T1 Digital

WWW.TRANSFORMERS-MAGAZINE.
COM ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1

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1
Jean SANCHEZ, Mladen BANOVIC
TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE 1
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ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1
Transformers
MAGAZINE VOL 1 ISSUE 1
Classifcation of
Transformers Family
Basics of Power
Transformers
A General Overview
of Power Transformer
Diagnosis
Issues to Consider when
Substituting Large Power
Transformers in Generating
Stations
Economical and Reliable
Transformer Maintenance
by Holistic Interpretation of
Insulating Oil Condition
Voltage Stresses on
Solid-Liquid Insulation of
Large Power Transformers
ISSN 1849-3319
TRENDS IN POWER
TRANSFORMER FAILURE
ANALYSIS WALLACE BINDER
POWER
TRANSFORMER LIFE
CARLOS GAMEZ
+
It's not the size
of the circuit
that matters
but the energy
it transmits
Coiltech 2014
24-25 September Pordenone
With a creative, unique
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meeting point of the Coil
Winding industry.
Producers of electrical
motors, generators,
transformers and other
inductivities meet to discuss
new projects and business
development with market
leaders from all major parts
of the supply chain.
m
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For complete visitors profile, see www.quickfairs.net/coiltech
*Coiltech is the only show in the industry with certified visitors data (ISFCERT).
Coiltech has a rebooking rate in excess of 90%.
At other Coil Winding exhibitions it is about 75%
Exhibitors
2010
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2013
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Exhibitors sign-up dynamics*
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Number of unique Visitors*
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2011
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2012
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2012
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*As of 28 February, 2014; exhibitors list updated real time on www.quickfairs.net
Coiltech pagina A4.indd 1 12/03/14 14:49
10
NEWS
12
BASICS OF POWER TRANSFORMERS
What are the basic transformation principles and essen-
tial transformer parts?
Power transformers are key elements of a high voltage elec-
trical transmission grid, which adapt voltage levels to the dif-
ferent needs of electric power users at constant power (dis-
regarding the losses).
16
POWER TRANSFORMER LIFE
Carlos GAMEZ
Part 1: What does transformer life mean?
The concept of life for an electrical asset, such as a power
transformer, is sometimes not properly understood. In this ar-
ticle we review what we mean when we refer to the life of
a transformer and what constrains determine the design and
operational parameters of these assets.
20
TRENDS IN POWER TRANSFORMER FAILURE ANALYSIS
Wallace BINDER
This article will introduce the reader to the importance of fai-
lure investigations, discuss the need for guidelines and the
standards organisations work that is underway to provide the
guidelines. The concept of using the Scientic Method is int-
roduced and the existing processes are described.
24
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS FAMILY
Mladen BANOVIC, Jean SANCHEZ
Transformers are used in the electrical networks everywhe-
re: in power plants, substations, industrial plants, buildings,
data centres, railway vehicles, ships, wind turbines, in the
electronic devices, the underground, and even undersea. It
is very dicult to organise a structured overview of the trans-
former types. Here the attempt is to provide a relatively com-
mon point of view on most of those transformers types.
16 12
20 24
www. transformers- magazi ne. com

3
CONTENT
750 GOOD REASONS
TO VISIT
32
VOLTAGE STRESSES ON SOLID-LIQUID INSULATION
OF LARGE POWER TRANSFORMERS
Juliano MONTANHA
Inuence of dielectric tests on main insulation design
Dielectric tests are mandatory to dene the main insulation
transformer design such as clearances between windings,
windings to core and leads as well. Therefore, it is very im-
portant to understand how and where the voltages are distri-
buted within the transformer during the dielectric tests.
38
A GENERAL OVERVIEW OF POWER TRANSFORMER DI-
AGNOSIS
This paper discusses the main diagnostic methods that could
be performed during service life of a transformer. It will also
attempt to provide the purposes of the main diagnostic me-
thods carried out by dierent power transformer stakeholders.
44
ISSUES TO CONSIDER WHEN SUBSTITUTING LARGE
POWER TRANSFORMERS IN GENERATING STATIONS
Relu ILIE, Isidor KERSZENBAUM
The purpose of this paper is to indicate the most important
aspects to be considered when checking the interchangeabi-
lity of transformers, based on authors experience and vari-
ous standards requirements.
54
ECONOMICAL AND RELIABLE TRANSFORMER MAIN-
TENANCE BY HOLISTIC INTERPRETATION OF INSULA-
TING OIL CONDITION
Marius GRISARU
A transformer owner or a person responsible for its proper ope-
ration is faced with many diagnostic approaches and most of
them are either inaccurate or unnecessary and irrelevant to in-
dividual case. It is important to carry out the tests that will not
interfere with transformer operation and interpret the results
holistically in the transformer exploitation context, manufac-
ture, internal organisation politics and many other parameters.
64
EVENTS

5
38 32
20 54
750 GOOD REASONS
TO VISIT
CONTENT
TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in Chief: Mladen Banovic, PhD;
PUCARO Elektro-Isolierstoe GmbH; Germany
mladen.banovic@transformers-magazine.com
EXECUTIVE EDITORS
Michel Duval, PhD; Hydro Quebec; Canada
Pierre Lorin; ABB; Switzerland
Jean Sanchez, PhD; EDF; France
Jin Sim; Jin Sim & Associates, Inc.; USA
Juliano Montanha; SIEMENS; Brazil
Craig Adams; TRAFOIX; Australia
Arne Petersen; AP Consulting ;Australia
Art director: Momir Blazek
Photo: Shutterctock.com
Language Editor: Mirna Harwood
ADVERTISING AND SUBSCRIPTION
Marin Ante Dugandzic
+44 20 373 474 69
marin.dugandzic@merit-media.com
Transformers Magazine is published quarterly
by Merit Media Int. d.o.o., Setaliste 150. briga-
de 10, 10 090 Zagreb, Croatia. Published ar-
ticles dont represent ocial position of Merit
Media Int. d.o.o. Merit Media Int. d.o.o. is not
responsible for the content. The responsibili-
ty for articles rests upon the authors, and the
responsibility for ads rests upon advertisers.
Manuscripts, photos and other submitted do-
cuments are not returned.
Subscription rate: $76 (1 year, 4 issues)
Digital subscription: free for registered readers
www.transformers-magazine.com
REPRINT
Libraries are permitted to photocopy for the
private use of patrons. Abstracting is permited
with credit to the source. A per-copy fee must
be paid to the Publisher, contact Subscription.
For other copying or republication permissi-
ons, contact Subscription. All rights reserved.
Publisher: Merit Media Int. d.o.o.
Setaliste 150. brigade 10,
10 090 Zagreb, Croatia
Contact: +385 91 222 8820 Croatia
Contact: +44 20 373 474 69 UK
VAT number: HR09122628912
Bank Name: Zagrebacka banka
Bank identier code: ZABAHR2X
Bank IBAN: HR8023600001102375121
Director: Marin Ante Dugandzic
Subscribe to Transformers Magazine and keep
track of the latest news and trends in the power
transformer industry.
Print Edition 4 issues (1 year) for $ 76
Digital Edition Free of charge subscription for registered users

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WWW.TRANSFORMERS-MAGAZINE.COM
ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1 | 1
1 | ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1
T
ran
sform
ers
MAGAZINE
VOL 1 ISSUE 1
Classifcation of
Transformers Family
Basics of Power
Transformers
A General Overview
Diagnosis
Transformers in Generating
Stations
Economical and Reliable
Transformer Maintenance
by Holistic Interpretation of
Insulating Oil Condition
Voltage Stresses on
Solid-Liquid Insulation of
Large Power Transformers
ISSN 1849-3319
TRENDS IN POWER
TRANSFORMER FAILURE
ANALYSIS WALLACE BINDER
POWER
TRANSFORMER LIFE
CARLOS GAMEZ
Australasia:
Vince Hantos
hanti@optusnet.com.au
Tel: +61 40 768 03 31
India:
Ashutosh Kumar Govil
govil48@gmail.com
Tel: +91 99 750 975 34
ADVERTISING
Northern Europe:
Matti Stoor
matti@stoors.se
Tel: +46 70 644 31 94
Spain & Portugal:
Alfonso de Pablo Hermida
depabloa@terra.com
Tel: +34 91 715 77 92
Russian Federation:
Alexander Drobyshevski
drob@vei.ru
Tel: +79 03 618 33 42
ROW:
Marin Ante Dugandzic
marin.dugandzic@merit-media.com
Tel: +44 20 373 474 69
T
he idea about a transformers
magazine was born from dis-
cussions on Linkedin Transfor-
mersforum,wherepeopleworldwide,
from over 130 countries, take part in
24/7discussions,sharetheirexperien-
cesandlearnaboutthelatestissuesre-
lated to transformers. Tere is a truly
wide range of broad, comprehensive
topics which include all aspects of transformers lifetime
anditscomponentssuchas:parameterspecifcationsfrom
the grid viewpoint, including smart grid, reliability and
efciency, design, manufacturing, testing, operation and
maintenance, protection, monitoring, diagnosis, failure,
researchofthefailurecauses,standards,educationetc.
Some of the most accomplished experts have told me that
through the forum they can still expand as well as refresh
their knowledge, despite spending decades in the transfor-
mers feld in the best possible environment. Te content is
specifcallyvaluabletothesomewhatlessexperienced,those
withlimitedknowledgeinthisfeld.Inordertopreventthe
content from being lost somewhere in virtual world in the
electronicform,theideaofamagazinewasborn.Agroupof
more active transformer community members made great
efortinpreparationofthemagazineand,despitetheirnu-
merous private and work commitments, the magazine has
becomeareality.
Te website has been active for some time now, and it re-
gularlybringscurrentglobalnewsrelatedtotransformers.
Tecommentsreceivedsofarhavebeenverypositiveand
encouraging,especiallyforthewebsitemaintenanceteam
whoendeavournotonlytokeepupthegoodworkbutto
alsostriveforimprovementintime.
Printmagazinebringstechnicalarticlesregardingthemost
recenttopics,withaparticularfocusonefciencyincrea-
singsolutionsandsolutionsforsmartgrid.
Infuence of transformers on the environment is ofen si-
gnifcantlyunderestimated,probablybecauseitisahighly
efcient device with efciency at rated load even greater
than99%.However,theefciencyonasystemscaleisnot
so high, due to a series of transformers on the electricitys
wayfrompowerplantstoconsumers,duetoloadinglower
thanrated,andduetolowerefciencyofsmallertransfor-
mers.
Itisestimatedthatabout10%ofgloballygeneratedelec-
tricity is dissipated in grid losses, 40% of that being the
losses in transformers. Tat means 4% of globally gene-
rated electricity is wasted in transformers. Signifcant
power generation (and transmission) capacity and cor-
responding energy resources are needed just to supply
transformer losses globally, which is a huge amount and
a solid potential for reduction of the environmental im-
pact.
Te additional problem is that transformer feet ages glo-
bally. Tis signifcantly increases not only fnancial risks
for utilities and industry, but also the risk of even larger
environmentalimpact.
Terefore, we encourage thinking and writing about so-
lutions and strategies to lower environmental impact
throughfurtherincreaseofefciency,i.e.lowerCOemis-
sion,failureprevention,extensionoftransformerlifetime,
and decrease of other risks, particularly risks of endan-
gering peoples lives and health. We would like to use this
opportunity to invite you to participate in creation of the
TransformersMagazineupcomingissues.
Tefrstissuecoverssomeofthefundamentaltopicssuch
asreviewsoftransformertypes,insulationdesign,diagno-
sis,lifetime,failureresearchandtransformerreplacement.
Iwishyouapleasantreading.
MladenBanovic,EditorinChief
Dear Readers,
EDITORIAL MESSAGE

7
EDITORIAL BOARD
Michel Duval
DrMichelDuvalobtainedaB.Sc.andPhD.
inchemicalengineeringin1966and1970,
andhasworkedforIREQ(Hydro-Quebec,
Canada) since 1970. He has made signi-
fcant contributions in 3 mains felds of
R&D:dissolvedgas-in-oilanalysis(DGA),
electricalinsulatingmaterialsandlithium-polymerbatteries.
InthefeldofDGA,DrDuvaliswell-knownforhisTrianglemethod
of DGA interpretation, used worldwide. He has developed the use of
gas-in-oil standards and participated in the development of the Hy-
dran on-line monitor for hydrogen in oil. Dr Duval has established
thelevelsofgasformationobservedinvarioustypesofelectricalequip-
ment.HehasbeentheConvenorofnumerousIECandCIGREworking
groupsandtheprincipalauthorofseveralIECinternationalstandards
andCIGRETechnicalBrochuresonDGA.Heisalsoveryactiveinseve-
ralIEEEworkinggroups.
DrDuvalholds16patentsandistheauthorofmorethan100scientifc
papersandstandards.HeisaFellowattheChemicalInstituteofCanada,
aLifeFellowofIEEE,andtherecipientofIECandCIGREAwardsand
of the IEEE Herman Halperin Electric Transmission and Distribution
Awardfor2012.
Pierre Lorin
Pierre Lorin holds M.Sc. Electrical &
Mechanical. He graduated in Paris in
1992. From 1992 to 1996 he worked at
theSwissFederalInstituteofTechnology
in Lausanne (EPFL) where he conduc-
ted researches for large utilities in Euro-
pe and North America on reliability and maintenance strategy for
overheadlines.
From1996tilltodayhehasbeenwithABBPowerProducts-Trans-
formersService.HehasbeenactiveinResearch&Developmentas
wellasProductManagement,mainlyinvolvedintransformersreli-
ability,diagnosismethods,on-linemonitoring,maintenance,repair,
and active noise control. He is now Head of Technology for Trans-
formers Service activities globally and the author or co-author of
severalpublicationsinthisfeld.PierrehasrepresentedSwitzerland
within the CIGRE Transformer Study Committee (A2) for 6 years.
He is now leading the Advisory Group Transformer Utilization
withinCIGREA2.
Jean Sanchez
Jean Sanchez completed a Ph.D. degree
onorganisingageneralschemeforpower
transformers fault diagnosis in 2011 and
worked in a french power transformer
reparation factory. Tis work was based
onformalisingandsystematisinghuman
expertise and experience on power transformer fault diagnosis of
anykind,whichwasdevelopedovertheyearsinclosecollaboration
betweentransformerusersandthereparationfactoryonfailuresand
activepartreconstructions.Heworkedonmanytransformerdesigns
(core as well as shell type, GSU, substation and industrial transfor-
mers),tests(electrical,oilanalysis),faultexpertise(onsite,andinre-
parationworkshop),powerratings,andOLTCreparations(MRand
oldfrenchdesigns).Todayheisworkingongeneratordiagnosis(me-
chanical, electrical, ancillaries) and maintenance in a major French
utilityandistheexecutiveeditoroftheTransformersMagazine.He
alsoholdsaMastersdegreeinAppliedPhysics.
Editorial board of Transformers Magazine consists of experts
with diverse experiences and backgrounds, from different parts of the
world, and of different age. This should ensure as broad view on the mat-
ter of the magazines scope as possible. Here we present the editors short
thorough biographies.
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 8
Jin Sim
Jin Sim holds a BSEE from Dankook
University in Korea. He attended two
graduate schools for Engineering and
one graduate school for Business Admi-
nistration. He has been in the transfor-
merindustryforover37yearsindesign,
development, manufacturing, testing and management. In 2013,
Jin retired as a VP and Chief Technology Ofcer at SPX Transfor-
merSolutions(formerlyknownasWaukeshaElectricSystems)and
foundedhisownconsultingcompany;JinSim&Associates,Inc.He
has been active in the Electric Power Industry as a leader of sever-
al working groups and subcommittees. Recently, Jin was the chair-
man of the IEEE Transformers Committee for 20022003. He was
a member of the U.S. Technical Advisory Group for IEC Technical
Committee 14, Power Transformers and an individual member of
the CIGRE. He has also been the NEMA and IEEE delegate to the
ASCC57Committee.
Juliano Montanha
JulianoMontanhaholdsadegreeinElec-
tricalEngineeringfromUniversityofSo
PauloBrazilfrom1998whenhestarted
working at Siemens Power Transformer
factory in Jundiai - Brazil. Juliano has
been working with insulation technolo-
gy regarding main insulation design up to 800 kV, including leads
design and winding assembly. He was responsible for winding as-
semblystandardisationforlocalmarketin2000.
JulianoisahighvoltageexpertatSiemensTransformerGroupand
has participated on a worldwide R&D research with the Siemens
transformersfactories.
Between 2011 and 2013, he was responsible for insulation design
groupatJundiaiSiemensfactory.Hewasalsoresponsibleforimple-
mentationof500kVelectrodeinJundiaifactoryaswellastransient
studies for Power Transformers design like VFT studies and failu-
re investigations. Juliano technically supported the manufacturing
process of HVDC units at Siemens factory in Jundiai and Siemens
factory in Mxico in 2010. He has been a member of IEEE since
2014.
Craig Adams
CraigAdamsstartedhiscareerin1992as
an apprentice electrical engineering tra-
desperson with Capricornia Electricity
Board before commencing further engi-
neering studies. He joined GEC Alstom
in 1997 as a Cadet Test Engineer at the
Rocklea Works, and from 2001 to 2013 held positions of Test Ma-
nagerandProductQualityManager.In2013hefoundedTRAFOIX
PtyLtdandiscurrentlyitsDirectorandPrincipalConsultant.
He has extensive experience in all aspects of transformer testing,
routine,type&specialtests,andinvestigativediagnostictechniques
including failure investigations and forensic strip downs. He has
considerable experience with routine & type testing of HV & MV
apparatus including switchgear, capacitor banks, high voltage mo-
torsandgenerators,andinthedesignandupgradingoftestfacilities
andequipment.
Arne Petersen
Arne Petersen received degrees in Elec-
trical Engineering from Odense Tekni-
kum, Denmark, a Bsc.Eng degree from
RMIT, Australia and an MBA degree
from University of Queensland, Austra-
lia.Heisalsoacharteredengineeranda
fellowmemberofInstitutionofEngineersAustralia.
Arne has fve years experience as a transformer designs engineer
withatransformermanufacturerandthreeyearsexperienceinpo-
wer station design. He also worked as a transformer specialist and
managerofHVPlantforPowerlink,Qld,amajorAustraliantrans-
missionutility,fortwenty-sevenyears.
He is currently working as a self-employed consulting engineer
specialising in transformer technology. Arne has conducted many
investigations into transformer failures and fres in Australia and
SoutheastAsia.
He is an active member of Cigre, both in Australia and internatio-
nally,hewasactiveinseveralCigreworkinggroupsandiscurrently
contributingtoCigreStudycommitteefortransformers(SCA2).
Mladen Banovic
Mladen Banovic obtained his PhD de-
gree from the University of Zagreb in
2012. He leads PUCAROs research and
development in transformer insulation,
the editorial board of Transformers Ma-
gazine, and the Transformers forum. He
managedthedevelopmentofinsulationsystemsupto1200kVand
has been involved in defning ABBs smart grid strategy covering
transformer insulation and components. Prior to joining PUCA-
RO,heledbasicresearchoftransformerinsulationandtransformer
monitoringbusiness.Heworkedondevelopinganddeployingsys-
tems for automated testing of transformers in factories and onsite,
sofwarepackagesforautomationoftransformerdesign,2Dand3D
feldcalculationandanalysis,etc.
Mladen is active member of a few IEC, IEEE, and Cigre working
groups. He also holds a degree in Electrical Engineering and post-
graduateMasterofSciencedegreefromtheUniversityofZagreb.

9
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 10
PRODUCTS NEWS
T
he newly-announced purifcation systems are
HVTOPS and DOPS: High Vacuum Transfor-
mer Oil Purifcation Systems (HVTOPS) are single
pass systems intended for quick turnarounds. Diel-
ectric Oil Purifer Systems (DOPS) are designed to
remove all impurities in multi-pass. Unlike HVTOPS
equipment,theydonotpulladeepvacuumonempty
transformersfordryout.Otherwise,theyfunctionthe
sameasHVTOPS.
To fnd out more, visit: www.oilfltrationsystems.com
T
henewgenerationofmonitorsusescarbonnano-
tube technology and combines total combustible
gas (TGS), temperature and load monitoring readings
to provide real-time notifcation for single and three
phasedistributiontransformers.
Te monitors are the newest additions to the Born
SmartlineofsmartgridsensingdevicesbyIUSTech-
nologies. Tey have an accuracy rating of 0.2% to re-
mote transformer monitoring and provide a complete
view of equipment health apart from regular manual
inspectionperiods.
TM1000 and TM2000 immediately detect normal,
abnormal, caution or dangerous conditions and send
alertseitherwhenpredeterminedconditionsaremetor
supplyaconstantstreamofinformation.
Source: Business Wire
T
he new Perception (TM) is the latest version of
the General Electrics Digital Energy risk ma-
nagement sofware, a package used to diagnose the
conditionofeverytransformerinthefeet.
Transformerdiagnosisisperformedbytheassetowners
inordertomaintainatransformerfeetandreduceope-
ratingexpenses.
Source: Tomasnet News
I
n addition to regulation tasks, the TAPCON(R)
also supports special applications such as three-
windingtransformers,transformerbanks,phaseshif-
ters or shunt reactors. Te modular system makes it
possible to match the regulators power spectrum to
therespectiverequirements,claimsMR.
TAPCON is suitable for integration into redundant
networksystemswiththeRSTPandPRPprotocols.
Source: Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen GmbH
E
ndesadecidedtoextendthestrategicmeasuresto
make the facilities safer and ftted the camera in
theMaragallsubstationafewmonthsago.Tecamera
is very small; in fact, if not informed, one would not
evenbeawareofitsexistence.Itissuspendedfromthe
ceilingcornerinRoom4.
Tis device allows thermal monitoring, i.e. analysing
theheatofthemostsensitiveelementsofpowertrans-
formers and they are used to signal a warning in the
eventofabovenormalheatdetection.
Tetinythermographiccamerahasbeenamajorleap
forwardinsafetyandpossiblefreprevention.Endesa
ispleasedwiththeresultsandnowwantstoexportthe
surveillancecamera.Source: El Periodico
Oil Filtration Systems
announces two new se-
ries of transformer oil
purifcation equipment
IUS Technologies pre-
sents new smart trans-
former monitors
GEs Digital Energy an-
nounces the latest ver-
sion of Perception
Endesa installs thermographic camera to monitor
transformers in Maragall substation
MR announces new TAP-
CON voltage regulator
USA, Texas: Oil Filtration Systems (Clark-
Reliance Company) has announced two
new series of oil purication equipment
to remove impurities from dielectric in-
sulating oils.
USA, Texas: IUS Technologies unveiled
groundbreaking distribution transfor-
mer monitors - the TM1000 and TM2000
at DistribuTECH in San Antonio.
USA, Georgia, Atlanta: GEs Digital Ener-
gy has launched the latest version of
Perception (TM) software used by the
utilities for management of their power
transformer eet.
Germany, Regensburg: The market lea-
der, Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen GmbH
(MR) has released TAPCON, the new
voltage regulator.
Spain, Barcelona: The Maragall substa-
tion has been tted with a tiny thermo-
graphic surveillance camera which re-
cords everything that happens in power
transformers within a 24 hour period.

