Intro (Week 1)

Why study India? Empirical Puzzles Democratic but dynastical Unity in diversity Lots of variations Normative debates and questions

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Theme/Puzzle 1: Unity despite diversity Puzzle: There is no common cultural identity unifying India. But has still achieved political and economic success. Why and how? Types of diversity Linguistic Diversity Two dominant Languages: Hindi & English Hindi is mostly spoken in Northern India. South is more diverse English was introduced by the British Why does language matter? If language is imposed by outsiders, then creates and worsens tensions b/w groups. Access to the state Religious Diversity Majority religion: Hindu; exception: Jammu & Kashmir (Muslims), Punjab (Sikhism) Not an overwhelming majority; example: Kerala (Christian and Muslims) Also Buddhism, Jainism etc. Secularism does not mean lack of religion; more about diversity of religions. High intensity of religious belief Nation-building rhetoric in India is about religious unity. Different religious groups have/do existed peacefully Religious Conflict When it breaks out, it is often intense/bloody.

Caste: most popular structure: pyramid. Actual caste system divided among many groups (jaatis) which is more divided along family lines. Jaatis dictate rules of social conduct. Management of Ethnic Diversity: Indias external and Internal borders External borders: India/Pakistan (divided on the base of religion Internal borders: 28 states/7 union territories (why are internal borders drawn in this way? Which ethnic groups have been recognized and which have been left out?)

Theme/Puzzle 2: Survival of Indias Democracy In political science, following factors predict democratic failure Ethnic diversity Economic development Direct Correlation b/w economic development: India defies the correlation Inverse b/w ethnic diversity and democracy: India also defies the correlation What factors enable democracy to survive in relatively poor, ethnically diverse setting? Colonial Legacy Institutional strength How the state has chosen to channel the ethnic diversity?

Puzzles of Indian Democracy: Dynasty Puzzles of Indian Democracy: variations in local democracy What effect did colonialism have on Indias later economic and political development? First Indian civilization: Indus Valle (2500-1700 BCE) Mughal Empire (16th-18th century Babur (early 16th century) Mughals introduced a system of government/revenue collection (Akbar set it up)

Before the Mughals, there were small kingdoms. The Mughal empire unified India. Left a legacy of an India that is geographically similar to what it is. Mughals unified India before the British. What is the effect of colonialism in later economic development? So, what did pre-colonial India look like? Wealthy; Indian goods competed with Foreign goods. COLONIAL RULE Establishment of British presence in India British presence in India initially to exploit trading opportunities 1600: East India Company incorporated by Royal Charter played administrative role; bureaucracy, collect taxes, develop army to ward off local rulers and foreign competitiors 1857 Sepoy Mutiny: led to the end of East India company rule 1858: Direct rule of British Crown Imposed Direct British Rule vs. Princely States some directly ruled, some via princes COLONIAL RULE IN INDIA (documentary) How did colonialism change India? What explains the approach that the British took in ruling India? Imperial display of loyalty; slowly gave away self-government Taxes What did colonialism actually do? Directly extracted resources Oriented Indian Industry to raw materials needed for british home industry Set up landlor-based (zamindary) systems of revenue-extraction in many parts Built infrastructure Established schools, western Education Administrative services

Looking at the counterfactual EVIDENCE: How should we go about examining whether colonialism was good or bad for economic development?

Comparison Direct colonialism vs. indirect colonialism Evidence: Reversal of Fortune Reversal of Fortune Argument- Countries that were previously rich are now poor and vice versa reversal created by institutions established by European colonizers Comparing British Indirect Rule with Direct Rule Areas that experienced direct rule have significantly lower levels of access to schools, health centers, and roads in the postcolonial period. Evidence Landlord vs. non-landlord areas in India Q2: What effect did the British presence have on later democratic development? Effect on later democracy? Possible channels of influence Elections with limited franchise, limited representation in governing bodies gradual, limited extension of rights and priveledges- why several repressive measures (Rowlatt Act 1919)

