features of the three aerial photogrammetric surveys used are reported in Table I. The rms values of the coordinates of GCPs and tie points obtained after the orientation of the stereoscopic models indicate a sub-pixel accuracy for the process. 26th May 2003 Survey Three colour images were acquired during the 26th May 2003 survey at a mean scale of 1:13 000. Twenty-three signalised GCPs were measured using the rapid static GPS technique with respect to the GPS reference station PANA on the island (Fig. 1) (Anzidei et al., 1995). A stereoscopic model was generated providing rms of GCPs of 006, 005 and 003 m for easting, northing and height, respectively. 17th May 2003 Survey Four panchromatic images of Panarea and the islets were acquired during an aerial photogrammetric survey on 17th May 2003, at a mean scale of 1:20 000. The images were digitised and the orientations of the single images were obtained by means of additional GCPs located on islets and measured by GPS in the same reference system as the previous GCPs (UTM-WGS 84). Additional natural points on Panarea island were measured on the stereoscopic model of 26th May 2003 (rigorously oriented using only well visible GCP signals and tie points). The result of the external orientation provided rms of GCPs in the range 010 to 011 m. 5th July 1987 Survey The oldest available high quality aerial photogrammetric survey of Panarea was performed on 5th July 1987. Three colour frames were acquired at a mean scale of 1:10 000. The external orientation of the images was determined through 14 GCPs measured on the reference model (the 26th May 2003 survey). These points were chosen for being well dened and visible on both sets of images. Moreover, the selected GCPs are located in stable areas of the islands. The clarity of the sea in this data-set allows the seaoor along the shallow water coast of the area to be surveyed (to depths down to 4 to 6 m below the sea surface). These images have been used to extract a digital model of submerged topography in shallow water
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near the islets; a simple correction model was adopted, based on the estimation of the refraction effect at the air/water interface. Aerial Photogrammetric DTM Extraction A digital terrain model (DTM) of Panarea island with a grid size of 25 m was extracted automatically in the UTM-WGS 84 reference system from the 26th May 2003 stereoscopic models, whilst the DTM of the islets was extracted with grid size of 25 m from the 17th May 2003 stereoscopic model. During generation of the photogrammetric model of the 5th July 1987 survey some additional DTMMs of submarine portions visible in the aerial images in shallow water along the coastlines of the islets were automatically extracted with a grid size of 1 m. The digital models of Panarea and the islets, generated automatically, were edited in zones of low correlation and in urban and vegetated areas by adapting the contour lines to the stereoscopic terrain morphology. Fig. 1 shows the results of the two DTMs of 2003, the location of PANA and PA3D GPS stations, and the position of the photogrammetric GCPs, together with a map of the Aeolian Islands archipelago. From the rst DTM (Panarea) a colour orthophotomap of the area was also generated (Fig. 2). During the automatic analysis, the software for DTM extraction provides a correlation parameter that represents, for each extracted point, the quality of the automatic determination: it can indicate the success of the correlation or the questionability of the measurement; this quality criterion is called the gure of merit (FOM) and is a numerical value in the range 0 to 99. Values between 0 and 32 indicate unsatisfactory correlations, and consequently different approaches are adopted to solve the problem of correlation failure (Baltsavias et al., 1996; 2001). For example, the value of 4 indicates points located close to the border of the grid area. The elevation of these points is extrapolated starting from the nearest points with the best FOMs located in the DTM area. Other values reported in this study are due to cases where the correlation process fails the tests and matching problems have occurred (for example, FOM 9 shows points with curvature of the correlation function lower than the curvature threshold; FOM 10 identies points with high radiometric difference between the right and left image patches greater than the threshold; FOM 15 identies points with correlation coefcient computed below the threshold). For all these cases, the elevation of each point is computed through an interpolation or extrapolation from the nearest surrounding points. FOM values greater than 32 imply that the parameter is proportional to the reliability of the measured data evaluated on the basis of the automatic correlation process. The automatically extracted aerial photogrammetric DTM of the 26th May 2003 survey results in 312% of points with FOM < 33 distributed over six different classes (Fig. 3). The distribution of points with FOM > 32 reaches its maximum at FOM = 90. The distribution of the FOM parameter is shown on the map in Fig. 4(a). The areas characterised by low reliability in the process of extraction of coordinates are indicated by coloured pixels. Fig. 4(b) shows the differences between the DTM automatically extracted and the corresponding digital model edited by manual stereoscopic data capture. Fig. 4(c) displays the slope map of the island. The comparison of these three maps conrms that manual editing is generally required when the FOM value is < 33. On Panarea the most difcult areas to measure are those characterised by steep slopes, shadows and unfavourable illumination, all of which decrease the efciency of the DTM interpolation process. For these areas an editing procedure to correct outliers and measure new 3D points to reconstruct the ground surface is necessary. This phase involved 30% of the area due to the rough topography of Panarea. This result is conrmed by the computation of the correlation coefcients between the different maps: the correlation between FOM and the map showing the height discrepancies
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Fig. 2. Orthophotomap of Panarea island generated from the aerial photogrammetric survey of 26th May 2003 (coordinate system UTM-WGS 84).