11
BUSINESS NEWS
Products of M&I Materials Ltd.
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
ENG April 2014 ad print.pdf 1 28/03/2014 14:00:04
A
pparently, the frst power transformer in the
world, insulated and cooled using vegetable oil,
will link the 380 kV ultra-high voltage level with the
110kVgrid,writesEBR.
Te insulating oil for the new transformer is made
from renewable plant resource, is completely bio-de-
gradable,andmuchlessfammablethanmineraloil.
Tebio-degradabilityoftheinsulatingoilmeansthat
additionalcollectingvesselsandseparationsystemsare
no longer required at the installation location, resul-
tingincostsavingsfortheseitems.saidSiemensEner-
gyTransformersbusinessunitCEO,BeatrixNatter.
Tetransformercanbeinstalledandoperatedinwater
conservationareasorareaswhereenvironmentalpro-
tectionappliesasitistheworldsfrsttransformeratthe
420kVextra-highvoltagelevelforwhichnowaterha-
zardclassifcationmustbeissued.Source: EBR
T
he company intends to reorganise the existing
site and employ extra 100 people to work in the
new buildings. With this investment, the entire eco-
nomyoftheRegensburgsitewillbefurtherstrengthe-
ned.saidtheMayorHansSchaidinger.
Te main objectives of the investment were to reduce
logisticscostsandleadtimesbyatleast25%.Tefour
camps operating in the urban area as well as the need
torenewthewarehouseequipmentandreorganiseall
theprocesseswerethereasonsfortheconstructionof
thesite.
Teconstructionofthenewbuildingsandreorganisa-
tion of the factory premises is scheduled for comple-
tion by the end of 2015. Te new, highly automated
materials management centre is scheduled to start
operationinearly2016.
Source: Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen Gmbh
F
alfurrias Capital Partners formed NATDG in
2013 to acquire and grow well-performing US-
based companies with strong balance sheets that sup-
port mission-critical elements of the electric utility
grid.TefrstacquisitionmadebyNATDGwasITEC,
a Charlotte-based manufacturer of instrument trans-
formerproducts.
ACS product portfolio includes SCADA, distributi-
on management, outage management and substation
automation. ACS was one of the frst companies in the
industry to deliver a truly integrated ADMS platform,
combining distribution and outage management func-
tionsusingacommonnetworkmodelanduserinterface.
ACShasatraditionofinnovationthathaskeptusatthe
forefrontofthetransformationtoanintelligentgrid.said
JosBarbosa,CEOofACS.TogetherwiththeNATDG
leadershipandthebackingofFalfurriasCapitalPartners,
wewillcontinuedevelopingnewsolutionsthatempower
ourcustomerstomeetthechallengestheyfacetodayand
intheyearstocome.Source: Efacec
TransnetBW commis-
sions frst vegetable
oil 420 kV transformer
from Siemens
MR invests 24 million
($ 33 million) in new
materials management
centre
Falfurrias Capital Partners acquire Efacec ACS
Germany: TransnetBW has commissioned
Siemens rst vegetable oil transformer
with 420 kV voltage level at the Bruchsal-
Kndelweg substation near Karlsruhe.
Germany, Regensburg: Maschinenfabrik
Reinhausen GmbH (MR), the world leader
for the regulation of power transformers
has invested 24 million ($ 33 million) in
strengthening the highly automated ma-
terials management centre in Regensburg.
USA, Georgia: Falfurrias Capital Partners, North Carolina-based private equity rm, has
acquired Norcross, Georgia-based Efacec ACS, Inc. from the Efacec Group for undisc-
losed terms. The company name will change to Advanced Control Systems, Inc. (ACS).
12
|
JULY 2013
Introduction
N
owadays, electric energy is availa-
ble almost everywhere, and we do
not even think how it was produ-
ced. Production of the electric energy
is possible by application of the power
transformers.
Power transformer is a complex assem-
bly of elements based on decades-long,
worldwide proven technologies. Tose
electrical machines are essential for po-
wer grids to transmit electrical power by
minimisingJoulesefectlossesusinghigh
voltageoverlongdistances.
Transformers have been used worldwide
for many years and their availability and
reliabilityisamajorconcernforallelectri-
cityusersandtheassetsowners.
Basics of power transformers
The basic facts and the main parts and
components of power transformers are
presented in this article to understand
which diagnoses can be applied accor-
dingly.
Basics of Power
Transformers
What are the basic transformation prin-
ciples and essential transformer parts?
ABSTRACT
Power transformers are key elements
of a high voltage electrical transmissi-
on grid, which adapt voltage levels to
the dierent needs of electric power
users at constant power (disregarding
the losses). This electrical machine is
classically constructed out of copper,
steel, paper and insulating oil. All tho-
se materials are made into dierent
components. The main ones are the
windings, tap changing system, core,
tank and bushings. The components
are assembled together to produce a
power transformer. Power transfor-
mers are developed worldwide using a
few basic designs established almost a
century ago, that can be largely adap-
ted for many special applications [1].

Keywords
basics, components, power transfor-
mers
TECHNOLOGY BASICS
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 12
Electromagnetic basis
A single-phase transformer is basically
made out of two separate windings that
are inserted into each other into a closed
loop of magnetic core. Te voltage ratio
(V1/V2, where V1>V2) of the transfor-
merisequaltotheratioofthenumberof
turns of the two windings (N1/N2, where
N1>N2)inafrstapproximation.Itshould
benotedthataclassicpowertransformer
requiresalternativevoltage.
In a rough approximation, if the trans-
former losses are disregarded, the power
(Voltage x Current) transmitted through
the windings has a lower current on the
high voltage (HV) side than on the low
voltage (LV) side. Moreover the Joules
heatefectisproportionaltothesquareof
thecurrenttransmittedintoanyordinary
conductor like transformer windings or
transmissionlines.
Both these efects combined at constant
powerofelevatingvoltagereduceheatdis-
sipation accordingly by the square of the
current, and enable the transmission of
power of alternating current and voltage
over very long distances from the energy
producer to the energy consumer while
limitingthepowerlossesinthegrid.Tis
ispossibleduetoakeygridcomponent-
the power transformer. Most of them are
thethree-phasetransformersorthethree
single-phasetransformers.
Tree points could be noted from these
electromagneticprinciples.First,withthe
voltage increase of an electrical network,
the Joule losses are reduced. Te trend in
largecountrieslikeCanada,Brazil,Russia,
China, South Africa, South Korea, USA,
and Venezuela is the development of the
800 kV electrical networks, or the 1000
kV to 1200 kV ones in China and India,
respectively.Secondly,thetwomaincon-
straints of power transformers are high
voltage and high current, depending on
whethertheHVorLVisobserved.Tose
constraints are taken into account when
studyingthetransformerlimits,likeover-
voltage(lightning)andovercurrent(short
circuits). Te reader interested in fnding
outmoreaboutthetheoryandthepracti-
ce regarding power transformers could
read[2],abookcontinuouslyupdatedfor
almostonecenturyago!
Active part
Teactivepartofatransformerismadeof
the elements that are in contact with the
voltage and the current, and are mainly
composed of win-
dings, core, tap chan-
ger bushings. Te
othercomponentsare
ancillary components
notmentionedhere.
Windings
The windings of a
power transformer
are its main element,
liketheheartinahu-
man. The windings are handmade out
ofcopper,orsometimesoutofalumini-
um coils insulated mainly with several
layers of paper between the turns. The
two main winding designs and techno-
logies have been developed over time
withmanyvariations:thecoretypeand
theshelltypewindings.Theelectroma-
gnetic basis remains the same in both
cases but the mechanical construction
is different. In the core type design, the
winding is enclosing the magnetic
corelegs,whileintheshelltypethecore
is enclosing (and running through)
the windings. Every
transformer manu-
facturer has its own
experiencewiththese
technologies, neither
of which is automa-
ted.
The manufacturing
of windings involves
alotofhumanlabour
and requires signifi-
cant experience as well as application
of the highest quality standards. This is
Nowadays, electric energy is
available almost everywhe-
re, and we do not even think
how it was produced. Pro-
duction of the electric ener-
gy is possible by application
of power transformers.
The theoretical and practi-
cal principles of power tra-
nsformers have remained
the same since more than a
century ago.
Figure 1: Three phase power transformer

13
Jean SANCHEZ, Mladen BANOVIC Jean SANCHEZ, Mladen BANOVIC
becausewindingconductorsarecovered
byatypeofinsulationsuchasvarnishor
insulating paper with a limited mecha-
nicalandthermalstability.Nevertheless,
this insulation type provides protection
from high overvoltages, high overcur-
rents, short-term overheating, and high
mechanical stresses in order to prevent
reduction of the insulation paper dura-
bility.Itmustbetakenintoaccountthat
the winding insulation cannot be easily
repaired or replaced during the service
life of a transformer and rewinding has
to be performed only in a specialised
workshop. A review of winding types
used in power transformers is provided
inthearticle[3].
Core
Te core is an important part of a trans-
former and generally the heaviest one.
Produced from steel, it has high magne-
tic permeability and provides low mag-
netic resistance to the magnetic fux. It
is made from thin steel sheets with the
thickness of a few tenths of a millimetre
in order to reduce losses and magneti-
sing current. Te main way to produce
a core is to stack the sheets, cut to desi-
red size, onto the automatic machines,
andthenmanuallystackthemtobuilda
core. Wound cores provide much better
productivity for single-phase small dis-
tributiontransformers.
Te main core parts are the legs (vertical
parts), and yokes (horizontal parts). Te
legs are mainly situated in a same plain
butthethree-phasetransformerscanhave
socalledtriangular-spacedcorelegs.Tis
type of transformer is called hexaformer.
Small-size transformers, like distribution
transformers, are sometimes produced
ashexaformersbuttheirmarketpenetra-
tion is very low. Even transformers of up
to 10 MVA have been produced in this
form but the concept was cancelled due
to complexity. Tey produce lower losses
but their productivity is lower compared
totransformerswithatraditionalcore.
The manufacturing of core
and windings - the heart of a
transformer, involves a con-
siderable amount of manual
labour even to date.
Figure 2: Insulation in power transformer
Figure 3: High voltage bushings of power transformer
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 14
TECHNOLOGY BASICS TECHNOLOGY BASICS
Tap Changer
Most transformers have additional turns
added to the HV windings and some of
those turns are linked to a device called
the Tap Changer. It enables a specifc
range of the voltage variation during the
transformer service life. Te electric cir-
cuit of the windings and the tap changer
have some movable contacts. Te two
main types of tap changers are the DE-
energized Tap Changer (DETC) - me-
chanically quite simple type that changes
the voltage while the transformer is not
loaded; and the On Load Tap Changer
(OLTC)-amorecomplextype[4]which
operates when the transformer supplies
theload.
It should be noted that the tap changers,
theOLTCsinparticular,arecontributing
to an increasing transformer failure rate,
mainly due to the movable contacts wea-
ring over the years (hot spots, aging me-
chanisms)[5].
Bushings
The bushings are the components that
link the windings to a network through
the grounded tank. High voltage bus-
hings can be technically complex and,
in some cases, their failure can lead to
a transformer explosion quite rapidly.
Thisisbecauseoneofthehighestvolta-
gegradientsisbetweentheHVbushing
central part at full potential, and the
grounded tank at the distance of just a
few centimetres. The insulating oil just
below is very flammable and if the bus-
hingissparking,itcouldgeneratealotof
energy, open the tank slightly and then
ignitetheoil,whichcouldleadtoanex-
plosion.Forthisreason,theHVbushing
is manufactured to withstand very high
voltages within a small space filled with
paper and oil between the bushing and
transformertank.
Insulating materials
Te three most typical insulating mate-
rialsforthepowertransformersare:mi-
neral oil, paper and pressboard in dife-
rent forms. Te mineral insulating oil is
weightedintonswithinthetankandcan
be used to assess many essential points
abouttheconditionofatransformerand
some critical incipient faults. Te paper
insulates the winding turns, while the
pressboard strengthens the electrical in-
sulation and provides dielectric distance
at specifc locations, for example in the
mainductbetweenthewindings.
Insulating materials, such as paper,
pressboard and mineral oil are organic
materials subject to aging. As the solid
insulation cannot be repaired or repla-
ced easily like other transformer parts
and components, it limits the transfor-
merservicelifetime.Terefore,thesolid
insulation lifetime is the main driver of
thelifetimeofatransformer.
Conclusion
The basic facts about transformers
and the main transformer parts and
componentsarebrieflydescribedabo-
ve. Power transformers can be seen as
main components of any high voltage
grid, which reduce the losses during
thedeliveryofelectricalenergytowide
areas.Moredetailsonthetopicsabove
canbefoundintheliteraturecited,in-
cluding[6]and[7].
References
[1] Mladen Banovic, Jean Sanchez, Classif-
cation of Transformers Family,Transformers
Magazine,Vol1,No.1.,2014
[2] Martin J. Heathcote, J&P Transformer
book,Newnes,13thedition,2007
[3] JeanSanchez,ClassicPowerTransformers
Windings, Transformers Magazine, Vol 1,
No.2.,2014inprint
[4] Dieter Dohnal, On-Load Tap-Changers
for Power Transformers A Technical Digest,
MRPublications,2009,source:
www. reinhausen. com/XparoDownload.
ashx?raid=15497
[5] An international survey on failures in
large power transformers in service, CIGRE
ElectraNo.88,pp21-42,1983
[6] IEC chapters 1 to 21 of the 60076 power
transformersstandards,www.iec.ch
[7] Handbook for Transformers,3rdedition,
ABB,2010
Authors
Jean SANCHEZ completed a Ph.D. degree on pow-
er transformers fault diagnosis in 2011 and worked in a
French power transformer reparation factory. His work
involved many transformer designs, tests, fault expertise,
powerratings,andOLTCrepairs.Todayheisworkingon
generatordiagnosisinamajorFrenchutilityandistheexe-
cutiveeditoroftheTransformersMagazine.Healsocom-
pletedaMastersdegreeinAppliedPhysics.
Mladen BANOVIC obtained his PhD degree from the
University of Zagreb in 2012. He leads PUCAROs re-
searchanddevelopmentintransformerinsulationandthe
editorial board of Transformers Magazine. He has been
involved in the development of insulation systems up to
1200 kV and defning ABBs smart grid strategy covering
transformer insulation and components. Prior to joining
PUCARO,heledbasicresearchoftransformerinsulation
andtransformermonitoringbusiness.Healsoholdsade-
gree in Electrical Engineering and postgraduate Master of Science degree from the
UniversityofZagreb.
Mostly used solid insulating
materials, paper and press-
board, are organic and sub-
ject to aging. They cannot
be repaired or replaced ea-
sily, therefore they limit the
lifetime of a transformer.

15
COLUMN
I
n our industry there are ofen terms or
buzzwords that many of us use with li-
berty but might not fully understand
theirmeaning.
Justifably, we use a particular word of-
ten because the concept it conveys is of
critical importance to the safe and re-
liable operation of any electrical asset.
Weusethiswordtoconveytheideaofa
time period in which an asset performs
its intended function so it is important
for any person involved in specifying,
purchasing, testing, commissioning,
maintaining, operating or disposing of
theseassetstohaveaclearunderstanding
ofwhatlifemeansinthecontextofpow-
ertransformers.
Inthisseriesofarticles,Iamgoingtotalk
preciselyaboutthisconcept.Troughout
thearticlesintheseries,wewilltrytoes-
tablishwhatlifeisandwhatitmeansfora
powertransformer.Wewillalsoexplore
thefactorsthatafectitandconsiderthe
optionsthatanassetownercanutiliseto
extendandoptimisethetransformerlife.
Inthefrstarticle,Iwilltrytoestablishthe
commondefnitionandunderstandingof
Part 1: What does transformer life mean?
Power Transformer Life
ABSTRACT
The concept of life for an electrical
asset, such as a power transformer, is
sometimes not properly understood.
In this article, the rst from the series
of three articles, we review what we
mean when we refer to the life of a
transformer and what constrains de-
termine the design and operational
parameters of these assets.
Keywords
power transformer, life, asset ma-
nagement, condition assessment, life
extension
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 16
Power Transformer Life
Carlos GAMEZ
whattransformerlifeis.Tiswillhopeful-
ly serve as the foundation for the articles
tofollowinthisseries.
This topic is vast and there are as
many opinions as there are experts in
our industry. I have tried to remain
objective and base my comments on
evidenceandfactsbutIanticipatethat
my personal experience has found its
way into these articles in one way or
another.
I have also assumed that the reader is
familiar with the basic power transfor-
mer concepts and has seen or worked
aroundtheseassetsatleastonceintheir
career.
WHAT DOES TRANSFORMER
LIFE MEAN?
When we talk about concept of the
transformer life or any other electrical
assetforthatmatter,wealsohearrelated
terms and phrases that almost invaria-
bly show up in the same conversation.
We often hear terms like: life manage-
ment, life expectancy, life extension,
lifecycle,etc.
We will somehow touch on all those
concepts but with some luck, we will
mention them following a logical se-
quenceofideas.Iwillattempttoexplain
theseconceptsinaclearandunderstan-
dableway;howtheyrelatetodaytoday
operation of a transformer fleet and
most importantly, what the user/owner
of these assets can do in order to mini-
mise the operation and maintenance
costs as well as mitigate the risks of un-
expectedfailures.
Te common denominator in the terms
mentioned above is the word life so it
seems only fair that we start by setting
somefundamentalunderstandingofwhat
lifemeansfromtheperspectiveofapo-
wertransformer.
Tere are many types, designs and ways
ofmanufacturingpowertransformersbut
for the purpose of this discussion, please
consider insulating liquid - flled power
transformers while you are reading artic-
les in the series. However, the concepts
explained and reviewed here can also be
applied to dry transformers, instrument
transformers, gas insulated transformers
andotherclassesofspecialtytransformers
tosomeextent.
Common sense tells us that the life of an
assetcanberegardedastheperiodoftime
inwhichtheassetwillreliablyperformits
intendedfunction.Tisisnotabadstart,
butwecandobetter.
Lifecanalsobedefnedinstatisticalterms
whichareparticularlyusefulforinsurance
companies as the Mean Time Between
Failures or MTBF. Tis basically means
that out of a population of transformers
thetimebetweeninitiationofserviceand
failure is measured and averaged, provi-
dingagoodideaofthelifeexpectancyfor
atransformerbelongingtothatpopulati-
onorofonewithverysimilarcharacteris-
tics.
Anothergoodreferenceistolookatwhat
the diferent standard committees world-
widehavetosayonthematter.
TeAustralianStandard,AS2374.7Po-
werTransformersPart7:LoadingGuide
for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers
establishesin:
1.4 General limitations and efects
of loading beyond nameplate rating
1.4.1.1 Factors infuencing life dura-

tion
Te actual life duration of a trans-
former depends to a high degree on
extraordinary events, such as over-
voltages, short-circuits in the system,
and emergency overloading.
Te normal life expectancy is a con-

ventional reference basis for conti-
nuous duty under normal ambient
temperature and rated operating
conditions. Te application of a load
in excess of nameplate rating and/or
an ambient temperature higher than
Wait, what? Are transformers not supposed to
last 35 to 40 years?
The simple answer is: not necessarily, it depends.

17
rated involves a degree of risk and ac-
celerated ageing.
Another good reference would be IEEE
C57.91 Guide for Loading Mineral Oil
ImmersedTransformer whichestablishes
thefollowing.
3. Defnitions
3.5 Transformer Insulation Life: For a

given temperature of the transformer
insulation, the total time between the
initial state for which the insulation
is considered new and the fnal state
for which dielectric stress, short cir-
cuit stress, or mechanical movement,
which could occur in normal service,
and would cause an electrical failure
Further to this defnition, IEEE C57.91-
1995 provides calculation formulas for
loss of life as a percentage of per unit
life expectancy, providing a normalised
life loss equation under various overloa-
ding and stress circumstances. Tis rela-
tionship is commonly represented in the
form of a Life vs.Temperature curve, as
shownbelow.
AndfnallyfromIEC60076-7Loading
guide for oil-immersed power transfor-
merswereadthefollowing:
3 Terms and Defnitions
3.10 transformer insulation life

total time between the initial state
for which the insulation is conside-
red new and the fnal state when due
to thermal ageing, dielectric stress,
short-circuit stress, or mechanical
movement, which could occur in nor-
mal service and result in a high risk
of electrical failure
3.11 per cent loss of life
equivalent ageing in hours over a
time period (usually 24 h) times 100
divided by the expected transformer
insulation life.
Te equivalent ageing in hours is
obtained by multiplying the relative
ageing rate with the number of hours
Te discerning readers would have noti-
cedthatthereisacommonthreadacross
thesestandards.Teyrelatetotransformer
loading guidelines, mention temperature
asanimportantfactorandtalkaboutthe
insulation and the insulation life. Tis al-
ready provides a hint into where we have
tolooktounderstandtransformerlife.
Itisalsonotacoincidencethatnoneofthe
standards mentioned above defne what
thelifeexpectancyofaparticulartransfor-
mershouldbe.Wait,what?...Aretransfor-
mers not supposed to last 35 to 40 years?
Tesimpleansweris:notnecessarily,itde-
pends. As we will discuss in these articles,
the various mechanisms afecting the life
durationofaparticularunitaredifcultto
Figure 1: Transformer insulation life
Figure 2: Internal construction of a typical power transformer

It is also not a coincidence that none of the stan-
dards mentioned above dene what the life ex-
pectancy of a particular transformer should be.
0,001
0,01
0,1
1
10
100
1000
50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190
P
e
r

U
n
i
t

o
f

N
o
r
m
a
l

L
i
f
e
Hotest Spot Temperature (
H
) [C]
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 18
COLUMN
predict. Trying to anticipate events during
theoperationofanygiventransformerand
how they will ultimately afect its life is an
extremelycomplexproblem.
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION
As we might suspect, the heart of a
transformer are the core and the coils
(seeFigure2.).Theyprovidethecritical
function of transforming the incoming
power into different levels of voltage
and current by means of electromagne-
ticinduction.
Whenonethinksaboutthematerialsthis
subassembly comprises, one thinks of
copper or aluminium for the conductors;
structural steel for the tank, clamps and
radiators; magnetic steel for the core; mi-
neraloilforcoolinganddielectricinsula-
tion;woodfortheleadholdingstructure;
ceramics for the bushings; paper boards
and sheets, and tapes for electrical insu-
lation. Out of all these components, the
ones that are most sensitive to tempera-
ture and age are the ones with a cellulose
constitution.
Cellulosic materials are those which are
derivedfromnaturalvegetablefbressuch
aswood,pressboard,Krafpaper,etc.
Youmightask,whypaper?Tefactisthat
paper in combination with an insulating
liquid provides an excellent and versatile
dielectric medium that can be applied to
complex geometries. Paper also provides
a good economic balance between the
cost of the material and the function that
itperforms.
However, paper is also the frst material
amongsttheconstituentsofthecoreand
thecoilstodegradeunderthermalstress.
While it would take several hundred
degrees Celsius of temperature to melt
or cause signifcant damage to the com-
ponents made of steel, copper or metal,
it takes merely around 120C to start
causing signifcant degradation of cel-
lulosic materials. In fact, the main limi-
tation of what temperatures are allowed
todevelopinaparticulardesignissetby
the paper. Te transformer designer will
makesurethatnotasinglepartofthein-
sulationsystemisexposedtothesekinds
oftemperature.
Andifthepaperdegrades?Whywouldthat
afectthefunctionalityofthetransformer?
Weknowthattheprimaryenergyconver-
sionfunctionisperformedbytheconduc-
tors and the core, right? Well, it turns out
that the insulation system is responsible
for ensuring that conductive elements
subject to a voltage diference stay electri-
callyinsulated.Shouldtheinsulationbreak
down between two high voltage elements,
itwouldceasetoperformthisfunction,the
currentswouldfowthroughpathstheyare
not supposed to follow and the eventual
consequenceisacatastrophicfailure.
Inshort,thelifeoftransformerasawhole
isdirectlylinkedtothelifeofitsinsulation
system. If any part of the insulation sys-
tem breaks down, the whole transformer
stopsworking.Albeitfailurescanoccurin
othercomponents,suchascore,bushings,
current transformers, etc. it is commonly
afailureintheinsulationsystemthatleads
tocatastrophicoutcomes.
Unsurprisingly, most of the eforts in the
transformer manufacturing, operation
and maintenance industries are aimed at
improving, monitoring and maintaining
performanceoftheinsulationsystem.
I hope you now have a better understan-
ding of what life means in the context of
powertransformers.
Inthenextarticle,wewilldelveabitmore
intothemolecularstructureofthepaper,
whatitmeansforitselectricalandmecha-
nicalpropertiesandwhatvariousmecha-
nismsbywhichitdegradesorlosesthose
propertiesare.
In short, the life of the transformer as a who-
le is directly linked to the life of its insulation
system.
Author
Carlos GamezcurrentlyworksasaPrincipalConsultant
and Product Manager at TxMonitor and is a member of
the MM Group Holdings where he focuses in developing
innovative solutions for the electrical asset management
industryusingbothhistechnicalandbusinessacumen.
AfergraduatinginElectricalandMechanicalEngineering
in 1996, Carlos started working as a Transformer Design
EngineeratPROLEC-GE,thebiggesttransformerfactory
forGeneralElectricontheAmericancontinent.
Overthecourseofthefollowingyears,hegainedexpertiseworkinginvariousroles
in product development, manufacturing improvements, technology and sofware
development,feldengineeringandcustomerservice.
In2007CarloswassecondedbyGeneralElectrictomovetoPerth,WAtostartup
theTransformerDivisioninordertoprovidefeldandworkshopmaintenanceand
repairservicestocustomersacrossAustralia.
Havingfulflledthismission,intheearly2011CarlosacceptedthepositionofPrin-
cipal Consultant with Assetivity, a leading consultancy frm in Asset Management.
Over this period, Carlos developed a holistic point of view by working on projects
withintheAssetManagementframeworkswhicheventuallyshapedtheISO55000
setofstandardspublishedin2014.