Jan 14
Agenda

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Effect of British Colonialism on later Democratic Development The Partition of India: Causes and Consequences What effect did British presence have on later democratic development? Possible Channels of Influence British introduced elections with limited franchise in 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms). Elections introduced at provincial level. British liberals thought of this as the first step towards national selfgovernment; British conservatives argued that these elections would actually be bad for the minority Muslim population. 1919 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: Greater Provincial Control but Dyarchy (principle of dual government) gave provincials control over certain domains (education, welfare etc) and the Crown retained control over national arenas, like law etc. Creative way to introduce inclusion of Indians in the governmental process, but retain ultimate control. 1919 Rowlatt Act: Representative measure indefinitely extend the Emergency measures enacted during WWI. Allowed certain political cases to be tried without jury; subjects put in jails without trials. Repressive Measure: Amritsar Massacre in 1919 Jalianwalla bagh massacre in Punjab. General Dyer fired upon a crowd of unarmed people Served as a symbol to the Indian people that the British people were really repressing them; allowed nationalist movements to gain traction Trend towards more and more autonomy 1935 Government of India Act diarchy at the provincial level abolished (but introduced at the Center). The act introduced autonomy and collective responsibility at the provincial level. Expanded franchise. More people could vote- increased 5fold

British Political System in India (1858-1947) More autonomy but combined with repressive measure

Good or bad for later democratic development? Not real democracy; very limited (Highly limited) Electoral Institutions+ Repressive Measures Nationalism Movement Growth of Political Parties Nationalist Movement (Gandhi) Gandhis tactics (noncooperation; civil disobedience) Swadeshi movement called on people to shun British made goods in favour of Indian made goods. Contributed to the mobilization of the masses; nationalist movements that are based on force or appeal to elites would be bad at galvanizing the masses. Leaders needed to caste a wide net (incorporated muslims and untouchables

Growth of Political Parties: THE CONGRESS PARTY 1885: congress party founded to reflect the interests of urban middle classes 1920s: turned into mass movement (role of Gandhi) Operated as movement and Political Party

How did the Nationalist movement affect later Democratic Development? Mass mobilization Attempts to bridge religious and social divides Rise of key leaders Strength of political parties British role in later ethnic conflict? Divide and Rule 1905: Partition of Bengal Pre 1905 Bengal province included speakers of three different language: Oriya, Hindi, and Bengali

o To better provide infrastructure; cater to different populations. Misguidedly decided to do this along religious o lines. Effect: Linguistic marginalization of Bengali Hindus In majority-hindu state, Bengalis were the minorities growing resentment Effect: triggered the Swadeshi movement Boycott of british goods British solution: boundaries redrawn along linguistic lines. East and west Bengal unified triggering resentments from Bengali muslims Effect: 1947 final partition of Bengal into India and East Pakistan Separate electorates/1909 Morley-Minto Reforms in 1909: Separate electorates for Hindus and Muslims Creates party system divided along religious lines o Effect: Congress Party vs Muslim League (founded in 1906 Muhammad Ali Jinah) Partition of India 1947 1937-37 elections: Congress victory Muslim league defeat especially in Muslim majority provinces Nehru refused to negotiate Partition of India: look at timeline At what point, if any, did the Partition of India become inevitable? Was it structural causes, or role of individual leaders?

o o

Jan 16
Post Independence Indian Politics (1947-2013)

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Congress party has dominated the stage in Indian politics. Studying India makes us question some concepts in poli sci: Pattern of Congress dominance holds true despite free and fair and regular competitive elections. Nehru-Gandhi party dominance within the Congress Party Today: The Causes and Consequences of Dynastic Politics Why does india have more dynastic politics than other systems Nehru-Gandhi Dynasty (47-64) Cast of characters Nehru Joined the congress party in 1919 and quickly became a top leader Became 1st PM of independent india in 1947 Help power for over 16 years until his death in 1964 Shastri chosen as PM, died in 1966 Determined foreign and economic policy Served as PM for 16 years Indira Gandhi (66-77, 80-84) January 1966: powerful faction of the congress party supported Indira Gandhi 1975-77: National emergency 1977: electoral defeat 1980: resurgence 1984: assassination Rajiv Gandhi (84-89) Entered politics in 1981 Became pm in 84 after his moms assassination Led the congress party to defeat in 1989 Was himself assassinated while campaigning in 1991 Sonia Gandhi Refused the partys offer to become PM on Rajivs death in 1991

