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The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields

of Moving Charged Particles


Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism
Michael Dine
Department of Physics
University of California, Santa Cruz
March 2011
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials
We can derive the scalar and vector potential for a point charge
starting with the expressions we wrote for the scalar and vector
potentials,
(

x, t ) =
_
d
3
x

dt

1
|

|
(

, t

)(t t

1
c
|

|). (1)

A(

x, t ) =
_
d
3
x

dt

1
|

J(

, t

)(t t

1
c
|

|). (2)
and the charge and current distributions we wrote for point
charges:
(

x, t ) = q(

x
o
(t ))

J(

x, t ) = q

v
o
(t )(

x
o
(t )) (3)
where

x
o
(t ) is the position of the particle at time t , and

v
o
is its
velocity.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
We just need to gure out how to do the integral over the
-function. For a -function, the most we care about is its
behavior near the point where its argument vanishes. We called
t
R
the solution to this condition,
t
R
= t
1
c
|

x
o
(t
R
)|. (4)
What is somewhat complicated about this equation is that it is
an implicit equation for t
R
. We can solve it, however, once we
know the trajectories of the charged particle. At time
t

= t
R
+ (t

t
R
) near t
R
, we can Taylor expand the position:

x
o
(t )

x
o
(t
R
) + (t

t
R
)

v
o
(t
R
) (5)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Using this, we can write:
|

x
o
(t

)| |

x
o
(t
R
) (t

t
R
)

v
o
(t
R
)| (6)
Call

R =

x

x
o
(t
R
); then
|

x
o
(t

)| (R
2
2

v
o
(t

t
R
))
1/2
(7)
R

v
o
R
(t

t
R
)
So nally, the argument of the -function is:
([t
1
c
Rt
R
1
c

v
o

R
R
] t

(1
1
c

v
o

R
R
)) (8)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Remember that t

is the integration variable and note that t

appears only in the second set of terms. The function still


vanishes when t

= t
R
. But what we also need is that:
(a(t

t
R
)) =
1
a
(t

t
R
)). (9)
So from this we obtain:
(

r , t ) =
q
R
1
c

v
o


R
(10)

A(

r , t ) = q

v
1
R
1
c

v
o


R
(11)
where in each case, the quantities on the right hand side are
evaluated at the retarded time.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Evaluating the Fields
Our index notation is particularly effective in evaluating the

E
and

B elds of a point charge. We need to evaluate:

E =

A
t


B =

A. (12)
We need to be careful, however, because t
R
is implicitly a
function of

x. So when we take derivatives with respect to

x, we
need to differentiate not only the terms with explicit

xs, but also
the terms with t
R
. So we start by working out these derivatives.
Differentiating both sides of:
t
R
= t
1
c
|

x
o
(t
R
)| (13)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Remembering that
|

x
o
(t
R
)| = ((x
i
x
oi
)
2
)
1/2
(14)
gives

i
t
R
=
1
c
R
i
R
+

v
o
(t
R
)

R
R

i
t
R
(15)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Solving for
i
t
R
:

i
t
R
=
R
i
cR
1
1

v
o
(t
R
)

R
R
(16)
It will also be useful to have a formula for
i
R. From
R = c(t t
R
) (17)
we have

i
R = c
i
t
R
. (18)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
So now we can start taking derivatives.

i
=
c
(Rc

R

v)
2

i
(Rc

R

v) (19)
Now

i

R

v =
i
(r
j
x
oj
(t
R
))

x
oj
(t
R
) (20)
=

x
oi


x
2
oj

i
t
R
R
j

x
oj

i
t
R
So

i
=
qc
(Rc

R

v)
2
(c
i
t
R
+v
2

i
t
R
+

R

a
i
t
R
v
i
) (21)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Using our expression for
i
t
R
gives:

i
=
qc
(Rc

R

v)
3
_
c
2
R
i
+v
2
R
i
+

R

aR
i
v
i
(

v cR)
_
(22)
With a bit more algebra, one can show:

A
t
=
qc
(Rc

R

v)
3
(23)
_
(Rc

R

v)(

v +R

a/c) +
R
c
(c
2
v
2
+

R

a)

v
_
and combining these, you obtain:

E(

r , t ) = e
_

n

2
(1

n)
3
R
2
_
+e
_

n [(

v)

v]
(1

n)
3
R
_
(24)
where

n =

R
R
. All quantities on the right hand side are to be
evaluated at the retarded time.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Similarly,

B =
1
c

R

E(

r , t ). (25)
Exercise: Fill in the details of the calculations of

E and

B,
using the index notation as above.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
More Covariant Derivation
The Greens function can be written in a covariant-looking
fashion:
G(x) = 2(x
2
)(x
0
) (26)
To check this, note
(x
2
) = (t
2

x
2
) (27)
This has roots at t = |

x|; because of the function, we keep


only the positive root. Then using the rules for -functions of
functions,
G(x) =
1
t
(t |

x|)(t ). (28)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
So
A

(x) =
_
d
4
x

G(x x

)j

(x

) (29)
We can also write the current associated with a charge in the
covariant manner:
j