19
Carlos GAMEZ
Trends in Power
Transformer Failure Analysis
ABSTRACT
This article will introduce the reader
to the importance of failure investiga-
tions, discuss the need for guidelines
and the standards organisations work
that is underway to provide the guide-
lines.
The concept of using the Scientic
Method is introduced and existing
processes are described.
Limitations of postmortem investiga-
tions are identied along with best
pra ctices for investigations.
INTRODUCTION
F
ailure investigations are becoming
increasingly important in these
days when assets like power trans-
formers cost in the millions of euros or
dollars and consolidation in the utility
industry has resulted in the operators
wanting the maximum capability from
theirassets.
Transformerfailureshavebeeninvestiga-
tedsincethebeginningoftheelectricuti-
lityindustry.Eachmanufacturercanpro-
bably identify their own problem areas
from factory failures, quality programme
resultsandexperience.However,theope-
rators(utilities)maynotpossesssufcient
quantitiesofamanufacturerorparticular
designtorecognisetheproblemareas.Sta-
tisticssuchasthosewhich,intheUSand
elsewhere, might result in a recall of an
automobilemodelwhichmaynotexistin
quantities sufcient to establish patterns
of defects. Further, there is no regulatory
bodytorequiresucharecall.Teowner/
operatorofthetransformerisexpectedto
beaninformedconsumer.Tegoodnews
is that the power transformer is a highly
engineered and tested product which has
a signifcant life span. Te informed con-
sumercanmakejudgmentsaboutopera-
tion and maintenance knowing the root
causeoffailuresonthesystem.
COLUMN
NEED FOR GUIDELINES
Failure reporting has taken place in the
form of surveys published by organisa-
tions such as the International Council
on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE WG
A2.37 Transformer Reliability Survey),
EdisonElectricInstitute(EEITransmissi-
onandDistributionCommittee),andthe
InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEn-
gineers Industry Applications Society
(IEEE/IAS). Te EEI stopped publishing
theresultsoftheirsurveyaboutthetime
that the utility deregulation movement
gotunderwayintheUS.Someofthesta-
tistics reported by IEEE/IAS in the Co-
lorBookSeriesrelyondatacollectedby
the US Army Corp of Engineers in the
1970s.Itisnowleflargelytotheuserto
developtheirownreliabilitystatisticsfor
transformers.
Itwasrecognisedlongagothatthedeve-
lopment of failure reporting guidelines
was necessary. What was a defect to one
user might be a major failure to another.
Tis situation was observed in the data
collected by EEI. Tis discrepancy led
to the development of the IEEE Guide
for Reporting Failure Data for Power
Transformers and Shunt Reactors on
Electric Utility Power Systems. Unfor-
tunately, EEI no longer reported failure
statisticsashorttimeaferpublicationof
theFailureReportingGuide.Astheefort
unfolded to develop failure statistics, it
became clear that failure analysis guide-
lines were also necessary. Te analysis
guidelines, if efective, will result in four
importantthings:
- Establish a common set of steps to in-
vestigatefailures,
-Ideally,reachthesameconclusiononroot
causewhenpresentedwiththesamedata,
- Result in sharing of performance bet-
weenmanufacturersandoperators,and
-Producemeaningfulstatisticsfortrans-
formerperformance(failurerates,mean-
time-to-failure,andsoforth).
STANDARDS ORGANISATIONS
WORK UNDERWAY
InCIGRE,thereisaWorkingGroupA2.4.5
on Transformer Failure Investigation and
Postmortem Analysis which is underway.
Te Working Group scope states, Tis
WG will develop a structured procedure
from the decision to takethe transformer
and shunt reactor out of service to careful
dismounting. Te main following activi-
ties will be covered by this WG:
- State of the art of postmortem analysis
(IEEE C57.125-1991 and any other rele-
vant existing documents)
- How to make an external and internal
inspection of diferent components
- Important information to collect: diag-
nostics, protection, operation and main-
tenance records, etc.
- Availability and signifcance of design
data, material used, etc.
- Documentation during the dismoun-
ting, check lists
- Additional checks, e. g. clamping pres-
sure
- Paper sampling: precautions, which
winding, axial/radial position, correlati-
on with temperature, number of samples,
conservation and storage of the samples,
parameters to be investigated (Task Force
to be leaded by SC D1)
- Collection of pictures of postmortem
analysis with examples of common failu-
res and the associated failure investigation
- Best practices for failure report and
scrapping report
- Economic aspect of postmortem analy-
sis (cost, value, constraints, etc.)
IntheIEEE/PESTransformersCommit-
teethereisaWorkingGrouponrevision
of C57.125 Guide for Failure Investi-
gation, Documentation, Analysis and
Reporting for Power Transformers and
Shunt Reactors which has the task of
revising and merging two existing do-
cuments. These IEEE Guides have been
used since they were originally publis-
hed in the 1980s and 1990s and reaf-
firmed as recently as 2005. The current
revision will provide updates to tech-
nologies used in testing and evaluating
transformer condition and include the
work on reliability assessment contai-
nedinthepreviousguide.TheWorking
WWW.TRANSFORMERS-MAGAZINE.COM ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1
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Wallace Binder
Group is preparing a document whose
scope ...recommends a procedure to be
used to perform a failure analysis and
the reporting and statistical analysis of
reliability of power transformers and
shunt reactors used on electric power
systems.TheGuideincludes:
-Defnitions
-StepstoDeterminationandInvestigation
ofaFailureOccurrence
-PreparationItems
-DataCollectionChecklists
-Analysisofcommonfailuremodes
- Failure Reporting guidelines (and guid-
ance to develop a statistical database for
reliabilityevaluation).
TeWorkingGrouphasproducedseveral
drafsandexpectstoballotinthenextyear.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Application of the Scientifc Method is
necessary when investigating a trans-
former failure or suspected failure. Tis
requires analysis of the facts and data
present, establishment of an hypothesis
of failure, testing the hypothesis against
the available data, collecting more data
to confrm or refute the hypothesis, and
reporting the results. Testing the hypo-
thesis might include modeling or deve-
lopingexperimentstoconfrmtheresults
(these experiments may take the form of
comparison with other non-failed units
of similar design, testing against establis-
hed norms or comparison of test results
on adjacent phases). Afer testing the hy-
pothesis, it might be necessary to modify
the hypothesis. Tis iterative process will
come as close as possible to determining
therootcauseofthefailure.
LIMITATIONS OF POSTMOR-
TEM INVESTIGATIONS
Power transformer failure investigations
must start with an understanding of the
failure mechanisms possible and an un-
derstanding of the system in which the
transformer is applied. Relevant (and
some irrelevant) information leading
up to and following the supposed failure
mustbeavailableforanalysis.Tisrequi-
res collection of fault recorder, sequence-
of-events recorder, protective relay ope-
ration, protective device operation (fuses
orcircuitbreakers),andalarmconditions
prior to and subsequent to the outage, if
one occurred. Tis data can include past
alarm conditions that have been correc-
ted, previous trip operations that have
occurred, and system events which are
similartothecurrentevent.
If this type of data is not collected im-
mediately afer the suspected failure or
if such data collection is not part of the
practices of the utility, the failure event
cannotbeaccuratelyreproduced.Likewi-
se,ifroutinediagnostictestingisnotpart
of the maintenance routine, comparison
of test results with previous trends will
be difcult or impossible. A well execut-
Application of the Scientic Method is ne-
cessary when investigating a transformer
failure or suspected failure.
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COLUMN
Author
Wallace Binder has experience in scope development,
planning, design, construction, start-up, operation, and
maintenance of distribution, transmission and customer
utilisation substations, back-up power generation, trans-
missionanddistributionlines,andsystems.
Wallace Binder has been an active member of the IEEE/
PES Transformers Committee for more than 30 years. He
hasservedtwiceasChairoftheWorkingGrouponFailure
Analysis,apositionhecurrentlyholds.HeservedasChair
oftheTransformersCommitteefortwoyearsinthelate90sandhascontributedto
numerousguidesandstandardsdevelopedbytheTransformersCommittee.
WallaceBinderiscurrentlyanindependentconsultantwithhisofcelocatedinWes-
ternPennsylvania.Hehasservedavarietyofclients-bothmanufacturersandusers
ofsubstationapparatus.
ed maintenance programme is critical to
investigations.
It must also be recognised that, in some
cases, the damage done afer a failure by
theenergyavailableonthepowersystem
can mask or destroy evidence of the root
causeofthefailure.Tisisonereasonthat
routine monitoring of the transformer is
important:
-toobservedetrimentaltrendsinperfor-
mance of the insulating system which, if
lef uncorrected, could lead to failure re-
sultinginanoutage,and
-identifyeventswhichmayhavedoneda-
magetothetransformer(suchasdamage
resulting from through-faults, damage
which is the result of improper or inade-
quate maintenance and repairs or dama-
ge from abnormal system conditions like
over-voltages,abnormalfrequencyexcur-
sions,etc).
Of course, not all failures manifest them-
selves in an outage or protective device
operation.Routinetestingoron-linemo-
nitoring can detect abnormal conditions.
Tese situations are sometimes confoun-
ding to the transformer operator Are
theseresultsconclusiveenoughtoremove
the asset from service to attempt repairs
and can repairs be successful? Tere are
few transformer operators who run-to-
failure with the additional risks that this
practice entails. But when is the approp-
riate time to remove a transformer from
service? Too soon and the system is ope-
ratinginahigherriskmodeorthecostofa
replacementisnecessary.Toolate,andthe
resultmaybeacatastrophicfailure.Trans-
formerswhichhaveahistoryoftestresults
canbebetterevaluatedthanthosethatdo
not.Sometransformershaveoperatedfor
years with low levels of combustible gas
being generated. Some have long history
of higher than normal tan-delta (power
factor). It is important to know when a
testresultisoutoftoleranceandunaccep-
table. Trending of results may be the best
approach for the examples given but for
other tests, the results can lead to go or
no-goresults.Experienceisgenerallyne-
cessary to properly make this determina-
tion.TeC57.125guidepointsthereader
to possible conclusions given various sets
of test data or observed conditions. Final
determination of root cause ultimately
requires disassembly or dismounting of
thetransformertoinvestigatetheinternal
conditionsfoundfollowingthefailure.
Factors to take into account when ma-
kingthedecisiontoremoveatransformer
fromserviceshouldinclude:
-riskofoutage
-consequenceofoutage
- value of the transformer and surround-
ingequipment
- the ability of the system to operate wit-
houtthetransformerin-service.
BEST PRACTICES FOR
INVESTIGATIONS
Terapidcollectionofdataandobserva-
tions from both the transformer and the
systemconditionsatthetimethedecision
is made to remove the transformer from
service, either by human intervention or
byautomatictrip,isimportanttothesuc-
cessfulanalysisoftransformerfailures.
Itisalsoimportanttooperateandinvesti-
gate in a safe manner. Tis means that all
corporate, regulatory, and rule-governed
work practices must be followed to assu-
re the safety of personnel and the public.
Check with your local authorities to de-
terminewhatpracticesmustbeobserved.
Discussion with experts and the manu-
facturermayleadtoconclusionsastothe
rootcause,evenifthedamagemakesthat
difcult. Knowing the values of voltage
stressontheinsulation,forexample,isan
importantfactortoconsiderifthereisevi-
dence of insulation breakdown. Equally
important, however, is modeling the vol-
tagestressonthetransformerprovidedby
the system. Papers have been written by
investigators who have discovered volta-
gephenomenacausedbyexternalsystem
conditions,whichresultinvoltagestresses
beyond the capability of the transformer
insulation. Tis example, known as part-
windingresonance,hasbeenshowntobe
the cause of dielectric failure. Tere is a
solution to prevent the occurrence and it
becomes the decision of the transformer
operator(utility,inmostcases)astowhe-
therthesolutioniseconomicallyjustifed
fortheriskandconsequences.
Te design of the transformer and the
design of the power system to which it is
connected are important aspects of the
investigation. Te transformer has been
designed according to the standards spe-
cifedintheoriginalpurchaseagreement.
Wewilldiscusstheevolutionofstandards
separately.
System studies such as the load fow and
short circuit capability of the system may
be important to know in the analysis of
the failure. Less routine studies to deter-
minetransientvoltagesduringsystemdis-
turbancesmayberequiredinsomecases.
Expertiseintheseareasshouldbemadea
partoftheinvestigationteam.
In future articles, we will delve more
deeply into the procedures and practices
necessary to successfully determine the
rootcauseofafailure.Inaddition,wewill
talkaboutthesymptomsofknownfailure
mechanisms.

23
Wallace Binder
Classifcation of
Transformers Family
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Volume 1,

Issue 1
1. Introduction
T
ransformers basically perform a
very simple function: they increase
or decrease voltage and current for
electricenergytransmission.Itisprecise-
ly stated what a transformer is in the In-
ternational Electrotechnical Vocabulary,
Chapter 421: Power transformers and
reactors[1]:
A static piece of apparatus with two or
mo re windings which, by electromag-
netic ind uction, transforms a system
of alterna ting voltage and current into
another system of voltage and current
usually of diferent values and at the
same frequency for the purpose of trans-
mitting electrical power.
Te focus of this article is on the transfor-
mers which enable transmission of energy
in the electrical grid, while all other types,
suchastheinstrumenttransformers(i.e.vol-
tage and current transformers) and the au-
diotransformers,etc.,areexcluded.Teaim
is to provide an overview of diferent types
oftransformersinassystematicwayaspos-
sible,ratherthanelaboratingoneachtype.
Te most important international orga-
nisations with focus on such transfor-
mers are IEC
1
through E14, its technical
committeefortheworldstandards;IEEE
2
through the Transformers Committee

mainly for the American standards and
CIGRE
3
through the Study Committee
A2 Transformers which mainly produ-
ces technical brochures and guidelines
on many subjects. Main standards for
the transformers in question are the IEC
60076[2]andtheIEEEC57[3]series.
2. Classifcation of
transformers family
As mentioned above, transformers per-
formaverysimplefunctionandtheycan
havemanyapplications.Transformersare
1
IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission
2
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
3
CIGRE - Council on Large Electric Systems
ABSTRACT
Transformers are used in the electrical
networks everywhere: in power plants,
substations, industrial plants, buil-
dings, data centres, railway vehicles,
ships, wind turbines, in the electronic
devices, the underground, and even
undersea. The focus of this article is
on transformers applied in the trans-
mission of energy, usually called pow-
er transformers. Due to very versatile
requirements and restrictions in the
numerous applications, ranging from
a subsea transformer to a wind turbine
transformer, a small distribution trans-
former to a large phase shifter trans-
former, it is very dicult to provide a
structured overview of the transformer
types. Also, dierent companies sup-
ply dierent markets and each have
their own classication of the trans-
formers, which makes the transformer
family even more dicult to assort.
This paper will attempt to provide a re-
latively common point of view on most
of those transformers types.
Keywords
classication, distribution transformers,
power transformers, reactors, transfor-
mers
TECHNOLOGY BASICS
24
Classifcation of
Transformers Family
used in every power plant, all grid subs-
tations,buildings,intheindustry,theun-
derground installations, wind turbines,
on platforms, marine vessels, under the
sea, etc. Due to peculiarities of all the-
se applications, many diferent types of
transformers have been developed in the
course of history. To simplify the over-
viewofmanytransformertypes,itisuse-
ful to have some kind of systematic clas-
sifcation. However, this is not easy to do
because there are many ways of doing it.
Te transformer types could be classifed
according to their power rating, voltage,
current, weight, type of cooling etc., but
such approach would have a limited ap-
plicability.
Probably the simplest and the clearest
transformer classifcation is according to
thenumberofphasesin:
-single-phasetransformers
-three-phasetransformers
Inathree-phasesystem,thesingle-pha se
units are used in a bank of three trans-
formers linked together. A single three-
phase transformer costs approximately
15% less and occupies less space than
one unit of three single-phase transfor-
mers within the same tank. However,
due to limitations during the manufac-
turing and mainly transportation, par-
ticularly of large units, the transformers
sometimes must be produced as single-
phase transformers. Another reason for
using a single-phase unit rather than
a three-phase unit, is the possibility of
having a fourth identical unit as a spa-
re.Despiteitssimplicityandclarity,this
type of classification does not overly
helpinclassificationofthewholetrans-
formersfamily.
Classifcation according to basic techno-
logy of a transformer design and manu-
facturingisalsoofenused.Terearetwo
maintechnologiesfordesigningandma-
nufacturingthetransformers:
-coretype
-shelltype
In a shell-formed transformer, the pri-
mary and secondary windings are quite
fat and are positioned on one leg sur-
rounded by the core. In a core-formed
transformer, cylindrical windings are
likecoilsandcoverthecorelegs.How-
ever, this classifcation is also limited in
the large portfolio of either of those two
transformertypes.
Transformers can be classifed according
totheinsulating/coolingfuidin:
-liquid-flledtransformers
-gas-flledtransformers(mainlywithSF6)
-dry-typetransformers
As the dry-type, and particularly gas-
flled/insulatedtransformershavelimited
applications in a large power system, this
classifcationisalsonotperfect.
Despite not being a perfect one, perhaps
the most practical classifcation used by
the industry is the one according to the
transformerapplication.Accordingtothis
approach, transformers can be roughly
classifedas:
-powertransformers
-distributiontransformers
-reactors
Tis classifcation could, however, rai-
se some questions. Tere are no obvious
technical reasons for classifying a trans-
former as a distribution transformer
rather than a power transformer but it is
widely used in practice, and it is helpful.
Tetermdistributiontransformerisso-
mewhatusedintheIEC60076,whileitis
commonlyusedinIEEEC57.Somecom-
paniesdefnedistributiontransformersas
the power transformers below 10 MVA.
Te 2.5 or 5 MVA limits are also used el-
sewhereinsteadof10MVA.
Teclassifcationaboveisevenmoredubi-
ouswithregardstoreactors,becausethey
arenottransformersatallbutareusually
grouped with transformers because they
share most of the technology with power
transformers and they are designed and
produced in the transformer factories. It
took me some time at the beginning of
mycarriertodistinguishareactorfroma
transformerandIbelievethatothershad
asimilarexperience.
Te classifcation by application will be
usedinthisarticle.
Transformers exist for more than a century
and they can be manufactured and used very
dierently according to customers needs.
Since transformers have been in use, many dif-
ferent types have been produced and conse-
quently their classication is quite challenging!

25
3. Power Transformers
Powertransformerscoverthepopulation
ofthelargesttransformerunitsbymeans
ofpowerandvoltageratings.Manufactu-
red units range up to 1500 MVA, and up
to 1785 kV. Several large phase shifing
transformers consisting of two linked
units have been manufactured with a
combinedcapacityof2750MVA.
Tere are several diferent classifcations
of power transformers according to their
power and voltage ratings or size, and/or
accordingtotheapplication.
Classifcation according to size
Classifcationaccordingtosizeisabitam-
biguous because diferent companies use
diferent power and voltage range for par-
ticulartypes.Tisdiscrepancymaybedue
to the fact that manufacturers divide their
portfolioaccordingtothemarkettheysup-
plyso,intheirspecifccase,otherclassifca-
tionsareconsideredpointless.Utilitiescan
alsohavediferentfeets;thereforeacertain
classifcation can be better for each utility.
Te ranges mentioned here do not render
presumptionofgeneralvalidity.
Large Power Transformers (LPT)
Tis group covers the largest units in the
powertransformerspopulationwithpow-
erofnormallyabove200MVA(limitsused
range between 100 and 250 MVA) and
High Voltage (HV) of usually at least 220
kV. Within this group there is less compe-
titioninthemarketbuttechnicalproblems
such as insulation problems (high diel-
ectrical stress), magnetic problems (high
leakagefux),thermalproblems(highhea-
tingduetooperationallosses),mechanical
problems (high forces due to short-circuit
currents), transportation (large dimensi-
ons and very heavy weight), etc. are extre-
melyhigh.
Medium Power Transformers
(MPT)
Tis group includes transformers with a
power range from 60 to 200 MVA (or 40
to250MVA),andahighvoltageofupto
around275kV.
Small Power Transformers (SPT)
Transformersfromroughly10to60MVA
andamaximumservicevoltageof170kV
belongtothisgroup.Otherlimitsusedare
from5to40MVAandupto145kV.
Classifcation according
to application
According to the application, power
transformers can be divided in several
subgroups:
-generatorstep-uptransformers(GSU)
- system intertie (interconnecting) trans-
formers
-step-downtransformers
-phase-shifingtransformers(PST)
-HVDCconvertertransformers
-transformersforindustrialapplications
-tractiontransformers
-mobiletransformers
-testtransformers
3.1 Generator step-up transformers
(GSU) are essential components of the
power plants linking the plant generator
tothetransmissionnetwork.Builtasthree
single-phase or three-phase units in the
core or shell technology, they transform
voltage from the generator voltage level
uptothesuitabletransmissionvoltagele-
vel,whichmaygoupto800kVnowadays.
GSU transformers usually have delta-
connected Low Voltage (LV) windings
(energised by the generator), and star
connected HV windings (connected to
thetransmissionlines).Teconnectionof
suchtransformersismainlyYNd.
Tey ofen operate continuously at full
load facing variations in voltage due to
changes of the load or the network re-
quirement for reactive power. High rated
currents, particularly in the larger units,
require a good control of the magnetic
feldtoavoidlocalisedoverheating.
GSU transformers can be very heavy for
highpowerratedunitswhichneedtode-
liver the entire power of the power plant
tothegrid.
Power transformers cover the highest power and
voltage ratings within the transformers family,
and can be classied into several categories.
Figure 1: LPT 265 MVA, 525 kV [4]
Figure 2: MPT [4]
Figure 4: GSU transformer 890 MVA [4]
Figure 3: SPT 12,5 MVA with On-Load Tap Changer [4]
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Volume 1,