Wields enormous influence as President of the Congress Party from 1998 to present Rahul Gandhi Entered politics in 2004 as MP Rumors that he will be Congress partys next prime ministerial candidate Puzzle: why did the Nehru-Gandhi family succeed in dominating India politics for so long despite India being a democracy? 1) Brand name 2) Legitimacy during independence movement 3) Lack of social/political mobility 4) Continuation of monarch 5) Cultural expectation of family dominance Is Nehru-Gandhi an example of a wider phenomenon of dynastic politics? Eg: Yadev family The Pervasiveness of Dynasty in Indian Politics Indian parliament: >-29% dynastic mps Only 3% represent pre-democratic aristocratic families Pervasive amoungst all groups including minorities (Muslims, scheduled castes or untouchables etc) Pervasive across parties (not just the Congress party) Pervasiveness across cultural groups

Why has the Nehru-gandhi family dominated politics for so long What are the causes of dynastic politics? To answer this wuestion, we want to think about variation across different political systems (India vs. Canada, India vs. US, US vs. Canada) Dynastic politics: bad for democracy? Narendra Modi, BJP

Jan 21
(cont. from last class) Congress dominance post-independence-now Difference b/w period before 1989 and post 1989

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Pre 1989:congress dominance; single party governments Post 1989: coalition governments; minority government with outside party support Pattern poses a puzzle Puzzle: Systems of one-party rule often produced by lack of oneparty system; electoral manipulation. However, (pre 1989), oneparty dominance was present despite the fact that there was robust electoral competition. Post 1989: what is going on here? What are the features of congress party that can explain its dominance? 4 main explanations: Think about whether these explanations are actually accurate/consistent with following factors Features of congress party that could explain its dominance: 1) Origins as mass movement 2) Role of leadership (balance b/w centralization and decentralization) 3) adaption 4) EXPLAINING PARTY DOMINANCE 1) ORIGINS AS MASS MOVEMENT - Under Gandhis leadership became a mass movement; went from primarily a coastally active/urban organization to being active in most districts - Catch all party- diverse social and ethnic membership - However higher rungs were upper class elite and hindu

Diversity lead to conflict within the congress party; b/w labours and businessmen (e.g). Strong disagreements about 1) how to achieve independence 2) post independence policies Remarkable in its accommodation of diverse groups umbrella like organizations Congress party was the only party that had the nation-wide organizational presence, and the ability to attract diverse voters may have led to dominance.

2) ROLE OF LEADERSHIP (balance b/w centralization and decentralization) - Nehru took over exercised strong authority over the congress leadership at the NATIONAL level in 1951 First PM of India; at first the Congress party was composed of members who still had a lot of power even when compared to Nehru; Congress party organization was dominated by Sardar Patel Patel and Nehru had several disagreements about how to run the party/what policies it should enact. Patel gained small victory b/c he appointed the President. Head of Organization is often a powerful figure. When the President died in 1951, Nehru took over the Party Presidency. Managed to impose his own choice as party president. Consolidated power at the national level - State level remained mostly divided- Nehru intervened in factional conflicts o Luckily for Nehru, the leaders were competing with each other NOT Nehru for dominance at the State stage; Nehru successfully intervened at the State level making him more powerful because state leaders became dependent on him - Intra-party elections contributed to robust organization o Forced each leader to justify their presence within the party o Leaders had to show that they had support amongst the general membership of the congress party, thus keeping the party strong Why is this important? India is not only diverse (federation), but also very large centralization would not accommodate difference, but decentralization would

lead to fiefdoms. State Leaders were very crucial to mobilizing support at the local level. 3) ADAPTION TO LOCAL POWER STRUCTURES - Congress party recruits those with local power and influence: vote bank politics - Mobilization in west is via Party workers; but Congress worked differently. Instead of relying on its own organization, it recruited people who already had a lot of power and influence and power locally. - E.g. local landlords, old priests, local cast leaders, zameendaars - Called vote bank politics local leaders control the vote of the population - Formations of factions based on personal ties or economic ties o Doesnt have to do with political affinity; factions formed b/c of vote bank politics

4) CONGRESS AS POLITICAL MACHINE How is this description of politics in the decades after independence different from politics in North America today? Tying government benefits to whether or not the person votes for the incumbent. But how would they know? Secret ballot. Dense social networks in which these transactions are taking place 50-50 split indicates that Panchayat president is not doing their jobs A political machine is a political party organization w/following characteristic: ties b/w leaders and followers based on material awards Different from ideological party where activists join party b/c they believe in party policy Exchange at a number of different levels Organized like a pyramid, but relies heavily at its base (local communities in trying to mobilize support) pyramid held together by material rewards

can be used to explain nehrus relationship w/local political leaders; local political leaders relationship

w/ - Direct, contingent exchange of particularistic material rewards for political loyalty Contingent: tied to benefits Particularistic: targeted at a particular individual or a small group of people Targeted benefits, and punishments - Subject to political influences at enforcement stages In machine politics system, very little influence at legislative stage and very much more influence at enforcement state People in rural India dont really care about policy, they care about how that particular thing affects them. The particular influence that you see is am I going to get x not how much x is going to be present?