provides a value of 036 only whilst the correlation coefcient between the distribution of FOM and the slope values is 083. The latter is a rather high value. The discrepancies in the eastern part of the island are mainly due to the manual editing performed on the buildings of the small village of San Pietro (Fig. 1). In this case the FOM parameter is good, but editing is necessary to reproduce the real terrain surface. Hence, around the buildings the point elevations were corrected in order to adapt them to the terrain; as a result, the re-interpolation of the corrected elevation points provides contour lines that t better to the ground. Finally, editing is not performed in those areas characterised by FOM < 33, when the automatic interpolation algorithm provides satisfactory values of the elevation points.
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Fig. 3. FOM parameter distribution of the automatically extracted DTM points (photogrammetric survey of 26th May 2003).

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Fig. 4. (a) Map of distribution of points with FOM < 33 on shaded relief representation of the photogrammetric DTM; (b) map of discrepancies (absolute values) obtained by the comparison between the DTMs automatically extracted and manually edited on shaded relief representation; (c) slope map.

Lidar Data and DTM Generation The lidar survey of Panarea island was performed by the Airborne Remote Sensing Facility (now Airborne Research and Survey Facility) of the UK NERC, using an Optech ALTM (Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper) 3033 laser scanner (Table II). The aircrafts instrumentation included an inertial measurement unit (INS-IMU) system to position the moving platform precisely relative to the GPS base station on the ground. During the postight processing the laser range, scan angle, GPS and INS-IMU data is combined to determine the accurate absolute position of the laser point on the ground. Both rst and last pulse datasets were acquired together with intensity values and spatial coordinates. From an operating altitude of 1000 m it can be assumed that the resulting height data has an absolute rms accuracy of 10 to 20 cm (Baltsavias, 1999; Latypov, 2002). To survey Panarea and its archipelago, eight strips were required at an average ight altitude of 1575 m. During the survey a master GPS receiver was operated at a 1s sampling rate
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Table II. Main characteristics of the lidar survey performed on Panarea island and islets on 27th April 2004. Panarea lidar survey Date of survey Time of survey Laser sampling rate Scan frequency FOV Number of strips Average ying height GPS base station Laser output data elements Number of points Point density 27th April 2004 13:20 to 14:10 33 kHz 20 40 8 1575 m AMSL Panarea (PANA) First and last pulse, intensity 9 106 3 points/m2