Issue 1 26
3.2 System intertie (interconnecting)
transformers connect AC systems of
diferent voltage levels so that active as
well as reactive power can be exchanged
between them. Tey can have fully sepa-
rate windings or electrically connected
windings, in which case they are called
autotransformers.
Transformerswithseparatewindingspro-
videagalvanicinsulationbetweenthetwo
voltagesystems.
Autotransformer, compared to a trans-
former with separate windings of the
equivalent rating, is a more compact and
economicalsolution.Typicalvoltageratio
between HV and LV is between 1 and 2
for autotransformers. However, as they
haveconnectedwindings,thereisnogal-
vanic insulation between the two inter-
connectedsystems.
Figure 5: Autotransformer 250 MVA [4]
3.3 Step-down transformers can be
classifedasavarietyofthesystemintertie
transformers. Teir purpose is a voltage
transformation from the transmission
voltage level down to an appropriate dis-
tributionlevel.However,withpenetration
ofdistributedgenerationenergydirection
can change, and when it happens a step-
down transformer becomes a step-up
transformer.
3.4 Phase-shifing transformers (PST)
areamongthemostcomplextransformers.
Teir purpose is to control power fow
betweentheparallelpowerlinesorcables;
or between the two independent power
systems.Toachievethis,theyaredesigned
nottosignifcantlychangethevoltagema-
gnitude but mainly its phase angle (hence
their name). Voltage magnitude and angle
are controlled by superimposing induced
secondary voltage and some other voltage
with necessary phase displacement to the
main line voltage. When transformer has
one active part, the additional de-phased
voltage can be taken from the winding
ontoanothercorelimbbuttwoactiveparts
arenecessaryforhigherratingssotheother
voltageistakenfromthesecondactivepart.
Insucharrangement,thefrstunitiscalled
the booster or series transformer, and the
second magnetising, regulating, or shunt
transformer. All those interconnections
needed for the production of the desired
voltage and phase displacement make the
transformer more complex in all stages of
manufacturing,fromdesigntoproduction
andtesting.Inadditiontothesecomplica-
tions, the terminology is also not simple.
Besides PST, other names such as phase
angle regulating (PAR) transformer or
quadrature booster are also used. Te re-
ferencestandardwithdualIEC-IEEElogo
is IEC 62032 Guide for the application,
specifcation, and testing of phase-shifing
transformers[5].
PSTs are sometimes considered a variety
ofthesystemintertietransformersasthey
are ofen installed in the substations but
from the application point of view, they
canbeclassifedasaparticularkindofpo-
wertransformer.
Figure 6: PST 600 MVA, 230 kV [4]

3.5 HVDC converter transformers
are in fact AC transformers. Te name
HVDC comes from the application in
theHVDCconverterstation,whichcon-
verts AC current and voltage to DC, and
vice versa. Hence, a HVDC transformer
is the essential component in the HVDC
transmission system. Reasons for using
theHVDCsystemsarelossreductionin
some transmission lines, connecting AC
systems with diferent frequencies, con-
nectingnon-synchronoussystemsorusing
underground or undersea long transmis-
sionlines.
Figure 7: HVDC converter transformer [4]

Due to operation in a converter station
close to power electronic converters, the
transformerissubjecttoDCelectricstress
andhighcurrentharmonics.Terefore,it
hastobedesignedandmanufacturedwith
special consideration for DC insulation
andharmonicsandasaresult,itcontains
much more solid insulation compared to
aclassicpowertransformer.
TereferenceIECstandardisIEC61378-2.
Convertortransformers-Part2Transfor-
mersforHVDCapplications[6].
3.6 Transformers for industrial ap-
plications are used in the industrial
plants for supplying high energy deman-
ding objects like furnaces or converters.
Tose transformer power ratings are ap-
proximately 10 MVA but can be techni-
callyverycomplexduetospecifcneeds
and/orveryhighoperationalconstraints.
Furnace power transformers have to
provideveryhighcurrents,closetoshort-
circuit currents, at relatively low voltages
in the steel melting and the metallurgical
industry. Capacity can range up to sever-
al hundred MVA with high LV currents,
even more than 150 kA; and wide se-
condary voltage range. Due to extreme
LV currents, the On-load tap-changer

27
Phase shifting transformers are among the most
complex transformers. They are mainly used to
balance the exchange between two networks
over two parallel lines as precisely as possible.
(OLTC) is systematically placed on the
HV side. Te secondary load can be AC
orDC.
Figure 8: Furnace power transformer 95 MVA [4]
Convertertransformersfacehigherload
current harmonics due to the distorted
waveform caused by the semiconductor
converters connected to the transformer.
Typicalapplicationsare:rectifersforlarge
drives,electrolysis,scrapmeltingfurnaces
and inverters for variable speed drives.
Other applications can be chemical elec-
trolysis, DC arc furnaces, graphitising
furnaces, traction substations, copper re-
fningetc.
TereferenceIECstandardisIEC61378-
1ConvertertransformersPart1:Trans-
formersforindustrialapplications[7].
3.7 Traction transformers are used to
supply traction (railway) system and ve-
hicles(locomotives).Nowadays,thereare
diferent types of traction systems world-
widesuchas:
-DCsystem(0.6-3kV)
-ACsystems:
-12kV50Hz
- 15 kV 16 2/3 Hz (this system tends
todecreaseworldwideovertheyears)
-25kV50or60Hz
Traction transformers are supplied by
stationarytransformers(linefeedertrans-
formers, mainly single-phase substation
transformer).
Locomotives with DC drives require a
three-phase rectifer transformer, also
called an on-board transformer. Tese
transformers can travel around as fast as
570 km/h, and it is not surprising that
critical parameters for such transformers
are weight, size and appropriate cooling
capacity. Such compact design uses less
material, which increases the losses and
temperaturesabovethelimitsforthema-
terials normally used like cellulose and
mineraloil.Terefore,aramid,apolyami-
deincombinationwithhightemperature
resistantinsulatingfuidsisused.
Figure 9: Traction transformer for a high speed
train [4]
3.8 Mobile transformers are used
when power needs to be supplied tem-
porarilytoaparticularplace,likeincases
of a system failure, system maintenance,
natural disasters, terrorist attacks, civil
construction, etc. Afer system restora-
tion, or completion of the construction
work, the requirement for power supply
willbesignifcantlychanged.Terefore,in
suchcases,apermanentsubstationisnot
aneconomicalsolution.
Figure 10: Mobile transformer [4]

Temaindriversforadesignofamobile
transformer are weight and size to facili-
tate road transportation. Mobile trans-
formersformobilesubstationsaremanu-
factured up to a 100 MVA rating, and up
to 245 kV. Tose transformers can have
manydiferentvoltageslevels.
3.9 Test transformers arespecifctrans-
formersdesignedforagiventestingappli-
cation in the high voltage industry. Tey
can be technically very complex with
special requirements regarding very high
operatingvoltage,short-circuitwithstand
capability or ability to provide many dif-
ferentvoltagelevelsononeunit.Teyare
mostly used in test facilities of the high
voltage equipment manufacturers, for
exampleofpowertransformersorcircuit-
breakers.
4. Distribution Transformers
Distribution transformers are those used
in distribution of electricity close to con-
sumers. Apart from substations, their us-
ualenvironmentsarebuildings,shopping
centres,datacentres,industryplants,shi-
ps,theunderground,underthewateretc.
We can see diferent classifcations used
bytheindustry.Accordingtothecoolant
Distribution transformers are those used in dis-
tribution of electricity close to consumers.
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 28
used,theycanbeclassifedas:
-liquid-flleddistributiontransformers
-dry-typetransformers
Liquidtransformerscanhaveaconserva-
torortheycanbehermeticallysealed.
Accordingtotheapplication,theycanbe
classifedas:
-substationtransformers
-unitsubstationtransformers
-padmounttransformers
-polemounttransformers
-drivestransformers
-windturbinetransformers
-undergroundtransformers
-subseatransformers,etc.
Tis is not an exhaustive list of distribu-
tion transformer types but it is deemed
enoughforthepurposeofthisarticle.
4.1 Substation transformersaretrans-
formers used in distribution substations
which transfer power from the transmis-
sion system to the area distribution sys-
tem. Transmission voltage level is up to
110kV,whilethedistributionlevelisusu-
allyupto36kV.
4.2 Unit substation transformers are
used in commercial and industrial appli-
cations to convert distribution voltage to
theutilisationvoltagedesignedforaneasy
interconnectionwithprimaryandsecon-
daryswitchgear,andforanindoororout-
doorplacement.
Figure 14: Unit substation transformer [4]
4.3 Padmount transformers or pad-
mountedtransformersaregroundmoun-
ted distribution transformers placed in a
lockedsteelcabinetonaconcretepad.All
energisedpartsaresecurelyenclosedina
groundedmetalhousingsothatthetrans-
former can be installed in places that do
nothaveroomforafencedenclosure.
Figure 15: Padmount transformer [4]
4.4 Polemount transformers or pole-
mounted transformers, as the name says,
aremountedonutilitypoles.Tesetrans-
formers typically service rural and urban
residentialandcommercialareas.Inrural
areas they typically supply households or
farms,whileinurbanareas,theyareused
forindustrialandcommerciallightingap-
plications. Due to weight restrictions, the
polemounttransformersarebuiltforvol-
tagesupto36kV.
Figure 16: Polemount transformer [4]

4.5 Drives transformers or Variable
SpeedDrive(VSD)transformersareused
inspeedregulationsystemsoftheelectric
motors in many industrial applications,
such as pumps, ventilators, compressors,
rolling mills, paper machines and an in-
numerable amount of diferent machines
used in manufacturing and other indus-
tries. Tey can be built as liquid-flled or
dry-type,withthecapacityofuptoappro-
ximately5MVA.
Apart from substations, usual environments for
distribution transformers are buildings, shop-
ping centres, data centres, industry plants,
ships, the underground, under the water etc.
Figure 13: Substation transformer 5 MVA [4] Figure 11: Liquid-flled hermetically sealed distri-
bution transformer [4]
Figure 12: Dry-type transformer [4]

29
4.6 Wind turbine transformers steps
up turbine generator output voltage
from a few hundred volts to the collector
systems medium voltage level. Besides
restrictions and requirements for size,
weight,andfrebehaviour,theyareexpo-
sed to the severe service conditions such
as variable loading, harmonics, switching
surges and transient over-voltages. Con-
sequently, there are problems in the ope-
rationwhichleadtotheuseofinsulating
materialslikearamidincombinationwith
high temperature insulating fuids. Tey
have characteristic slim form and are
hermetically sealed. Liquid-flled trans-
formers have capacity up to 4 MVA but
dry-typetransformersarealsousedupto
2MVA.
Figure 18: Wind turbine transformer [8]
4.7 Underground transformers are
placed completely below the ground le-
vel. Tey are designed for installation
in an underground vault a structure
or a room where power transformers,
network protectors, voltage regulators,
circuit breakers, meters, etc. are housed.
Te capacity can range from small dis-
tribution units, to medium sized power
transformers,upto50MVA.Largerunits
areusedintheundergroundsubstations
in cities and megacities with an extreme
scarcityofspacewherehighcostsofland
can justify the construction costs of an
undergroundsubstationtwiceashigh.
Figure 19: Underground submersible transformer [4]
4.8 Subsea transformers are used in
distribution systems to supply subsea
equipment like pumps, compressors and
other electrical components used in the
underwater installations mainly in oil
and gas industry. As they can be placed
at depths down to 3000 m, this requires
double barriers to compensate tempe-
rature and pressure changes associated
with seawater. Tey are oil-flled with
voltage rating of up to 72 kV and variab-
le power rating. Due to the requirement
for a maintenance-free service, natu-
ral heat of sea water convection is used.
Figure 20: Subsea transformer 1.6 MVA [4]
5. Reactors
As mentioned above, reactors are not
transformers but are included here be-
causetheysharemostoftechnologywith
transformers and are very briefy descri-
bed.Teyhavediferentapplications,but
hereonlytwotypesarementioned:
-shuntreactors
-seriesreactors
Basically a reactor can be considered as
a one winding transformer and can be
eitherasingleorthreephase.Reactorsare
coveredbytheIECstandardIEC60076-6
Part6:Reactors[9].Teyareratedinreac-
tivepower:MVAR.
5.1 Shunt reactors areusedinapower
system to moderate the efect of voltage
increase along the power line when the
line is energised but is either not loaded
or slightly loaded. Tis efect is called
Reactors are not transformers but are included
here because they share most of technology with
transformers.
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 30
Figure 17: VSD transformer for high speed compressor 6 MVA [4]
Ferranti efect. Tis is because the line
capacitance,whichdrawscapacitivecur-
rent,cancausevoltageincrease.Oneway
to compensate that efect is by using the
shuntinductance(reactor).Tatway,the
energyefciencyofthesystemisimpro-
ved.Toimprovethecompensationofre-
activepower,ashuntreactorcanhavean
OLTCwithtypicalregulatingrangefrom
50%to100%power.Shuntreactorscan
be connected directly to the power line
(mainlyseveralhundredkV)ortoater-
tiary winding of a transformer (mainly
around20kV).
5.2 Series reactors or current limiting
reactors are used in a power system to
reduce short circuit currents with the
aim to use circuit breakers with lower
short circuit breaking capacity. Teore-
ticallytheycouldalsobeusedtoadapt
the short-circuit impedance of a newly
replaced transformer within an existing
installation, mainly to adapt the short-
circuit capability of the circuit breaker,
andtosomehowachievethesamevolta-
ge drops as with the previous unit. Tey
can be also used to limit inrush current
oflargemotordrives.
Acknowledgement
During the preparation of this article au-

thors consulted books [10] and web sites
Shunt reactors are used in a power system to
moderate the eect of voltage increase along
the power line when the line is energised but is
either not loaded or slightly loaded.
of transformer manufacturers [4], and
other sources on the Internet [8], as well
asIECandIEEEstandards.
TeauthorswouldliketothankMrsKris-
tina Holmstrom-Matses for the support
and approval to use ABB photos in this
article.
Bibliography:
[1] International Electrotechnical Vocabulary,
Chapter421:Powertransformersandreactors
[2] IECchapters1to21ofthe60076Power Trans-
formers Standards,IEC
[3] IEEE C57.12.xx IEEE Standard for General
Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution,
Power, and Regulating Transformers, IEE Power
&EnergySociety,2010
[4]ABBGroup,www.abb.com,CourtesyofABB
[5] IEC 62032 ed2.0 Guide for the application,
specifcation, and testing of phase-shifing trans-
formers,IEC,2012
[6] IEC 61378-2 ed1. Convertor transformers -
Part 2 Transformers for HVDC applications,IEC,
2001
[7] IEC61378-1Converter transformers Part 1:
Transformers for industrial applications,IEC,2011
[8] PaulAnderson,Turbine Base and Trans-
former of Tower No 24,http://s0.geograph.org.
uk/photos/79/81/798125_4f07f9e.jpg,current
18.03.2014.
[9] IECstandardIEC60076-6Part 6: Reactors
[10]Handbook for Transformers, 3rd edition,
ABB,2010
Authors:
UniversityofZagreb.
involved many transformers designs, tests, fault expertise,

31
Figure 21: Shunt reactor 30 MVAr [4]
ABSTRACT
Due to the time cost replacement of a failed large power
transformer, reliability and good performance in service are
fundamentals for long-term operation.
Insulation coordination studies are the base to evaluate the
occurrence of the most important transients like overvolta-
ges, system disturbances, lightning discharges and switching
operations which reach the transformer terminals connected
to the system.
A set of dielectric tests are required to be performed at the
manufacturer facilities as a function of the transformer insu-
lation level according to the standards.
Such dielectric tests are mandatory to dene the main insula-
tion transformer design such clearances between windings,
windings to core and leads as well.
Therefore it is very important to understand how and whe-
re the voltages are distributed within the transformer during
the dielectric tests.
This article presents an overview about the voltage distribu-
tion of the main dielectric tests within the winding assem-
bly of a three phase 40 MVA 138/13,8kV wye-delta regulating
transformer.
Keywords
insulation design, dielectric test, main gap, eldplot
TECHNOLOGY
Voltage Stresses on Solid-Liquid Insulation
of Large Power Transformers
Infuence of dielectric tests on main insulation design
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 32
Terefore the transformers insulation design like core and coil
assembly, and leads are submitted to Final Acceptance Tests at
manufactures facilities to prove its ability to withstand diferent
kinds of dielectric stresses. Once approved, the transformer is
expected to operate in service with reliability for the long-term
withstandingpossibletransientsfromthesystem.
Tisarticlepresentsanoverviewaboutthedielectricstresseson
themaininsulationofmediumpowertransformersof40MVA
designed with solid-liquid insulation. Te insulation levels are
giveninTable1.

Separate AC source withstand voltage test
(Applied Voltage Test)
Temainproposalofthistestistocheckthemajorinsulationbet-
weenwindingsandeachwindingtoground.Eachcircuitistested
separately. For a two winding transformer, two tests are required.
Whenthevoltagesourceisconnectedtoprimarywindings,the
Table 1: insulation level of the transformer with full insulated neutral in kV
Juliano MONTANHA
INTRODUCTION
P
owertransformersarerequiredtobedesignedforlongterm
operationwithgoodperformanceandreliabilityastheyare
oneofthemostimportantpiecesofequipmentinapower
system. Terefore they should be designed to withstand all types
oftransientsduringtheirlifeinservice.Mosttransientsarecaused
by natural phenomena like lightning atmospheric discharge or
causedbythesystemswitchingoperationsordisturbances.
Itismuchtoocomplicatedandcomplextorepresentsuchstres-
ses by tests as the transients are basically dependent on system
characteristicsandthegeographicconditionswherethetransfor-
merisconnectedandinstalled.
International committees have established workgroups consis-
tingofManufactures,Utilities,GeneratorsandAcademicSocie-
ties. Tese workgroups have published standards e.g. IEEE and
IECtoprovideastandardisedtestingmethodology.
Tesedocumentsdescribethecontrolledconditionstobesimu-
latedatmanufacturerstestfeld.Teyspecifywhichtestsmustbe
performedonthetransformerandtheconditionsforacceptance.
Teyareknownasdielectrictests.
Tetypeandlevelofthetestisafunctionoftheinsulationlevelof
thetransformerspecifedbyacustomer.
Tedielectrictestsandtheapplicationofappropriateprotection
devicesdefnedbyinsulationcoordinationstudyhavetheaimto
assureareliableoperationofthetransformerwithoutfailuredu-
ringitslifeinservice.
secondarywindingsaregroundedandtankaswell.Tenthetest
is performed on secondary windings with the voltage source
connectedandtheprimarywindingsgrounded.
During this test an AC source is applied with approximately 2
timestheratedvoltageofonthetransformerundertest.Primary
andsecondarytransformervoltagecircuitistestedseparately.
Whentested,allbushingsofthesamecircuit(primaryorsecon-
dary)areconnectedtogether,includingneutralinawyeconnec-
tion.Tebushingsfromtheothercircuitaredirectlygrounded.
Figure1.showstheequipotentiallinesduringanappliedvoltage
testof230kVontheprimarywindings(highvoltage)ofathree
phasewye-deltaregulatingtransformerasanexample.
Figure 1: Applied voltage test on high voltage, wye connection
1b
1a

33
Dierent types of dielectric tests
are required to be carried out on
transformers as per standards at
manufacturers facilities to check
the transformer design.
Primary Secondary
Wye connection Delta connection
Phase Neutral Phase
Rated Voltage 138 - 13,8
Applied Voltage 230 230 34
Induced Voltage 230
Lightning Impulse 550 550 110
Lightning Impulse Test
Impulse test system is necessary to produce the wave shape
1.2/50sasrequiredbythestandards.Tegeneratorisaverylar-
ge piece of equipment composed of an RLC circuit in modular
stages. Te impulse generator is set up in various series and pa-
rallelconfgurationstoachievethewaveform1.2/50sandthe
requiredimpulsevoltagelevel.
Te test is applied individually to all terminals of the transfor-
mers. When one terminal is tested, the other bushings are solid
grounded,groundedviaresistancesorgroundedviaashuntfor
faultdetectionpurposes.Tisisdoneforeachterminalwiththe
specifedlightningimpulselevel.
Figure 2. shows the equipotential lines distribution during a
lightning voltage test on high voltage terminal of a three phase
wye-deltaregulatingtransformer,sameexampleoftheFigure1.
As the neutral bushing is grounded and connected directly on
regulatingwinding,theregulatingwindingassumesthepotential
zero.
Figure2bshowsthevoltagedistributionatthepeakofthevolta-
ge. Observe that the equipotential lines have diferent distribu-
tionincomparisonwiththeappliedvoltagetest.Nowthestress
betweentheHVandRwindingsishigher.
During the lightning impulse test, transient voltages appear
withinthewindingsbutthisisnotaddressedinthisarticle.
Figure 2: Lightning Impulse test in a wye-delta transformer Figure 3: Induced voltage test in a wye-delta transformer
2b 3b
2a 3a
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Volume 1,

Issue 1 34
Lightning impulse test is a unipolar
wave shape applied individually on
each terminal of the transformer.
Voltage distribution is dierent
from applied voltage test.
Applied voltage test is an AC voltage
test either on primary or secondary
of the transformer. Higher voltage
gradients appear typically between
primary and secondary circuits.
TECHNOLOGY
Induced voltage test
DuringthistestanACvoltagesourceisconnectedonthetransfor-
merundertest.
Dependingonthehighestvoltageofequipmentundertest,Um,a
singleorthreephasetestisrequiredbythestandards.
Figure 3. shows as example a single phase induced voltage test in
a three phase wye-delta regulating transformer, same example of
Figure1.
During the single phase induced voltage test, the neutral termi-
nal is enhanced to 1/3 of the required voltage on line terminal to
ground.Tismeansthatthevoltagedistributionisdiferentfrom
theappliedandlightningimpulsetests.Teneutralhas33%ofthe
potentialofthevoltageapplied.