Congress controlled Indias resources since the get-go; allowed it to be the political machine and establish a system of political rewards created a system in which everyone had the chance to partake in local patronage and vote for the congress; or not vote and be denied the benefits. ROLE OF LEADERSHIP: NEHRU VS. GANDHI Nehru era (balance of centralization and decentralization): - Reliance on local power structures - Congress intra-party elections - Nehru dominant at the national level and mutual dependence between center and the state Indira and Rajiv Gandhi (Strong trend toward Centralization): - Non reliance on local leaders - Decline of intra-party democracy - Nominations of Canadian and appointments of Chief Ministers on the basis of personal loyalty Why did Indira Gandhi switch tactics? Paranoid Centralization of Power - Centralization through constitutional structure - Centralization through Party Split

Centralization through National Emergency Resumed Centralization after Electoral victory

Events leading upto Congress Party Split 1967: wave of Congress (i.e. Syndicate) electoral defeats in State polls IG decides to implement series of socialist policies produced tensions between IG and Syndicate Bank nationalization; large scale poverty programs; land reforms Syndicate were usually wealthy, upper class elites

Tensions over Choice of President of India - 1969 Congress 1971 Elections: Populist Appeals 1971 elections: Indira Gandhi ran on platform of Garibi Hatao (Remove Poverty) Electoral victory without relying on local power structures or State level party bosses o Centralized power; decreased dependency on local leaders o

CENTRALIZATION THROUGH CONSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE Presidents rule: President can declare constitutional emergency in the state if there are reports that the governance of the state is not functioning properly Allowed the central government to assume control of the state, and declare that the powers of the state assembly be exercised by the national parliament Imposing presidents rule= parliament can no longer function

.. 1975-1977 Emergency (Background) Street protests against congress rule Indira Gandhi found guilty by High Court of minor technical violations of Electoral law

Jan 23- Indira Gandhi (Centralization of Power)3/26/2014 11:07:00

4 periods of centralization Centralization through Party Split (1969) Imposition through constitutional structure National emergency Resumed after Electoral victory National Emergency Indira Gandhi found guilty of minor and technical violations of electoral law Declared national emergency in June 1975 PMs household consulted (advisors w/o official position in govt), not cabinet ministers Almost all major opposition leaders were arrested Massive press censorship: News blackout Rule by ordinance, Lok Sabha a rubber stamp Postponed elections twice President did go through with following these procedures; President acted as a puppet Major change in the way that politics operated in India; people were afraid to critique Gandhi; democratic rule suspended Backlash against centralization Gandhi lifted the emergency; led to the victory of the Janata party Jan 1977: IG lifts emergency and announces parliamentary elections in March Victory of Janata Party, Indira steps down WHY DID INDIRA GANDHI HOLD ELECTIONS? (RESILIENCE OF INDIAN DEMOCRACY)

Janata Party Phase (77-80) 1977: Morarji Desai becomes PM o one part of the Janata party were previously defected leaders from congress o Contested IGs 1st PM election o Problem w/ Janata party: internal factionalism; key issue: which leader would become PM? 1979: PM Morarji Desai resigned, Janata party disintegrates 1979: Charan Singh becomes PM, dependent on Congress on support see image on slide 1980: IGs return to Power 1980 national elections: resurgence of Congress in landslide victory Feb. 1980: IG dissolves opposition governments in Nine States (Presidents Rules) o Continued to appoint Chief Ministers on the basis of loyalty How do you explain congress dominance despite different leadership styles and party..? Rajiv Gandhi (1984-89) 84: IG assassination; RG takes over Dec. 1984: Congress party wins a massive electoral victory under RGs leadership Further centralization - selected candidates w/little to no experience - reshuffled central cabinet ministers and state chief ministers multiple times - decision-making concentrated in hands of PM secretariat Rajiv Gandhi and Congress Party Defeat in 1989 Elections Immediate factors - Mr. Clean Image- Corruption scandals (Bofors) - party factionalism

1989: Rise of Janata Dal impetus for opposition unity: defeat of congress in several state assembly elections rajiv gandhis tarnished image massive-by-election victory of V.P. Singh