at the geodetic benchmark PA3D (Fig. 1). PA3D belongs to the Panarea network and its position is known at mm level (Esposito et al., 2010). A second GPS receiver placed on the aircraft recorded its position continuously. Data was post-processed by the Optech REALM v. 3.03d software providing the coordinates of about 9 106 points; differences between rst and last return data are associated with about 3% of points, mainly located along cliffs and areas of buildings (Fig. 5(a)). The vegetated zone, mainly located in the highest areas of Panarea island, is covered with dense bush; the lidar signal did not penetrate the vegetation, so the shaded relief of the DTM shows rough surfaces in these area. This effect is clearly evidenced by the comparison with the photogrammetric DTM (Fig. 7(a), (b)) where the noise resulting from vegetation is eliminated by editing, as conrmed by the comparison between the automatic and edited DTMs (Fig. 4(b)). The values of the last pulse intensity signicantly increase when the laser beams strike the terrain normal to the surface and when the instrument-to-terrain distance decreases (Fig. 5(b)).

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Fig. 5. (a) Map of the distribution of differences between the rst and the last pulse lidar data, plotted on the shaded relief of the Panarea lidar DTM last pulse; (b) map of the intensity distribution of the last pulse data.
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Fig. 6. Intensity distribution of the lidar last pulse data only for the points on Panarea island.

Moreover, the intensity is in general inuenced by the size of the reecting object and the reectivity of the object. The signal intensity reaches the highest values (>80) on the highest part of the island. The histogram of the last pulse intensities shows mean values of 405 and a maximum concentration of points around the intensity 50 (Fig. 6). The co-registration of the data with the Panarea GPS point network was carried out by comparing the coordinates of a set of points located on at areas (corner points of the platform of the ferry wharf, centres of the at roofs of buildings) identied on lidar data and measured by GPS: the analysis of a sample of ve natural height check points shows a mean height difference of 201 m. The absolute vertical offset is due principally to the spatial relationship between the GPS antenna installed on the top of the fuselage and the lidar system. The value of this vertical offset is conrmed by the mean height of 50 000 points sampled on the sea surface along the coastlines and compared with the mean sea level value. The latter was estimated from a tide gauge on Panarea island (Anzidei et al., 2005) and provided an elevation difference of 197 m. Considering the accuracy of the calibration process, and the inaccurate assumption that the sea level/geoid has a constant ellipsoidal elevation, an average elevation correction of 2 m was applied to the data. From the measured points an interpolated DTM with a grid size of 05 m was obtained. Integration of Photogrammetric and Lidar DTMs The photogrammetric DTM is automatically extracted and manually edited. The elevations of the grid points are corrected in areas of low correlation (30% of the island), as well as in zones covered by vegetation and buildings (40% of the island) by adapting the contour lines of the digital model to the real terrain morphology (Fig. 7(a)). The DTM of the last pulse data is more detailed due to the smaller grid size of the model. However, the roughness (Fig. 7(b)) that is produced by building elevations and vegetation, also using the last pulse, is not removed. Thus, an integration of the two data-sets is necessary to remove noise. The direct comparison between the photogrammetric and lidar DTMs, excluding the areas with buildings (east side of the island), trees and steep slopes (north-western side of the island), provides an average shift of )033 m and standard deviation of 068 m. Taking into account the data over all areas of the island the average shift is )043 m with a standard deviation of 277 m (Fig. 7(c)).
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(a) (b)

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Fig. 7. Shaded relief maps of Panarea island: (a) DTM extracted from the aerial photogrammetric survey of 26th May 2003 after the application of the editing procedures; (b) DTM based on the lidar survey of 27th April 2004 (last pulse); (c), (d) comparison between the lidar and the aerial photogrammetric DTMs, before and after the adjustment in the same reference system, respectively.