(x) =
_
du

()(x x
0
()) (30)
(again, you should check the components if this is not familiar).
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
So we have
A

(x) = 2e
_
d
4
x

_
du

()(x
0
x
0
0
())((x x
0
()
2
) (31)
where we have used the -function in j

. To do the integral,
we note:

(x x
0
())
2
= 2u

(x x
0
)

(32)
so
A

= e
u

()
u (x x
0
)
(33)
which is what we found previously. (Note, due to the function,
R = 0).
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Some Checks of These Results
We should be able to reproduce our earlier results for radiation
by a dipole and for the elds of a particle in uniform motion.
Consider, rst, a non-relativistic particle undergoing
acceleration. For

E, we have

E(

x, t ) e

n (

n

v)
R
(34)
=
e
r
[

n(

p)

p].
This is our earlier result (similarly for

B; again, everything on
the right hand side is evaluated at the retarded time).
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Particle in Uniform Motion
As in chapter 12 of Jackson, we consider a particle moving
along the x axis with velocity v, and observe its motion at the
point (0, b, 0) at time t . The crucial issue is to keep track of the
retarded time in our expression for

E. We can do this as in
Jacksons 14.2, or we can proceed by actually solving for the
retarded time, which is instructive. The retarded position and
time can be labeled
(t

, vt

, 0, 0) (35)
and satises:
(t

t )
2
(b
2
+v
2
t

2
) = 0; R

= (t t

, vt

, b, 0). (36)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
This is a quadratic equation for t

. The solution is not


particularly pretty:
t

=
2t
_
4t
2
+4(b
2
t
2
)(1 v
2
)
2(1 v
2
)
(37)
(note that the negative sign root of the quadratic equation is
necessary so that t

< t ).
=
2
t
_
b
2

2
+v
2
t
2
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
To determine the electric eld, we need

n

R:

n =
(vt

, b, 0)

b
2
+v
2
t
2
;

n

v =
v
2
t

b
2
+b
2
t
2
. (38)
Also,

n

v R = v
2
t

, so
(R

Rv) = (t t

v
2
t

) = t (1 v
2
)t

=
_
b
2

2
+4v
2
t
2
(39)
=
1
_
b
2
+4v
2

2
t
2
So, for example,
E
y
=
eb
(b
2
+
2
v
2
t
2
)
3/2
(40)
as expected.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Energy Emission by an Accelerating Particle
In the frame where the particle is at rest at a given instant, the
energy emitted in a time interval dt is just what we found earlier
(and is given again by our formulas above)
dE =
2e
2
3

v
2
dt (41)
The total momentum radiated in a similar time interval is zero.
This is easily seen by considering the stress tensor. The
momentum ux in the i th direction.
T
ij
= E
i
E
j
+B
i
B
j

1
2

ij
(

E
2
+

B
2
). (42)
So
n
i
T
ij
=
1
2
n
j
(

E
2
+

B
2
). (43)
(We have used the transversality of the radiation eld).
Integrated over angles, this gives zero (

E

E,

B) under

n).
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
So dP
0
is the time component of a four vector, but
dP
0
dt
is the
same in any frame, i.e. it is a scalar. We can see this by writing:
dP

= 2
e
2
3
du

ds
du

ds
dx

=
2e
2
3
du

ds
du

ds
dx

(44)
(check in rest frame!). We can write
dP
0
dt
= 2
e
2
3c
3
m
2
dp

ds
dp

ds
(45)
(Lorentz invariant, as claimed earlier).
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
After some algebra,
dp

d
dp

d
= m
2

6
[(v

v)
2


v
2
] (46)
and
P
dP
0
dt
=
2
3
e
2
c

6
[(v

v)
2


v
2
]. (47)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Comparison of Linear, Circular Acceleration
From these formulas, one can see that, for a given applied
force, particles in circular motion radiate much more rapidly
than particles in linear motion. Again writing
P =
2
3
e
2
m
2
dp

d
dp

d
(48)
we have, for linear motion,
P =
2
3
e
2
m
2
_
d

p
d
_
2

_
dE
d
_
2
(49)
but
dE
d
=
d
d
=

vv
3
, while
dp
d
=

v
3
so
P =
2
3
e
2
m
2
c
3
_
_
d

p
d
_
2

2
_
dp
d
_
2
_
(50)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
So we can compare linear, circular acceleration.
Linear:
dE
dx

dp
dt
, so
P =
2
3
e
2
m
2
c
3
_
dp
dt
_
2
. (51)
Circular:
|
d

p
d
| = |

p|, so
P =
2
3
e
2
c

2

4

4
(52)
Reason why circular accelerators for electrons problematic.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Now we look at the radiation in more detail, particularly the
angular and frequency distribution. To do this we return to the
expression for the

E eld (radiation part):