Formation of Janata Dal (merger of several opposition party 1989: win w/ national coalition 1989- present: rise of Identity based politics regional parties BJP ( Caste based parties

Regional Parties - parties with their major support base in a particular state, very little support outside - often, but not always, explicit appeals to regionalism - revolved around Leaders persona

BJP party - hindu nationalist party - offshoot of Jana Sangh (Part of Janata Party), founded in 1980 - relies on Hindu nationalist organizations for support (RHS..) - founded in 1980, dramatic increase in electoral strength and dominance in national arena Caste-based parties - bahujan samaj party (BSP): initial support base amongst untouchables or scheduled castes - sa what explains the decline in congress dominance? What explains the rise of regional, religious, and caste-based appeals Going to talk about: 1) hindu nationalism

2) caste based

Indian Economy
economic growth

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why did the economy liberalize? Why did the economy takeoff?

Poverty and well-being How effectively has economic growth reduced poverty? Why has poverty persisted in India despite electoral pressures on the government? Regional disparities? Why do some states perform much better than others? Using regional disparities to think about comparative politics within India Has Indias recent economic growth been effective at reducing poverty? If you take the poverty line to be 1.25$ a day, Indias poverty has declined about a third from 1983 to 2005 Is this good or bad? What is the counterfactual? Growth Poverty Elasticity Indias economic growth has been higher than most countries in the 1980s and 1990s, but its poverty reduction has been lower than the average country Growth-Poverty Elasticity- The amount that poverty reduces in response to a one unit change in economic growth Why is Indias growth-poverty elasticity so low?

GROWTH POVERTY ELASTICITY Economic growth may also change the distribution of income (ie income inequality) The total income is increasing And who gets the total income is also changing

So when thinking about how effective economic growth is in reducing poverty, we should consider who the winners/losers are

Counterfactual: If Economic liberalization did not produce changes in the distribution of income, how would it have reduced poverty between 1993 and 2005? (IMF paper by Topalova) By 22% more than it did in rural areas By 76% more than it did in urban areas

Why is Indias growth-poverty elasticity so low in the 1990s? Initial inequalities in human development difficulty taking advangtage of new economic opportunities Sectoral composition of growth- emphasis on service sector, urban areas Compare with patterns of growth in the 70s and 80s= much higher growthpoverty elasticity than in the 1990s (green revolution; bank nationalization)

India vs. China and Brazil China Favourable pre-reform conditions in terms of lower inequality of land and capital Emphasis on reforms in Agriculture and Rural development o Led to rapid decline in poverty (although growth has been accompanied by rising inequality)

Brazil Smaller economic growth better redistribution

Inequality in initial conditions + economic liberalization => further economic growth REGIONAL DISPARITIES In literacy rates Why?

Conventional wisdom: effect of democracy on poverty Median Voter Theorum Politicians have an incentive to cater to the median voter who tends to be poor Poorer voters will favour more pro-poor policies Poorer voters will punish politicians (i.e. not re-elect politicians) who do not implement pro-poor policies Puzzle; vastly different

Uttar Pradesh vs Kerala

3/26/2014 11:07:00 AM Linguistic Diversity Northern Indians preferred Hindi How do Non-hindi speakers (Bengal, southern states) speak multiple different languages. More comfortable with English than hindi. Muslims largely preferred urdu to hindi Class divide with urban middle/upper classes preferring English. you decide an official language? What does it imply about national identity? How does it bridge caste/ethnicity divides?

English as official language? Doesnt really bridge class divide Who gets access to learning English?

What did the Indian Government actually do? Official Language- Compromise Constituent Assembly at Independence: English as Official Language, Implementation of Hindi as Official Language postponed for 15 years. In the meantime, hindi would be more widespread giving people the time to catch up. 1967: Constitutional Amendment made for a multilingual solution continuation of English a official language in addition to Hindi 18 regional languages recognized as official in the Constitution o significance: State governments could actually decide what their official language could be; giving more autonomy to provinces; decentralization #compromise The Management of Ethnic Diversity: Indias Internal Borders Three new states created in 2000 28 states and ___ territories Indias 29th state- Telangana- currently in the process of being created

PUNJABI SEPERATISM
Why does separatism happen? Brainstorming Proximity to international boundaries Leadership Inciting ethnic differences Cultural distinctiveness Real/Percieved Greivances Military capacity of the state