Results can be improved by rening the co-registration between the two data-sets. This can be done by excluding areas with vegetation or buildings in the lidar model and those on the north-west side of the island characterised by steep slopes. Normally, three fundamental steps
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are required for the alignment: an approximate co-registration using homologous points, a subsequent improvement by means of appropriate algorithms and the nal registration in the same reference system. The PolyWorks software (http://www.innovmetric.com) and the ICP (Iterative Closest Points) algorithm were used to align data obtained from different techniques for overlapping zones (Besl and McKay, 1992; Chen and Medioni, 1992). The application of the procedure for the two Panarea data-sets provided a mean vertical offset of 005 m with a standard deviation of 057 m (Fig. 7(d)). Positive differences are mainly related to urban areas and are due to the lidar survey because the model shows the top of the buildings and vegetation. Negative differences are mainly located in the north-west zone of the island and are due to the better capability of the lidar technique to provide a detailed description of the terrain morphology compared to the photogrammetric DTM (laser scanning data is characterised by smaller DTM grid size compared with that derived from photogrammetry: 05 m against 25 m). Moreover, the geometric acquisition of the lidar survey, in the present case, is more efcient than the photogrammetric survey. For these reasons, the photogrammetric model is better representative of the terrain morphology for urban and vegetated areas whilst the lidar model is more accurate for sloping areas of bare ground, where bad illumination conditions compromised both the automatic matching procedure and manual editing. Finally, the best DTM was obtained by integrating lidar (north-west area characterised by steep slopes) and photogrammetric data (all remaining areas). Bathymetric Data and Digital Model Generation The best available data of bathymetric surveys both at regional and local scale was used to produce a DTMM of Panarea volcano. Some of the data was collected during regional oceanographic campaigns in the Tyrrhenian Sea in 1993, 1994, 1996 and 1999, using a multibeam echosounder system capable of mapping the seaoor at depths between tens and thousands of metres (EM-1000 SIMRAD). Surveys were performed by the Italian ISMAR and IIM in the deepest areas of the Aeolian archipelago (depths > 80 m) with a regular grid spacing of 10 m in WGS 84 reference system. Data-sets are available in the ISMAR archive. Another bathymetric data-set was specically collected for the 2002 submarine eruption of Panarea. During this event, additional very high resolution bathymetric campaigns were performed using multibeam instruments in a limited area of Panarea island and the islets surrounding the submarine volcanic centres (Table III). Surveys were carried out by INGV and ISMAR as part of the volcanic monitoring programme supported by the Italian Department of Civil Protection, for hazard reduction. The multibeam bathymetry surveys, positioned by realtime kinematic (RTK) GPS, were performed during 2002 and 2003 in an area of about 9 km2 surrounding the islets and along part of the coast of Panarea island. This data is particularly valuable because of its very high accuracy. The data was acquired using a small boat capable of navigating in very shallow water (depth < 2 m) and equipped with an ultra-high-resolution Reson Seabat 8125 multibeam echosounder (240 beams, 120 sector coverage, 455 kHz). The bathymetric datum was established by measuring the sea level through a tide gauge, temporarily installed on the pier at San Pietro village on Panarea (Fig. 2). The instrumental height of the zero level was referred to a WGS 84 geodetic benchmark previously set up on the pier. The latter was measured by GPS and total station ground measurements with reference to the GPS geodetic base station of PANA also located on Panarea (Fig. 1). The precise positioning of the vessel was computed using GPS in RTK mode. The reference station transmitted 1 Hz differential corrections by a high frequency link to the mobile GPS receiver on board the vessel. Additional instrumentation
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Table III. Details of the Panarea high resolution bathymetry collected during the three surveys performed in December 2002, July 2003 and December 2003, after the eruption of November 2002. Panarea high resolution bathymetry surveys December 2002, December 2003, July 2003 Equipment Multibeam echosounder Model Reson SeaBat 8125 Features Frequency 455 kHz Angle 120 Beams 240 Max depth 120 m Resolution 6 mm 005 static secant latitude 02 dynamic secant latitude Resolution 01 m/s Accuracy 025 m/s Conductivity accuracy 00003 S/m Temperature accuracy 0002C Waves Static accuracy 5 cm Dynamic accuracy 0 to 20 s period Pitch and roll Static accuracy 0025 Dynamic accuracy 003 to 5 Accuracy < 1 cm