35
AC Design
To determine the AC dielectric stress in a solid-liquid structure
ofalargepowertransformeritisveryimportanttoknowthevol-
tage distribution within the windings. Tis depends on the way
thewindingsareconnectedintothetestcircuit.
It is also important to defne the clearances between the win-
dingsandwindingsandcore.
State-of-the-art for Large Power Transformers design for AC
systemiscomposedofsolid-liquidinsulation.Fortransformers
flledwithmineraloil,thepermittivityratiobetweenmineraloil
andthepressboardisintherangeof(il:psp=1:2).Tisresults
inahigherelectricalfeldintheoilgapsforACstresses.
For tests like switching and lightning impulse tests, the evalua-
tion of the equipotential lines distribution is performed consi-
dering those wave shapes as an AC equivalent stress by using
conversionfactors.
For AC dielectric stress in a solid-li-
quid structure of a large power tra n-
sformer it is very important to know
the voltage distribution in the wi-
ndings. The electrical eld in the oil
gaps is higher than in solid insulati-
on because of permittivity ratio.
Write for us
Are you looking for a fresh challenge
and want to get involved?
Transformers Magazine is the primary source for the
latestpowertransformersindustrynews,expertviews,
technology,andtrends,withparticularfocusongreen
solutionsandsolutionsforsmartgrid.Wepublishsci-
entifc and professional articles on topics covering all
aspects of transformer R&D, design, manufacturing,
testing, operation, maintenance, monitoring, diagno-
sis,faultinvestigation,decomissioningandmore.
More info: www.transformers-magazine.com/write-for-us.html
Contact e-mail:info@merit-media.com
Juliano MONTANHA
Transformers
MAGAZINE
Figure4.showsonesimulationforACdistributionbetweenlow
andhighvoltagewindingsinacorewindowsection.
Te equipotential lines are the lines where the charges are under
thesamepotential.Teelectricalfeldintensityisproportionalto
thepotentialgradient.
Testreamlinesareperpendiculartothepotentiallinesandshow
thepathanddirectionoftheforcesoftheelectricalfeldoverthe
charges.
Author
Juliano MONTANHA holdsade-
gree in Electrical Engineering from
University of So Paulo Brazil
from1998whenhestartedworking
at Siemens Power Transformer fac-
tory in Jundiai - Brazil. Juliano has
been working with insulation tech-
nology regarding main insulation
designupto800kV,includingleads
designandwindingassembly.Hewasresponsibleforwinding
assembly standardisation for local market in 2000. Juliano is
ahighvoltageexpertatSiemensTransformerGroupandhas
participatedonaworldwideR&DresearchwiththeSiemens
transformers factories. Between 2011 and 2013, he was res-
ponsible for insulation design group at Jundiai Siemens fac-
tory. He was also responsible for implementation of 500 kV
electrode in Jundiai factory as well as transient studies for
Power Transformers design like VFT studies and failure in-
vestigations.Julianotechnicallysupportedthemanufacturing
processofHVDCunitsatSiemensfactoryinJundiaiandSie-
mens factory in Mxico in 2010. He has been a member of
IEEEsince2014.
Figure 4: AC eld plot in a core window section
Equipotential lines
Streamlines
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 36
Streamlines are perpendicular to
the potential lines. They indica-
te the path and direction of the
forces of the electrical eld over
the charges.
PHOTO: Johnny Chan LinkedIn
Whether you have a premature failure or are
just wanting to research and collect data on the
life of your transformer feet, were here to help.
We will provide you with the most efcient and
professional service in the industry.
Our services include:
On-site teardown and forensic evaluation
Coordination with your engineers, consultants
and insurance company
Patented equipment for the efcient, detailed
teardown and examination of your transformers
Fast mobilization in emergency situations
Turnkey service with a credit for your
recycled materials
Fully permitted and highly insured
Prior case studies and references
available upon request
When experience and service matter.
When you want the BEST ...
CALL A-LINE E.D.S.
1.800.760.0222
IF WE CANT DO IT, IT CANT BE DONE.
The Transformer Failure
Analysis Experts
1.800.760.0222 alineeds.com
Shell Form Forensic Examination completed
for a Nuclear Facility in the Eastern United States
Core Form Forensic Examination completed
for a Canadian Utility
A-line E.D.S. is the only company in North America that can provide you with the most detailed,
factory-style teardown ON SITE. Utilizing our patented equipment, we ensure the integrity of your
transformer is maintained so that evidence of the root cause of the failure isnt lost.
A-Line_SellSheet_B_02-07-13.indd 1 2/7/13 1:24 PM
TECHNOLOGY
Whether you have a premature failure or are
just wanting to research and collect data on the
life of your transformer feet, were here to help.
We will provide you with the most efcient and
professional service in the industry.
Our services include:
On-site teardown and forensic evaluation
Coordination with your engineers, consultants
and insurance company
Patented equipment for the efcient, detailed
teardown and examination of your transformers
Fast mobilization in emergency situations
Turnkey service with a credit for your
recycled materials
Fully permitted and highly insured
Prior case studies and references
available upon request
When experience and service matter.
When you want the BEST ...
CALL A-LINE E.D.S.
1.800.760.0222
IF WE CANT DO IT, IT CANT BE DONE.
The Transformer Failure
Analysis Experts
1.800.760.0222 alineeds.com
Shell Form Forensic Examination completed
for a Nuclear Facility in the Eastern United States
Core Form Forensic Examination completed
for a Canadian Utility
A-line E.D.S. is the only company in North America that can provide you with the most detailed,
factory-style teardown ON SITE. Utilizing our patented equipment, we ensure the integrity of your
transformer is maintained so that evidence of the root cause of the failure isnt lost.
A-Line_SellSheet_B_02-07-13.indd 1 2/7/13 1:24 PM
TRENDS
TRENDS
Introduction
P
resuming they operate normally,
average life expectancy of power
transformers is around forty years.
Te manufacturers transformer warranty
is valid for one to a few years according
theinitialcontract.
After commissioning and expiration
of the initial warranty, the transformer
asset is under the full responsibility of
itsowner.
Tomaketransformersoperatesafelyforas
longaspossible,itissometimesnecessary
toassessitsconditioninordertopreventa
majorfailureoranysignifcantfault.Also,
fromtheconstructionofatransformer,or
afeetoftransformers,uptotheendofits
service life, many diagnoses may be per-
formedandanalysed.
A General Overview
Diagnosis
ABSTRACT
Basically, the life expectancy of a po-
wer transformer is quite long, known
to be around forty years of service be-
fore it needs replacing. Nevertheless,
during service life of a power trans-
former, it is necessary to constantly
maintain it, mainly in order to make
the transformer operate safely as
long as possible.
This paper will discuss the main dia-
gnostic methods that could be per-
formed during service life of a trans-
former. It will also attempt to provide
the purposes of the main diagnostic
methods carried out by dierent po-
wer transformer stakeholders.
Keywords
power transformers, diagnosis, failu-
res, maintenance
When diagnosis is used and where to fnd raw
data? Considering open databases.
38 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1
ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1
|
39
Telastworldwidestudyontransformer
failures was conducted in 1983 by CIG-
RE Working Group [1] and it produced
results based on a precise population of
transformers over period of ten years.
Te average failure rate was around 2 %.
Some main points in the report indica-
ted that On Load Tap Changers (OLTC)
seemed to increase the risk of transfor-
mer failures and that more transformer
failure data had to be gathered worldwi-
deandassessed.Asignifcantamountof
transformer failure data analysis would
statistically lead to more precise stu-
dies and appropriate recommendations
about transformer failure prevention,
maintenance and diagnosis to improve
theirservicelifeexpectancy.
Teworstkindofdamagethatcouldhap-
pentoatransformerisanexplosionsowe
will discuss diferent ways of preventing
suchadisastrouseventandotherpossible
hazards.
Classic tests and informati-
on used for power transfor-
mer diagnosis
Failure and condition diagnosis of po-
wer transformers can be regarded as a
way of testing an ability to withstand
voltage and current over time by asses-
sing all possible parts and components
relatedtoit.
Two main test types are carried out on
powertransformers-thefactorytestsand
the feld tests. Tere are two types of fac-
tory tests: Quality Assurance (QA) Tests
forthemanufactureruseduringthecon-
structionprocess,andtheFactoryAccep-
tance Tests (FAT) which are contractual
betweenthemanufacturerandtheclient.
Tosetestsareofencarriedoutaccording
to the IEC standard 60076 [2] and are
conductedintheclientspresence.
Aferwards, most of the tests can be car-
riedoutonsite[3]buthardlyanystandard
provides precise criteria for the result as-
sessment. At best, they provide trends or
slight indications, apart from the oil ana-
lysis that has been extensively studied.
Finally, feld test expertise is required in
majority of cases in order to understand
and diagnose potential or efective prob-
lems,especiallyiftheprevioustestresults
indicated an incipient fault, a failure or
any out of the ordinary condition of the
transformer.
Figure 1: Healthy substation three-phase power transformer [4]
Electrical tests
Electrical tests are divided in two
groups:LowVoltage(LV)andHighVol-
tage (HV) tests where the limit is set at
1 kV. Most HV tests, such as induced
voltage tests, partial discharge (PD) test
or lightning impulse test, require the
usageofheavyorhighlyspecialisedtest
devices and the appropriate expertise
to interpret the results. Those tests are
mostly carried out in the factory and
rarely onsite. On the other hand, LV
tests,likewindingresistance,insulation
resistance, tangent delta and voltage ra-
tio, are relatively easy to perform in the
factoryaswellasonsite.
Some recent tests with fngerprints over
a frequency band (range) are becoming
frequently used as they are easy to carry
out, although the results are still not so
easy to interpret. Tese types of tests are
theFrequencyResponseAnalysis(FRA),
from a few Hz to several MHz, mostly
used for identifcation of winding me-
chanical deformation caused by trans-
portation shock or short circuits, or die-
lectric spectroscopy, which is a tangent
delta test from low (around 100 Hz) to
verylow(afewmHz)frequency,usedto
assess the moisture enclosed in the solid
insulationofthetransformer.
Chemical tests
Twotypesofmostfrequentlycarriedout
chemicaltestsare:insulatingoiltestsand
solid insulation tests when paper is ac-
cessible(veryseldomexceptattheendof
atransformerservicelife).Solidinsulati-
on tests estimate the remaining life by
measuring the insulation Degree of Po-
lymerisation (DP). Tere are many tests
basedoninsulatingoil(especiallymine
Power transformers last for decades. Worldwi-
de analysis of major failures could help towards
enabling such long service life but it has hardly
been updated in the last 30 years.

39
ral oil) studies but the best-known one
is the Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA). It
is quite cheap compared to the transfor-
mercostandhasbeenproventoleadtoa
reliablediagnosisofthetransformersac-
tive part. Te well-accepted standard for
interpretation of the DGA is IEC 60599
[5], including the Duval triangle alt-
hough further studies have shown some
limitations.
Operational information
Anofenforgottenbutveryusefulsource
ofinformationforanydiagnosisisallthe
operational information such as: recent
voltage levels, load history, overvoltages,
short circuits, temperatures, protection
activationsifany,etc.
Different stages of power
transformer service life and
its diagnosis requirements
Telifeofatransformercouldberoughly
dividedintothreemainpartsthatwould
have diferent diagnostic requirements:
the design up to the manufacturing sta-
ge,theonsitecommissioning,andfnally
the service life up to the removal from
serviceduetoadevastatingfailureorfai-
lure prevention. Basically, the insurance
companies have a choice to take action
oroferadviceduringtheservicelifesta-
ges although the insurance companies
are mainly concerned with transformer
transportation or reduction of service
liferisks.
From customer requirement to
the Final Acceptance Test
When a transformer customer specifca-
tion has been submitted to a manufac-
turer, a design will be adopted. It may be
ofinteresttotheclienttohavedesignre-
viewswiththemanufacturertocheckifall
fxed parameters for the fnal product ft
itsoperationalneeds.Ten,theworkshop
performs some internal QA tests during
the manufacturing to be sure the trans-
former assembly is going well, and diag-
noses and resolves any existing problem.
Finally,theFATtestgivesanopportunity
to detect any major or minor defects of
the transformer under high constraints
(i.e. voltages, temperature rises) at the
transformersfnalconstructionstage;for
example, problems in insulation, design,
welding or bolting could appear and be
fxedatthelaststage.
From factory to commissioning
A critical stage for transformer is the
transportation to the site afer the FAT
tests and its commissioning. A form of
monitoring can be arranged during the
transportationinordertodetectshocks.
Some LV and chemical tests are carried
Transformer diagnosis is practiced from the de-
sign stage to the end of service. Most of it is fo-
cused on how to manage the transformer ser-
vice life safely for as long as possible.
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Volume 1,

Issue 1 40
TRENDS
TRENDS
out again for commissioning purpo-
se prior to the frst onsite energisation.
Tese tests check if the transportation
and the commissioning processes have
caused any potential hazard following
the FAT tests at the factory. Up to this
point,allthediagnostictestswouldhave
been carried out in order to fnd and fx
any faults during the early stage of the
transformerservicelife.
From site to the end of service
Basically, the transformer service life
should be quite long, measured in de-
cades, before removal from the service
due to a failure or preventive action.
Typically,thefailurerateofpowertrans-
formers follows a bath curve [6], as in
French Transmission System Operator
gridfeet.
At this point, two main kinds of diag-
nostictestscanbecarriedoutovertime:
conditiondiagnosis(off-lineand/oron-
line based) and failure diagnosis. The
condition diagnosis is carried out peri-
odically and preventively, and assesses
the trend of different parameters (like
oil analysis) to test a steady condition
ofthetransformer.Thiskindofdiagno-
sis leads to relatively minor and precise
actions to prevent degradation and ma-
jorfailurefromhappening.Ontheother
hand, some transformer owners carry
out transformer diagnostic tests only
when a failure has already developed to
thestageimpossibletoignore.Thistype
of failure diagnosis is a one shot dia-
gnosis carried out to locate the precise
failure and suggest different ways of fi-
xingit.Thiskindofmaintenanceanddi-
agnosispolicycanbeaproblembecause
theinterventionstofixfaultsareusually
quite expensive and some repair work,
such as untanking or rewinding, can
be very time consuming as most active
partscannotbefixedwithoutuntanking
oropeningthetank.
Every power transformer owner has
a choice to follow the manufacturer
maintenance recommendations or to
set their own power transformer main-
tenance policy, like the main French
electric utilities, which maintain large
transformers fleets. For example, any
transformer owner who wishes to set
their own transformer maintenance
policy could find many points to ad-
apt in the Cigre Technical Brochure [7]
guidelines. Almost every maintenance
policyincludessometests(chemicaloil
analysis, sometimes electrical (LV), and
visual inspections) but often disregards
the operation parameter history that
could potentially help to resolve many
problems. LV tests detect major electri-
cal variations that should not normally
happenduringatransformerservicelife
unless a major internal failure happens
within the active part. Comprehensi-
ve oil analysis gives a large amount of
useful information about the condition
and age of the transformer through li-
quid insulation diagnosis and solid in-
sulation by deduction. The formation
and progress of slow occurring internal
incipient faults like hot spots or paper
degradation (compared to fast transi-
ents phenomenon) could be detected
byDGA[8]andtrackedovertime.The
quality of the mineral insulating oil,
such as acidity or water content, can
alsobeassessed[9]todiagnosecomple-
teconditionofthetransformer.
Condition diagnostic test mainly serves
the purpose of preventive and periodic
maintenance.Itanalysestrends(i.e.mo-
nitors devices) and diagnoses various
progressive faults of the transformers.
Ontheotherhand,afailurediagnosisis
used to detect and locate a major prob-
lemsuchasaproblemcausedbythelack
Transformer diagnosis periodicity is linked to
its maintenance policy. All this combined could
give more or less options to manage the asset
easily over time.
Figure 3: Example of transformer eet failure rate in function of its age [5]

41
ofmaintenance.Inmostcases,itimplies
significant actions to fix internal prob-
lems that could have been prevented or
minimisedthroughperiodicanalysis.
From one transformer to a
large number of transfor-
mers, a feet management
Most power transformer owner com-
panies have a whole fleet of transfor-
mers. In order to apply or adapt main-
tenance policies to the whole fleet,
two main points must be considered:
transformerconditionandfailureana-
lysisoftheexistingfleetthroughoutits
servicelife[10],andHealthIndexthat
compares all the transformers through
theanalysisofmanytestsandinforma-
tion which result in a unique score by
apparatus [11]. Both methods enable
the owner company to prioritise ac-
tions needed for the specific transfor-
mersinthefleet.
Free power transformer
data
Manymethodsofpowertransformerdia-
gnosisarestudiedworldwidebutthefeed-
back on failure data is extremely difcult
to gather and study. Te last known large
studywasconducted30yearsago[1],and
newattemptstoupdateitwereabandoned
duetolackofdataprovidedbytheutilities
and transformer users worldwide. Any
detailed information, even anonymous,
regarding failure and operation of trans-
formerscanbefrstlyorganisedinternally
and then submitted externally to any
groups(e.g.CIGRE)workingontransfor-
mer failures and reliability. Tere will al-
ways be room for more precise studies in
this feld and perhaps in the future, some
kind of technical transformer open data-
base would allow any interested party to
conduct those kinds of studies, and then
steer the transformer life management
feldintonewdirections.
Conclusion
Power transformer diagnosis is the com-

bination and interpretation of many dif-
ferent kinds of data (electrical, chemical,
operational,andofineinformation)from
every stage of the transformers life. From
itscorrectassembly,toitsservicecondition
diagnosis and prevention maintenance to
make it operate for as long as possible. At
thefnalstage,thepurposeoffailurediag-
nosisistolocateafault,mostlywithinthe
active part of a transformer, and provide
ofen expensive options to repair it or the
advice about safe usage up to the end of
its service life. Just as the world electrical
consumption is still increasing, so does
themostlyagingtransformerfeet.Allthis
willallowthetransformerdiagnosistobea
promisingandusefulfeldintheyearsco-
ming!Sharingandimprovingopenknow-
ledge about transformers globally and ac-
rossmanyindustrieshasbecomepossible
in the last few years with the professional
openforumontheInternet[12].
References
[1] An international survey on failures in lar-
ge power transformers in service,CIGREElectra
N88,pp21-42,1983
[2] IECchapters1to21ofthe60076powertrans-
formersstandards,www.iec.ch
[3] Service Handbook for Transformers,ABB,2007
[4] Dr. Maik Koch, Neuer Leistungstransfor-
mator,http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Leistungstransformator_neu.jpg,current21.03.2014.
[5] IEC 60599, Mineral oil-impregnated electrical
equipment in service Guide to the interpretation of
dissolved and free gases analysis,2ndedition,2007
[6] Transformer Refurbishment Policy at RTE
Conditioned by the Residual Lifetime Assessment,
CIGREA2-204,R.Blancetal.,2008
[7] Guide for Transformer Maintenance, CIG-
RETechnicalBrochure445,2011
[8] Zhenyuan Wang, Artifcial Intelligence Ap-
plications in the Diagnosis of Power Transfor-
mer Incipient Faults, Ph.D. at Virginia Polytech-
nicInstituteandStateUniversity,2000
[9] IEC60422,Mineral insulating oils in electri-
cal equipment Supervision and maintenance
guidance,3rdedition,2005
[10]WilliamH.BartleyP.E.,Analysis of Transfor-
mer Failures, International Association of Engi-
neeringInsurers36thAnnualConference,2003
[11]AliNaderianJahromietal.,An Approach to Po-
wer Transformer Asset Management Using Health
Index,IEEEElectricalInsulationMagazine,2009
[12] Transformers Group on LinkedIn since
2008,www.linkedin.com/groups?gid=772397
Authors
involved many transformer designs, tests, fault expertise,
UniversityofZagreb.
In the future some kind of technical transformer
open database would allow any party to con-
duct focused studies on transformers life ma-
nagement and perhaps, steer this eld in new
directions.
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Volume 1,

Issue 1 42
TRENDS TRENDS TRENDS
44
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JULY 2013
ABSTRACT
For availability reasons, many generating utilities keep in
storage custom designed spare transformers, readily availa-
ble and identical to their critical large power transformers.
However, in case an exact replacement is not available, the
only option the generating utility has is to search for a subs-
titute transformer that, as a minimum, is able to oer a tem-
porary solution. The purpose of this paper is to indicate the
most important aspects to be considered when checking the
interchangeability of such substitute transformer, based on
authors experience and on various standards requirements.
Keywords
power plants, power transformers, interchangeability.
TRANSFORMER IN GRID
INTRODUCTION
T
he power transformer is a reliable device, yet not failure-
free. It has no rotating parts, consequently neither the ty-
pical faults of rotating machines. On the other hand, the
largetransformersareoil-immersedandsuferfromotherfaults,
mainlychemicallyorelectricallyrelated.Atransformerinternal
faultmaybeverydifculttolocateandtorepair.Inmanycases,
the owner may decide that it is faster and cheaper to buy a new
transformer than to repair an old damaged one. Even when the
repairisworthwhile,itmaylastformanymonths.
Almost all large transformers used in power plants are custom-
designed.Keepinginstoragesuitablesparetransformersisacom-
mon practice, for the purpose of avoiding long unplanned outa-
gesandhigheconomiclosses.Incaseanexactreplacementisnot
available,theonlyoptionthegeneratingutilityhasistosearchfor
asubstitutetransformerthat,asaminimum,isabletooferatem-
porarysolutionthatmayintroducesomeoperationalconstraints.
Tegoalofthispaperistomentionthemostimportantaspectsto
be considered when checking the interchangeability of such sub-
stitute transformer. Te discussion is based on the various requi-
rementsincludedinrelevantAmericanandEuropeanstandards.
Te most common generating station arrangements are shown
in Fig. 1: a unit generator-transformer block confguration, and a
unit generator-transformer with generator breaker. Te vital large
transformersinapowerplantaretheunit step-up/main/generator
transformer(UT),theauxiliary transformer(UAT)andthestati-
on service/reserve transformer(SST).Afailureofanyoneofthese
transformersmayleadtounitshutdownorstart-upunavailability.
GENERAL LAYOUT
Te UT may consist of a single three-phase unit, two half-size
three-phaseunits,orthreesingle-phaseunits.Tisisthemostevi-
dentaspecttoconsiderwhenasubstitutetransformerisneeded.
When designing a new plant, the selection among these alterna-
tives is generally based on consideration of some form of strate-
gic reserve, as well as available space. Two half-size transformers
may be selected in place of a single full-size transformer in order
to reduce the cost of the spare. For similar reasons, a generator
transformer may be made as a bank of single-phase units. Nor-
mallythecost,mass,andlossofsuchsolutionsarelargerthanfor
a single three-phase transformer; however, they may be prefera-
bleiftransportsizeorweightlimitsapply.Tethreesingle-phase
transformers provide independent magnetic circuits (see dedica-
tedsectionbelow),representinghighmagnetizingimpedancefor
zero-sequence voltage components. Terefore, a delta equalizer
winding is normally provided, implemented by external connec-
tionbetweenphaseunits.
Somelayoutsmayfurthercomplicatethesparetransformeravaila-
bility,likeUATwiththree-windingdesign.
DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT
Any physical size and weight limitations should be checked, for
exampleforinstallationonanexistingfoundation.Specialinstal-
lationspacerestrictionsmayinfuencetheinsulationclearances
andterminallocationsonthetransformer.
UTandUATareconnectedtothegeneratorthroughisolatedphase
busducts.Tehigh/extrahighvoltageterminalsoftheUTmaybe
connectedtogasinsulatedswitchgear.Temediumvoltageconnec-
tionstoplantauxiliariesarealsonormallydoneviatherigid,non-se-
gregatedphasebusbarsorcables.Alltheseaspectsmustbechecked
andsolvedwhenlookingforatransformerreplacement.
Transformers in Generating Stations
If a critical power plant transformer fails and
an identical spare is not available, the ge-
nerating utility will search for a substitute
transformer as a minimum temporary solu-
tion.
a) Unit generator-transformer b) Unit generator-transformer
block conguration with generator breaker
Fig. 1. Common generating station arrangements.
WWW.TRANSFORMERS-MAGAZINE.COM ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1
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45
Relu ILIE, Isidor KERSZENBAUM
RATED FREQUENCY
Intheunlikelysituationatransformerdesignedforadiferentfre-
quency is considered, the following applies. Te rated frequency
radicallyafectsthetransformerdesignandoperation.Tegeneral
formulaofvoltageeinducedbyavariablefuxinacoilwithN
turnsise=-Nd/dt.Assumingasinusoidalfux=m cos t,the
inducedvoltagebecomese = N msint.Itsrmsvaluewillbe,
intermsofcorecrosssectionAandfuxdensityBm[1]:
E = 2/2 f N m = 4.44 f N A Bm. (1)
Accordingto(1),operatingat50Hzatransformerdesignedfor
60 Hz means that the same voltage can be achieved only by a
substantialincreaseinthefuxdensity.Tecoreironwillbecome
heavily saturated, the excitation current will rise and also the
hysteresislosses(proportionaltotheareaofthehysteresisloop),
whichcouldseverelyoverheatanddamagethelaminations.
Whenoperatingat60Hzatransformerdesignedfor50Hz,there
istoomuchironinthecore.Tehysteresislosseswillbehigher
thanthe50Hzdesignedvalue(becauseironvolumeandincrea-
sed frequency), thus decreasing the efciency. More important-
ly,theeddycurrentslosseswillheatupthelaminations,because
theytendtoincreaseasthesquareofthefrequency.Operationof
a 50 Hz rated transformer at 60 Hz may be sometime possible,
butitmayhavetobederatedfromitsnameplateMVArating[2],
dependingonthenewversusratedvoltage.
MVA RATING
TesubstitutetransformerratedMVAisobviouslyafrstparame-
tertoconsider.Whenanewplantisdesigned,theUTratingischo-
sentoensurethatitwillnotrepresentabottleneckofunitcapabi-
lity,underanypossibleoperatingcondition.However,asubstitute
UTposesadiferentperspective:usingasmallerMVAratingthan
theoriginalonemeansgeneratingunitderating,neverthelessitis
normallypreferabletoacompleteshut-down,takingintoconside-
rationthelongtimeneededtoobtainanexactreplacement.
Inthecaseofatransformer(especiallyUT)substitution,itises-
sentialtopayattentiontothediferencesamongthevariousstan-
dards about the defnition of rated power. Te IEC 60076-1 [3]
defnition implies that rated MVA is the apparent input power,
received when rated voltage is applied to the primary winding
and rated current fows through the terminals of the secondary
winding;theoutputpoweris,inprinciple,theratedpowerminus
the power consumption in the transformer (active and reactive
losses). Diferently, by the North America conventions (IEEE
C57.12.80 [4]), the rated MVA is the output power that can be
deliveredatratedsecondaryvoltage.
Ifthetransformernameplatementionsacertainratedpowerand
ifitwasdesignedinconformitywiththeAmericanstandards,the
signifcanceisthatitsprimary(connectedtothegenerator)would
beabletoreceiveahigherthanratedpower.Ifforinstance,theUT
impedanceis15%,itshouldbeabletoacceptaprimaryMVAhigh-
eruptoabout15%thantheratedone,includingloadandmagneti-
zinglosses(intheworstconditionsoflaggingpowerfactors).Exact
valuescanbeobtainedbyusingtheequivalentcircuitofthetrans-
former.Contrarily,suchintrinsiccapabilitywillnotbeavailablein
transformerexhibitingthesameratedMVA,butdesignedtoIEC
requirements. Te situation inverts under leading power factors
(Mvar absorbed from the system) but this is a less likely regime,
especiallywhenasubstitutetransformerisinvolved.
Atransformermaybeableundersomelimitationstocarryloadsin
excessofnameplaterating.Inthecaseofasubstitutetransformer,
the expected regime is a long-time emergency loading that may
persist for months. Both IEEE and IEC have standards specially
dedicatedtosuchloadingaspects(IEC60076-7[5],IEEEC57.91
[6]).Teapplicationofaloadinexcessofnameplateratinginvol-
ves accelerated ageing and risk of premature failure, for instance:
deteriorationathightemperaturesofconductorinsulation,other
insulation parts and oil, overheating of metallic parts, increased
gassingintheoil,highstressesinbushings,tap-changers,connec-
tions and current transformers, brittleness of gasket materials. In
general,thelargerthetransformerthemorevulnerableitis.
Bothabovementionedstandardsgivesimilarmaximumtempe-
rature limits that should not be exceeded in case of longtime
loadingbeyondthenameplaterating:current1.3per-unit,win-
ding hot-spot temperature 140 C (instead of 120 C at normal
loading), top-oil temperature 110-115 C (instead of 105 C at
normal loading). Te increased ageing rate due to a hot-spot
temperatureof140Cis17.2timeshigherthannormal
1
forup-
graded paper insulation and 128 times higher than normal
1
for
non-upgradedpaperinsulation[5].
RATED VOLTAGES
Finding a substitute transformer with suitable primary and se-
condaryratedvoltagesisachallengingtask,difculttobeselec-
ted intuitively. Additionally, a transformer design for a certain
voltagedeterminesthesizeofthecoreandhasasignifcantim-
pactontheoveralltransformersizeandcost.
Tesystemandtransformermedium/high/extrahighvoltagera-
tingsarewellstandardizedandcorrelatedinANSIC84.1[7]and
IEC 60038 [8]. However, the generators standards do not spe-
cifystandardseries,neitherpreferablevaluesfortheratedstator
voltage. Te generator stator voltage rating is normally fxed by
agreement, and in many cases it is simply the generator manu-
facturerdecision,accordingtoitsavailabledesign.Terefore,itis
quitedifculttomatchbetweenUT/UATprimaryratedvoltage
andgeneratorratedvoltage.
Tenextsectiondealsindetailswithtransformershavingrated
voltages lower than expected operational voltages. Contrarily, it
may be possible to use transformers with rated voltages higher
If the substitute transformer rated power is
lower than the original transformer one, its
suitability shall be checked according to stan-
dards and operating restrictions may apply.
1
Normalmeansherearelativeageingrateof1.0,correspondingto98Cfornon-upgradedpaperandto110Cforupgradedpaper[5]
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Volume 1,