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Punjab as an example 70s-80s intensification of separatist demands and conflict 90s to present, separatist demands and conflicts die down Punjab conflict: Background After partition: 62% Hindus, 35% Sikh Language and Religion Sikhs: Punjabi in Gurumukhi Script Hindus: Punjabi as dialect of Hindi (Hindi Script) Hindus declared Hindi mother-tongue in census while Sikhs declared Punjabi

BACKGROUND (CONTINUED) Creation of Punjabi suba in 1966 led to dominance of regional party called akali dal Akali dal claimed to represent all Sikhs but (caste division): Division between Jats (Akali Dal) and non-Jats (Congress)

1977: Congress defeated (after emergency), akali dal came to power and stepped up demands Indira Gandhi and her supporters wanted to counter-act the influence of the Akali Dal Indira Gandhi was concerned about centralizing power

Therefore, Akali Dat threatened that.

PUNJABI CONFLICT (CONT) DIVIDE AND RULE POLITICS Indira Gandhi encouraged Bhindranwales rise to counter the Akali Dal Bhindranwale was a fundamentalist sikh religious figure; were trying to undermine the Kali Dal. Wanted to split the support of the Jats b/w moderates (Akali Dal) and fundamentalists (Bhindranwale (missed a note) THE LEAD UP TO OPERATION BLUESTAR 1980: Akali dal dismissed by Indira Gandhi (presidents rule), Congress party assumed power in the state of Punjab Effects: Triggers heavy backlash; increased heavy support for militant and extremist leaders. Militant in their faith and in their opposition to the Indian state. 1980: Call for Khalistan by student group largely driven by Sikh Diaspora Rising Hindu-Sikh tensions and violence, many militants arrested. Video: Sanjay Gandhi was looking to set up a rival faction in Punjab. Bhindranwale back to sikh basics campaign Bhindranwale was now viewed as out of control after he moved his headquarters into the Golden Temple 2nd June: Gandhi makes an appeal (dont shed blood, shed hatred) Operation Bluestar: Siege of Golden Temple Role of central government in divide-and-rule politics Operation bluestar resulted in more support for militant sikh groups; actually helped mitigate sikh nationalism Presidents rule: why did it go down after 1992 Supreme court ruling BJP government in power at the national level allied with akali dal - less interventionist and repressive than congress central government

Group Assignment: Why did conflict persist in Punjab

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3/26/2014 11:07:00 AM ETHNIC IDENTITY Where do ethnic differences come from? Why do certain types of identities become salient at How are cast divisions different from other ones? CASTE AND HINDU DOCTRINE The concept of the caste system appears in ancient Hindu texts. Oriented around the principles of purity and pollution. Colonial Treatment of Caste Caste derives from Portuguese word casta which conflates two concepts: Jati- endogamous group linked to occupation Varna- broad subdivisions of traditional Hindu.

Colonial treatment of Caste Late 19th century: case and religion were included in census. British officials sorted Jatis into Varnas Census enumeration: Millions of Indians Employed CASTE POLITICS BEFORE INDEPENDENCE Ambedkar, iconic Dalit leader, championed the cause of quotas for Dalits Untouchability Offences Act passed in 1955. Constitutional Treatment of Caste Other Backward Classes (OBCs) Above the untouchables but below the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas. Form the bulk of the Sudra (untouchable) Category Dalit= Term for Untouchables or Harijans (children of god); (Term given by by Gandhi) Dalits included in Constitutional category of scheduled caste (SC) or Scheduled Tribe Scheduled Cast: Enshrinement of category in legislatures, educational, and other govt institutions List of Jatis included in the SC/ST category enshrined in the constitution.

Reservations from SCs and STs in Constitution since independence. Legislatures, Educational Institutions, Government Departments. Preferential Treatment in Development Schemes

Where are STs and SCs located? OFFICIAL TREATMENT OF OBCs No list in constitution defining which castes are OBCs Large degree of economic and social differentiation within category of OBCscreamy layer Ethnic Identity- Where do Ethnic Differences come from?? TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT Primordialist- Jatis based on Hereditary occupations Constructivist- Social and Political Constructs give caste identity new meaning. WHY DO CERTAIN TYPES OF IDENTITIES BECOME SALIENT AT CERTAIN TIMES AND NOT OTHERS Political Mobilization of Lower Castes during Period of Congress Dominance Congress= catch-all party Some parties advocating quota politics others advocating kisan politics (kisan= farmer) None very successful on large scale