Gyrocompass Velocity sounder CTD Motion sensor

SG BROWN Meridian NAVITRONIC SVP 15 MICROCAT SBE 37SI TSS DMS 205

Digital tide gauge (on Panarea)

OTT Thalimedes

was used to calibrate the speed of sound. Navigation routes were planned with the aim of achieving full coverage of the sea bottom with at least 20 to 30% overlap of adjacent swaths. Detailed descriptions of these surveys are reported in Anzidei et al. (2005). The data collected allowed the extraction of a DTMM with 05 m grid size which provides a detailed morphological description of the area involved in the gas emission phenomena, which increased since November 2002, and to determine the positions of the submarine gas exhalative centres. The latter were mainly oriented along NESW and NWSE directions in agreement with the local and regional tectonic and volcanic features (Calanchi et al., 1995; Anzidei, 2000; Anzidei et al., 2005; Esposito et al., 2006). Land Surface and Bathymetric Data Integration Point positioning of bathymetric surveys was dened through a GPS/RTK station. The same reference GPS stations of PANA and PA3D employed to locate the GCP points during the aerial photogrammetric surveys were used. Thus, the land and sea areas were co-registered in the same reference system. As the bathymetric survey did not completely cover the areas at shallow depths, a narrow strip along the coastline remained undetermined, thus limiting the availability of data at a minimum depth of about 2 m. To overcome this limiting factor the aerial photogrammetric survey of 1987 was used to improve the analysis. The DTMMs of the submarine areas extracted from this survey successfully constrained the coastal areas at depths down to 6 m below the sea surface level. Digital models of zones surveyed both by marine aerial photogrammetry and by RTK-based multibeam bathymetry were obtained and a comparison between the two data-sets for these areas was performed. In Fig. 8(a) the contour line of )3 m elevation, estimated from the photogrammetry (white) and bathymetry (red) DTMMs of the Panarelli islet is shown; the data differs owing to a scale factor which is produced by refraction at the air/water interface (Butler et al., 2002).
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Fig. 8. (a) Direct comparison between photogrammetric (white) and bathymetric (red) DTMMs for the contour line at )3 m (below sea level) of Panarelli islet; (b) comparison between photogrammetric (white) and bathymetric (red) DTMMs for the contour line at 3 m below sea level after the correction of the photogrammetric data.

Height values were therefore corrected assuming a level sea surface and refractive indices of 1000 for air and 1333 for water (a density variability of <1% was assumed). The worst condition occurs at the corners of the stereoscopic model: in this case, assuming the optical axis of the camera perpendicular to the sea surface, an angle of incidence at the air/water interface, with respect to the position of the image centre, of hair = 468 was estimated (assuming a mean overlap between the images of 75%). Subsequently, the angle of refraction is hwater = 332 for the rst image of the stereopair; then hair = 399 and hwater = 288 for the second image. The minimum distortion due to refraction is present if a point located in the centre of the rst image is considered, where the angle of incidence is 0. For the second image values of hair = 206 and hwater = 153 were obtained for angles of incidence and refraction, respectively. For example, at a depth of 3 m, a difference was estimated between the real vertical point position and the apparent depth provided by the photogrammetric measurement of 16 and 10 m for the two geometries described above. A direct comparison between the photogrammetric (without corrections for refraction) and bathymetric DTMMs in the common areas and in a depth range of 2 to 6 m shows a mean height difference of 14 m (standard deviation 06 m). This is an average intermediate value with respect to previous limits. From basic optical principles, the relationship between real and apparent depth was obtained for the two different situations (Fig. 9). A mean correction coefcient of 18 was then assumed which, multiplied by the apparent water depth, gives the estimation of the true depth. The seaoor depths obtained by aerial digital photogrammetry have been corrected for the refraction effect and compared with the bathymetry obtained by the RTK-based multibeam survey. Results are shown in Fig. 8(b), which displays nearly coincident contour lines at )3 m. Since the two surveys were performed in different epochs (photogrammetry in 1987 and bathymetry in 2002), the comparison should include morphological changes which have occurred during the intervening time. However, the analysis of Fig. 8(b) does not show any
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Fig. 9. Relationship between true depth and apparent value due to refraction at the air/water interface.