Issue 1 46
TRANSFORMER IN GRID
than the operational ones, providing that the rated current will
notbeexceeded.Practicallyinsuchcasethesubstitutetransfor-
mer might be oversized and then unsuitable, because of larger
coresizeandlongerinsulationdistances.
Ideally,itisdesirableforageneratortobeabletoabsorbMvarto
its limit when the system voltage is at its highest expected level
andtoproduceMvartoitslimit,whenthesystemvoltageisatits
lowestexpectedlevel.Tisisseldompossibleforafxedtapset-
tingintheUT,andthusacompromisemayhavetobemadeby
selectingtheappropriatetapratingtomeetthemostlikelyope-
rating condition. It is important to note that the reactive power
consumedbytheUTwillabsorbasignifcantpartofthegenera-
torMvaroutputundermostconditions.
IEEEC57.116[9]recommendsselectingthemainparametersof
UT(ratedvoltages,ratedMVA,impedance,andover-excitation)
by portraying graphically their efect under various operation
conditions.Whilethismethodismainlydedicatedtoanewplant
project, it may be also used in case of a substitute transformer.
A typical graph (Fig. 2) shows the change in generator voltage
with generator reactive load, for various constant transmission
systemvoltages.TegraphallowspredictingtheMvarcapability
(bothleadandlag)atanygivensystemvoltage,keepingthe5%
generator voltage limits, as required by IEEE C50.12 [10], IEEE
C50.13[11]andIEC60034-1[12].
TeexampleinFig.2wasbuiltonaspreadsheetusingequations
basedontransformerphasorsdiagram[9].Forapotentialsubs-
titutetransformer,suchgraphsshouldbedrawnforanyavailab-
le tap/ratio at anticipated MW, and analyzed in order to choose
the most suitable tap voltages (according to the forecasted sys-
temvoltageprofle)thatwillposeminimumrestrictionstounit
operation: range of available Mvar, synchronization ability, etc.
Ofcourse,asubstitutetransformermaynotallowafullrangeof
loading; normally some limitations (e.g. in reactive capabilities)
maybeacceptable.
References [13] and [14] propose other graphs, more complete
but also more complex, which take in consideration additio-
nal restrictions, such as: generator maximum excitation limit,
generator under-excited reactive ampere limit, UT limits (at
lower than rated tap voltage), turbine MW limit, and auxiliary
bus-bars (motors) voltage limits. Such graph shows the reactive
power transferred to/from the grid (at UT high voltage side) as
a function of system voltage, and forecast the area of allowable
operation.Tisgraphcanbealsoobtainedinaspreadsheetusing
suitableequations(Fig.3).
OVERVOLTAGE LIMITS
Te purpose of this section is to show how low the substitute-
transformer rated voltages may be in order to withstand the
highestexpectedvoltagesonitsterminals.
Te standards defne the maximum winding voltage based on
the insulation withstand capability (in IEC 60076-3 [15] it is
called the highest voltage for equipment, while in ANSI C84.1
[7]itisthemaximumsystemvoltage)
Accordingto(1),theratiobetweenthevoltageandfrequency(V/
Hz) of the system to which the transformer is connected deter-
mines the nominal fux density at which the transformer opera-
tes(assumingthenumberofturnsataparticulartapwillremain
constant).Normally,thetransformeriseconomicallydesignedto
operateatashighaspossiblefuxdensity,whileavoidingsaturation
ofthe core. Systemfrequency is normally controlled withinclose
limits; thus, the system voltage is the main factor responsible for
over-fuxing (over-excitation). When the V/Hz ratios are excee-
ded,saturationofthemagneticcoreofthetransformersmayoccur,
Finding a substitute transformer with suitab-
le primary and secondary rated voltages is a
challenging task; various boundaries can be
analyzed using graphical representations.
Fig. 2. Change in generator voltage with generator reactive load for vari-
ous system voltages.
Fig.3. Reactive power transferred to/from system as a function of system
voltage (operation area limit).

47
andsignifcantstrayfuxmaybeinducedinnon-laminatedcom-
ponentsthatarenotdesignedtocarryfux.Tiscancausesevere
localizedoverheatinginthetransformerandeventualbreakdown
ofthecoreassemblyand/orwindinginsulation.
As mentioned before, the IEC 60076-1 [3] defnitions imply that
ratedvoltageisappliedtoprimarywinding,andthevoltageacross
thesecondaryterminalsdifersfromratedvoltage(defnedinno-
loadcondition)bythevoltagedrop/riseinthetransformer.Cont-
rarily,byIEEEC57.12.00[16]theratedoutputisdeliveredatrated
secondaryvoltage;accordingtoIEEEdefnition,allowanceforvol-
tagedrophastobemadeinthedesignsothatthenecessaryprima-
ry voltage can be applied to the transformer (at a secondary load
lagging power factor of 0.80 or higher). For instance, a UT with
a impedance of 15% (typical range: 1317%) designed according
to IEEE shall withstand continuously primary voltages as high as
110%oftheratedvaluewhenfullyloadedatapowerfactorof0.80
(value calculable using the transformer equivalent circuit). Such
hiddencapabilitywillnotbeavailableinthecaseofatransformer
whichfollowstheIECrequirements.
According to IEC 60076-1 [3], a transformer shall be capable of
continuous operation up to 105% voltage or V/Hz (the standard
meaning is per each winding). IEC 60076-8 [17] adds that this
is not meant to be systematically utilized in normal service, but
should be reserved for relatively rare cases of emergency service
under limited periods of time. IEEE C57.12.00 [16] defnes the
over-fuxcapabilityinadiferentway:secondaryvoltageandV/Hz
upto105%ofratedvalueswhenloadpowerfactoris0.80orhigh-
er(lagging).Takingintoaccountthepreviousconsiderations,this
additionalrequirementmayresultin10-15%primaryovervoltage
(andover-excitation)forafullyloadedgeneratorstep-uptransfor-
mer(UT)builtunderIEEE.Fortunately,generatorsareonlycapa-
bleofcontinuousoperationuntil5%aboveor5%belowtheirrated
voltage,by[10]-[12](i.e.V/Hzuntil105%atgeneratorbase)sothe
above overvoltage capabilities are rarely exploited. For UAT and
SSTtheimpedanceisusuallysmallerthanforUT,theyofenwork
notfullyloadedandtheprimaryvoltagewillnormallynotriseby
morethanafewpercentagepointsforasecondaryincreaseof5%.
Another aspect related to an overvoltage condition is whether
the UT and UAT will be subjected to load rejection. Sudden loss
of load can subject these transformers to substantial overvoltage.
If saturation occurs, substantial exciting current will fow, which
mayoverheatthecoreanddamagethetransformer.Asuddenunit
unloading during a fault may be caused by the clearing of a sys-
tem fault and, hence, the machine may be at the ceiling of its ex-
citationsystem;theunittransformermaybeexcitedwithvoltages
exceeding 130% of normal [18], [19]. With the excitation control
in service, the over-excitation will generally be reduced to safe li-
mitsinafewseconds;withtheexcitationcontroloutofservice,the
over-excitation may be sustained and damage can occur (unless
dedicatedV/Hzprotectionexists).BothIEC60076-1[3]andIEEE
C57.12.00[16]allowcontinuousoperationatno loadatavoltage
orV/Hzupto110%oftheratedvalues.Fortheparticularcaseof
transformers connected directly to generators in such a way that
theymaybesubjectedtoloadrejection(i.e.confgurationswithout
generatorbreaker),[3]hasanadditionalrequirement:tobeableto
withstand1.4timesratedprimaryvoltagefor5seconds.
CONNECTION ARRANGEMENT AND PHASE
DISPLACEMENT
Normallythehighvoltagesystemisgrounded,leadingtheUTs
highvoltagewindingstobestarconnected,withtheneutralofen
solidlygrounded.Tereasonforthisismainlyrelatedtoequip-
ment insulation level and system protection requirements. Te
signifcantconsequenceasregardsthetransformerhighvoltage
windingsisthepossibilitytousenon-uniform,cheaperinsulati-
on systems (i.e. the neutral terminal insulation is designed with
alowerinsulationlevelthanassignedforthelineterminals).On
theotherhand,itisconvenienttohavethelowvoltagewindings
deltaconnected(thedeltacircuitprovidesapathforthird-order
harmonicsofthemagnetizingcurrents,thusreducingthevoltage
waveformdistortion;italsostabilizestheneutralpointpotential
inthecaseitislefungrounded).Temostcommonconnection
/ angular (phase) displacement used for large UTs is YNd1 [9],
[14],howeverYNd11isalsoencountered(Fig.4).
Forsimilarreasons,commonlytheUATprimarywindings(con-
nected to the generator side) are delta connected, while the se-
condary ones are star connected through a current-limiting re-
sistor.TemostcommonconnectionsusedforUATareDyn11
[14] or Dyn1 [9] (Fig. 5). According to IEEE C57.12.00 [16], in
YdorDytransformersthelowvoltageshalllagthehighvoltage
by30;theconnectionYd1forstep-uptransformermatchesthis
standard,whileDy11forstep-downtransformersdoesnot;how-
Overvoltage limits as dened by various
standards have to be carefully understood
and examined against the operation condi-
tions to prevent any incompatibility.
a) YNd1 b) YNd11
Fig. 4. Most common connection/phase displacement used for UTs.
a) Dyn11 b) Dyn1
Fig. 5. Most common connection/phase displacement used for UATs.
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TRANSFORMER IN GRID
ever,astandardDy1UATwithphasesequenceexternallyrever-
sedonbothsides,asexplainedbelow,isequaltoDy11.TeIEC
standardsdonothavesuchrestrictions.
IftheUTisYNd1andtheUATisDyn11,themediumvoltageau-
xiliary system has zero-phase shif compared with the high/extra
highvoltagesystem(Fig.1a).Duringunitstart-uporshut-down,
the medium voltage busses fed from the UAT and SST seconda-
ry windings are briefy paralleled (by the fast transfer scheme),
so both must be in phase. Additionally, the high and extra high
voltagesystemsarealwaysinphasesotheSSTmustproducezero-
phasedisplacementandtherefore,usuallyitisastar-starasYNyn0
transformer. In same cases it will have a delta-connected tertiary
winding,forthereasonsmentionedabove.Formoderntransfor-
mers,itismatterofthegridconfgurationand/orprotectionrequi-
rementswhethertheSSTisprovidedwithadeltatertiaryornot.
Te connection confgurations and phasor groups are drawn in
Fig.4and5accordingtoIEC60076-1conventions[3].Sincethat
standard mentions that terminal marking on the transformers
followsnationalpractice,Fig.4and5usetheAmericanpractice-
IEEEC57.12.70[20].
If the original transformer should be replaced by a non-identical
substitute,matchingthethree-phaseconnectionsandphase-angle
relations may be a complicated or even an impossible task. Nor-
mallyitisnotpossibletosubstituteaUTorUAThavingthevector
group number 11 with a vector group number 1 transformer (or
theopposite);thereasonwasexplainedabove:thesetwotransfor-
merslinkbetweentworigidphasorsystems.Onlyinthecaseofa
unitequippedwithgeneratorbreaker(Fig.1b),itmaybepossible
touseaYNd11UTinsteadofaYNd1one(orcontrary)assuming
norapidtransferisperformedtootherauxiliarybus-bars.Howe-
ver,suchsubstitutionwillafectthesecondarycircuits(atleastthe
diferentialprotection)andchangeswillberequiredinrelaysset-
tings and/or matching by intermediate transformers. It is recom-
mended to check also any potential infuence on synchronizing
circuits; it is a good practice to use supervision sync-check relay
withtwoorthreephase-sensingcircuits.
Teoretically,itispossibletokeeptheoriginalvectorgroupwhile
using a diferent group transformer. For example, an UAT with
vector group 11 may be used in place of an original device with
vector group 1 (or inverse), by reversing the phase sequence on
bothsidesofthetransformer.SuchchangeisshowninFig.6a:as
viewedfromtheexternallineconnections,theDy11transformer
becameaDy1one.Unfortunately,therigidisolatedphasebusbars
onthegeneratorsideandnon-segregatedbarsonmediumvoltage
sidewillnotallowsuchcross-connectionsinmostcases.
Tesubstitutionmaybecomplicatedbythetransformerlayoutter-
minalmarkingandsequence.AccordingtoIEEEC57.12.70[20],
the terminals are marked as in Fig. 7a, i.e. the H1 lead is brought
outastheright-handterminalasseenwhenfacingthehighvoltage
side.Othercountriesmayusediferentstandards;forinstance,the
Englishpracticeistolocatethehighvoltageterminalsfromlefto
rightwhenfacingthatside[21];theGermanDIN42402ruleisthe
terminals are arranged from right to lef as viewed from the low
voltageside[22](Fig.7b).Forinstance,ifanUATdesignedaccor-
dingtotheGermanstandardwithavectorgroupDy11isinstalled
in place of an original UAT designed according to an American
one,withoutanychangeintheexternalconnections,itwillexter-
nallyappearasaDy1transformer(Fig.6b).
Takinginaccountbothvectorgroupandterminalsequenceas-
pects, an Yd1 American transformer is interchangeable with a
EuropeanYd11,withoutanyexternalmodifcations.
TAPS AND TAP-CHANGER
Te original transformer may be equipped with on-load tap-
changer or de-energized tap-changer. Normally a substitution
foralimitedperiodoftimewithafxedturns-ratiotransformer
willbepossibleinanemergency.Whenchoosingthemostsuita-
bletapofthesubstitutetransformer,itisindispensabletocheck
whetheritisafull-powertapping(e.g.suitableforacurrentequal
totheratedpowerdividedbythetapvoltage).
By IEEE C57.12.00 [16], whenever a transformer is provided
withde-energizedtaps,theyshallbefullcapacitytaps.Transfor-
merswithon-loadtap-changershallbecapableofdeliveringra-
tedMVAattheratedvoltageandonalltapsaboveratedvoltage.
However, for taps below the rated voltage, they shall be capable
ofjustdeliveringtheratedcurrentrelatedtotheratedvoltage(i.e.
thesetapsmaybeofreducedMVA,unlessspecifedotherwise).
ByIEC60076-1[3]alltapsshallbefull-powertaps,exceptwhen
specifedotherwise.
Almostalltransformersusedinpowerplantsareatleastequip-
ped with de-energized tap-changers. Sometimes, especially in
The connection congurations, phasor group
(angular displacement) and layout terminal
marking (sequence) dier according to Ame-
rican or European standards.
a) Dy11Dy1 b) Dy11Dy1
By reversing the phase sequence By using a substitute transformer
on both sides of the transformer with dierent terminals layout
Fig. 6. Modications of transformer phase displacement.
Fig. 7. Transformer layout terminal marking.

49
case of units equipped with generator breakers, it is difcult to
ensure the unit auxiliaries suitable voltage under any operation
regime.Toovercomethisproblem,UATwithon-loadtap-chan-
germayberequired.Insomecases,UTorSSTareequippedwith
on-loadinplaceofde-energizedtapstoallowforlargevariations
intransmissionsystemvoltage.
IMPEDANCE
When designing a new plant, the selection of transformer short-
circuit impedance (in fact the reactance, the resistance being ne-
gligible for large transformers) is subject to conficting demands:
low enough to limit the voltage drop and to meet stability requi-
rements, but also suitable high to set the system short circuit le-
velsaccordingtoeconomiclimitationsoftheswitchgearandother
connected plant. If a generator breaker is used, regulation of the
UAT with the generator ofine should also be considered. Tese
aspectsshouldbealsoconsideredforareplacementtransformer.
Sincereactanceisaresultofleakagefux,lowreactanceisobtainedby
minimizingleakagefuxanddoingthisrequiresalargecoreandan
expensivetransformer.Conversely,ifhighreactancecanbetolerated,
asmallercorecanbeprovidedandsoalessexpensivetransformer.
ItshouldbenotedthatsincetheratedMVA(S)appearsinthenu-
meratoroftheexpressionforpercentageimpedance(z%)calcula-
tedfromitsohmicvalue(Zohm),thevalueofpercentageimpedance
tendstoincreaseasthetransformerratingincreases:
z%=Zohm x S / U
2
. (2)
TatmeansthatlargeMVAatlowimpedancesmayrequiresig-
nifcant bulky transformers, and permissible transport limits of
dimensionsandweightmaybereached.Itisatthisstagethatthe
useofsingle-phaseunitsmayneedtobeconsidered.
UNBALANCE WHEN USING SINGLE PHASE UT
In addition to all the issues discussed in this paper that must be
considered when selecting a substitute transformer, single-phase
transformer replacement from a three-phase step-up unit intro-
ducesanadditionalconcern:generatorneutralcurrentunbalance.
Neutral current of the main generator is monitored in many po-
werplants,inparticularthosewithlargegeneratingunits.Neutral
currentcanbetheresultofagroundfaultonthegeneratorstator
windings,onthecircuit(isolatedphasebusorcables)betweenthe
generatorandUAT(s)andUT,oronthedelta-connectedwindings
oftheUTorUATs.Uponexceedingcertainamplitude,thegene-
rator neutral current alarms and might also trip the unit, by an
overcurrentrelayintheneutralcircuit,or,byanovervoltagerelay
connectedacrosstheneutralresistor.
Aslightlydiferentturnsratioand/ordiferentimpedance(resul-
tingindiferentregulation)betweenthesubstitutedtransformer
andtheothertwowillresultinvoltageunbalanceandthus,nega-
tivesequencevoltagesandcurrents.Tisconditionwillnotlead
toanincreaseingeneratorneutralcurrent,althoughitintrodu-
ces other problems discussed elsewhere in this paper. However,
diferent winding capacitances to ground between the substitu-
ted and the other two transformers will result in an increase in
neutral generator currents, with possible adverse impact on the
protectiveschemeofthegeneratorneutral.
Fig.8showsthetypicalarrangementofalargegeneratorground-
edattheneutralviaasinglephasegroundingtransformerwitha
resistiveloadconnectedtothesecondarywinding,sizedtoredu-
ceanyfaultcurrenttoabout15to25Amps.Tesizingoftheneu-
tralresistorisasimplecalculationthatcanbefoundinanygood
bookongeneratorprotectionorinthestandardIEEEC62.92.2.
Itismainlydependentonthevalueofthecapacitancetoground
of the generator as well as all other equipment connected to its
stator leads. Fig. 8 shows the capacitances to ground of all win-
dingsandtheisolatedphasebusforeachofthethreephases.In
thefgure,thecapacitytogroundoftheUTandUAT(s)arelum-
pedinasingledelta-connectedcomponent.
Undernormalconditions,allthecapacitancestogroundareba-
lancedamongthephasesandtheneutralcurrentisverycloseto
zero.However,ifasubstituteone-phasetransformerisinstalled
withdiferentcapacitance,thecircuitbecomesunbalanced,and
theneutralcurrentwillgrow.Findingthevalueoftheunbalan-
ced current requires solving the unbalanced circuit by any of
several available methods. One such method requires the delta
connectionofcapacitorstobereplacedbyitswye(star)equiva-
lent.Allseriesresistancesandreactanceareneglected.Ten,Fig.
8 can be simplifed to the circuit shown in Fig. 9. In the circuit,
allthevariablesarevectorquantities,withexceptionofRrwhich
isthegroundingresistancereferredtotheprimaryside.Voltages
areassumedbalancedandgenerator/isolatedphasebuscapaci-
tancestogroundequalineachphase.Giventhatthecapacitance
reactance to ground is much higher than the series impedance
ofthewindings/buses,theselastaredisregarded.Following,and
usingsuperposition,thetotalneutralcurrentINcanbecalculated
bysolvingforeachphaseacircuitasshowninFig.10(example
forphaseA)andthensummingtogether.
Followingthecalculationoftheneutralunbalancedcurrent,pro-
persettingoftheneutralprotectioncanbedone.
Dierent impedance of replacement trans-
former can impact on switchgear capability,
voltage drop, and parallel operation.
Fig. 8. Equivalent Circuit of the generator, isolated phase bus, and the
delta-connected windings of the UT and UATs.
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OVERCURRENT CONSIDERATIONS
Temechanicalforceandthethermalshort-circuitrequirementsde-
scribedintransformerstandardsarenormallysatisfactoryforUTs.
However, the UAT must be designed to mechanically and ther-
mally withstand the environment in which it operates. Te
standard requirements for network applications may be not be
adequate for certain types of three-phase through-faults on the
secondaryoftheUAT,becauseofthefollowing:slowerdccom-
ponent decrement, longer short-circuit duration, possibility of
higher primary voltage subsequent to breaker trip (load rejec-
tion)inblockschemes[9].
AnothereventualityisthefasttransferofloadfromUATtoSST
(or vice-versa), which may lead, under certain conditions, to
high-circulating currents fowing through the two transformers
exceedingtheirmechanicaldesigncapability[9].
In general, examination of the aforementioned requires consul-
tingwiththemanufacturer.
SECONDARY CIRCUITS
Whenusingasubstitutetransformer,theprotectioncircuitsmaybe
requiredtobemodifedbecausethetransformersratedpowerchan-
ged,and/orbushingcurrenttransformershavediferentturnsratio,
and/ordiferingsecondarycurrentorburdencapabilities,etc.
Substitute-transformers bushing current transformers, with dif-
ferent rated secondary current, ratio or burden than those of the
original one, may lead to saturation and wrong operation of the
diferentialprotection.Iftheturnsratioorvectorgroupoftheal-
ternativetransformerisdiferentfromtheoriginalunit,itshould
be taken into account regarding current transformers ratio and
connections. Some diferential relays (mainly numerical) can in-
ternally accommodate the phase shif of the transformer, or dif-
ferences in these ratios. Other relays (mainly electromechanical)
do not have this versatility, and pose difculties or need external
auxiliarycurrenttransformers.
In case of transformer replacement it is important to verify ade-
quacy of the transformer over-excitation protection. Ofen, pro-
tectionandoutputlimitingfunctionsareprovidedinthegenerator
excitation equipment, but it is a good practice to apply additio-
nally separate V/Hz protection. Te curves that defne generator
and transformer V/Hz limits should be coordinated to properly
protect both. When the transformer rated voltage is equal to the
generatorratedvoltage,thesameV/Hzrelaythatisprotectingthe
generatormaybesetinsuchawaythatalsoprotectsthetransfor-
mer.Insomecases,however,theratedtransformervoltageislower
thantheratedgeneratorvoltageandcommonprotectionmaynot
beapplicable;insuchacase,itisdesirabletoprovidesupplementa-
ryprotectionforthetransformer..
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Additional aspects that should be checked when deciding for a
transformersubstitutionare:
-Detailsoftypeandarrangementofterminals,forexamplecon-
nectionstooverheadline,isolatedphasebus,orcableboxorgas
insulatedbusbar.
- Isolated phase bus ducts with accompanying strong magnetic
felds that may cause high circulating currents in transformer
tanksandcoversresultinginexcessivetemperatures(whencor-
rectivemeasuresarenotincludedinthedesign).
- Transformers operation in parallel (e.g. half-sized UTs), nee-
ding careful matching of phase-angle, ratio and impedance in
ordertoavoidcirculatingcurrentrisks[17].
- Unusual voltage conditions including transient over-voltages,
resonance,switchingsurges,etc.whichmayrequirespecialcon-
siderationininsulationdesign.
-Deratingduetohighharmonicloadcurrent.
-Unusualenvironmentalconditions(altitude,specialcoolingair
temperature,explosiveatmosphere,etc.).
- Details of auxiliary supply voltage (for fans and pumps, tap-
changer,alarms,etc.).
-Sound-levelrestrictions.
-Losseslevel(usuallynotrelevantincaseofanemergencysitua-
tiontransformersubstitution).
CONCLUSIONS
Te large transformers used in power plants have particular
characteristics and specifc custom designs. Keeping in stock
spare transformers identical to the critical ones in operation is
an expensive strategy; however it ensures the lowest risk. Te
advantageousnessofthispolicyincreasesinthecaseofmultiple
Protection circuits may be required to be modi-
ed and protections settings shall be eventually
adapted when using a substitute transformer.
Fig. 10. One of the three circuits to be solved for calculating the neutral
unbalance current.
Fig. 9. Simplied circuit for calculating the unbalanced neutral current.