1990: Mandal Commission 1990: PM VP Singh- member of the Janata Dal- announced that 27% of central government jobs reserved for BOCs (Mandal Commission) in addition to 22% for SCs STs Mandal Commission

Huge political backlash from the upper caste Janata Dal government implements Mandal Commission to appeal to lower castes BJP and Congress Response? BJP (traditionally upper caste Hindu party) steps in to mobilize Hindu sentiments around Babri Masjid to unify and mobilize the Hindu Community. Congress: Traditionally umbrella-like organization= didnt have credibility on either caste or religion in the short term POST MANDAL COMMISSOIN- FURTHER REDEFINING THE CASE 1991 implementation of Mandal Commision by Congress Government along with 10% for poor forward upper castes, Muslims, and Christians Increasing # of lower caste groups mobilizing to be included in the official category OBC Supreme court decision in 1992 regarding creamy layer exclusion from reservations for OBCs OBCs were quite differentiated in terms of economic well being and social status

Early 1990s: Lower Caste Political Mobilization Parties specifically representing OBCs (e.g. Samajwadi Party) Parties specifically representing Dalits (e.g. BSP) Mayawati Good political strategist Problem faced that Dalit identity was very much in the minority so how do you win elections? Form Coalition with other social parties BSP= Bahujan appealing to the majority Defined herself as anti-upper class not pro-dalit

Why lower caste mobilization I the early 1990s and not before?

Formation of new party (janata dal) with a need for new support base Deinstitutionalization of the Congress Party Research has shown that the BSP has been most successful in places where Congress party has representational blockages in its organization/ Leaders defected from Congress Party and joined VP Singh etc

3/26/2014 11:07:00 AM India and Pakistan: Differences in Democracy India Regular elections since 1951-1952 Constitution drafted in 1950 Judiciary challenged executive at several points in time Pakistan First election Very little judiciary autonomy

Pakistan: Brief Overview 1947-1958: Civilian Government 1958-1973: Military Rule 1973-1977: Civilian Government 1971: Secession of East Pakistan, Becomes Bangladesh 1977-1988: Military Rule 1988-1999: Civilian Government 1999-2008: Military Rule 2008-Present: Civilian Government Possible Explanations for Divergence Between India and Pakistan Quality of Leadership Religious Ideology International Position Colonial Legacy (Bureaucracy) Political Parties

Explanations for Difference in Democracy b/w India and Pakistan Differences in Colonial Inheritance o Economy o International Position/Military Capacity o Bureaucratic Capacity Differences in Political Parties

Colonial Inheritance: Difference Economy After Independence Indian provinces per capita revenue higher than that of Pakistan. Differences in Economic inheritance (See slide for stats)

Colonial Inheritance: Differences Administrative Capacity India

Inherited New Delhi and existing central state apparatus Inherited vast majority of Indian ICS officers

Pakistan Loss of new delhi: absence of machinery linking various tiers

West Pakistan Concentration of Political Power . Colonial Inheritance: Differences International Position/Military Capacity Numerous skirmishes and four wars w/India (1947, 1965, 1971, 1999) Cross border attacks b/w Pakistan and Afghanistan from 1949 onwards Pakistan inherited 30% of defense forces of undivided india Crushing military expenditures financed by heavy taxation of (hostile) differences Need of central gov to rely on the army to impose order on the provinces; discouragement in democracy Differences in International Position Differences in Foreign Policy Choices Differences in Prominence of Military India: Strong international bargaining power Nehrus polity of nonalignment Military made subordinate to civilian government Pakistan Weak international bargaining power Pakistans need to ally with major powers in exchange for assistance US assistance helped prop up military

Pakistan & Religion

Constitution/state was exclusionary

3/26/2014 11:07:00 AM

E.g. 1973: only muslim could become Prez & PM

Who is a muslim? 1953 onwards: Anti-Ahmadi riots in Lahore shia claimed they were true muslims/sunnis claimed they were true muslims etc still resulted in 2nd amendment (1974) Ahmadis are non-muslims Land mark decision; first time that State took a sectarian stance. Continued Islamization (1980s onwards) Religious scholars start getting a much more central role in state institutions Law of evidence (womans testimony worth half of a man) Hudood Laws (almost impossible for women to get justice in cases of rape (need 4 witnesses wtf)) Musharaf made changes in 2006 Blasphemy Laws (anti-minorities)