signicant ground deformation and recent geological surveys did not observe relevant morphological changes along the coastline during recent times, in agreement with the present results (Esposito et al., 2006; Lucchi et al., 2007). The integration of DTMs and bathymetry including data for the shallow water areas bordering the coasts of Panarelli, Dattilo and Lisca Nera islets, which were not acquired during the bathymetric surveys, provides the nal result shown in Fig. 10. In order to provide a complete DTMM of the subaerial and submarine areas surrounding Panarea island and to ll some limited zones which were not covered by the high resolution multibeam survey, additional bathymetric surveys performed in 1993 to 1999 were used which

Fig. 10. Resulting DTMM from the integration between the three aerial photogrammetric surveys with the local high resolution bathymetry of 2002. White areas near the islets of Panarelli, Dattilo and Lisca Nera are due to the lack of bathymetric data.
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Fig. 11. DTMM of the Panarea volcano after the lacunas shown in Fig. 10 have been removed (bathymetric data of 10 m grid size).

were available with 10 m grid size in the GaussBoaga cartographic system. These were transformed into UTM-WGS 84 coordinates and integrated with the local high resolution surveys by interpolating the small uncovered strips of areas between the two data-sets. Fig. 11 shows the integrated DTMM of Panarea archipelago. The deepest areas covered by the regional bathymetric surveys display lower resolution with respect to the local surveys of 2002 and 2004 at Panarea. The best 3D surface model, co-registered and integrated in the same reference system, shows the active volcanic structures of both Panarea and Stromboli (Fig. 12). Discussion The rst high resolution DTMM of the Panarea volcano was obtained by an integrated analysis of airborne and marine DTM. Several digital models, produced by different techniques or by the same technique at different epochs and with different accuracy and resolution, were integrated to obtain a robust and complete morphological model of the area. The photogrammetric data allowed the extraction of a DTM of the land areas with a grid size of 25 m, excluding some portions characterised by bad illumination and low image contrast, where both the automatic matching procedure and the stereoscopic editing failed. In particular, in the north-western part of the island, where subvertical facies and steep slopes are present, lidar was fortunately able to supply dense elevation data sampling during its rst SW NE ight line. High and low resolution bathymetric data were integrated to describe the submarine part of the volcanic area, completing the morphological view of this region. The photogrammetric data of 1987 was used to cover the shallow marine areas along the coastline of the islets and to guarantee the continuity between the land and submarine data. Note that the underwater measurement procedure proposed here can be performed only for unperturbed and clean sea water. When these conditions are satised, bathymetric data from aerial photogrammetry can be obtained. To achieve accurate spatial co-registration between multitemporal photogrammetric image sets acquired by different agencies, the most simple approach was adopted, consisting of
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Fig. 12. Regional scale DTMM of the Panarea and Stromboli volcanic structures. The DTMs are at 25 and 5 m grid size for Panarea and Stromboli, respectively. Local bathymetry in the area surroundings the islets of Panarelli, Dattilo, Lisca Nera, Bottaro and Lisca Bianca is at 05 m grid size, while regional bathymetry is at 10 m grid size.