51
standardized generating units (one example of interchangeable
generatortransformerisdetailedin[23]).
Checkingthesuitabilityofadiferentsubstitutetransformerisa
complextask.Asafrstfeasibilitycheck,confrmthetransformer
ratedfrequencyftsyourgrid,preliminarilylookforanavailable
transformerratioclosetotheratioofsecondarysystemvoltageto
generatorratedvoltage(about5%),androughlyappreciatethe
transformerlargeness,heavinessandavailablepower.
Following is a partial list of the main parameters that must be
checked:
-UTsecondarytapvoltageshouldnotbelowerthan95%ofthe
gridsmaximumexpectedvoltage(thisvaluetypicallyequalsthe
ratedsystemvoltage).
- UT primary (low) voltage should not be lower than 95% of
generator rated voltage for transformers designed according to
IEEE C57.12.00, and not lower than generator rated voltage for
transformersdesignedaccordingtoIEC60076-1.
-UATprimaryvoltageshouldnormallymatchtheratedgenera-
tor voltage; a lower voltage (up to 95% of generator rating) may
bepossibleonlyaferinvestigationoftheriskforover-excitation.
-Checkconnectionandphasedisplacementsuitability.
-AnalyzeMVAratingsuitability.Iftapsbelowtheratedvoltage
shallbeused,checktheirMVAcapability.
-Transformerratedvoltageshigherthantheexpectedoperating
onesmeanmandatoryreducingtheMVAtoavoidexceedingthe
ratedcurrent.
-Checkdimensionsandweightsuitability.
-Analyzetheunbalancethatmaybeintroducedwhenreplacing
asingle-phasetransformerfromanUTmadeofthreesing-phase
transformers.
-Estimatetransformershortcircuitimpedanceinfuences.
-Confrmthroughfaultandfastloadtransfercapabilityincase
ofUAT/SSTreplacement.
- Verify the implications on secondary circuits (mainly protec-
tionandsynchronizing).
-Toroughlyanalyzethesynchronizingandloadingcapabilities
for any available tap, under various operation conditions, using
graphsasinFig.2orFig.3.
-Checkthetransformersuitabilityforparalleloperation(ifper-
tinenttotheparticularlayout).
-Intheeventualityoftwounitsconnectedtothesamebus,oneofthem
havingasubstituteUT(withdiferentMVAorratioorimpedance),the
possibleefectongeneratorsdiferentbehaviorshouldalsobeconsidered.
REFERENCES
[1]M.G.Say,Alternating Current Machines,4thedition,Wiley,1976,pp.14,76.
[2]B.Lawrie,Howdoesfrequencyafecttransformeroperation,EC&M Magazine,Dec.1992.
[3]Power Transformers Part 1: General,IECStandard60076-1,Ed.3.0,April2011.
[4] IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers, IEEE
StandardC57.12.80-2010,Dec.2010.
[5]Power Transformers Part 7: Loading Guide for Oil-Immersed Power Transfor-
mers,IECStandard60076-7,FirstEd.,Dec.2005.
[6] IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers and Step-Voltage
Regulators,IEEEStandardC57.91-2011,March2012.
[7]American National Standard for Electric Power Systems and Equipment - Voltage
Ratings (60 Hertz),ANSIStandardC84.1-2006,Dec.2006.
[8]IEC Standard Voltages,IECStandard60038,Ed.7.0,June2009.
[9]IEEE Guide for Transformers Directly Connected to Generators,IEEEStandard
C57.116-1989,Sep.1994.
[10]IEEE Standard for Salient-Pole 50 Hz and 60 Hz Synchronous Generators and
Generator/Motors for Hydraulic Turbine Applications Rated 5 MVA and Above,
IEEEStandardC50.12-2005,Feb.2006.
[11]IEEE Standard for Cylindrical-Rotor 50 Hz and 60 Hz Synchronous Generators
Rated 10 MVA and Above,IEEEStandardC50.13-2005,Feb.2006.
[12] Rotating electrical machines Part 1: Rating and performance, IEC Standard
60034-1,Ed.12.0,Feb.2010.
[13] A. W. Goldman, Selection of Generator Step-up Transformer Ratings, IEEE
Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems,vol.PAS-100,No.7,pp.3425-3431,July1981.
[14] A. W. Goldman, C. G. Pebler, Power Plant Electrical Reference Series, Vol. 2,
Power Transformers,EL-5036-V2,EPRI,1987.
[15]Power transformers Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clea-
rances in air,IECStandard60076-3,Ed.3.0.,July2013.
[16] IEEE Standard for General Requirements for Liquid-immersed Distribution,
Power, and Regulating Transformers,IEEEStandardC57.12.00-2010,Sep.2010.
[17]Power Transformers Application Guide,IECStandard60076-8,FirstEd.,Oct.1997.
[18]IEEE Guide for Protecting Power Transformers,IEEEStandardC37.91-2008,May2008.
[19]IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection,IEEEStandardC37.102-2006,Feb.2007.
[20]IEEE Standard for Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for Distributi-
on and Power Transformers,IEEEStandardC57.12.70-2011,Feb.2012.
[21]M. J. Heathcote, Te J&P Transformer Book,13thedition,Elsevier,2007,p.457.
[22]ABB Switchgear Manual,11thedition,Cornelsen,2006,p.559.
[23]Modern Power Station Practice, Vol. D Electrical Systems and Equipment,Bri-
tishElectricityInternational,PergamonPress,1992,pp.253-257.
Authors
Relu Ilie received the MS degree
in electrical engineering from the
Technical University of Iai, Roma-
nia. He is in charge of Power Plant
electrical systems and equipment
for the Israel Electric Corporation.
Relu Ilie has 30 years of experience
ingenerationandtransmissionfeld,
mostly dedicated to electrical ma-
chinesissues:designandfailureanalysis,maintenanceandin-
spections,monitoringandtesting,technicalspecifcations,life
extension,conditionassessment,etc.(email:reluilie@iec.co.il).
Isidor Izzy Kerszenbaumrecei-
ved the BSc EE from the Technion
Israel Institute of Technology, and
theMSandPhD(EE)fromtheUni-
versityoftheWitwatersrand.Hisem-
ployment experience includes wor-
kingaslargeelectricmachinesdesign
engineer for GEC in South Africa,
and manager of R&D for a power
distributiontransformermanufactu-
rer(ITC)inCalifornia.Healsoworkedasprotectionengineer
andlargeapparatusconsultantwiththreediferentutilities.He
is a past chairman of the PES Electric Machines Committee.
Currently Dr. Kerszenbaum is chairman of the IEEE Working
Group10onOnlineMonitoringofLargeSynchronousGene-
rators..HeisaFellowoftheIEEE.Dr.Kerszenbaumspent2002
in the US House of Representatives as a IEEE-AAAS Science
andTechnologyFellow.
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53
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ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1
Introduction
Afewmisconceptionsaboutthetransformerindustry:
-Ifmyoldtransformersarestillingoodcondition,itisnotne-
cessarytoworryaboutreplacingthem.
- Transformer technology is the same as it was 50 years ago;
samesteel,sameoilandsamecellulose.
- We intend to keep an old transformer in operation without
maintenanceuntilitfails,thanreplaceitwithanewone.
-Tetestingguidelinespublishedinsomeofthestandardgui-
desalsoapplytomytransformers.
All those misconceptions can lead to very costly outcomes, e.g.
replacement of a good quality old transformer by a less robust
newtransformer,oradramaticfailurescenario.
Transformermaintenanceiscommonlycomparedtomedicine,and
assuch,ithastobebasedonreliabletestsanddiagnoseswhichmust
becarriedoutbyaspecialistwhoisfamiliarwiththelatesttechnolo-
giesandissuesregardingtransformersandwhoisabletorecognise
specifc conditions of the specifc piece of equipment. Like human
beings,transformersdiferonefromtheother,eventheonesmade
bythesamemanufacturerandinthesamehousing,andthetwins.
DIAGNOSIS
ABSTRACT
The importance and cost of transformers is described and
stressed in all the literature.
Transformers are one of the most important and vital links in
the electricity supply chain.
Despite the very high cost related to transformer failures,
the tests and diagnoses of the equipment itself, the trans-
former owner or a person responsible for its proper opera-
tion is faced with many diagnostic approaches and most of
them are either inaccurate or unnecessary and irrelevant to
individual case. Of course the lack of specialists in trans-
former diagnoses causes engineers in charge of transformer
maintenance to rely on test and service provider companies.
Naturally, the main target of those companies is to promo-
te their business. It is very important to only carry out the
tests that will not interfere with transformer operation and
interpret the results holistically in the transformer exploita-
tion context, manufacture, internal organisation politics and
many other parameters. Missing one or several parts of the
testing can lead to completely wrong overall diagnosis.
Keywords
transformer oil analysis, dissolved gas analysis, risk ma-
nagement, corrosive sulfur.
A fault is not a failure
Economical and reliable
transformer maintenance
by holistic interpretation
of insulating oil condition

Allthoseparametersimposearealdilemmaforthetransformer
owners and contribute to discrepancies in proper maintenance,
reliableelectricitysupplyandshareholdersprofts.
Te transformer technology and demands change dramatically
thesedaysandthetransformersarenomorelowtech.
Todayamuchmorecompacttransformerhastotransformmore
energyathighervoltagesandinsignifcantlylessspace.Tesere-
quirements impose a continuous search for new materials, new
designs and new maintenance strategies to enable longer trans-
formeroperation.
Tispaperwillfocusoninsulatingmaterialsinsidethetransfor-
mers.Tosematerialsareresponsibleforthemajorityoffailures
andcatastrophiceventsbut,nevertheless,canbemonitoreddu-
ringtransformeroperation:
1.Choosingtherightoiltypeforeachtransformertype.Tevari-
etyofinsulatingoilsincreaseandchangeconstantly.50yearsago,
users had access to a very limited assortment of oil types, such
as the well known PCB. Inhibited mineral oil with non-strict
demands, such as low oxidation stability and lower breakdown
voltage,wasalsoavailable.Atthistime,theoiltestlimitswerenot
mandatory, e.g. the former IEC60422 allowed 0.5, acidity. Back
then,almostalloiltypesweresuitableforanytransformer.
2.Withsuchvarietyofinsulatingoilstoday,itisverydifcultto
establishthediferencesandadvantagesofsomanyoiltypesand
liquids.Ofcourse,theoxidationstabilitycoupledwithpotential
of sulfur corrosion and additives are the main concerns for all
industries due to too many recurring incidents related to these
problems.Tetransformerpurchaserchoosestheliquidsmanly
according to the initial price which can lead to very costly out-
comes.However,thepriceisnotagoodcriterionassomeofthe
mostexpensiveinsulatingliquidscanalsodamagetransformers.
Teonlysolutionistohavethecorrectunbiasedknowledge.
3. Solid insulating materials are also challenging to implement.
Althoughthereareverydurableinsulationmaterials,thisisnot
alwaysthebestchoicepricewise.Tedesignerandthetransfor-
mer owner have to know and understand the needs and prob-
lemsofallmaterialsandtheircompatibility.
Transformermaintenanceismoreofasubjectiveartthenanac-
curatescience.
Since 1885, transformers have been responsible for transporta-
tion of the electrical energy from the power station to the end
user. Since then, the principle of transformer operation has not
changed signifcantly. However, many researchers still continue
the eforts to make them more efcient, economical, and envi-
ronmentally friendly. Tese features are ofen results of confic-
ting requirements for high reliability and improving operation
conditions. In the new competitive environment of post-priva-
tisation age, transformers should transmit more MVA with less
insulationforlongerperiodsoftime.
Compared to dry transformers, oil flled transformers have the
advantageofgreaterpossibilityofoiltests.
V.V. Sokolov et al. [1] stated that more than 70% of transformer
conditioninsightcanbegatheredfromoilanalysis.Mosttrans-
formerownersworldwiderelymainlyonoilteststodiagnoseab-
normalconditionsintransformeroperation.Oiltestsmayeven
betheonlyplanningmethodfortransformeroperationtosome
utilitiesandusers.
Majorrolesofoilinsidethetransformersare:
-Oilisapartofinsulatingsystemalongwithcellulose.
-Oilmusthaveacceptabledielectricproperties.
-Oilhastofowthroughtheinternalpartsofthetransformer.
Marius GRISARU
Like human beings, transformers
dier one from the other, even the
ones made by the same manufac-
turer and in the same housing, and
the twins.

55 WWW.TRANSFORMERS-MAGAZINE.COM ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1
|
55
-Insulatingoilhastoefcientlytransfertransformerheat.
-Oilhastosafelystoreimportantdataabouttransformerhealth.
- Transformer oil should remain in an acceptable condition for
themostoftransformerlife,atleast25years.
-Transformeroilshouldnotharmtheenvironment.
-Insulatingoilshouldnotigniteeasily.
-Transformeroilhastodissolveimpuritiesandsludgeatmaxi-
mumlength.
-Mineralinsulatingoilshouldnothavelubricantproperties.
Routineoiltestsareusedtoobtainmaximuminformationwith
minimuminvestment.Inaddition,therearesupplementarytests
andspecialteststhatcanindicateaspecifcconditionoftheoilor
thetransformer.
Oiltestingprocessisdividedintothreeseparateparts:
-sampling
-analysing
- diagnostics or conclusions based on the results and condition
ofthetransformer
Allthosestepsshouldbeperformedaccordingtoonlyonestan-
dardisationbody,e.g.:IEC,ASTMorotherregionalornational
standards. IEC transformer oil sampling and test standards are
preciseandtheuserwhoabidesbythesestandardscanbeassu-
redthattheywillendupwithreliablediagnosis.Otherstandar-
disation bodies also provide valuable sampling and testing pro-
cedures. Te users should always make sure they follow all the
recommendation and instructions for sampling via testing and
up to the fnal diagnosis. Although most of the steps are clearly
indicated,thequalityofthediagnosisdependsontheexperience
of the laboratory staf and the person who determines the fnal
diagnosis.
Inmostcases,theelectricalandphysicaltestsareperformedonly
aferreceivingawarningsignfromtheoilstests.
dependmoreontheantioxidantcontent.Teabundanceofaro-
maticmoleculesandnon-carbonatomsinmodernoilisreduced
toimprovetheelectricalproperties.
2. Transformer oil tests are categorised in
two major groups:
Oil tests for evaluation of transformer condition: Dissolved gas
analysis,Furancompoundsinoil,dissolvedmetals,andoiltests
forevaluatingoilconditions:
2.1 Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) is the single most popu-
lar and most indicative test for evaluation of condition of
the transformer in service [2].
Along with the evident advantages, a DGA technique has a few
importantdrawbacks.Hereisabriefdescription:
TemaingoalsofDGA-baseddiagnosismethodsare:
-tosuggesttheseverityofthefailureandtoplanmaintenance
-toestablishaprognosis,whichconsistsofinferringtheappara-
tus diagnosis and possible evaluation of the malfunctions later
on.Sincethesemethodsareprognostic,theresultswillhavesub-
jectiveaspects.
TransformerdatawithsignifcantimpactonDGAevaluationare:
-tapchangertype
-manufactureandconstructiontechnology
-oiltype
-oilpreservationsystemtype
-loadingcondition
-maintenance
Dissolved gases can be present in transformer oil due to fol-
lowingreasons:
-naturalagingofthematerials
-oiloxidation
-gasesgeneratedduetotransformeroverload
-gasesgeneratedduetoafault
-otherspecifccauses
MajorDGAadvantagescomparedtootherdiagnosticmethodsare:
- can be used to check almost all transformer internal compo-
nents.Likethebloodinlivingbeings,theoilreachesallinternal
transformerparts.
- sensitive method; capability to detect incipient transformer
malfunctionsusinghighlysensitivedetectors.
-datagathering;thetestrevealsproblemsthanoccurredduring
thesamplingintervals.
- economical sample intervals; due to gas production mecha-
nism,itispossibletotestthehealthoftheunitonceperyear.
MajorDGAdisadvantagesare:
-Tetechniqueissometimestoosensitive.
-AccordingtoTransformerCigreWG[3],30%ofdataregarding
transformerhealthcannotberevealedbytheDGA.
-Somerapidlyoccurringfailuresdamagetheequipmentbefore
they can be detected by the DGA, even with the newest online
monitors.
DGAhastobeperformedbyskilledpersonnelfromthesamp-

Figure 1: Correct interlacement of all the tests can avoid unpleasant situations
Transformer oil specifcation and limit values were changed
dramaticallyduringthelastfewyears.Tosechangesrefectthe
needforanimprovedfnalproductthatwillfulfldemandsfrom
transformers.Inthepast,theinsulatingoilcontainedmorenatu-
ralantioxidantsthatprolongedtheirlifebutafectedtheelectri-
calproperties.Tenewgenerationsoftransformeroilmeetmore
stringentelectricalpropertyrequirementsandarerefnedaccor-
dingly.Nowmoreusersswapnon-inhibitedproductstooilsthat
include antioxidant inhibitors. Tose oils have better electrical
properties and provide better oxidation stability. However, they
=
DGA
Furan
IR
thermo
PD
Dissipation factor
SFRA, FDS
Acustics
monitoring
FB
DC
VB
Sulfur
DP
Ratio
tests
Megger
Oil tests
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 56
DIAGNOSIS
ling phase up to the diagnosis. All test stages are susceptible to
error.Someimportantaspects:
-sampling:GlassSyringeispreferableoilcontainer.Teoilhasto
berepresentative,i.e.enoughoilhastobeallowedtofowbefore
thesampleistakenbecauseincasesofactivefailure,thesampling
canassistinlocatingthesourceofgases.
-analysing:Terearemanymethodsoftestingdissolvedgasesin
theoil.Eachmethodcanmeasuregasintheoildiferentlyaseach
method involves diferent extraction or uses diferent measure-
ments.TebasicassumptionthatgasesinoilobeyedtoOstwald
coefcientsinallmeasuretechniqueswasprovedtobeincorrect
byadiferentresearcher[4],[5].Apartfromthemethodsdescri-
bedinthestandards,someportableandonlinedevicesusenon-
standardisedtechniques.Detailedreviewofsomeofthosetech-
niquescanbefoundontheCIGREreport[6].Figure2.showsa
comparisonofrepeatabilityofaportabledevicevs.thestandard
headspacemethod.
Theonlywaytoovercomethesedifficultiesistousegasinoil
mixtures with known concentrations. Although the existing
standardsdescribemethodsforpreparationofsuchmixtures,
mostoftheusersavoidpreparingthemduetotheprocedure
complexity.Commercialgasesinoilmixtureareverylimited
andexpensive,anddonotprovidereliabledrawingcalibrati-
oncurves.
Figure 3: Calibration curves at Israel Electric and comparison to gas in oil commercial mixtures
Figure 2: Comparison of repeatability of 2 DGA measurements, Head space
according to IEC60567, 7.5 and portable device.
GC Portable Device
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

[
p
p
m
]

number of tests
H2 Repeatability
CO Repeatability
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
C
o
n
c
.

[
p
p
m
]

number of tests
CO Repeatability
0
2
4
6
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
C
o
n
c
.