E(

r , t ) = e
_

n [(

v)

v]
(1

n)
3
R
_
(53)
and recall

S =

n|

E|
2
, so

n =
e
2
4c
1
R
2

n [(

v)

v]
(1

n)
3
R
_

2
(54)
Note that in n.r. limit, denominator is one, but in ultrarelativistic
limit, the denominator vanishes in the forward direction the
radiation is highly peaked.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
It is convenient to change variables so that integrals over time (e.g.
for the total energy) are written in terms of the retarded time.
_
dt =
_
t
t

dt

(55)
Recall
t

t
= (1

v)
1
. (56)
(from R = |

x
0
(t

),
R
t

R
R
, so, since t

= t R,
t

t
= 1
R
t

t
, (57)
giving the result above. So, in particular,
dP(t

)
d
= R
2

n(1

n). (58)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Motion in a straight line (linear accelerator)
Here

v
d

v
dt
= 0.
dP(t

)
d
=
e
2
4

v
2
sin
2

(1 v cos )
5
. (59)
For v 1, the denominator is
1 v +
1
2

1
2
(
2
+
2
)

2
2
(1 +
2

2
)
again indicating the strong forward peaking;
1
.
Integrating over angles,
P(t

) =
6
2
3
e
2

v
2
c
3
(60)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
The integrals above are elementary. For example
_
d

3
2

v
2
(1 +
2

2
)
5
(61)
=
6

v
2
2
_

0
dx
x
3
(1 +x
2
)
5
=

v
2
24
.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Circular motion
Highly peaked in angle as before. Take

b

v. Evaluate:
dP(t

)
d
=
e
2
4c
|

n [(

v)

v]|
2
(1

v)
5
. (62)
The numerator may be written, using our identity for s (in
particular, |

B|
2
= |

A|
2
|

B|
2
(

B)
2
):
|

n [(

v)

v]|
2
= |(

v)

v|
2
|

n [(

v)

v]|
2
(63)
= (1 +v
2
2

v)

v (

v)
2
|

n (

v)|
2
.
Taking

v along the z axis, and

v along the y axis, and

n = (cos , sin cos , sin sin)),


dP(t

)
d
=
e
2
4c
3
|

v|
2
(1 v cos )
3
[1
sin
2
cos
2

2
(1 v cos())
2
]. (64)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Again, highly peaked in forward direction. Integrating over
angles as before,
P(t

) =
2
3
e
2
|

v|
2
c
3

4
. (65)
To compare with linear acceleration, we write in terms of
d

p
dt
= m

v (66)
so
P(t

) =
2
3
m
2
e
2
c
3

p
2
. (67)
This is larger than the linear case by
2
for the same force.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Distribution in Frequency (and angle)
Ill follow Jackson and dene (not to be confused with the vector
potential)

A =
_
c
4
_
1/2
R

E (68)
so
dP
d
= |A(t )|
2
. (69)
Fourier transforming, following Jacksons convention:
f (t ) =
1

2
_

de
i t
f () (70)
we have, for the total energy radiated during the course of the particle
motion:
dW
d
=
_

A()|
2
d (71)

_

0
d
2
I(,

n)
dd
d
where, since

A() =

A

()
d
2
I
dd
= 2|

A()|
2
. (72)
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
We can calculate

A directly given knowledge of the trajectory.

A() =
_
e
2
8
2
c
__

e
i t
_

n (

(1

n)
2
_
dt (73)
(I have given in and used Jacksons

notation). Note that the
quantities on the right hand side are to be evaluated at the
retarded time, but here we can just change variables in the
integral.
dt

dt
= (1

n)
1
. (74)
When we do this, we replace e
i t
by e
i t

R(t

)/c
e
i t

r (t

)
(

r
is the position of the particle).
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
So we are left with

A() =
_
e
2
8
2
c
_
1/2
_

dte
i (t

nr (t )/c)
_

n (

(1

n)
2
_
(75)
Amazingly the term in braces is a total derivative
d
dt

n (

(1

n)
=
_

n (

(1

n)
2
_
,
and after an integration by parts one obtains:
d
2
I
dd
=
e
2

2
4
2
c
|
_

n (

)e
i (t

r (t )/c)
dt |
2
. (76)
As long as there is some component of

v not parallel to

v, this
dominates and at any instant, the motion can be treated as
circular. One then obtains expressions for the radiation by a
straightforward" integration.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
Brief aside: It is interesting that eqn. 75 doesnt involve the
acceleration. But it better vanish if

is zero. This is easy to


see; the integrand, if

is a constant, is
d
dt
_

n (

)
1

_
e
i (t

r )
(77)
(here, and above, it is important that

r =

). The integral thus
vanishes.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles
To set up the problem, it is helpful to set up coordinates, e.g. as
in Jackson, and to work out explicitly the various quantities
appearing here. Taking

r =

x sin(t /) +

y cos(vt /) (78)
and taking the vector

n in the (x, z) plane

n =

x cos +

y sin (79)
(I am following Jackson in making a slightly unconventional
choice for , but it makes 0 the region where most of the
radiation lies). It is also helpful to dene two polarization
vectors:

=

y;

=

z sin

x cos (80)
one can work out all of the quantities appearing in the
integrand. The results can be expressed as modied Bessel
functions.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charged Particles

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