identifying a large number of common tie points located in stable parts of the study area, which can be recognised on multitemporal stereoscopic models. The lidar survey, even if performed with the support of high precision GPS and INS, was affected by a co-registration error due to unknown calibration parameters of the internal system features. A vertical coarse adjustment was performed by the evaluation of the mean shift of the vertical coordinates of at areas and of the sea surface. A precise co-registration obtained by a 3D surface matching procedure was necessary to reduce the mean difference of vertical coordinates of points and the corresponding standard deviation to values consistent with the expected accuracy of the two data-sets. Although the vulcanological interpretation is not the specic goal of this paper, which instead aims to describe the survey and mapping techniques used and to show the rst available DTMM of this volcano for earth science applications, new information on its still poorly known morphological features can be provided from this data. The seaoor shows past episodes of its history, strictly connected with the geological and vulcanological evolution of the area. Surface features due to volcanic and tectonic activity, sea level changes and sliding or rockfall events can be detected in the data. Airborne and bathymetric surveys show that Panarea island is a small composite volcanic complex located on a large platform at a depth of about 100 m (Fig. 11). The seaoor bordering the base of the volcano shows valleys, canyons (such as the Stromboli canyon, 1 km wide) and narrow incisions on the southern and eastern submarine anks of Panarea. The complex, which formed 180 to 200 ka ago, does not show any caldera-like structure, as previously reported in Gabbianelli et al. (1993), and its morphology is driven by north-east and north-west trending structures (Figs. 11 and 12). The western side of the island shows an approximately north-east to south-west trending fault continuing along the seaoor. The large plateau, which includes the islands of Panarea and Basiluzzo, is the eroded top of a seamount which still shows recent volcanism, consisting of intense hydrothermal activity in the islet area (Favalli et al., 2005). The plateau surface, northeastward of Panarea and across Basiluzzo, shows a shallow graben-like structure still possibly active, as evidenced by recent GPS data (Esposito et al., 2010). The small islets are the emergent part of a semicircular relief feature surrounding a shallow platform up to 30 m deep. The latter displays several active submarine gas vents and is the area that activated during the
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2002 gas eruption, which produced impacts both on the environment and on human activities (Anzidei et al., 2005). Conclusions The integration of different survey data-sets overcomes the limitations of each independent technique to collect data in difcult environments such as active volcanic islands. These are often characterised by steep slopes and rough surface morphologies, both inland and on the seaoor, and the full coverage of their topography at high resolution is a critical challenge. The integration of bathymetric multibeam surveys with aerial photogrammetry and lidar surveys provided the rst 3D terrestrial and marine morphological map of the Panarea volcano, at the high resolution of 05 to 10 m. If the low resolution bathymetric data (1993 to 1999 campaigns) is excluded, a maximum elevation error of less than 1 m is obtained. After the registration of the photogrammetric and lidar data to a common reference frame, the comparison of the two data-sets provided a mean value of vertical offset of 005 m with a standard deviation of 057 m. These values allowed a full DTM of the Panarea volcano to be generated, which is useful for a wide range of applications. Photogrammetric images were used to cover the shallow marine areas along the coastline of the islets and guarantee the continuity between the land and submarine data. The DTMM is crucial to show the topographic features of inland, coastal and marine areas of the volcano and clearly delineates the current coastlines. The availability of a continuous digital model enables the recognition of the continuation at sea of inland geological structures, providing new insights into the geomorphological features and the volcanic and tectonic evolution of this area. It improves and supports geological, geochemical and geophysical investigations and the monitoring of this active volcanic area. Particularly, the model characterises the morphological details of submarine volcanic structures and deposits and denes the main submarine tectonic structures and relates them to those on land, allowing the analyses of the relationships between tectonics and volcanism. Moreover, it could be used for evaluating the volcanic hazard for civil protection applications. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the anonymous referees who helped improve this paper; Paul R. Dando of the Airborne Remote Sensing Facility (now the Airborne Research and Survey Facility) at the UKs Natural Environment Research Council, who provided lidar data under project MC04/10; the Italian Istituto Idrograco della Marina and the Dipartimento della Protezione Civile that partially funded the surveys; and Maria Marsella of the University of Roma La Sapienza for GPS surveys. references