[
p
p
m
]

number of tests
C2H2 Repeatability
y = 0,081x + 648,647
R = 0,830
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0 20000 40000 60000
A
r
e
a

Gas concentration [ppm]
Nitrogen
y = 15,211x
R = 0,992
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
A
r
e
a

Carbon monoxide
y = 0,069x + 254,910
R = 0,721
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000
A
r
e
a

Oxygen
y = 8,074x
R = 0,978
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
A
r
e
a

Ethane
y = 12,112x
R = 0,993
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
0 200 400 600 800 1000
A
r
e
a

Methane
y = 10,745x
R = 0,984
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
A
r
e
a

Ethylene
y = 7,443x + 855,31
R = 0,9693
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
A
r
e
a

Carbon dioxide
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
A
r
e
a

Acetylene
y = 0,675x
R = 0,992
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
A
r
e
a

Hydrogen
Nitrogen Oxygen CO2 CO Ethane Acetylene Ethylene Methane Hydrogen
150 50 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 1 Detection limit
4585 14276 139,5 109,5 109,5 104 106 111,5 109,5 Commercial gases
30211 9040 178 113 129 118 111 111 107 Concentration measured by IE

57
Te laboratory or transformer expert should issue a qualitative

diagnosesbasedonreliableresultsfromrepresentativeoilfroma
specifctransformer.Herearesomeoptions:
-touseanyoftheexistingmathematicmodelsorsofwaretopre-
parethetransformerdiagnosis.
-touseinternalpreparedmodelsfordiagnosis.
-totakeadvantageofpersonalexperiencebasedonasmanysuc-
cessfulfailurediagnosesaspossible.
Accordingtothisconcept,wecanrevealmosttransformerfaults
andavoiddevastatingfailures.Herearesomeexamples:
Figure 4. Case 1 Transmission transformer, DGA + fndings
Figure4.showsaminorfailurethatwasdiscoveredbyanaccu-
rate DGA test so serious consequences were avoided. Tis case
emphasisestheimportanceoftakingaccuratemeasurements.
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
24.5.02 10.12.02 28.6.03 14.1.04 1.8.04
T
C
G

[
p
p
m
]

Date
TCG concentration vs. date
Most transformer owners world-
wide rely mainly on oil tests to
diagnose abnormal conditions in
transformer operation
Method Principle
Key gas Gas identification and proportion
Rogers Ratios of 3 combustible gases
Donnenberg Ratios of 4 combustible gases
IEC 599 Other ratios of same 4 gases
Duval Triangle Graphic Monograph Triangle
IEEE C57-106 Absolute concentration and increase rate
Japan method Graphic Monograph Rectangular
PowerGen Method Score for each gas, ratio and other oil tests
Artificial intelligence Different calculations approach still research
CIGRE TF11 Calculations of 90% values for transformer
families with similar design and operati
on conditions.
Table 1: Comparison of DGA test methods and current IEC and ASTM
Table 2: Diagnosis methods and related problems
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 58
DGA method
Vacuum extraction by
partial degassing

Stripping extraction
method
Multi-cycle vacuum
extraction using Toepler
pump apparatus
Headspace method

Calculation
Ostwald coefficient gas in
oil and gas peaks
calibrated by gas in gas

Efficiency coefficients and
gas peaks calibrated by
gas in gas
Absolute volume of gases
and gas in gas calibration
IEC calibrated by gas in oil
standards
ASTM by Ostwald
coefficients and gas
peaks calibrated by gas
in gas

Compatibility & Remarks
Yes
Suitable for factory test

Yes
Not suitable for factory test
Best and absolute method
No
The repeatability and accuracy
of method is variant due to dif-
ference in injection and calcu-
lation methods.
Not suitable for factory test

IEC

60567
7.3

7.4
7.2
7.5

ASTM
D3612
A

B
No
C

DIAGNOSIS
Figure 5: Case 2 double winding failure. The failure was revealed twice.
Figure5.showsaninterestingcasewhichconfrmsthatanysignof
acetylene indicates a failure. If the transformer still operates afer
Buchholzrelaythereisachanceitcouldsuferadevastatingfailure.
2.2 Oil quality tests described by main standardisation bodies
Table 3. displays some major diferences between IEC [7] and
ASTM[8].
Te user has to know the exact method in order to test the oil.
Eachmethodcangeneratediferentvaluesaccordingly.
2.3 Profciency tests for insulating oil tests
Profciency test or Round Robin comparison is the single most
importanttoolforlaboratoryperformanceevaluation.
Te transformer owner has to be totally confdent in the result
issued by the contracted laboratory. One of the conventional
practicesintheindustryisthecrosssectiontest,i.e.sendingthe
sameoiltoseverallaboratoriesandcomparingtheresults.
Te quality manager of each laboratory should make efort to
estimate the results of each oil test in the laboratory if they are
alsoperformedbyanyotherqualityaccreditedlaboratory.
Profciency tests are carried out by 19 worldwide laboratories,
some of them well known and accredited and others without
accreditationandpoorqualitycontrol.Figures10.and11.show
laboratoriesthattakethetestqualityintoaccountandachievere-
sultsmuchclosertotheaverage.
It is not surprising that only dissipation factor shows similarly
scattered results within both laboratories groups. Tree other
analyses are more sensitive to the quality of the procedures and
theoperatorskills.
CO2 CO C2H6 C2H4 C2H2 CH4 H2 TG Date
1482 423 24 34 0 49 26 6 16.12.2001
4125 825 29 39 0 66 44 5 12.6.2003
3973 796 36 44 0 77 43 7 11.2.2004
4438 863 34 70 139 110 375 8 26.3.2004
4294 797 32 67 123 104 350 6 30.3.2004
4160 788 32 67 129 103 346 6 13.4.2004
4254 907 32 71 115 113 332 7 10.5.2004
4869 876 30 69 31 114 259 8 5.8.2004
5120 880 31 67 12 117 199 7 18.10.2004
5115 882 42 71 1 121 112 9 17.5.2005
2781 429 22 37 1 60 60 4 15.5.2005
8400 884 43 91 187 155 728 8 29.8.2005
Table 3: Comparison of major test methods for insulating oil of the 2 major standardisation bodies.

59
Compatibility
No, different condition test

Yes, partially dependent on
top oil temperature?
Partially, different condition tests
but results on the same scale if
the tests are properly carried out
No, absolute method for acidity
No, different condition test

Partially, IEC more sensitive and
accurate
Yes, accurate with automatic
equipment
ASTM

D1816 in service
D877 new oil
D1533
D664
Potentiometric
D974
Colorimetric
D924

D2668

D971
IEC

IEC 30156

IEC 60184
IEC62021-1
Potentiometric
IEC62021-2
Colorimetric
IEC60247

IEC60666

D971, to be
changed
Test type

Routine

Routine
Routine

Routine

Routine

Complementary
IEC
Routine
Parameter

Break down
voltage

Water in oil
Acidity

Dissipation
factor
Antioxidant
content

Interfacial
tension
Figure 6: Graph showing scattered results from the accredited laboratories
and the non-accredited ones with poor quality test programme.
Scattered values can end in erroneous diagnosis regardless of
how sophisticated the sofware that makes those recommenda-
tionsis.
Some laboratory results can cause incorrect costly maintenance
orleavethetransformeruntreated.
TefguresrepresentthelimitsaccordingtoIEC60422standard:
fairandpoorvalues.
Wecanmakethefollowingconclusionsfromthisstudy:
- For measurements without obtainable standard materials, the
onlytruevalueistheaverageobtainedfromasmanyqualitative
laboratoriesaspossible.
-Profciencytestistheonlyavailableoptiontocontroltransfor-
meroilmeasurements.
- Accredited laboratories achieve less scattered results than the
non-accreditedones.
-Scatteredresultscanalsooccurinaccreditedlaboratories.
-RoundRobinpointstoinaccuraciesandrestoresthequalityof
oilmeasurements.
2.4 Furan compounds, product of cellulose decomposi-
tion in oil
Measurements: according to IEC 61198 and qualitative labora-
toryperformancewithcontrolledoutput.Telaboratoryhasto
performcomparison(profciencytestorPT)withotherlabora-
toriesatleastonceayear.
Frequency:
-transformerupto30yearsofage,onceevery2years
-transformerover30yearsofage,onceayear
-newtransformershouldbetestedamonthaferenergising
-amonthafereachoiltreatment
Although furan compounds measurement has been performed
formorethan15years,noreliablediagnosishasbeendeveloped
byanystandardisationbodyregardingtheDGAandoilanalysis.
In furan diagnosis, the experience and knowledge of the expert
whoperformsthediagnosisismuchmoreimportant.
44,78 0,2692
15,14
0,013738
15,6 0,0856
8,2 0,010468
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
BDV Acid water tan delta
range accredited
range non accredited
0,1
0,2
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
Dissipaton factor for oil C
15
20
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Water content of oil H
0,1
0,2
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
0,35
Acidity for oil B
60
50
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Breakdown voltage for oil E
Figure 7: Comparison of some oil tests within 19 laboratories.
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 60
DIAGNOSIS
3. Correlation between oil parameters
BasedonreliableoiltestsatIsraelElectriclaboratories,wecorre-
latediferentparameterssuchastheacidityanddissipationfactor
withtheconcentrationoftheantioxidantinhibitorfor400trans-
formers.Notsurprisingly,wefoundthatiftheinhibitorcontent
isabove40%oftheinitiallevel,thenbothparameterswillbein
good condition without an exception. If the inhibitor has been
consumed,thentheacidityanddissipationfactorcanbeabnor-
mal.
Nocorrelationbetweenwatercontentandinhibitorcontentwas
found.
We found that furan compounds appear only in cases of high
moistureandhighacidity.
Figure 8: Inhibitor Survey in Israel Electric
Correlation between oil quality and DGA and Furan:
-Humidity,elevatedtemperature,electricalandmechanicaldis-
turbance, and impurities in oil afect the transformer isolation
(oilandpaper).Gasesandfuransaregeneratedaccordingtothe
faultseverity.
-Duringtherapidoilageing,theinhibitordisappearsandconse-
quentlytheacidrises.Teprocesscontinueswiththeproduction
of sludge, the sludge being deposited on the hot area inside the
transformer and the whole process is intensifed by the positive
feedback.Tesludgepreventsheatdissipationthroughtheoil.
-Teacidandsludgeareoneofthefactorsthatafectthedielec-
tricintegrityoftheoil/paperisolation.Destructionofthecellulo-
seproduceswaterthatamplifestheagingprocess.
-Tetransformerlifecanbeimprovedby:
-preventingimpuritiesinsidethetransformer
-keepinghumidityandoxygenawaybypropersealing
-maintainingtheinhibitorlevel
-efcientcooling
4. Potential sulfur corrosion
Sulfur corrosion is one of the most researched subjects in the
transformer industry since the beginning of the millennium.
Several major organisations such as Cigre [9], Doble [10], Sea
Marconi[11],Terna[11],andothershavealreadypublishedex-
tensivereportsonthistopic.
Accordingtothereports,theDBDSsubstancecausessulfurcor-
rosion. Te oils at Israel Electric were tested for DBDS in 2005
andnoevidenceofthissubstancewasfound.
In 2009, we discovered that some of our important GSU trans-
formers sufer the consequences of sulfur corrosion despite no
presence of DBDS in the oil. Figures 9. to 11. show several in-
ternal copper parts covered by the product of sulfur corrosion
phenomena.
Figure 9: LV side (10.5 KV) fexible connection from a GSU transformer affec-
ted by sulfur corrosion
Figure 10: Typical contaminated bolt from a GSU transformer affected by sul-
fur corrosion
Wediscoveredthephenomenabeforethefailureoccurreddueto
intensiveelectricalandchemicaltesting.
TeafectedpartswereexaminedbyElectronicmicroscope.Fi-
gures9.and10.showsomeofthefndingsontheafectedwires.
We conclude that the mechanism of sulfur corrosion in our oil
type is diferent from the mechanism suggested by CIGRE WG
A2-32[11].Teexplanationofthesulfurcorrosionmechanism
in oil without DBDS is still in progress. Also the mitigation of
thisphenomenaandmonitoringoftheseveritywillbediscussed
inthenewCIGREWGA2-40,tobepublishedinits2014report.
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
0,35
0,4
0,45
1 31 61 91 121 151 181 211 241 271 301 331 361
T
g

D
e
l
t
a

i
n
h
i
b
i
t
o
r

c
o
n
t
e
n
t

[
%
]

The data is shown from the low to high Inhibitor value
Tg Delta vs. Inhibitor content of the transformer oil
% inhibitor
Tg delta
Tg Delta values are displayed up to 0.4
0,00
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
0,30
0,35
0,40
1 31 61 91 121 151 181 211 241 271 301 331 361
A
c
i
d
i
t
y

[
m
g

K
O
H
/
g
r
]

I
n
h
i
b
i
t
o
r

c
o
n
t
e
n
t

[
%
]

Data arranged from low to high values of inhibitor content
Values of acidity vs. %of Inhibitor content of the oil
% inhibitor
mg KOH/gr

61
Conclusion: How to improve chemical service?
Ourformulaforoptimalchemicalserviceintheelectricalindustry:
-comparisontostandardmaterialsandotherlaboratoriesabroad
-InternationalStandardSocietiesmembershipandcommunity
supportfromfellowlabs
-maintainingqualitydatabaseforeachtransformer
-goodcommunicationwithtransformerownersandclients
-dedicatedandreliableservice
Te best DGA method for special tests such as heat run test, is
amulti-cyclevacuumextractionusingToeplerpumpapparatus
butIECheadspace,7.5.,isthemostsophisticatedandtimecon-
sumingforDGAroutine.
Outoftheroutineoiltests,themostimportantoneistheantioxi-
dantcontenttestiftheoilcontainsit,followedbythemoisture,
BDV,dissipation,IFT,andaciditytest.
For sulfur corrosion CCD (covered conductor deposition) test
byIECorDOBLEmustbeinlinewithDINandASTM.Tedis-
advantageofthosemethodsisthattheyarequalitativeonly.SEA
Marconi published a quantitative method recently that is at the
endofthestandardisationprocess.
Te main and most important issue is to understand the exact
needofeachtransformerbasedonthecondition,remainingser-
vicelifeandeventheorganisationpolitics.
Conductingtestswithsinglequalitylaboratorycangreatlyassist
in reliable diagnosis and help in making the right decision for
highinvestments.
Knowledgeexchangeofusersandexpertsworldwideisalsovery
importantaswellastobeuptodatewiththelatestdevelopments
andissuesthatariseconstantlyinthisindustry.
Bibliography:
[1] V.Sokolovetal:Transformer Fluid: A Powerful Tool for the Life
Management of an Ageing Transformer Population, EuroTechCon
2001,p.211.
[2] IECstandard60569,1999
[3] CIGRE A2.34, No. 445, Guide for Transformer Maintenance,
WorkingGroup,A2.34
[4] CIGRE D1.01/A2.11, No. 296, Recent developments in DGA
interpretation,2006
[6] CIGRE D1.01 (TF 15), No. 409, Report on Gas Monitors for
Oil-Filled Electrical Equipment
[8] ASTMD3487Specifcation for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in
Electrical Apparatus
[9] F.Scatiggio,V.Tumiatti,R.Maina,M.Tumiatti,M.Pompili,and
R.Bartnikas,Corrosive Sulfur in Insulating Oils: Its Detection and
Correlated Power Apparatus Failures,IEEETransactionsonPower
Delivery,Vol.23,No.1,January2008
[10]Grifn,P.J.,andLewand,L.R.,Understanding Corrosive Sulfur
Problems in Electric Apparatus, Proceedings of the Seventy-forth
Annual Conference of Doble Clients, Boston, MA, Insulating Mate-
rialsSession1,2007.
[11]CIGREWGA2-32,No.378,Copper sulphide in transformer in-
sulation
Author
Marius GRISARU was a sub en-
gineer in electricity from 1984. In
1991,heobtainedhisM.ScinElec-
trochemistry and Polarography at
Technion. Since then, he has been
with Chief Chemist at Israeli Elec-
tric, Generation Division, specia-
lising in Analytical Chemistry, fo-
cusedonlubeoilandparticularlyin
insulating oil tests and estimation of transformer health. He
is leading the insulating oil tests and treatments in Israel for
Israel Electric and the local users. He is also an Assistant In-
structor at Technion for undergraduate students. Marius is a
participantmemberofASTM,IEC,Cigreandotherinterna-
tionalworkinggroupsaswellastheauthorandco-authorof
severalpapersoninsulationoilmethodology.
Scan Date:16/04/2009 08:07:25 HV:10.0kV Puls
th.:0.39kcps
Wire racture 1Date:16/04/2009 08:06:03Image size:1024 x
768Mag:5000xHV:10.0kV
Figure 11: Metallurgic test. Copper wire on SEM
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 62
DIAGNOSIS
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experts, visitors to CWIEME Berlin will beneft from a rich
seminar programme. CWIEME Central will incorporate bite-
sized technical presentations on a variety of industry develop-
mentsandpaneldiscussions.Tisyearseventwillalsoallowthe
best and brightest students to present their latest research pro-
Transform your business at
CWIEME Berlin
If you only visit one trade show this year, make it CWIEME Berlin the
worlds largest and most comprehensive event in the transformer manu-
facturing industry.
|
Volume 1,

Issue 1 64
EVENTS
jects in the feld of electrical engineering and design as part of
theCWIEMEChallenge.Notonlyisthisafantasticopportunity
for students to gain valuable industry experience and receive
feedbackontheirwork,butforcompaniestohearaboutcurrent
university-ledresearchprojects,fndacademicpartnersfornew
businessventuresandspottalentednewrecruits.Meanwhile,
CWIEME Berlins Machinery Trail will provide regular live
product presentations and machinery demonstrations across a
widevarietyofexhibitorstands,allowingvisitorstoseethelatest
technologyinaction.
My favourite thing about CWIEME Berlin is seeing lots of
old faces, brushing up my network, seeing new products and
staying in touch with the industry.
MalteJaensch,PorscheEngineering
Nowinits18thyear,CWIEMEBerlinhasgrowntobecomethe
defnitive event for the global coil winding, insulation and elec-
trical manufacturing industries and the 2014 edition is set to
haveagreaterandmoreengagingoferingthaneverbefore.
Visit www.coilwindingexpo.com/berlin to register for your free
visitorsentrypasstoday.
CWIEME Berlin
Dates: 24th-26thJune2014
Venue: MesseBerlin,Messedamm22,14055Berlin,Germany
Opening times:
TuesdayandWednesday09:00-18:00,Tursday09:00-16:00
Admission:Free
Forfurtherinformation,pleasevisit:
www.coilwindingexpo.com/berlin
Orcontact:
Simon Matthews/i2iEventsGroup
Tel:+44(0)2030332133
Email:simon.matthews@i2ieventsgroup.com
Hannah Kitchener/SE10
Tel:+44(0)2079235863
Email:hannah.kitchener@se10.com


65
CWIEME Berlin is part of i2i Events Group. i2i Events Group enables more than 200,000 buyers and producers to meet and
tradeatsomeofthegreatestexhibitions,largescaleeventsandfestivalsintheworld.
|
ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1
International Conference of Doble Clients
6th April - 11th April 2014.
Westin Hotel Copley Place, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Te conference covers topics from asset management
and replacement strategies, storm preparedness, opera-
ting concerns and diagnostic approaches, giving an op-
portunitytolearnanddiscusswaystooptimiseoperationsandmaximiseperfor-
mancealltoensurethereliablefowofpower.
Hannover Messe 2014
The main stop along the road to the Factory of the Future
Hannover, Germany
HannoverMesse2014illuminateshowtheenergysystemtrans-
formation can be made possible: a quarter of all exhibitors are
involvedwithenergyproduction,distributionorstorage.Inter-
national companies and research institutes showcase the wide
rangeoftechnologiesforimplementinggreenmanufacturing,andhowtheycan
evenensurelong-termcostadvantages.
2014 IEEE/PES T&D Conference & Exposition
Chicago, Illinois, USA
2014IEEE/PEST&DConference&Expositionwillshow-
case the technologies, products, companies and minds
that will lead our industry through the next ffy years
andbeyond.
Life of a Transformer Seminar
The Worlds Premier Training Experience on the Most
Critical Aspects of LPTs
19th May - 23rd May 2014.
Padua, Italy
Youworkwithtransformerseveryday,butdoyouknow
everythingyouneedtoknowabouttransformers?Learn
practicalinformationfromindustryexpertsforimmedi-
ate,measurableimpactatanypointinthelifecycleofyourtransformers.
2014 IEEE Innovative Smart Grid

Technologies Conference (ISGT) Asia
20th May - 23rd May 2014.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Teconferencepromotestheadvancementofsmartgridtechnologyandresearch
andservesasaplatformwhereresearchers,academics,policymakersandindus-
triescanshareandexchangenewideas,learnfromeachother,discussanddebate
onissuesrelatedtoSmartGridImplementationanditsrelatedmatters.
Transform Americas
Exhibitions and technical presentations about transfor-
mer testing and diagnostics
26th May - 28th May 2014.
Hilton Hotel, Cartagena, Colombia
TRANSFORM is a leading event for the industry in
innovation and aims to encourage companies to share
informationaboutpowertransformers.Itseekstoreach
outandconnectspecialistsworldwide,bringingitsmis-
siontoLatinAmerica,aregionofhigheconomicgrowthandhometovaluable
alliesofourbusiness.
IEEE Electrical Insulation Conference (EIC)
The 32nd edition of the Electrical Insulation Conference
8th June - 11th June 2014.
Sheraton Philadelphia Downtown Hotel, Philadelphia, USA
2014theDielectricsandElectricalInsulationSociety(DEIS)oferspresentations
and short courses on the practical applications of electrical insulation systems
and materials for all types of electrical and electronic equipment. Exhibits are
also planned where manufacturers of various types of insulating materials and
testequipmentwilldisplaytheirproducts.
Cwieme Berlin
The worlds largest international coil winding, insulation
& electrical manufacturing exhibition
24th June - 26th June 2014.
Berlin, Germany
CWIEME Berlin has the largest collection of coil win-
ding, insulation and electrical suppliers, and brings
together over 750 suppliers showcasing their products,
servicesandtechnologies.Itattracts7,000buyersanddesignengineers,whowill
belookingtoforgenewpartnerships,networkwitholdcolleagues,andtodiscuss
andexplorepotentialnewprojects.
WEIDMANN Transformer & Technology
Seminar 2014
2nd July - 4th July 2014.
Hotel Seedamm Plaza Pffkon SZ, Switzerland
Tisnewlyofered3-daytransformerseminarincludes
anarrayofindustryexpertsandcompaniespresenting
and discussing topics such as materials and compo-
nentsusedintransformers,designofdistributionandpowertransformers,fac-
torytesting,operationoftransformersandon-sitetesting.
Tis unique course also covers topics like manufacturers qualifcation, design
reviews,transformer-gridinteraction,transformernoise,agingofmaterials,elec-
tricaltestmethodsandmonitoring.
EVENTS
Transformers Magazine is a
leading website promoting the
latest global transformer re-
lated industry, business and
technology news and trends.
As an independent voice world-
wide, our objective is to adva-
nce and promote innovations,
growth and progress of the tr a-
nsformer industry. Our website
covers business, products and
people related news and trends;
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provides information about the
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a forum for information exch-
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global audience of prospective
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Our readers are professionals
in the transformer industry who
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Transformers
WEBSI TE
WWW.TRANSFORMERS-MAGAZINE.COM

Phone: + 44 20 373 474 69
email: info@merit-media.com
web: www.merit-media.com
HaPuystem offers many benets to transformer
manufacturers and transformer owners:
Better dielectric and thermal performance
Better productivity and shorter lead time
Cost savings
PUCARO Elektro-Isolierstoffe GmbH
Pucarostr. 1
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Germany
Tel.: +49 (0) 6298-27 0
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info@pucaro.de
HV lead exits are critical parts of transformer insulation
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COM ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1

1.4.1.1 Factors infuencing life dura-

Te normal life expectancy is a con-

3.5 Transformer Insulation Life: For a

3.10 transformer insulation life

through the Transformers Committee

Figure 6: PST 600 MVA, 230 kV [4]

Figure 7: HVDC converter transformer [4]

Figure 10: Mobile transformer [4]

Figure 16: Polemount transformer [4]

During the preparation of this article au-

Power transformer diagnosis is the com-

Te laboratory or transformer expert should issue a qualitative

Conclusion: How to improve chemical service?

2014 IEEE Innovative Smart Grid

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