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Re sume La photogramme trie nume rique ae rienne, le laser ae roporte a ` balayage et la bathyme trie multifaisceaux jouent un ro le fondamental dans la production de mode ` les nume riques de terrain (MNT) de zones e merge es et sous-marines. Linte gration de ces techniques de restitution fournit des mode ` les nume riques de terrain pre cis et homoge ` nes sur de troites bandes co tie ` res qui sont souvent difciles  a cartographier en raison des difculte s pratiques lie es a ` lobtention de donne es bathyme triques en eaux peu profondes. Dans cet article, trois leve s photogramme triques ae riens, deux leve s bathyme triques multifaisceaux et un leve lidar sont analyse s et inte gre s dans le me me syste ` me de re fe rence an de produire le premier mode ` le oliennes, Italie). nume rique terrestre et marin de l le volcanique de Panarea (Iles E Il sagit dune zone volcanique active ou ` une e ruption gazeuse sous-marine sest produite en novembre 2002, entra nant des impacts environnementaux ainsi que des menaces potentielles pour la population locale. Ce mode ` le montre les caracte ristiques morphologiques de cette zone volcanique avec un pas de chantillonnage moyen de 1 m et une erreur altime trique maximale de 1 m. Ce mode ` le permettra dame liorer de manie ` re signicative les e tudes ge ophysiques et ge omorphologiques de cette le volcanique et contribuera a ` la re duction des risques futurs. Zusammenfassung Digitale Luftbildphotogrammetrie, ugzeuggestu tztes Laserscanning und Fa cherlote zur Meerestiefenmessung spielen eine zentrale Rolle bei der Generierung digitaler Gela ndemodelle (DTM) von Land- und Meeresbodena chen. Eine Integration dieser Vermessungstechniken tra gt entscheidend zur Gewinnung genauer und homogener Digitaler Gela ndemodelle entlang schmaler Ku stenstreifen bei. Diese ko nnen oft nicht in ada quater Weise allein durch Bathymetrie im achen Wasser wegen logistischer Begrenzungen erfasst werden. Dieser Beitrag stellt drei Bildu ge, zwei Tiefenmessungen mit Fa cherloten und einen Laserscanning Datensatz aus einer Beiegung vor, die analysiert und in das gleiche Referenzsystem integriert wurden, um das erste hochauo sende Digitale Gela nde- und Marine Modell (DTMM) der Vulkaninsel olische Inseln, Italien) zu erstellen. Dies ist ein vulkanisch aktives Gebiet, Panarea (A das im November 2002 einer Unterwassergaseruption ausgesetzt war, die die Umwelt
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beeinusste und die lokale Bevo lkerung potentiellen Gefahren aussetzte. Das DTMM zeigt morphologische Merkmale des vulkanischen Gebietes mit einer mittleren Gitterweite von 1 m und einem maximalen Ho henfehler von 1 m. Mit diesem Modell ko nnen geophysikalische und geomorphologische Studien dieser Vulkaninsel deutlich verbessert, und zuku nftige Gefa hrdungen reduziert werden. Resumen La fotogrametr a ae rea digital, el esca ner laser ae reo y la batimetr a multihaz juegan un papel fundamental en la produccio n de modelos digitales del terreno de a reas subae reas y submarinas. La integracio n de estas te cnicas de obtencio n de datos es crucial para producir modelos homoge neos y exactos de bandas estrechas a lo largo de la costa, y que a menudo no pueden ser exploradas por las limitaciones log sticas para la toma de datos batime tricos en aguas someras. En este art culo se analizan tres vuelos fotograme tricos, dos barridos batime tricos multihaz y un vuelo lidar que se integran en un mismo sistema de referencia para calcular el primer modelo digital tridimensional de alta resolucio n del terreno y marino (DTMM) de la isla volca nica de Panarea (Islas Eolias, Italia). Esta es un a rea volca nica activa que sufrio una erupcio n submarina de gas en noviembre de 2002 que impacto el medio ambiente y que representa un peligro para la poblacio n local. El modelo complejo obtenido muestra los rasgos morfolo gicos de esta a rea volca nica con una resolucio n espacial media de 1 m y un error medio de elevacio n de 1 m. Este modelo permitira mejorar signicativamente los estudios geof sicos y geomorfolo gicos de esta isla volca nica y ayudara a la reduccio n del peligro.

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